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ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME VIII

COLORED PLATES

FACING PAGB

EUPE, White Races 192

476

American Food 620

FARING PLANTS \ 670

MAPS

KDPB 172

Physical Map 174

I At the time of Charlemagne 1

} About 1500 I

j At the time of Napoleon's Greatest Power, 1812 ) Ig4

\ After the Congress of Vienna, 1815 j

FIRIDA 706

ENGRAVINGS

KPHYTBS 28

' 72

KCALYPTUS 152

I^ERGLADES 212

F;LCON8 AND FALCONET 348

MRADAY, MICHAEL 366

Itau> ARTILLERY, United States Field Artillery at Practice 522

FKLD ARTILLERT, European Field Guns 523

Frw 572

Fiiu ENGINES, Motor Fire Engines 580

FUR ENGINES, Motor Fire Engine and Hook and Ladder Truck 581

FEK PROTECTION, Water Towers and Fire Boat 600

FteK PROTECTION, High Pressure Hose Companies 601

HSHING BIRDS '. . . 634

PLATFISH AND FLOUNDEBS -. 668

FLORENCE 700

, 72?

;. 72

FLOWHOS T

s,Typical 7

KEY TO PRONUNCIATION

For a full explanation of the various sounds indicated, see the KEY TO PRONUNCIATION iiVo. I.

e
j

5
5

ou
u

a
ti

as in ale, fate.

senate, chaotic.

glare, care, and as e in there.

tt tt

n tt
tt

am, at.

arm, father.

ant, and final a in America, armada, etc.

final, regal, pleasant.

all, fall.
" eve.

" elate, evade.
" end, pet.

" fern, her, and as i in sir, eta
" agency, judgment.
" icej quiet.
" quiescent.
" ill, fit.
" old, sober.
" obey, sobriety.
" orb, nor.
" odd, forest, not.
" atom, carol.
" oil, boil.

" food, fool, and as u in rude, rule.
" house, mouse.
" use, mule.
" unite.
" cut, but.

" full, put, or as oo in foot, book.
" urn, burn,
it, yield.

" ' Habana, C6rdoba, where it is Uke
v but made with the lips alone.

" "
" "

ch as in chair, cheese.

D " " Spanish Almodovar, pulgada, wire t is

nearly like th in English then.
go, get.

German. Landtag = ch in Ger. achetc.
H " j in Spanish Jijona, g in Spanish gk; ike

English h in hue, but stronger.
hw " wh in which.
K " ch in German ich, Albrecht = g in Oman

^Arensberg, Mecklenburg, etc.
n "in sinker, longer.
" " sing, long.

" " French bon, Bourbon, and m in the reich
fitampes; here it indicates nasallng of
the preceding vowel.
" " shine, shut.
" " thrust, thin.
" " then, this.

zh " z in azure, and s in pleasure.

An apostrophe ['] is sometimes used
(table), kaz"m (chasm), to indicate the elis>n of
a vowel or its reduction to a mere murmur.

For foreign sounds, the nearest English eqiva-
lent is generally used. In any case where a spcial
symbol, as G, H, K, N, is used, those unfamiliarvifh
the foreign sound indicated may wubsti tut e the Eng-
lish sound ordinarily indicated by the letter. For
a full description of all such sounds, see
on PRONUNCIATION.

A PARTIAL LIST OF THE LEADING ARTICLES IN VOLUME VIII

ENZYME.

Professor John Merle Coulter.
EPHESIANS.

Professor Edward E. Nourse.
rPIO POETRY

1'iofossor N. O. McCrea.

Di. Horatio S. Krans.
EPILEPSY.

Dr Albert Wairen Ferris,

Dr. David Gilbert Yates.
EPISCOPAL CHURCH.

Dr. CharloH Comfort Tiffany.*

Dr. Arthur \V. Jcnka.
EPITHELIUM

Dr. David Gilbert Yates.
EQUATION.

Professor David Eugene Smith.
EQUITY.

Professor George W. Kirchwey.
ERASMUS.

Professor Ephraim Emerfcon.

Professor Irving F. Wood.
ESCHATOLOGY.

Professor Nathaniel Schmidt.
ESKIMO.

Dr. Clark Wissler.
ESSAY.

Dr. Horatio S. Krans.
ESTATE.

Professor George W. Kirchwey.
ESTERS.

ProfesHor Martin A. Rosanoff.
ETCHING.

Mr. Russell Sturgis.*

Dr, George Kriohn.
ETHER.

ProfoBHor Martin A. Rowinoff.

Professor Kvander Bradley MHJihary.
ETHIOPIA.

Professor Nathaniel Schmidt.
MTRU1UA.

Professor Arthur L. Froth high am,

Dr. George Kriehn.
ETYMOLOGY.

Professor John Lawrence Gerig.
ETYMOLOGY, FIGURES OF.

Professor John Lawrence Gerig.
EUCALYPTUS.

Dr. Kdwin West Allen.
RUG KN I OS.

Professor Alvan A. Tenney.
EURIPimCW.

ProfeBflor Charier* Knapp.
EUROPE.

Mr. CvniB C. Adams; Professor Robert
M, Brown; Dr. Clark WiBsler; Pro-
fessor Charles Knapp; Professor
Dana Carleton Munro; Professor J.
Salwyn Seliapiro; Mr. Irwin Scofleld
Guernsey; and others.
EUROPE, PEOPLF.S OF.

Dr. Otis Tnfton Mason.*

Dr. Robert II. Lowie.
EVENING SCHOOLS.

Professor Isaac Leon Kandel.

EVERGLADES.

Dr. Roland M. Harper.

Mr. George Gladden.
EVIDENCE.

Professor George W. Kirchwey.
EVIDENCES OF CHRISTIANITY.

Professor Irving F. Wood.
EVOLUTION.

Professor Alpheus Spring Packard.*

Mr. C. William Beebe.
EXCHANGE.

Professor Alvin Saunders Johnson.
EXCRETORY SYSTEM.

Mr. C. William Beebe.
EXECUTOR.

Professor George W. Kirchwey.
EXEGESIS.

Professor Nathaniel Schmidt.
EXHIBITIONS.

Dr. Marcus Benjamin.
EXPLOSIVES.

Piofcaaor Charles E. Munroe.
EXPRESS COMPANY,

Professor Alvin Saunders Johnson.
EXPRESSION.

Professor Edward Bradford Titchenci
EXTENSION.

Professor Edward Bradford Titchener.
EXTINCT ANIMALS.

Mr. 0. William Beebe.
EXTINCTION OF SPECIES.

Mr. C. William Beebe.
EXTRADITION.

Professor George W. Kirchwey.
EYCK.

Dr. George Kriehn.
EYE.

Dr. David Gilbert Yates.
E2KKIEL.

Professor Nathaniel Schmidt.
EZRA.

Professor Nathaniel Schmidt.
FABLE.

Professor John Lawrence Gerig.
FACTORIES AND THE FACTORY SYSTEM.

Air. Mosen Nelson Baker.

Professor Alvin Saunders Johnson.
FAIENCE.

Dr. George Kriehn.
FAITH CURE.

Professor Henry Herbert Goddard.

Dr. David Gilbert Yates.
FALLACY.

Professor Evander Bradley McGilvary.
FAR EASTERN QUESTION.

Mr. Patrick Gallagher.
FASHION.

Mr. Russell Sturgis.*

Mr. George Leland Hunter.
FAST.

Professor Nathaniel Schmidt.
FATIGUE.

Professor Edward Bradford Titchener,
FATS.

Professor Martin A. Rosanoff.
FEATHER.

Mr. C. William Beebe.

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT.

Professor George W. Kirchwey,
FEEDING STUFFS.

Dr. Edwin West Allen.
FELIBRIGJE.

Professor Charles A. Downer.

Mr. H. C. Olinger.
FEMINISM.

Miss Juliet Stuart Poyntz.
FENCE.

Dr. Edwin West Allen.
FENELON

Professor Irving F. Wood.
FERMENTATION.

Professor John Merle Coulter.
FERN.

Professor John Merle Coulter.

Mr. Gilbert Van [ngen.
FERRY.

Professor George W. Kirchwcy.

Mr. Herbert Treadwcll Wade.
FERTILIZATION.

Professor John Merle Coulter.
FESTIVALS.

Professor Nathaniel Schmidt.
FEUDALISM.

Professor Dana Carleton Munro, and
others.

FIBRE.

Dr. Edwin West Allen.
FICHTE.

Professor Evandcr Bradley McGilvary.
FIELD ARTILLERY.

Captain Louis Tracey Boiseau, U. S. A.

Major LeRoy S. Lyon, U. S. A.
FIELD COOKING.

Major LeRoy S. Lyon, U. S. A.
FIELD DOG.

Mr. C. William Beebe,
FIELDING.

Dr. Horatio S. Krans.
FIG.

Dr. Edwin West Allen.
FIJI ISLANDS.

Mr. William Churchill; Mr. Edward
Lathrop Engle; Mr. Irwin Scoficld
Guernsey.

FILE.

Professor Frederick Remseu Hutton.
FILIGREE.

Professor A. D. F. Hamlin.
FINANCE.

Dr. Roland P. Falkner.

Professor Alvin Saunders Johnson.
FINLAND.

Professor Robert M. Brown; Honorable

Oscar Phelps Austin; Mr. F. Vexlor.
FINNISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.

Professor John Lawrence Gerig.
FIRDAUSI.

Professor A. V. W. Jackson; Dr. Louis
H. Gray; Professor John Lawrence
Gcrig.

FIRE ALARM.

Mr. Herbert Treadwell Wade.
FIRJSPEOOF CONSTRUCTION,

Professor Charles P. Warren.
FIRE ENGINE.

Mr- Herbert TreadweU Wade.

FIRE INSURANCE.

Professor Alvin Saunders Johnson.
Professor Allan Herbert Willett.
FIRE PROTECTION.

Mr. Herbert Treadwell Wade.
FISH.

Professor Charles B. Davenport; Mr.
Ernest Ingorsoll; Mr. C. William
Beebe.
FISH AS FOOD.

Dr. Edwin West Allen.
'FISH CULTURE.

Mr. C. William Beebe.
Dr. George W. Field.
FISHERIES.

Professor Charles B. Davenport; Dr.
Georgo W. Field; Mr. Oscar PheJps
Austin; Mr. C. William Beebe.
FISHING LAWS.

Professor George W. Kirchwey.
FITZGERALD, EDWARD.

Dr. Horatio S. Krans.
FLAG.

Professor James Edward Winston.
FLAX.

Dr. Alfred Charles True; Mr. Moses
Nelson Baker ; Dr. Edwin West Allen.
FLEMISH LANGUAGE.

Professor Lawrence A. McLouth.
FLIGHT.

Mr. Frederic Augustus Lucas.
Mr. C. William Beebe.
FLORENCE.

Mr. Edward Lathrop Engle; Professor
C'harlos Knapp; Professor Dana
Carleton Munro.
FLORIDA.

Dr. Roland M. Harper; Mr. Allen Lwm
Churchill; Professor Alvin Sa under*
Johnson.
FLOUR AND FLOUtt MILLING.

Dr. Kdwin West Allen.
FLOWER.

Professor John Merle* Coulter.
FLOWERS, NATIONAL AND SYMBOLICAL

Profcrtnor Churls Knapp.
FLOWERS AND INSECTS.

.Professor Alpheus Spring Packard.*
Mr. 0. William lieobe.
FLY.

Mr. C. William Beebe.
FOG SIGNALS.

Captain Louis SavreVim !)iuu*r, L'.S. X.
FOLKLORE.

Professor A. V. W. Jackson.
Dr. Robert II. Lowte.
FOLK MUSIC.

Mr. Honry T. Finck,
Professor 'Alfred Rt'inv.
FOOD.

Dr. C. F, l^ingvrorthy; Dr. Alfred
CharloH True*: Dr. Kdwin \V««t Allen,
FOOD, PRESERVATION OF.
Dr. Edwin Woat Allen.
FOOT.

Dr. Albert Warm Fcrri*.
Dr. David Gilbert Yatoa.
FOOT, COlvrPARATIVB ANATOMY OF,

Mr. C. William Boch*.
FOOTBALL.

Mr. Charles Andrun Taylor,

THE NEW
INTERNATIONAL
E N G YOL OP^ DIA

-» ^ W'TERITIS (Neo-Lat., from Gk.

• J i ^repoF, erotferow, intestine). Inflam-
1—4 mation of the bowels, and especially

• 1 A °f their muncular and serous coat,
[ ^ accompanied by pain, colic (q.v.),

and diarrhoea (q.v.), or dysentery
(q.v.). Enteritis in children (see CHOLERA IN-
KA.NTUM) is often fatal. It attacks the entire
digestive tract, generally being a gastroenteri-
tis. -Abstinence from food, washing the colon
with large onemata of water, and sterilization
of drinking water arc essential in the treat-
ment of these cases. In adults enteritis is
Iwnriitcd by mild purgation, followed by opi-
ates and fasting. If the colon is attacked, the
term UHtid it* colitis, properly a subdivision of
enteritis. Typhlitis is an inflammation of and
about the iwcum (q.v.)> and appendicitis (see
VERMIFORM APPENDIX) ia an iullanmiation of the
appendix. Those are dangerous and frequently
fatal. Jlt'ttt, opiates, and poultices or ice may
ameliorate some canon. Operation is generally
nm»HH»iry in appendicitis. Jn all cases tho diag-
notuH nn d treatment must "bo left to the physician.
In the Iiower Animals. Inflammation of the
bowdB, among the heavier broods of horses, gen-
erally rofltiltH from worno error of diet, such as
a long fawt, followed by a large, hastily devoured
meal, indigestible or easily fermentable food, or
large drafts of water at improper times. When
thus produced, it is frequently preceded by
stomach staggers or colic, affects chiefly the
niueoui* coat of the largo intestines, and often
runs it« course in. from 8 to 12 hours. With
increasing fever and restlessness, the pulse soon
rwos to 70 or upward, and in this respect, un-
like colic, continues throughout considerably
above the natural standard of 40 beats per
minute. The pain is great, but the animal,
jnfttmul of recklessly throwing himself about as
in colic, arises and lies down cautiously. When
fttanding, the horse frequently turns his head
backward and looks at his Hanks. Respira-
tion is quickened, the bowels are torpid. Oold
sweats, stupor, and occasionally delirium, pre-
cede death. When connected with, or occurring
as a aoqucl to, influenza, laminitis, and other
complaints, tho small intestines arn as much
affected as the large, and the peritoneal as well
as the mucous coat of tho bowels. This form is
more common in tho lighter breeds. When the
patient is seen early, while the pulse is still
clear and distinct and not above CO, and the

legs and ears are warm, bloodletting is useful, as
it relieves the overloaded vessels, and prevents
that exudation of blood which speedily exudes
into the interior of the bowels in cases of hemor-
rhagic enteritis. This disease should be treated
as follows: In a pint of oil, or an infusion of
two drams of aloes in hot water, give a scruple
of calomel and an ounce of laudanum, and re-
peat the calomel and laudanum every hour in
gruel until the bowels are opened, or until five
or six doses are given. Encourage the action of
the bowels by using, every half hour, soap-and-
water clysters, to which add laudanum so long
as pain and straining continue. If the animal
is nauseated and stupid, with a cold skin, weak,
quick pulse, bleeding and reducing remedies are
very injurious; and the only hope lies in fol-
lowing up one dose of the calomel and aloes
•with small doses of laudanum and sweet spirit
of nitre, or other stimulants, repeated every 40
minutes. In all stages woolen cloths wrung out
of hot water and applied to the belly encourage
the action of the bowels and relieve the pain.

Enteritis in cattle is produced by coarse, wet
pasture, acrid or poisonous plants, bad water,
and overdriving. The symptoms arc fever and
thirst, a quick but rather weak pulse, restless
twitching up of the hind limbs, tenderness of
the belly, torpidity of the bowels, and cessation
of rumination. Calves generally die in three or
four days, other cattle in a week or nine days.
Bleed early, open the bowels with a pint of oil
and a dram' of calomel, which may be repeated
in 8 or 10 hours if no effect is produced. Give,
every hour, 15 drops of Fleming's tincture of
aconite in water, until six or seven doses are
given. Allow only sloppy and laxative food,
such as molasses, gruel, or a thin bran mash;
employ clysters and hot cloths to the belly and
use two-ounce doses of laudanum if the pain is
great. Enteritis in sheep mostly occurs in cold,
exposed localities, and where flocks are subjected
to groat privations or improper feeding.

EITTE.ROHEP'ATI'TIS. See BLACKHEAD.
' ATJS DEM SERAXL, DIE,

cnt-fv'rung ous dem sa-rl' or sa-rfl/ (II Seraglio) .
An opera by Mozart (q.v.), first produced in
Vienna, July 13, 1782; in the United States,
October, 1862 (ISTew York).

EN'THTMEMB (Gk. Mtwpa, entTiym&ma,
argument, from ivOv/MfoOat, enthymeisthoA, to
ponder, from b, en, in -f- 6v(i6st tftt/wo*, mind) .
A term used by Aristotle to denote a, syllogism

''from probabilities and signs"; now a technical
name in logic for a syllogism with one of its
premises or its conclusion unexpressed. For
instance, "The steamship Mo Janeiro could not
have been built in water-tight compartments,
for it sank in 15 minutes" — the suppressed prem-
ise being, "N"o steamship built in water-tight
compartments sinks in 15 minutes." Almost all
ordinary argumentation is conducted in enthy-
memes. See DEDUCTION; LOGIC.

ENTHUE'TY (from entire, OF., Fr. entier, It.
intero, from Lat. integer, whole, from in, not
+ twgere, to touch), TENANCY BY. The form
of joint estate which subsists between husband
and wife. Like the ordinary joint estate, it
arises upon a conveyance or devise to the two
persons together who are to hold the premises,
and, like that also, it is attended with the right
of survivorship, as incident to the estate, the
interest of the one dying first passing to the
other and not to the heirs of the decedent. But
the circumstance that the joint tenants are here
husband and wife, and have therefore identical
interests in the property, has differentiated the
tenancy by entirety in some important respects
from joint tenancy proper. The joint tenant
may ordinarily convey his interest separately
from his cotenants, thereby dissolving the joint
estate and destroying the right of survivorship.
But this is not permitted in the case of a ten-
ancy of the entirety; neither can the estate be
partitioned during the existence of the marriage
relation, though it is dissolved by a divorce and
the parties thereupon converted into joint ten-
ants or tenants in common, usually the latter.

The estate is one which is much favored by
the law, and it has accordingly been generally
held that it is not affected by statutes abolish-
ing joint tenancies, or creating a presumption
in favor of tenancies in common; nor yet by
the more recent legislation known as the mar-
ried women's acts, whereby a wife is rendered
capable of holding and conveying real estate
free from the control of her husband. But in
a few States the contrary view has been taken,
and in a few others the tenancy by entirety has
never been recognized. In most of the United
States, however, the estate still exists without
material change in the characteristics which it
had at the common law. See HUSBAND AND
WIFE, and the authorities there referred to.

ENTOMBOtfENT, THE. A frequent subject
of paintings, representing the burial of Christ.
One of the most celebrated is that by Raphael,
painted in 1507, for the church of San Fran-
cesco, Perugia, and now in the Palazzo Borghese,
Borne* The finest representation of the subject
is by Titian in the Louvre (1523), It shows
the body of Christ suspended in a cloth, borne
to the sepulchre by Nicodemus and Joseph of
Arimathea. St. John supports one arm, and
to the left are the Virgin and the Magdalen,
It is a consummate masterpiece, not only in
technique (the composition, color, and chiaro-
scuro being especially effective) , but as a sublime
and profound expression of religious feeling.
Another example by Titian (1559) is now in
the Madrid Gallery. Tintoretto also painted
two masterly pictures on the subject — one in the
Parma Gallery, the other in San Francesco
della Vigna, Venice. Caravaggio'a celebrated
"Entombment" (see CABAVA.QCHO for reproduc-
tion) is in the Vatican Gallery. Other well-
known representations of the subject are by the
Italian masters Gaudenzio Ferrari (Turin),

j ENTOMOSTRACA

Annibale Carracci (Louvre), Garafalo (Palazzo
Borghese, Rome), and the sculptor Donatello
(South Kensington Museum, London) ; ami by
the Flemish painters Kogier van dcr Weyden
(Uffizi, Florence), Quentin Matsys (Antwerp),
and Van Dyck (Antwerp^.

ENTOMIS, 6n'to-mls. A genus of minute
fossil ostracods with subovate or fabiform shell,
the valves of which are characterized by a deep
submedian vertical furrow extending* to the
hinge line. The genus ranges from the Ordo-
vician to the Carboniferous period, but its re-
mains are most profuse in the Devonian strata.
The species Bntomis scrrato-striata composes
certain beds of the Upper Devonian of middle
Europe. See OSTBACODA.

ENTOMOLOGKICAL SOCIETY, AMERICAN.
An organization for the investigation of the
character and habits of insects, founded at
Philadelphia in 1859, incorporated in 1802, and
known until 1867 as the Entomological Society
of Philadelphia. The results of its inve.stiga-
tions are published in its Proceedings and Trims-
actions, beginning in 1861, and also in the
Entomological News, the latter iasiuul monthly
with the cooperation of the entomological sec-
tion of the Academy of Natural Sciences of
Philadelphia. It owns a valuable entomological
collection and library. Membership in 1014 was
about 140.

EN'TOMOI/OG-Y ( Neo-Lat. en to m frioflia,
from Gk. Hvrofiop, entomon, insect, from «r, rwt
in + TO/M}, tom€, a cutting, from Tfaveiv, tcmncin,
to cut + -Xoy/a, -logia, account, from \eyeufj
legein, to say). That part of the science of
zoology which* treats of insects. See IXKE<T.

Etf'TOMOPH/ILOITS PLANT (from Ok.
hrofiov, entomon, insect -f ^IXo;, philott, dear,
from 0iX«v, philein, to love). A plant whose

pollen is carried from one flower to another by
means of insects. A contrasting phrase- is
"anemopliilous plant," meaning one whose*
pollen is carried about by the wind. See POL-
LINATION.

ENTOMOPHTHOBALES, Sn'ta-mM'thd-ril'-
iSz (Nco-Lat., from Gk. ^roftov, cntonton, in-
sect -}- <f>0opd, phthora, destruction). A group
of parasitic fungi fatal to insects, the common
house fly often being destroyed by them. The
spore in germination sends out a tube that pen-
etrates the body of the insect, which finally U»-
comes filled with the mycelium of the. fungita.
The dead bodies of flies may be seen adhering to
a windowpane often surrounded by a halo of
spores.

EN'TOMOS'TRACA (Neo-Lat nonu pi.,
from Gk. tvronov, eniomou, insect + 8crrpajroj%
ostrakon, shell). One of the two subclasses of
crustaceans (q.v,)- Many of them are minute
and exist in great numbers both in freah and
salt water, particularly in stagnant or nearly
stagnant fresh water, affording to many kinds
of fishes their principal food. They differ much
in general form; the number of organs of Iwo-
xnotion is also various — in some, few; in aomu,
more than 100— usually adapted for swimming
only and attached to the posterior as well as to
the anterior segments; but there never is a fin-
like expansion of the tail, as in some of the
malacostracous crustaceans. The Ixxly is divim-
ble into two parts, a head and a trunk, but the
latter shows no differentiation into thorax and
abdomen. The antenna are generally well do-
veloped and are often used, especially the necond
pair, as organs of locomotion* Some of the Ett-

ENTOPHYTE

tomostraca have mouths fitted for mastication
and some for suction. Not a few are parasitic.
The heart has the form of a long vessel. The
organs of respiration are in certain species
attached to some of the organs of locomotion,
in the form of hairs, often grouped into beards,
combs, or tufts; or bladelike expansions of the
anterior legs are subservient to the purpose of
respiration; in others no special organs of res-
piration are known to exist. The nervous sys-
tem, like that of most arthropoda (q.v.), con-
sists of a brain or supra-cesophageal ganglion
and a more or less elongated double ventral cord
connected with it by a commissure on each side
of the oesophagus and provided with six or seven
pairs of ganglia. In most entomostracans, how-
ever, the nervous system is more concentrated,
sometimes to such an extent that it consists
of a single ganglionic mass, through which the
oesophagus passes. The eyes are of two distinct
sorts; nearly all the species have a median un-
paired eye, sometimes well developed and some-
times greatly reduced. Many forms also have
a pair of lateral eyes, which are sometimes
stalked. The name Entomostraca has been given
to those creatures in consequence of most of the
species having shells of many pieces, rather
horny than calcareous, and very delicate, gener-
ally almost membranous and transparent. In
many the shell consists of two valves, including
more or less of the body, capable of being com-
pletely closed, but which, at the pleasure of the
animal, can also be opened so as to permit the
antcnme and feet to be stretched out.

The Entomoatraca comprise many thousand
species, which are readily grouped in four great
ordorn, according to the arrangement and struc-
ture of the shell and appendages: PHYLLOPODA;
OHTE A CODA ; Co PJEPODA ; C ERBIPEDIA ( qq.v. ) .

ENTOPHYTE. See ENDOPHYTB.

EN'TOZO'A (Neo-Lat. nom. pi, from Gk.
forl*, entos, within + K>o*, aGon, animal), or
ENW>I»ABA«ITBJS. Parasitic animals living within
the IIHHUOB or organs of other animals. The
term "entozoa" or "cntorozoa" was formerly cx-
tciiHively -used, especially for the internal para-
Hi ten of num. In recent years the name has
fallen into disuse, because it did not include a
natural assemblage of forms, but animals of
several different types. The opposite term is
"ectozoa" or "epizoa" — the former designating
pa rani tea resident upon or within the skin, and
tho latter the same with more particular refer-
ence to cruatacooua parasites of fishes. See PAB-
AHiTH; FLATWORM; TAFEWOBM; FLUKE; GUINEA
WOKM; KDUNUWOBM; KTC.

ENTRECASTEATTX, a'N'tr'-ka'&td', JOSEPH
ANTOWE BBUNE, CHKVAUBB i>* (1739-03). A
French navigator, born at Aix (Provence). He
entered the navy at the age of 15 and throe
yearn later won the grade of ensign for valor
cUnplaywl during the battle; of Minorca (1756).
In 1786 ho became commander of the East
India Station, and in 1787 he was appointed
Oovenwr of Mauritius and tho Isle of Bourbon.
lie lat«r explored New Caledonia (1791-92),
where he waH sent in search of the missing
expedition of La P&rouss, and discovered several
groups, of ifrtanda. He died at sea, off the north
couttt of Now Guinea, July 20, 1793. His name
is pwrwtuatcd in the Kntrecastoaux Archipel-
a#>; Kntreea«toaux Point, on the south western
ccmat of Australia; and in Kntrecasteaux
Channel, between Tasmania and Bruni Island.
Commit Voyag* d'Entreoatte&wo & fa reoherohe

I ENTRY

de La Pfrouse (1808), and also Hulot's D'Entre-
casteaua (Paris, 1894).

ENTRE DOTJRO E 3MCINHO, ftN'tre dol-ro
& me'nyo ('between Douro and Minho'), or
MINHO. A province of Portugal, bounded by
Spain, from which it is separated by the Minho
on the north, the Portuguese Province of Tr$z-
os-Montes on the east, the river Douro on the
south, and the Atlantic on the west (Map: Por-
tugal, A 2). Area, 2808 square miles. The
surface is broken and mountainous, with some
snow-capped peaks in the "eastern part. The
numerous streams afford irrigation facilities,
and the soil is well cultivated. For adminis-
trative purposes the province is divided into
the three districts of Vianna do Castello, Braga,
and Porto (Oporto). It is the most densely
populated province of Portugal. Pop., 1890,
1,091,936; ,1900, 1,170,361; 1911, 1,289,066.

ENTRE' MINHO E DOTTRO. Form of

name preferred by the Portuguese for JEffTBB
DOURO E MINITO (q.v.), or MINIIO.

ENTREMONT, COMTE DJ. See I/HOPITAL.

ENTRE BIOS, an'trS. rS'Os ('between rivers').
A province of Argentina, bounded by the Prov-
ince of Corrientes on the north, Uruguay Biver
on the east, and the Parana on the south and
west (Map: America, S., H 4). Area, 28,792
square miles. The country is generally flat, well
wooded, and well watered. Cattle raising and
agriculture are the principal occupations of the
inhabitants. The province is amply provided
with transportation facilities through its rail-
ways and navigable waterways. The chief cx-
?orts are animal products, fop., 1892, 307,000;
912 (official estimate), 429,348. Capital,
Parana.

ENTRESOL, Fr. pron. HN'tr'-sol' (Fr. entre,
between + sol, ground). A low story be-
tween two main stories of a building (gener-
ally between the ground floor and the main
story), or inserted in the upper portion of a
high story, when certain rooms are of greater
height than the others upon the same floor. It
is sometimes called the mezzanine floor. See
MEZZANINE.

ENTROCHITE. See BEADS, ST. CUTHBEBT'S.

ENTROTION, or ENTROPITTM: (Neo-Lat.,
from Gk. tvrpoirla,, entropia, brpoirfi, entropd,
introversion, from b, en, in -f rpbrw, trepein,
to turn) . Inversion of the margin of the eyelid,
consequent either on loss of substance ("cica-
triciaf entropion") or on spasmodic contraction
of the orbicularis palpebrarum muscle which
closes the eyelids (''spasmodic entropion").
The latter form occurs chiefly in old persons,
in whom the skin of the eyelid is relaxed and
the eyeball sunken. The symptoms are due to
the irritation of the cornea by the eyelashes,
which are inverted and rub against it. (See
TmoniASis.) Removal of the lashes may re-
lieve temporarily, but unless the cause can be
removed operation is necessary.

ENTROPY. See ENEHQETICS; THEBMODY-
NAMICS.

ENTRY. The entrance into a mine. The
term usually refers to a level or sloping en-
trance into a coal mine and is rarely used in
connection with onetal mines.

ENTRY, BIGHT or. In the common law, tfce
right to consummate an inchoate or incomplete
title to land by taking possession, thereof. This
right is in legal theory coextensive with the
right of possession, but it carries with it the
implication that such possession is wrongfully

ENTRY

withheld or, at least, that it lias not been trans-
ferred to and assumed by the person entitled.

The right arises under three sets of circum-
stances: (a) Where an estate has passed by
descent, or a lease for years has been made to
a person not in possession. In such case the
common law requires the heir or the lessee to
enter upon the land in order to invest himself
completely with the estate to which he has thus
become entitled, (fc) When lands are unlaw-
fully withheld under a claim of freehold, from
a person entitled thereto, as by a disseisin or
adverse possession. The rightful owner may at
common law, by an actual reSntry upon the
lands, restore his title and thus prevent the
adverse possession from ripening into a complete
title. (c) Where lands have been conveyed
upon a condition and the condition has been
broken. Here the estate remains unaffected
until the grantor or his heir exercises his right
of entry, whereupon the estate of the grantee
is ipso facto determined and the grantor "is
in of his old estate."

The peculiar nature of the right of entry as a
legal right appears from this enumeration ^ of
cases to which it is applicable. Though having
to do with real estate, it is not itself an estate
or interest in lands, nor, indeed, any species of
property whatsoever, either corporeal or incor-
poreal; and though it will usually descend to
the heir of the person entitled to it, it is in
most cases incapable of assignment or transfer
either by deed or will. On the other hand, it is
not a mere right of action, which could not, by
any magic, be transmuted, like the right of
entry, into a substantial estate.

Originally a right of entry might be exercised
by force, if necessary, but by an early English
statute (5 Rich. II, st. 1, c. 8) it was provided
that this remedy must be pursued "in a peace-
able and easy manner, and not with force, or
strong hand"; and since that date an entry, if
opposed, can be made only by legal process.
(See FOBOTBLE ENTRY.) The usual method pro-
vided is a summary proceeding instituted by
writ of entry, under which, if it be defended,
the right to the possession of the property in
dispute can be tried and legally determined. In.
some of the United States this procedure must
be followed in every case, even where the entry
of the claimant is not disputed, but in others
the common-law remedy is still available where
the entry can be made without force. A right
of entry is extinguished by an open and notori-
ous possession of the premises for the period
prescribed by the Statute of Limitations, which
in the United States is usually 20 years. See
ADVERSE POSSESSION; CONDITION; DESCENT
CAST; DISSEISIN; LIMITATION.

ENTB-T, WBIT OF. An ancient form of ac-
tion at common law for the recovery of the pos-
session of land wrongfully withheld from the
claimant. It belonged to the class of possessory,
as distinguished from droitural, remedies, in the
latter of which the right (droit) or title to the
land was tried, and in the former the mere right
of possession. But the feudal origin and char-
acter of our land law made title or ownership of
real property depend in most instances on the
possession of the land, and accordingly the
possessory remedies came gradually to super-
sede those which were based upon a direct and
exclusive assertion, of ownership. There were
many of these possessory remedies appropri-
ate to various circumstances (of which the

$ ENVELOPE

assize of novel disseisin and the assize of mort
d> ancestor were in most general use) ; but the
one which was available in all cases of wrong-
ful ouster or dispossession, whether otherwise
provided for or not, was the writ of entry.
The efficacy of this proceeding was due to the
fact that it gave effect to the right of entry,
by the exercise of which one who was entitled
to a freehold estate was enabled by the mere
act of taking possession to reinvest himself
with his rights therein. (See ENTRY, EIGHT
OF.) In the course of time the proceeding by
writ of entry became as intricate and compli-
cated as the earlier remedies which it had dis-
placed, and it was gradually abandoned in favor
of the more summary action of ejectment. (See
EJECTMENT.) After having long fallen into dis-
use, the writ of entry was, along with the other
ancient possessory remedies, abolished by Act of
Parliament, in 3 and 4 Will. IV, c. 27, § 36.
It survives in several of the United Rtntos.
however, in a simplified form, and usually for
special purposes only — as, in some of the Xew
England States, as a means of enforcing a
mortgage. See ASSIZE; PosECLosrKE: SEISIN,
Consult the authorities referred to Tinder HEAT.
PBQPERTY.

EWTWISLE, JOSEPH (1767-1841). An Eng-
lish Wesleyan Methodist clergyman, born in
Manchester. In 1787, at the call of John
Wesley, he entered the ministry; in 1812 he
was elected president of the conference, and
from 1834 to 1838 he served as governor of
the Wesleyan, Theological Institution. He wrote
Memoirs of ttev. J. Pawson (1800) and An
Essay on Secret Prayer as tl\e Duty and Privi-
lege of Christians (llth ed., 1861). Consult the
Memoir by his son (Bristol, 1848; 4 later eds.).
ENTWISTLE, Snfwlsl, JAMES (1837-1010).
An American naval officer, born at Paternal,
N. J. He entered the engineer service of the navy
in 1861, was in the Western Gulf squadron in
the Civil War, was- commissioned lieutenant
commander in 1873, was promoted to In* com-
mander in 1888, served as inspector in diirwrent
dockyards for construction of wnrahipR, joined
the Asiatic squadron in 1805, and cli»tin#uiHhetl
himself in tho battle of Manila Bay, May 1,
1898. In 1800 he became captain and rear ad-
miral and was retired.

BJTCTBESIS, See UBINE, TKCOSTIXB>TB OP.
EIPVELOPE (OF. envolupcr, fnvrlopcr, *'»-
velopper, Fr. enveloppcr, to enwrap). A paper
covering extensively employed for inclosing let-
ters, circulars, pamphlets, and other mail mat-
ter, and for an endless variety of other purpose.
Envelopes began to bo used in England and the
United States in the decade from 1«40 to 1850.
In both countries their use for letter mail fol-
lowed the introduction of cheap postage. At
first the blank forms from which envelopes are
made were cut by hand to a pattern and alm>
gummed and folded by hand. The first practi-
cable machine for making envelopes was pat-
ented in England in 1844 by Warren De la Rue
and Edwin Hill. In America the first patent
was granted in 1849 to J. K. Park and C. S.
Watson. The De la Rue machine was in many
respects similar to the machines now in use, as
described below; but instead of gumming and
lifting the blank in practically one operation the
blank was lifted by India-rubber fingers, thon
gummed by a separate arm-
Envelopes are now made entirely by machin-
ery, and their manufacture is a comparatively

ENVELOPES

simple process, involving one continuous oper-
ation. They are cut out directly from a ream
of paper* 500 at a time, or in larger numbers if
the paper is thin. This is accomplished by a
steam-driven die. (See DIES AND DIE SINKING.)
The blanks, thus cut, are automatically fed into
the machine, where they are gummed, one by
one, by the gum picker, which is fed with gum
by means of rollers and applied to the margin
of each blank. The blank is next carried on
\x> the folding box, where folders press down the
four flaps, but do not fasten down the upper
one. The envelope is now carried on by an end-
less chain, and during its transit the loose
flapper is dried. The finished envelopes are
deposited in bunches of 25 by the endless chain,
and, after being banded with a narrow strip of
paper, are ready for shipment. By this process
from 5000 to 6000 envelopes per hour can be
made by a single machine.

During the closing years of the nineteenth
century there was a remarkable development of
labor-Having devices for office use. Among these
inventions are various improvements on the or-
dinary gummed envelope. In the so-called "win-
dow envelope" the paper is either made trans-
parent by wax or oil so as to render visible
the address on the letter inclosed or an open-
ing of appropriate size is covered by transparent
paper with the same end in view. The position
of the address on the letter as well as the size
of the sheet and the manner of folding are so
regulated as to bring it behind the opening,
thuH obviating the necessity for addressing the
envelope, a time-consuming occupation. In an-
other form of envelope a wire or thread is so
attached to the inner edge of the envelope that
by pulling it at either end the envelope is
neatly torn open without the use of a knife.
Then there are various devices for fastening
together envelopes which are intended for in-
floHing floeoml-ckss or unsealed mail or simply
for filing purpOHen. Among these patented de-
VICOH are numerous clasp fasteners, like those
in. which a thin narrow strip of flexible motal
is attached to the body of the envelope and, for
fastening, paHses through an eyelet m the flap
and is bent over; or those in which a cord
Attached to ono eyelet in wound around a
ttwoml eyelet; or othorn where a paper tongue
pause* through a ulit in a flap. An envelope
for mailing third-claw matter, like circular let-
ters, so an to have the appearance, of firnt-clafls
mail, fo made by leaving unpnnmed a portion of
th.* flapH, HO the content* may be inspected. Kx-
juuiHivtt envelopes for Jlling purpose* arc made
with fluted ends that fold over oach other, so
the envelope occupies but little apace until it
IwcomcH well filled. At the end of 1900 there
wore 78 envelope manufacturing establishments,
employing ft'JOtf operatives The value of their
auliml wa« *UMflft,fl£2.

ENVELOPES. Kee CURVE.

ENVEB PASHA. Turkish War Minister.
For biography we fturpiJcuiDNT.

ENVOI, atf'vwa', or ENVOY, 6n"voi. The
eoiifUuling stanza of a ballade or of other con-
tc'iiflonul wrue forma. Soe BAJLLADE,

ENVOY (OF. o/troft Fr. envoi, message,
frnm enpoj/m1, It. taricrrr, to send, from Lat. tn,
in + rto, way; eonnccttul with Lat. where, to
carry, Ok. *X«M% oohein, to have, Skt, wli, Av.
r«rs, to curry, Goth, trig*, OHO. wo, Ctor. Vfeg,
AS. wcff, Eng. way). In international law, a
diplomatic agent of the second order, next in

I EN2IO

rank to an ambassador. An envoy stands to his
sovereign just as an agent does to his principal,
and hi a acts or promises are the sovereign's in
a business sense, though not in a personal sense.
It is said that this class of diplomatists was
first introduced by Louis XI of France in the
second half of the fifteenth century. The envoy
is superior in rank to the chargg d'affaires,
whose credentials proceed from a minister of the
state from which he is sent and are addressed
to the minister of the state to which he is sent,
or are a mere delegation from an ambassador
or envoy to conduct the affairs of the mission
in his absence. The practice of the United States
has interjected between the ambassador and the
envoy a second class, called envoys extraordi-
nary and ministers plenipotentiary, which, of
course, throws the ordinary envoy into the third
class. See AMBASSADOR; CHABG^ D'AFFAIRES;
CONSUL; DIPLOMATIC AGENT; EMBASSY; MIN-

ISTEB.

ENZINA, fin-the'iia, JUAN DEL. See ENOINA.

ENZINAS, gn-the'nas, FRANCISCO DE, also
called DRYANDEB (1520-63). Author of a Span-
ish translation of the New Testament. He was
.born at Burgos, studied in Louvain (1539-41),
and then in Wittenberg, where he lodged in
Molanchthon's house. Here he translated the
New Testament from the Greek and presented a
copy (printed at Antwerp, 1543) to Charles V.
He was imprisoned in Brussels for his heretical
views. After a little more than a year he
escaped and returned to Wittenberg. Next to
the translation of the New Testament, his most
important work is a History of the State of the
Netherlands and of the Religion of Spain, pub-
lished first in Latin, and then reprinted in
French by Francois Duchcsne (Geneva, 1558),
and again republished by Campan under the
title Memoir es de Francesco de Enerinas (Dry-
ander) (3 vols., Brussels, 1862-63). Consult
title Men&idez y Pelayo, Historia de los Hetero-
doxos espailoles. In 1548 he was made professor
of Greek at Cambridge by Cranmer. Accounts
of his death vary, some claiming that he died of
the pest at Strassburg in 1553, and others claim-
ing that we lose track of him at Geneva in 1570.
Bis brother, Jaime, was burned as a heretic in
Home in 1546.

EN'ZIO (c.1225-72). A king of Sardinia, a
natural son of the German Emperor Frederick
IT. He fought by his father's side against the
Lombards at the battle of Cortenuova, in 1237,
and in the following year was married to Ade-
liiriia, widow of XJbalao Visconti, and given the
title of King of Torres and Gallura and later
ilj at of King of Sardinia. In 1241, the comjnand
of the licet having been intrusted to Enzio, ho
gained a splendid victory over the Genoese and
captured 100 prelates on their way to a council
at Home. Knzio was afterward sent into Lorn-
hardy, which was for several years the scene
of his chief exploits. In 1248 he besieged Parma,
but was forced to retire. He then besieged Co-
lonna, and in 1249 took the castle of Arola, but
on May 26 of tho same year he was taken
prisoner at Foesalta by the troops of Bologna
nnd consigned to perpetual imprisonment. His
capture was a great blow to the cause of the
Hohenstaufen. Exusio died March 14, 1272.
His groat talents as a warrior and poot, Ins sad
lot, bis beauty, and the fate of his family
have received much sympathetic treatment in
history and literature. Consult Blasius, Jftjntp
JSnssio (Breslau, 1884), and Jordan, Les origine*

ENZYME

de la domination an ge vine en Italie (Paris,
1909).

ENZOOTIC, Sn-zo-ot'Ik (Gk. kv, en, in + ftwi/,
soon, animal). A disease which seems to be
permanently established among the animals of a
certain locality. The term corresponds to "en-
demic disease" in mankind.

EIT'ZYME (MGk, %v£vfios, enstymos, leavened,
from Gk. h, en, in + ffipnt #2/»ig, leaven). A
name applied to any one of a certain group of
thermolabile catalytic agents that occur in
plants and in animals, and have the power of
hastening the transformation of various com-
pounds when brought into contact with them.
They were formerly called unorganized ferments,
to distinguish them from yeasts and bacteria
(organized ferments), which produce similar
changes. The distinction has no value; for it
has been shown that the action of the so-
called organized ferments is often due to en-
zymes produced by them. Little is known of
the chemistry of the enzymes; indeed, there is
no available test of their presence except their
action, and no way of establishing their purity.
When prepared by any of the usual methods,
they are certainly mixed with other substances.
Some investigators maintain their protein na-
ture, others hold that they are nonprotein, while
still others would even place them among the
nucleoproteins.

Enzymes are produced in all kinds of plants.
They may generally be obtained by crushing or
grinding the plant tissue, extracting it for 24
hours with several volumes of an appropriate
solvent (water, salt solution, glycerin, weak
alcohol, etc.), filtering and precipitating by the
addition of an excess of alcohol or of a neutral
salt. The substances thus obtained may be some-
what purified by washing, redissolving, and sub-
jecting to a process of dialysis. The plant cell
has been spoken of as an arsenal of enzymes.
Six have been identified in the cells of ripe
banana, 11 in Penicellium camemberti, and 14
in other molds. These probably represent only
a fraction of the enzymes actually existing in
these cells.

The action of enzymes is probably a chemical
one, the enzyme itself being so slowly decom-
posed in the process (if it is affected at all)
that it practically acts by its mere presence.
The action differs according to the enzyme and
the substance affected. Often it is one of
hydrolysis; i.e., the substance acted upon takes
up the elements of water and is at the same
time split up chemically. One class of enzymes,
however, causes oxidation, *and two enzymes are
known which split up compounds without intro-
ducing other atoms into their molecules. The
following are examples of these changes:

1. An hydrolysis effected by the enzyme in-
vertase:

+ EK> -

Water

Cane Sugar

+ C8Hu08

Glucose Fructose

2. An oxidation effected by the enzyme
lactase:

-f 0* -

JECydroQuixiond

"Water

Quinond

3. A decomposition effected by the enzyme
myrosin:

« GttCNS + CUBbA + KHS04

Altyl sulpho- Glucose Acid

oyanate potassium

sulphate

Sinigrin

Various other types of reactions are produced
by enzymes. Catalase, of universal distribution
in living cells, splits hydrogen peroxide into
water and oxygen. Mutase, probably of general
distribution in plants and animals, transforms
two molecules of an aldehyde into a molecule
each of the corresponding alcohol and acid.

The rate of activity of enzymes is greatly
modified by temperature, which shows two main
effects. First, the rate is increased as the
temperature rises, and this in a very regular
way, 1.6 to 2.2 fold per 10° C. rise of temper-
ature, beginning at 0° C. or a little above. The
second effect is the destruction or the coagula-
tion of the enzyme, and it becomes evident at
40° C. or above, and rises rapidly as the temper-
ature rises, giving almost instantaneous de-
struction at 70° C.-800 C. for the various en-
zymes. As a result of the two effects, there
appears what has been called the optimum tem-
perature for enzymic action. It is not a fixed
point, but varies with the duration of the ex-
periment, being lower the longer the duration,
for in longer duration the destruction effect
is more manifest. Colloidal metals, or hydro-
sols of metals, as catalyzers, show a similar
optimum, so this is not a distinct feature of
enzymes. Enzymes are indifferent to the notion
of diffuse daylight, but are very readily de-
stroyed by direct sunlight. It has been shown
that the invisible ultra-violet rays cause more
than 99 per cent of this destruction.

Many substances are marked depressors of
enzyme activity or actual destroyers of the en-
zymes. Among these may be mentioned mer-
curic chloride, hydrogen sulphide, hydrocyanic
acid, formaldehyde, phenol, and excesses of "acids
or bases. Some of these have a very similar
effect on the catalytic action of colloidal metals.
Most reagents are far less destructive to en-
zymes than they are to the living cell. This
is especially true of chloroform, toluol, thymol,
and others; consequently, by the addition of one,
of these, the growth 01 organisms in a digest-
ing mixture can be prevented without seriously
interfering with the action of the enzyme. For-
maldehyde is said to be about equally destruc-
tive to protoplasm and to enzymes. * Both the
plant and animal body produce thormolabile
substances that are capable of stopping or
greatly reducing the activity of enzymes. These
have been termed antienzymes. Many sub-
stances greatly accelerate the activity " of en-
zymes or are even necessary to permit any ac-
tivitv. This is true of traces of acids for *mo«t
plant enzymes, sodium liuorid for oyrttase, va-
rious salts for diastase, manganese »alta for
oxydascs, and coenzyme for zymase. It is prob-
ably hard to overestimate the physiological sig-
nificance of these accelerators and depressors of
enzyme activity for the organism. It is prob-
able that these in large part determine the
rate at which the processes occur in the organ-
ism. They bring out of the arsenal of enzymes
in the cells regulating activity that leads to
the normal development of the organism.

The marked similarity between enzymes and
colloidal metals as catalysts is well known.
This is a result of the colloidal nature of water
solutions of enzymes, a fact that has been estab-
lished by evidence from many directions*

The origin of those enzymes which have been
investigated seems to be indirect, substances
called zymogens being produced by the active
cells. The zymogens appear as minute granules

EOANTKROPTTS DAWSONI

in the protoplasm which is about to form en-
zymes, and under appropriate conditions are
transformed into enzymes, disappearing as the
enzymes increase.

A few of the better-known enzymes, their dis-
tribution, the substances they attack, and the
chief products of their action are shown by the
following table:

' EOCENE EPOCH

was raised partly into land and partly into shal-
low waters. This elevation took place slowly
and occupied a long interval of time, so that
when the Eocene period opened the fauna and
flora had assumed a decidedly modern aspect
Among invertebrates the ammonites, which were
characteristic of the Mesozoic era, declined in
importances, while bivalves, such as the oyster,

ENZYME

Occurrence

Substances attacked

Product of the action

Diastase *

All plants

Starch

Maltose,
Dextrin.
Vootoae.
ugars (?)
Glucose,
Fructose,
llucoae.
Alcohol,
Carbon dioxide.
Glucose,
Galaotose.
llucoso.
Glucose,
Fructose,
Golactose.
Glucose,
Touranose.
Glucose,
Various subs,
ilucose (see above).
Glucose,
Red pigment.
Glucose,
Rhomnin.
Glucose,
Wintergreen oil.
Proteoses,
Peptones, etc.
Proteoses,
Peptones, Amides.
Peptones, Amino-
acids.
Glycerin.
Fatty acids.
Joagulates milk.
Peotio acid.
Forms jelly.

xidizea it.
oetic acid,
actio acid.
aO and 0*.
Icohol and acid.

Inulase

f^tiffioa

Composite, eta

InuHn

Invertase

Many plants
Many plants t *

Cellulose

Saccharose

Maltose

Mat>y plants. .

Maltose

Yeasts

Sugars

IJcwtase

lv**phir

Lactose

Trchalaae

Several fungi.

Trehalose

Hoffiiaiw,

Molds, yeasts

Raffinose

Melizitase

Molds

Melizitose

BmuXsto

RosaoesB, Euphorbiacese, Fungi.

flrruarin

Madder plant

Hubiftn

Rhamnase

Rh&nxnTi8 infeotorius

1
J

Wintergreen, etc.. .

Papain

Carioa papaya

Pineapple .

Tryptnni

Germinating seeds )

Lipase

Oily seeds

Fats

Various plants ....

Casein (?}

Pccliriase

Acid fruits and various leaves. . .
Lao plants, etc. . .

.... |

Lacoaae

TvroHinase

RilfflUl^, heat, (In^H* ......

Alcoholaso

Acetic acid organism

Lactolose .,

Laotio " " . . ..

CataiaHG

Universal
General

HaOs

Mutiwc

i The total effect is prob
dextrin, and doxtrinaHO, wh_,.
lactic acid, and laotisidase, wh
taso, producing araino acids.

> the action of two enaymes. Diastase consists of amylase, which hydrolizes starch to

.„ izes dextrin to maltose. Zynoase consists of zymose, which transforms tho sugar to

i transforms lactic acid to alcohol. Trypsin consists of protease, giving peptones, and e rep-

Til 0 enzymes whoso names are italicized in the
above table are described in special articles in
this eneyc'lopttdia.

EOANTHROPTTS DAWSONX. See

E'OBA/linJS, HELTUS, also called HESSUS
(14H8-1540). A German humanist. His name
pmporly wa« JSoban Koch, Ho was born in
HMW, probably at Halgehausen. Ho lod the
wnntlcrinpf life of BO many scholars of that
period, teaching, lecturing, and writing in dif-
ferent places. Ho identified himself with the
Reformation and showed his humanistic sym-
pathies by participating in the famous flpistolce
Obamtromm Virorum, and his scholarship and
poetical ability in his translations of Bcclesi-
astes (1532) and tho Psalms (Marburg, 1537),
wh<mc<* his epithet "the. He.ssian David." For
hifi life, consult Krauso (Gotha, 1879).

S'OOEIIB EPOCH (from Gk. 4<6s> $6$, dawn
+ Kat»6s, A-pwnos, new). A division of geologic
time following tho Cretacvoua period and mark-
ing the beginning of tho Conozoic era. At the
end of the Cretaceous period great geographical
changes occurred in both Europe and North
America, by which the floor of tno inland seas

clam, and scallop, common at the present day
were very numerous. Ganoid fishes became sub
ordinate to the teleosts, which included perch,
herring, and sharks, and mammals predominated
over reptiles. In rocks of this period have beep
found the remains of nyracotherium, the earli-
est-known ancestor of the horse. The vegetation
included dicotyls, palms, and grasses belonging
to genera living at the present time. Eocene
rocks in the United States are found along a
belt that extends parallel to tho Atlantic coast
from New Jersey to Florida, where they over-
lie the Cretaceous unconformably and dip slightly
towards the sea, disappearing beneath younger
beds. They also occur in the Mississippi valley,
in the Gulf States, and in California, Oregon,
and Washington. There arc numerous basins
also in the Rocky Mountain region of Utah,
Wyoming, Colorado, North Dakota,, and New
Mexico, which, unlike the preceding, were de-
posited in fresh water. The most important
of these basins are the Puerco, Wasatch, Green
River, and Uinta, Tn the Uinta basin the de-
posits are 6000 to 8000 feet thick. The follow-
ing division of the Eocene is • recognized by
American geologists: Atlantic and Gulf States;

EOHIPPTJS

(a) Midway, (&) Lignitic, (o) Lower Claiborne,
(d) Claiborne, (e) Jackson, (/) Vicksburg;
Western States: (a) Fort Union, (6) Wasatch,
(o) Wind River, (d) Bridger, (e) Uinta. The
rocks of the Eocene include clays, sands, lime-
stones, and sandstones, while among the eco-
nomic minerals are marls in the Atlantic States,
phosphate rock in Florida, petroleum in Cali-
fornia, and brown coal in Washington. Consult
"Correlative Papers — Eocene," United States
Geological Survey Bulletin, No. 88 (Washing-
ton, 1891 ) ; Report on "Eocene," Maryland
Geological Survey Publications (Baltimore,
1901); Chamberlin and Salisbury, Geology, vol.
Hi (New York, 1907). See TEBTIABY SYSTEM;
GEOLOGY.

E'CHIPTUS. See EYRACOTHEBIUM; and
HOBSB, FOSSIL.

EOLIAN HARP. See JEOLIAN HABP.

EOLIAN BOCKS. See JBoTJATsr ACCUMULA-
TIONS.

EOLIANS. See ^EOLIANS.

EOI/IP3XE. See JEouriLE.

EOLITHIC. See PALEOLITHIC PERIOD.

EON. See MON.

SON, a'CN', CHABLES DE BEAUMONT DJ (1728-
1810). A French diplomatist, commonly known
as the Chevalier d'Eon, who owes his celebrity
to doubts as to his sex. He was born at Ton-
ncrre, Burgundy, and practiced as an advocate
in Paris. He published in 1753 some important
works on history and political economy which
attracted the attention of Louis XV, who sent
him in 1755 on a diplomatic mission to Russia,
where he assumed the dress of a woman, gained
the favor of the Empress Elizabeth, and negoti-
ated an advantageous treaty. After serving
with the French army in Germany in 1759, he
was made Minister Plenipotentiary to London
(17C3), and stood so high in favor with the
King as to incur the jealousy of Madame de
Pompadour, who brought about his dismissal.
He was granted a large pension by the King in
return for keeping diplomatic secrets and took
up literary work. On his return to France
(1777) the government, for reasons which have
never been made known, required him to assume
the female dress, which he wore for the remainder
of his life. This fact gave rise to doubts as to
his sex, which were not settled until his death.
On the outbreak of the French Revolution he
offered his services to the French nation, but
they were declined, and he passed the rest of his
days in poverty in England. The Chevalier
d'Eon was the author of many historical and po-
litical essays which were published under the
title of Lbisirs du Chevalier d'Eon (Amsterdam,
1775). The Memovres attributed to him and
edited by Gaillardet (Paris, 1836) are not gen-
uine. Consult: Telfer, The Strange Career of tho
Chevalier d'ISon de Beaumont (London, 1885) ;
Eoff, Merkwurdiges Le'bcn des ehemaligen Ritters
von Eon (Leipzig, 1870) ; Madame Campan,
Mfmoires; Bachaumont, M&moires; La Fortellc,
Vie miUtaire, politique et priv6e de demoiselle
C.G.L.A.A.T. Eon ou d'Eon (Paris, 1779).

EON, or ETFDO DE STEI/LA, or £ON
DB L'ifiTOILE, ft'ON' de la'twal'. A religioua
fanatic of noble birth, who lived in Brittany in
the twelfth century and claimed to be the final
judge of mankind. He is said to have applied
to himself the pronoun own, in the familiar
liturgical formula, per eum qui venturus eat
iudicore vivoa et mortoo*, *throiigh Him who

g E6TVOS

will come to judge the quick and the dead/
whence his name, Eon. He opposed the hierarchy
of the church, although he did not hesitate to
construct a new one of his own, ordaining his
followers as bishops and archbishops. His en-
thusiastic adherents went forth to plunder and
destroy churches and monasteries. In Eon him-
self miraculous powers were believed to reside.
He was publicly opposed at Nantes by the Cardi-
nal Legate, Alberic, and Hugo, Archbishop of
Rouen, wrote a book against him, Dogmatinn
Christ iance Fidel. In 1148 he was seized, along
with some of his leading adherents, and brought
before a synod at Rheims for trial. He was
adjudged insane and thus escaped execution,
but he was imprisoned for the rest of his life,
and some of his followers were burned at the
stake. His sect soon died out. There is little
ground for the commonly accepted opinion that
Eon belonged to the Cathari. Consult H. C. Lea,
History of the Inquisition of tJu> Middle Ayes,
vol. i (New York, 1888), and Dollinger, Beit rage
sfur Sektengesohiclite des Mittel alters, vol. i
(Munich, 1890).

EOS. See AUROBA.

EOSCORPITTS, e'6-skO^pS-tis (Kco-Lat., from
Gk. ijefo, evs, dawn + a-Kopwlos, sLorpios. scor-
pion). A fossil scorpion whicli is characterized
by a slender form, parallel sides of the carapace,
and slender hand and pincers. Four separate
species have been found in the Carboniferous fos-
sil locality at Mazon Creek, 111., celebrated for
its nodules with plant and animal remains. See
SCORPION.

EOSIST. See COAL-TAB COLORS.

EOS'TBA. The Teutonic goddess of Spring,
the name of whose festival, it is supposed, has
been transferred to the Christian Easter ( q.v. ) .

EOTVOS, et'vesh, J6ZSEF, BABOtf (1813-71).
A distinguished Hungarian statesman and author,
who has left a lasting imprint upon both tho
literary and political life of his country. He
was born at Buda, studied philosophy "ami
jurisprudence at the University of that city,
and when barely 20 entered upon an ofliriul
career as vice notary at Presaburg, but soon
abandoned it in favor of literary pursuits. lie
had already attracted some attention through
a translation of Goethe's Oots von BcrliHiinyi'n
(1830), two comedies, Kritikvtwb (The OriliW)
and Ilaxasuldk (The Matrimonially Inclined),
and a tragedy, Bossu (Revenge). After an ex-
tended tour through Germany, France, Knglunri,
Switzerland, and the Netherlands, he relumed to
his father's estate and there devoted himwelf to
writing his famous novel Karthausi (The C'nr-
thusian), which was at once hailed with de-light
by the public and critics alike (1842). About
this time Etftvb's began to be prominent in poli-
tics. When the Liberal party boearae divided,
in 1844, into Municipalise and Centralists, he
became, as member of tho House of Magnates,
one of the most earnest supporters of the latter
party, and a frequent contributor io Koa«uth*H
organ, tho Pesti Hirlap, his stirring articles be-
ing later collected in a volume under the title
Reform (Leipzig, 1846). Quite in lino with
his active interesting public reforms is the
theme of his second romance, A Fain Jan/sfifa
(The Village Notary), in which h« painted the
abuses growing out of the old syrttm of public
administration in Hungary, basod upon county
elections, and which enjoyed no less vogua than
his earlier novel. It has been tranwlated into
German by Mail&th, and into English by Otto

Wenckstern (1850). It was followed, in 1847-
48, by his Magyarorszdg 1514-ben (Hungary in
1514), an historical romance.

Upon the formation of the national Hun-
garian ministry, after the revolution of March
15, 1848, EatvSa was appointed Minister of
Public Instruction, but after the stormy scenes
of the following September resigned his office
and retired to Munich, where he lived for three
years, and where his literary labors bore im-
portant fruit in the form of a philosophical
work, in German and Hungarian, upon The In-
fluence of the Tdeaa of the Nineteenth Century
upon State and Society (1851-54). He returned
to Hungary in 1851, was made vice president
of the Hungarian Academy in 1855 and presi-
dent in 1806. In 1801 he reSntered political life,
founded in 1805 the Political Weekly (Politikai
Jletilap), and in 1867 became once more Minis-
tor of Public Instruction, an office which he
filled until his death and which gave him the
opportunity of introducing salutary reforms.
His. works were published in 1870 in 14 vols.
and a new edition was undertaken in 1891. Con-
Kult: Schwicker, Gesohiohte der ungarisohen
Litteratur (Leipzig, 1889) ; Kont, Geschichte der
'unqarischen Litteratur (ib., 1906); in Hun-
garian, the life by Z. Perencsi (1903).

EOTVOS, ROLAND, BARON (1848- ). An,
Hungarian scientist and statesman, born at
Budapest. He obtained his scientific training
at the universities of Konigsberg and Heidelberg
and was appointed a lecturer at Budapest in
1H71 and in 1873 professor of experimental
phymcH thorp. In 1873 he became connected
with the Hungarian Academy -of Sciences, of
which lie wan eloctod president in 1889. His
mvoMtigiitioim respecting- gravitation and cfipil-
lary attraction were described by him in various
learned journals and made him well known in
scientific drelort. II i* also became a life member
of the Hungarian. House, of Magnates and in
1895-00 held the. difiieult post of Minister of
Public Worship n,nd Education.

E'OZO'OJflT (Noo-Lat., from 4j£s, We, dawn 4-
foot, sfion, animal), A supposed fossil organ-
ism found in the crystalline metamorphic lime-
stones of the Archcan Laurentian scries of the
lower St. Lawrence valley. Eozotfn occursi
mostly in the form of concentric layers of the
mineral serpentine, constituting concretionary
masses in the limestone and approximating in
structure some of the hydroid corals, such as
Rtromatopora* It was originally described by
Sir J. W. Dawson, as a gigantic foraminiferan,
and several papers in support of his contentions
regarding the object were published by him.
Other similar objects were afterward found in
rocks of equivalent age in. Bavaria. The re-
searches of MObius and others have tended to
disprove the organic nature of EozoSn, and it is
now generally considered to be nothing more
than a mineral concretion or segregation.

E'PACT (Gk. ^7raKr<5s, epaktos, added, inter-
calated, from fadyetv, epagein, to add, from
M, 4pt, upon + #y«**» <*ffw*> to lead). A num-
ber varying for each year, employed in the
weleskatical calendar for fixing the dates of the
ecclesiastical new moons. These dates differ
sometimes as imwh as three days from those of
the actual or "astronomical" new moons.

Briefly stated, the epact for any year may be
defined as the number of days elapsed at the
beginning of the year since ttxe -preceding new
moon. The epact once known, it is therefore

'easy to calculate the dates of all the following
lunar phases throughout the year.

To calculate the epact for any year, it is first
necessary to know the "golden number" (q.v.).
This is found by the following rule: Add 1 to
the date of the year, and divide by 19; the re-
mainder is the golden number; when the remain-
der is 0, the golden number is 19. Knowing
the golden number, the epact can then be taken
from the following table. For instance, when
the golden number is 13, the epact is 12 for
years from 1700 to 1899, and 11 for the years
between 1900 and 2199:

TABLE OF EPACTS

GOLDEN

NUMBER

1700
to
1899

1900
to
2199

GOLDEN
NUMBER

1700
to
1899

1900
to
2199

12. .

14 ...

5 ....

EPAMTOOITCDAS (Lat., from Gk.
vt&vdas, or 'Eira/uwfrrfa*) (e.418-362 B.C.). A
Greek statesman and general. He was born at
Thebes, of an influential though not wealthy
family. He spent his early life in study as a
pupil of the Pythagorean philosopher Lysis of
Tarentum, who, exiled from home, lived with the
father of Epaminondas. When the Theban de-
mocracy was established, he came forward as
one of its strongest supporters. He was a
member of the deputation sent by Thebes to the
congress of Grecian states held at Sparta in
371 B.C. and spoke on that occasion in defense
of the Thoban policy of maintaining a united
Boootia. War was, in consequence, straightway
declared by Sparta. Epaminondas was ap-
pointed commander in chief of the Theban army,
which consisted of about 0000 men. The Spar-
tans, though they had a much larger force, were
defeated at Louctra in the early part of July,
371 B.O. ; the victory was due maimy to Epami-
nondas' skillful handling of the hoplites, or heavy
infantry. (See PHALANX.) The supremacy of
Sparta was now at an end. In 370 B.C. Epami-
nondas and Pelopidas invaded the Peloponnesus
and attacked Sparta, which successfully defended
itself under the lead of Agesilaus (q.v.) . Epam-
inondas, however, restored Messenia to its for-
mer position as an independent state (369 B.C.) ;
under his auspices, too, Megalopolis was founded
as the centre of the Arcadian Confederacy. In
368 B.G. Epaminondas made a second expedition
into the Peloponnesus and in 366 a third. In
362 he undertook a fourth expedition, having
this time a coalition of Sparta and a number of
states opposed to him. Ha fought a great battle
at Mantinea (q.v,), in which the Thebans were
successful, but Epaminondas himself fell. Epami-
nondas was one of the purest and noblest char-
acters in Grecian history. His life was written
by Cornelius Nepos. Consult: the life by Cor-
nelius Nepos (q.v.); Du Mesnil, "Ueber den
Werth der JPolitik dea Bpaminondas," in His-
torisohe Zeitsohrift (Berlin, 1863); Pomtow,
Do* Leben des Epawinondas (Berlin, 1870);
Pflhlman, Grwdriss der grieohisohe**
(4th cd., Munich, 1914).

EPABCH

fiPEBNON

EP'ARCH (Gk. frrapxos, eparchos, governor,
from M, epiy upon, over + dpxfi> aroh§t rule,
from &PXCIV, archewi, to rule) . In ancient Greece,
the governor of a province, the commander of
ships or of troops, etc. In Roman times the
word was used in Greek provinces of Rome as
the equivalent of prcefectus. (See PREFECT.)
The district governed by the eparch was called
an eparchy. In modern Greece the eparchy is
one of the parts of a nomarchy and is itself
divided into demarchies. ( See NOMARCHY. ) In
Russia the term has an ecclesiastical use and
denotes the diocese or archdiocese of a bishop
or archbishop of the Greek church.

EPATJLEMENT, S-paI'ment (Fr., from
gpaule, shoulder, from Lat. spatula, blade,
shoulder). A part of siege or covering works
in military fortification. Siege batteries are
usually shielded by epaulements built so as to
form an obtuse angle with the main line of the
battery, protecting guns and gunners from flank
fire. Practically an epaulement is any screen
used for the protection of troops. See FORTIFI-
CATION; SIEGE AND SIEGE WORKS.

EP'ATOET (Fr. fyaulette, dim, of fyaule,
shoulder). An ornamental shoulder badge of
rank, formerly in very general use through-
out the armies and navies of the world —
a survival of the metal shoulder piece of
medieval days. Epaulets were worn by com-
missioned officers in the United States army as
late as 1872, when they were replaced, in all
uniforms save those of general officers, by shoul-
der knots. At the present time in the United
States army epaulets are worn only by general
officers in dismounted full-dress uniform. In
the British army they were worn up to 1855 by
all ranks, the officers' epaulets being of gold
and those of the rank and file of worsted.
Epaulets are worn generally in the navies of all
nations by commissioned officers as a part of the
full-dress uniform. They are usually of gold
bullion and bear the significant marks of the
officer's rank. See UNIFORMS, MELITABY AND
NAVAL.

a/pa', CHARLES MICHEL, ABB# DE L*
(1712-89). One of the founders of the system
of instruction for the deaf and dumb. He was
born at Versailles, France, Nov. 25, 1712. He
became a priest and canon at Troyes, but even-
tually, on account of his Jansenist opinions, was
deprived of this appointment and went to live in
retirement in Paris, About 1765 he began to
occupy himself with the education of two deaf
and dumb sisters, using a system of signs. His
first attempt being crowned with success, he de-
termined to devote his life to the subject At
his own expense he founded (1770) an institu-
tion for the deaf and dumb, but his favorite
wish, the foundation of such an institution at
the public cost, was not fulfilled till after his
death, which took place Dec. 23, 1780. He wrote
a work entitled Institution des sourds et muets
(2 volgu, Paris, 1774), which afterward appeared
in an improved form, under the title La v£ri-
taUe mam&re d'wstruire les sourds et mueta
(Paris, 1784).

EPEIBIDJE, Sp-I'rl-dS (Neo-Lat. nom. pL,
from Gk. Mt epi, upon, + elpos, eiroa, wool; so
called from their web). A family of spiders, the
so-called orb weavers, which includes many of
our commonest and most frequent spiders. See
SPIDER.

EPEIBOGENIC MOVEMENTS, g-pl'ro-
jenlk. In geology the slow crustal uplifts or

subsidences which involve largo tracts of con-
tinental lands. As they are necessarily meas-
ured from sea level, they may mean an actual
change in the oceanic basins rather than a move-
ment of the land surface. They differ from
mountain-making processes (orogenic move-
ments) in that they are unaccompanied by fold-
ing of the strata, the evident result of lateral
compressive strains. See ELEVATION; SUBSI-
DENCE.

EPEBIES, a-pa'rS-Ss, Hung. EPEBJES,
S'pe'r-ye'sh (ML. Eperesinum, Slav. Prcshov),
The capital and an episcopal city of the County
of Saros, in Hungary, situated on the loft bank
of the Tarcza, about 190 miles northeast of
Budapest (Map: Hungary, G 2). In 1887 it
was totally destroyed by fire except its anciont
walls and fortifications, but it has been largely
rebuilt. Among the chief public buildings arc
the Gothic church of St. Nicholas, the Francis-
can abbey, the bishop's palace, military barrucks,
the county building, chapter house, town hall,
and theatre. Eperics is the seat of a Greek
Catholic bishop and of a Royal Court of Jus-
tice. Its educational institutions include a
Lutheran college, a royal Catholic gymnasium,
a girls' school, a seminary, and a library of over
30,000 volumes. There are manufactures of
earthenware, linen cloth, and flannel, and a con-
siderable trade in grain, wine, and cattle. In
the vicinity are the royal salt works of S<3var,
the bathing resort, Czemeto, which belongs to
Epories, and the opal minos of Vorosvapraa, G
miles from Eperies and the only opal mines
in Europe. From these mines was obtained one
piece weighing 2940 carats, valued tit about
$750,000, and now preserved in the court mu-
seum at Vienna. Eperics was colonized by
Germans in the thirteenth century and xvaa made
a royal free city in 1374. The inhabitants, who
became Protestants in the sixteenth century,
suffered bitter persecution, especially in the
year 1G87, when the Imperialist general Carnffa
instituted the famous Bloody Tribunal for the,
trial of recusants. Epories was celebrated for
its schools in the sixteenth and seventeenth cen-
turies. Pop., 1000, 14,447; 1910, 10,383.

fiPEBNAY,' a'pftr'na'. The capital of an
arrondissement in the Department of Manic,
France, situated in the midst of the champu<rn(*
district, on both banks of the Ma me, 88 miles
by rail from Paris (Map: Northern Franco, J
3). The chief part of the town on the left
bank is well built, with many fine villas in the
suburbs. It manufactures earthenware from a
clay obtained near by and called tcrro dc Cham-
pagne; also hosiery, refinod sugar, hats, caps,
and leather. The Eastern Railway maintains
large workshops here. It has a brink trade in
bottles, corks, and wire, and is the ohii'f centre
of the champagne trade. Large* storage cellar*
have been hollowed out of the chalk rock. Pop.
(commune,), 1001, 20,478; 1911, 21,811. Eper-
nay is the ancient Sparnacum and the Roman
Aquae Perennes. Francis I burned it in 1544 to
defeat the attempt of Charles V to obtain pos-
session of its wine stores. In 1592, during the
wars of the League, it was captured by Henry
IV, Marshal Biron being killed during tho
attack.

fipar'nON', JEAN Ix>uis DK Ko-
OABET, DUO »' (1554-1C42). A French courtier,
originally called Caumont and LaNalette. In
1573 he identified himself with the fortunes of
Henry III, whose most influential favorite fee

EPHAH XI

became, and who bestowed upon him wealth and
titles, including the newly created Duchy of
Epernon (1581) and the admiralty of France.
He was originally a defender of absolute mon-
archy, hostile towards any concession to the
estates, and the foe most dreaded by the Catho-
lic League. In 1587 he was appointed Governor
of Normandy, but in 1588 the league persuaded
the King to send him into exile at Loches,
Despite this he remained faithful to the crown.
In 1596 he was made Governor of Limousin by
Henry IV, and in 1622 was transferred to
Guienne. Meanwhile his political attitude had
diametrically changed, and he had become the
boldest exponent of the independence of the pro-
vincial noblesse. He opposed the concentration
policy of Richelieu, by whom he was finally ban-
ished to Loches in 1641. In 1610 he had helped
give tho regency to Marie de* Medici. Consult
che biography by Montbrison (Paris, 1874).

E'PHAH (Heb. ephah, Copt. 6ipi, from Copt.
vpi, to measure, Opi, to count). A dry measure
of the ancient Hebrews. It contained 10 omers
or three seahs — about four English pecks.

EPHAB/MONT (from Gk. hrl, epi, upon +
&pjjMvia, harmonia, harmony, from dp/i6£e»>, har-
ntoacin, to fit) . The state of the adapted plant,
as manifested in the plant form. See ECOLOGY.

EPHE'BXrS (Lat., from Gk. ^jSos, from JTT/,
epi, upon + tfPVj licbe, youth, puberty). Among
the ancient Greeks, a youth of the upper classes
who has just attained manhood, which was com-
monly reckoned to commence at the sixteenth
year. In Athenian constitutional law it de-
noted one who had attained his majority, but
was n6t yet a full citizen, i.e., one who had
begun his eighteenth, but had not attained his
twentieth year. These ephobi entered upon their
civic munliood by taking an oath of allegiance
and devotion to tho fatherland in the temple of
Aglauros and for the next two years were
trained in military exercises and employed in
garrison and patrol duty. When this custom
was introduced is not certain, but in a rudi-
mentary form it is likely to have existed from
the time of the Persian wars, in the latter part
of the fourth century B.O., probably soon after
the battle of Chscronea (338 B.C.), the institu-
tion was put on a firmer basis, which is de-
scribed by Aristotle in his work on the Constitu-
tion of Athens (chap. xlii). At the head was a
eosmGtPs (Ko<r/*7?Ti}s), elected by the Assembly;
the ephebi of each tribe were under the direct
Huporvialon of a sophronistSa (<rw0p<w<rrijy), who
wan elected by the people from three men over
40 years of age, nominated by the fathers of the
boys. The first year of the ephebus' training
was given to instruction in gymnastics, the drill
and weapons of heavy and light-armed infantry,
and the management of the artillery engines.
At the end of tho year they received a shield,
spear, and military cloak (see CTILAMYS) from
the state and were assigned to garrison duty in
Attica and police duty at the Assembly (see
ECCUBBIA). After the fourth century the insti-
tution underwent many changes, which are re-
flected in the numerous inscriptions in praise of
the ephebi and their officers, which may be found
in the Qorpu* Inscriptionum Attioarum (vols. ii
and iii). Moro and more the military side of
the training sank into the background, and the
compulsory character disappeared, BO that it
finally became a state system of education for
the aons of the wealthy. Foreigners, too, were
admitted. The ephebi had their own gymnasia,
Vox.. VlILr- 2

EPHESIAIfS

with baths and apparently libraries attached,
and there was also a special gymnasium, the
Diogeneion, for boys under 16 who were pre-
paring to enter on the ephebic course. Full de-
tails of this interesting institution, which was
imitated in other Greek states, can be found in
Dumont, L'EplieUe attique (Paris, 1875); Gi-
rard, in Daremberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire des
antiquitSs (Paris, 1892) ; Dittenberger, De
Ephebis Atticis (QSttingen, 1863); Grasberger,
Ensiehung und Unterrioht ton, klassischen Alter-
tum, vol. iii (Wtirzburg, 1881) ; Girard, L'Edu-
cation athenienne au Ve et IV 'e siecle avant J. G.
(2d ed., Paris, 1891); Gilbert, The Oonstitur
tional Antiquities of Sparta and Athens (Eng.
trans., London, 1895); Bryant, "Boyhood and
Youth in the Days of Aristophanes," in Harvard
Studies, vol. xviii, pp. 73-88 (1907); Walden,
The Universities of Ancient Greece (New York,
1909).

EPBTCDRA. A genus of gymnosperms in-
cluding about 30 species of low straggling
shrubs, with long, jointed, and fluted green
stems, and minute scalelike leaves forming a
sheath at each joint. The whole habit of the
plant is suggestive of a shrubby Equisetum.
The species grow in the arid regions about the
Mediterranean and also in tropical to temperate
Asia, North America, and South America. The
stamens and ovules are borne in cones that arise
from the joints of the stem, some of the cones
bearing only stamens and others only ovules.
Each cone consists of broad, overlapping mem-
branaceous bracts. In some species the fruit is
decorative. Being somewhat susceptible to frost,
the members of this genus are little grown
except where they are not likely to suffer from
cold. They succeed best upon dry, sandy, and
rocky slopes, and are easily propagated by seed,
suckers, or layers. For illustration, see GYM-

NOSPERMS.

EPHEM/EBA (Neo-Lat., from Gk. £0tf/*6pa,
daily, from Hvt> epi9 upon + ^po* hGmera, day),
or FEBEIS DIABIA. See FEVEB.

EPH'EMEBTDA (Neo-Lat., from Lat. ephe-
meris, Gk. ifrjiupb, journal, from &^epos, epht-
mcros, daily). An order of insects, allied to the
dragon flies and noted for their very brief exist-
ence as adults; hence they are often called day
flies. Bee MAT FLY.

EPHEM/EBIS (Lat., from Gk. 40i?jue/?k, jour-
nal). A name applied to astronomical alma-
nacs, containing data for each day. It is mostly
confined to astronomical tables giving the daily
places of the sun, moon, planets, and, fixed stars,
together with other phenomena of the heavens.
The most important works of the kind at present
are published under governmental supervision.
They include the French Ocwnaisaanco des
Temps, the English Nautical Almanac, the Ber-
lin Astronomisches Jahrbuch, and the American
Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac. See ALMANAC.

EPH'ESI'ACA (Lat., from Gk. 'B07?<rea*c4,
EphPsiaka, relating to Ephesus, from "E0e<ros,
Ephesos, Ephesus), or EPHESIAN TALKS. A
Greek romance by Xenophon of Ephesus, re-
lating the love story of Abrocpmas and Anthia.
In this tale is found the earliest source of the
story of Borneo and Juliet.

EPHESLffi IilTTESLaB. See EFimirs.

EPHESIANS, e'-fS'zhanz, EPISTLE TO THE.
One of the Epistles of the Apostle Paul. It is
addressed, according to the common text, to the
Christians at Ephesus, once the principal city
of western Asia Minor. The question of its

EFHESIANS 12

authorship, however, is debated, necessitating
a careful study of the material which it presents.
Assuming, as a working hypothesis for such
study, the claim of Paulinity involved in the
Epistle's address (i. 1), the following facts
would seem to be clear: 1. A generality of tone
involving a larger circle of readers than any
one individual church. 2. The apparent lack
of personal acquaintance on the part of the
Apostle with the readers of the Epistle, which
strongly militates against the theory of the com-
mon text that the Epistle was written to the
church of Ephesus, a church founded by Paul
and his friends (Acts xviii. 19 ff.) and built
up by Mm on his third missionary journey,
when he had his headquarters at Ephesus for
over two years (52-55 A.D.; cf Acts xix). The
additional fact that the Epistle contains no
personal greetings or salutations also tells
strongly against the theory that it was addressed
to the church at Ephesus. 3. A striking resem-
blance in word and phrase to Colossians, lead-
ing to the inference of a contemporaneous date
with that of this Epistle. 4. An evident impris-
onment on the part of the Apostle lift. 1), and
an imprisonment which, in its freedom to preach
and its opportunity for service (vi. 18-20), shows
resemblance to the lenient conditions of his
Roman imprisonment, narrated in Acts and re-
ferred to in the Epistles to the Colossians, Phi-
lippians, and Philemon. 5. The theme (the
ideal unity of the Church in Jesus Christ su-
preme) appears to be a most natural develop-
ment of the theme of Colossians (the exaltation
of Jesus Christ as supreme), and a not unlikely
outcome of the dominant thought of the Epistle
to the Romans (the community between the
Jewish and Gentile elements in the Church).
These facts agree quite significantly with the
Epistle's claim and render the assertion of its
inconsistency with itself difficult of proof. Con-
firmation of these facts is further rendered by
the strong witness borne to the Epistle as a
product of the Apostle by external evidence
from the time of Marcion (140 A.D.) down.

Over against all this there docs not seem to
be much force in the contention that the largo
element of catholicity in the Epistle would in-
dicate a postapostolic date, since the catholicity
which the Epistle presents becomes simply a
consistent development of Paul's own ideas,
reaching its climax in this encyclical message
to the churches of a region which had been
brought under the influence of his three years'
work at Ephesus. It is of still less force to
call attention to the peculiarities of word and
phrase and general style in the Epistle, espe-
cially as these peculiarities find to a large ex-
tent their counterpart in the companion Epistle
to the Colossians, which is admitted to be
Paul's.

Accepting then the Pauline origin of the
Epistle, it becomes a most interesting question
how tlie title Ephesians came to be attached to
it, in particular how "at Ephesus" came to be
incorporated in the address (i. 1), there being
no local Ephesian color in the Epistle and no
salutations in it to members of the Ephesian
church. The significance of this question is
heightened by the fact that the documentary
evidence is scarcely in favor of the phrase be-
ing part of the original text. The early and
more important manuscripts omit it, while not
a few of the early fathers show they did not
read it in their copies of the letter. On the

EPHESUS

other hand, the assigning of this Epistle to
Ephesus is continuous and universal in the
Church from the time of Irenaus (180 A.D.).
How came this tradition if "at Ephesus" was
lacking in the text from the beginning? The
answer to this question seems to rest between
two theories. The one assumes that Paul wrote
the letter to a group of churches with which he
was not personally acquainted, situated outside
of Ephesus, the association of the Epistle with
this city coming from the natural drift of the
original manuscript to this metropolitan centre
and its preservation there (Zahn), the name of
the less-known cliurch which it must have con-
tained being finally removed for that of the
larger one ( Jiilicher ) . The other theory is that
Paul wrote the letter to a group of churches of
which Ephesus was the leading one, but all local
references to which were laid aside because <>f
the general character of the letter (A. Roberi
son), phrases being substituted which would
agree with the fact that with the larger number
of the group he was personally unacquainted.
In this case the original manuscript would
have had "at Ephesus" in the text, since the
letter went in the first instance to the parent
church; but from the copy made for the other
churches it would be omitted, Tychicus supply-
ing the name of the locality as "lie brought the
letter to it, coming finally to Laodieea, the
last city of the circuit where his copy was left.
This would explain Mansion's finding of our
Epistle there without "at Ephesus" in the text
and also the reference in Colossians (Col. iv.
16, "When this epistle hffth been read among
you, cause that it be read also in the church
of the Laodiceans; and that ye likewise mid
the epistle from Laodicea") to the letter which
that church was to receive from Laodicea, which
was the natural head of this Lycus-vallev group.
The similarity between Ephesians and Colos-
sians referred to above is very close, as the most
cursory reading will show. This extend*
not only to the doctrinal content, but even, in
many instances, to words and phraae-s. Vet
neither Epistle seems to have been actually a
mere imitation of the other. The moat satis-
factory theory IH that after Paul had written
liis special message to the church of OoloRwa
(Seo COLOMBIANS, EPLSTLK TO THE) he decided
to send a somewhat similar, but more general
and lens personal, letter to the circle of clmrvlHw
in the Roman Province of Asia since all were
in need of the same type of instruction and
faced by the same disturbing problems. Tychi-
cus, the bearer of the Colossian Epistle/ was
also the. bearer of this circular letter.

Bibliography. The literature on Ephesians
is in most cases the same, as that on Oolosmans
and will be found listed at the close of the
article on that Epistle. Consult also Hort,
Prolegomena to Roman$ and fiptosians (Lon-
don, 1895), and Lightfoot, "Destination of
Epistle to Ephesians," in Biblical Essays (ib.,
1803).

EPBPESTTS (Lat., from Gk. "Etfew, Epliwo*}.
One of the 12 Ionic cities of Asia Minor. It
was situated in Lydia, near the mouth of the
river Carter, on two hills, named Coreasua
and Prion, in the midst of an alluvial plain
(Map: Greece, Ancient, E 3). Its origin is
enveloped in myths, as is that of all the Ionic
cities; but the reputed founder of the Greek
city of Ephesus was Androcles, son of Oodrus,
the last King of Athens. The population was

Main

EPHESTJS

by no means all Ionic, as appears from the
fact that the Ephesians did not celebrate the
ilgreat Ionic festival of the Apaturia (see GBEBK
?FESTIVALS), nor were they divided into the
if our Ionic tribes. (Consult Hogarth, Ionia
and the East, pp. 45 ff., Oxford, 1909.) The
presence of the great temple of Artemis (see
DIANA, TEMPLE OF) seems to have made it
a sacred place from an early time, and its
situation at the starting point of one of the
great trade routes into the interior of Asia
Minor led to its commercial prosperity. It suf-
fered from the Cimmerian invasion, about 655
B.C., and early submitted to the Lydians under
Croesus and later to the Persians under Cyrus
the Great. During the Grseco-Persian wars we
liear little of the city, and it played no promi-
nent part during the Peloponnesian and later
wars. After the time of Alexander the Great
the prosperity of Ephesus seems to have greatly
increased. The city was strengthened and im-
proved -by Lysimachus and the kings of Perga-
mon. The Romans made it the capital of the
^Province of Asia. Under the emperors it was
the most prosperous trading city in western
Asia Minor, though we hear of complaints that
'the right of asylum possessed by the temple of
Artemis was abused. The Roman Governor of
Asia proceeded first to Ephesus and took office
there. The account of St. Paul's labors in
Ephesus, lasting nearly three years, shows the
prosperity of the place and the importance of
the temple in promoting that prosperity, as well
as the passionate devotion of the people to their
great goddess (Acts xix). A vigorous Christian
church was established in the city, and later
the Apostle John and other prominent men of
tho apostolic age made their headquarters at
Ephosus. The Bishop of this church was the
first of the seven to whom the Apocalypse was
addressed. The destruction of its great temple
by the Goths in 263 A.D. gave it a blow from

• which it never recovered. In 431 it was the

^sccne of the Third General Council of the Chris-
tian Church. Its general history, while it was
a city of the Byzantine Empire, was unimpor-
tant, and before the days of Tamerlane it had
almost completely perished. Certain cabalistic
words or sayings said to have been inscribed on

"the base of the statue of Artemis were copied
and carried about as charms. Hence to a largo
number of similar charms hung about the
neck and repeated in a low tone to avert danger

,waa given the name Ephesia Utter&9 or

Before 1863 little was known of the

raphy of Ephesus, though the remains of the
stadium, theatre, so-called gymnasium, and a
few other buildings and walls could be traced.
Wood's excavations in search of the temple of
Artemis, made for the British Museum, as-
fiisted in clearing up some of the uncertainties
in the plan. (See, further, DIANA, TEMPLE OF.)
However, it was not till the Austrian Archaeologi-

cal Institute began its systematic explorations
that any very definite information was obtained

'concerning the ancient city as a whole. Work
was begun in 1896 and is not yet completed;

I indeed, the excavations have not been carried
below the Imperial level. The great harbor is
now known to date from the Hellenistic period
(it had been thought to be Roman). A broad
street leading from the harbor past the theatre
(a structure dating from Christian times,
which has been fully excavated) and terminating

) EBHOD

in a triumphal arch furnishes a starting point
for the determination of the topography of the
city. Other discoveries include two large mar-
ket places — one Greek, the other Roman — sur-
rounded by colonnades and rooms, a large num-
ber of inscriptions, and many statues and reliefs,
among them a bronze athlete, using the strigil,
of remarkable beauty. Consult: Guhl, Ephesiaca
(Berlin, 1842); Curtius, Ephesus (ib., 1874);
Wood, Discoveries at Ephesus (London, 1877).
For reports of the Austrian excavation, con-
sult: Ansseiger der philosophisch-Mstorischen
Ktasse der kaiserlich-koniglichen Akademie der
Wissenschaften vn Wien (Vienna, 1897 et seq.) ;
Jahreshefte des ostcrrcichischen arohSologischen
Institute (ib., 1898 et seq.) ; Benndorf, Heber-
dey, etc., . Forschungen in Ephesus, vol. i (ib.,
1906); "Ephesos," in Ltibker, Realleooikon des
klassischen Altertums (8th ed., Leipzig, 1914).
For excavations in the temple of Diana by D. C.
Hogarth, see DIANA, TEMPLE OF.

EFHEStTS, COUNCILS OF. Many councils
were held at Ephesus, of which two deserve
special mention: 1. The Third Ecumenical Coun-
cil, which opened on June 22, 431. It was called
by the Emperor Theodosius II at the request of
the orthodox, represented by Cyril, Patriarch
of Alexandria, and of Nestorius, Patriarch of
Constantinople, whom Cyril accused of heresy
because he taught that the two natures in Christ
are not united in one personality; hence Mary
was not the "Mother of God," but of Christ, the
Man with whom God was joined. Nestor ius
requested that action upon the disputed doc-
trine be deferred until the Syrian bishops, whose
votes he hoped would decide the matter in his
favor, should arrive. The opening of the council
was delayed 16 days, but they did not come.
On the very first day the matter was settled
against Nestorius, and he was excommunicated
and deposed. When the Syrian bishops finally
arrived (June 26 or 27), they held a meeting,
and protested against the action of the synod,
excommunicated Cyril, and appealed to the Em-
pcror. But Nestorianism was doomed. The
council was attended by about 200 bishops and
closed on July 31. (See NESTOBTUS.) 2. The
other famous synod was convened in August,
449,, also by the Emperor Theodosius II. Under
the lead of Dioscurus, Patriarch of Alexandria
and successor to Cyril, it proceeded to secure
the restoration of Eutyches, who taught one
nature in Christ, viz., the divine, and who had
been deposed therefor by the Synod of Con-
stantinople in 448, and the confirmation of
this doctrine, which was favored by the Alexan-
drians. The council was marked by great dis-
order and even violence. Soldiers were brought
in, blood was shed, and Flavian of Constanti-
nople was so maltreated that he soon died. But
the Alexandrian doctrine was indorsed. The
council is called the Robber Synod, and its de-
cision was quickly reversed by the Ecumenical
Council of Chalcedon (451). Consult Perry,
The Second Synod of Ephesus (Dartford, 1881).
See EUTYCHES.

EPH1AI/TES (Lat., from Ok. 'E^iAXnjj).
1. A son of Poseidon and Iphimedia. See ALO-
ADxE. 2. The Malian who showed the Persians a
mountain path by which they were enabled to
come up behind Leonidas and his band of Spar-
tans at Thermopylae and destroy them. See
LEONIDAS; THERMOPYLAE.

EPH'OD (Heb. fyhod, vestment). The name
of one of the garments worn by the high priest

EPHOB :

(Ex, xrviii. 6-8), but worn also by temple serv-
ants in general. Samuel wears one (1 Sam. ii.
18), and also the 85 priests of Nob (1 Sam.
xxii. 18). Likewise David wears an ephod when
dancing before the ark (2 Sam. vi. 14). It may
be assumed that the ordinary ephod made of
linen was less ornate than the one used by the
high priest, which was made of costly material
and of various colors — blue, purple, scarlet, and
fine linen, interwoven with gold thread. It was
held in place by two shoulder straps, attached
to it behind and passing over the shoulders to
the front. On the top of each of the shoulder
pieces was an onyx stone on which the names
of the 12 tribes were engraved, six on each stone.
The ephod was worn over a blue frock, and on
its front was the jeweled breastplate contain-
ing the oracle pouch for the Urim and Thum-
mim. Epliod is also used in the Bible for image.
Gideon is said to have made himself an ephod
of the golden rings taken from the Midianites
and to have set it up in Ophrah (Judg. viii. 27) .
It was evidently an object of worship, and since
1700 shekels were spent on it, it is natural to
suppose that the ephod was the chief object in
the sanctuary. Elsewhere, too, the ephod is
spoken of in a manner to permit of no doubt
that a part of the equipment of a sanctuary is
meant. In Judg. xvii-rviii Micah provides for
an ephod, and here and elsewhere the ephod is
placed side by side with the teraphim (e.g., Hos.
iii. 4), which were small images set up in one's
household and used in divination. The ephod
may therefore have been used in connection with
tlie teraphim.

To reconcile two such divergent uses of the
same term various theories have been put for-
ward. The most probable supposition is that
the ephod was originally the covering of a
divine image. This vestment of gold, silver, or
fine cloth embroidered with precious metals,
was the most valuable part of the idol, and the
name could therefore be applied to the image
itself. In this garment, or shoulder cloth, there
apparently was a pouch containing the oracle
lots. It has been supposed that this vestment
could be removed from the image and that the
priest put it on when giving oracles. The name
may then have been generalized and become the
term for the garment worn by the priest when
he came to the sanctuary to seek an oracle.
Gressmann thinks that the linen ephod origi-
nally belonged to Nabu-Nebo, who since earliest
times was worshiped in Syria and of whom the
linen garment, the tablets of destiny on the
breast, and the divination are characteristic.
Consult: Foote, "The Ephod," in Journal of
Kibllcal literature, vol. xxi (1902) : Sellin, Daft
altifiraelitische Ephod (Giessen, 1906) ; Grcss-
mann, in Die Religion m Oesohiohte und (jegen-
icart (Stuttgart, 1010).
EPHOB. See EPHORI,
EPH'OBI (Lat., from Gk. fyo/wu, ephoroi,
overseers, from M, epi, upon, over + dpw, horan,
to look). An. order of magistrates at Sparta.
Herodotus attributes their creation to Lycur-
giiB, and Aristotle to King Theopompus, while
it seems clear that the Alexandrian chronolo-
giflts hud a list which extended back to about
757 B.C. As they appear in Spartan colonies
of ITicra and probably Tarentum, they must
have oarly become an established part of the
Spartan government. It is clear that they grad-
ually took into their hands the real power, while
the share of the kings in the government was

[4 EPHOBUS

lessened, especially as a result of the jealousy
between the two royal houses. (See SPABTA.)
Their name seems to indicate that they were
originally appointed to see that the discipline
of the state was observed. The ephori weie five
in number; they were elected annually by and
from all Spartans, and the decision of a major-
ity was binding on the board. Every full citi-
zen was eligible. During the fifth and fourth
centuries B.C. the ephori are the governing body
at Sparta; they convoke the Council of Elders
and the Assembly, carry out decrees, receive
ambassadors, determine the mobilization of the
army, and during the war are kept informed of
affairs in the field by secret dispatches, while
two of the board always accompany the King
in his campaigns. As presidents of the Council
of Elders, they could bring even the kings to
trial, and it is clear that their almost unlimited
power during their short term caused much
dissatisfaction to the more independent kings.
The revolution of Cleomenes TIT temporarily
destroyed their power, and, though after his over-
throw* in 221 B.C. the old forms were nominally
restored, the ephori do not seem to have become
again the ruling body. Even in Roman times »
the old name was retained by a board of five '
magistrates at Sparta, but we are not informed
as to their duties. Consult: Dunu Die Ent*
stehung und flntwiekelung ties sparltinischcn
JVphorats (Innsbruck, 1878) ; Meyer, For-
schungen stir alien Gesclnchtc, (Hallo, 1802) ;
Gilbert, The Constitutional Antiquities of Sparta
and AtJiens (Eng. trans., London, 1805) ; Kueht-
ner, Kntslelntnfl inid itrspritngtirfir Rwleutung
des spartanisehcn Hphorats (Munich, 1807);
Szanto, article "Ephoroi," in Pauly-\Vinsowa,
Real-Encyclopiidic tier classisricn AltcrtumftH'is-
senschaft, vol. v (Stuttgart, 100r>). For a lint
of the ephors, consult Poralla, I'roaoptMjraphir
der Lakcdaemonier Us auf die Kc.it Alcjmntfnv
den Grosser (Broslau, 1018). Consult, finally,
the Greek histories of Grote, Holm, Busolt, and
E. Meyer.

EPH'OBTTS (Lat., from Gk. "E0opos) (e,400-
e.SJJO B.C.). A Greek historian, a contemporary
of Philip and Alexander. He was born at ( 'ymV
in --Eolis and studied rhetoric under IsoerateR,
who, it is said, persuaded him to devote him-
self to history instead of to oratory. II in chief
work was fl<rroptcu, a history of the Greeks and
the barbarians from the return of the llcraclidfe
(see DORIANS) to the siege of Perintluw by
Philip of Macedon (340 B.C.), a period of 750
years. The work, which was the first universal
history attempted in Greece, consisted of 30 *•
bookfl, each of which contained a compact por-
tion of the history and was thna complete in
itself. Though Kfyhoruft' style wa« feeble an4
diffuse, he appears to have been a faithful nar-
rator, and his work was highly valued on ac-
count of the wealth and excellent arrangement
of its material. It was the chief source of
Diodorns fticuliiA (q.v.) and was commended by
Polybius and Strabo. The few fragments were
published in Muller's flistoricQrum Gr&corum
Pragmcntat vol. i (Paris, 1868) ; this work con-
tained also a discussion of the life and writings
of Ephoms. Consult Klttgmatm, D* Jflnhoro
ffistorioo Grcrco (Gflttingen, 1R60)» and Bury,
The Ancient Greek Historians (New York, IftOOK
Under CRATIPPUR will ta found a reference to
the fragments of a Greek historian, published in
1008, in 0$yrh}tnchus Papyri, v. Walker, Th*
flellenica Oxj/rhynchia: Its Authorship and

Authenticity (Oxford, 1913), maintains that
Ephorus was the author of this fragment.
Walker's book gives the literature of the dis-
cussion of the fragment.

EPHRAEM, S'fra-e'm, or E'PHREM SY'-
BTJS, EPRRAIM THE SYKIAN (c.306-?37S). The
greatest of the Syrian church fathers, known as
the Prophet of the Syrians. He was born at
Nisibis, Mesopotamia, about 306. He was a
pupil of Jacob, Bishop of Nisibis (died 338),
became a teacher in the latter's school, and in
325 accompanied him to the Council of Nicsea.
Tn 363 Nisibis was ceded by the Emperor Jovian
to the Persians, and Ephraim took up his abode
at Kdcssa (Orfa) . He became a hermit and lived
in a cave near the town. Towards the end of
his life he is said to have visited Basil the Great
at Cccsarea in Cappadocia, who tried to make
him a bishop, but he refused any higher office
than the diaconate. He died at Edessa in 373
or 378. His death is said to have been hastened
by his efforts to relieve the sufferers from plague
and famine then raging at his home. An ex-
traordinary mass of fable and legend is con-
tained in two recensions of an anonymous life
of Ephraim. It is certain that he was a zealous
upholder of orthodoxy and wrote and preached
unceasingly against idolaters, "Ohaldees," Jews,
and all heretics. He was a voluminous writer
and has loft commentaries on nearly all the Old
Testament in the Syriac or Peshitto version,
as well as many homilies, and several hymns
of much merit. His works exist partly in the
original Syriac, partly in Greek, Latin, and
Armenian translations. They were edited by
the Asaomani (Home, 1732-46), There is also
an edition of Opera Selecta by Overbeck (Ox-
ford, 1865). Consult in English: Morris, Select
Writings of Ephraim tJie Syrian (Oxford, 1847) ;
Burgess, The Repentance of Nineveh and Select
Metrical Hymns and Homilies (London, 1853) ;
Harris, Fragments of Ephraim Syrus upon the
Diatcssaron (Cambridge, 1895); Hill, A Disser-
tation on the Gospel Commentary of Ephraim
the fli/rian (London, 1896) ; Seebright, A Short
History of Syriao Literature (London, 1894).
There is a prose translation of several hymns
and homilies, with an introduction by John
Gwynn, in Nicenc and Post-Nicene Fathers, 2d
scries, vol. xiii (New York, 1898).

EPHRAIM, S'fra-ftn (Heb., fertile, fruitful
tract). The name given, in Gen. xii. 60-52, to
the younger son of Joseph by his wife Asenath.
Ho is regarded as the eponymous ancestor of the
tribe of Ephraim. The territories of the tribe
in Palestine fq.v.) extended from the brook
Kanah, whore Manassoh began, southward, in-
cluding the rich, country spoken, of as "Mount
Ephraim" (Josh. xvi. 5 et seq.) (Map: Pales-
tine, E 5). It is to be noted, however, that the
Hebrews did not succeed in driving the Ca-
naanitcfi out of this district (v. 10), so that in
all likelihood some mixture of Hebrews with
Canaanites took place. The tribe was, perhaps,
tho most warlike in Israel. Joshua, the con-
queror of the Holy Land, was an Ephraimite
(Num. xiii. 8), and further proof of their war-
like spirit appears in Epliraim's protests against
Gideon (Judg. viii. 1) and Jephthah (Judg. xii.
1-7) for not asking aid of them in their wars.
Shiloh, at one time the seat of the tabernacle,
wan in Ephraim, and the prophet Samuel be-
longed to the tribe (1 Sam. i. 1). Ephraira
took part in the revolt <rf Saul's son, Ishbooheth
(S3 Sana, it 8-9), and later ,in the successful

:$ EPHYDBA

revolution of Jeroboam (1 Kings xii. 1-20 V
After this revolt Epbraim is merged in ine
northern kingdom, and of this kingdom it
formed by far the most important part.

The story told in Gen. xlviii. 15-10, of the
preference which Jacob gave to Ephraim in
blessing him before Manasseh, although tho
latter was the older son of Joseph, truthfully
reflects this superior position which Ephraim
occupied in the northern kingdom, and its gen-
eral prominence in Hebrew history before the
Exile. The tribal traditions furthermore in-
dicate that at one time ManaHueh, Ephraim, and
Benjamin constituted a single tribe known as
Joseph. Benjamin was the first to cut loose,
and hence becomes, in tribal metaphor, the
younger brother of Joseph. For a time Manas-
seh and Ephraim remained together, and evcai
in Solomon's days they still united for admin-
istrative purposes, but at last Ephraim also cut
loose and eventually outranked Manasseh.

EPHBAIM; (Gk. 'E^pafyi, Ephraim). A town
mentioned in John xi. 54, to which Jesus re-
tired because of the hostility manifested by tho
Jewish authorities after his raising of Lazarus
(Map: Palestine, 04). The place is described
as "near to the wilderness" (uncultivated pas-
ture land) and is probably to be identified with
the modern Et-Taiyibeh9 about 4 miles northeast
of Bethel, the modern Beitln. The Ephraim of
2 Sam. xiii. 23 and of 2 Chron. xiii. 19, the
Aphairema of 1 Mace. xi. 34, and the Ephraim
of Joseph us, Wars, iv. 9, all probably represent
the same place. Practically nothing is known
of its history.

EPTTR.AIM COMDEX. See BIBLE.

EPH/RATA. A borough in Lancaster Co.,
Pa., 38 miles (direct) east by south of Harris-
burg, on the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad
(Map: Pennsylvania, J 7). It is a health re-
sort and has manufactories of cigars, silk, un-
derwear, and hosiery. The borough owns its
water works and electric-light plant. Ephrata
is noteworthy chiefly on account of having been
formerly the seat of the mystic Order of the
Solitary, a semimonastic order of Seventh-Day
Dunkers. The community, which contained both
men and women, was founded by Johann Con-
rad Beissel (q.v.), in 1732. The members
adopted a peculiar dress, somewhat resembling
that of the Capuchins or White Friars, and the
men wore long beards. Celibacy was looked
upon as praiseworthy, but marriage was per-
mitted. Property was held in common, although
private ownership was not forbidden. Many of
the members were well educated; Peter Miller,
second prior of the monastery, translated
the Declaration of Independence into seven lan-
guages, at the request of Congress. A printing
press was set up, and a number of works, in
both English and German, some of them vory
beautifully made and now highly prized, were
published. At the period of its greatest pros-
perity the community contained nearly 300 per-
sons, but about the time of the Revolution it
began to decline, and few traces now remain.
Pop., 1900, 2462; 1910, 3192. Consult Gibbons,
Pennsylvania Dutch and Other Essays (Phila-
delphia, 1872), and Sachse's exhaustive two-
volume work, The German Sectarians of Penn-
sylvania (ib., 1899-1000).

EPHYDBA, eWdra (Neo-Lat., from Gk.
80vapos, ephydros, living on the water, from Mt
epi, upon + 05wp, hydCr, water). A genus of
small flies, of the family Ephydridte, whose eggs

EMC CYCLE 16

and larvae are eaten by American Indians. One
species (flphydra Mans) is cultivated by the na-
tive Mexicans, as was the custom of their ancestors.
Another species furnished food to the aborigines
about Mans Lake, Cal. For full details, ace FLY.
EP'IC CYCLE. The name given to a series
of poems produced by various Greek poets of the
Ionian school, between c.800 and 550 B.O. These
productions were later combined with the Ho-
meric poems into an epic cycle designed to give
a complete survey of mythology from the mar-
riage of Uranus and Gsea to the death of
Ulysses; their writers were hence known as
cyclic poets (q.v.)- Among their works were
the Cypria of Stasinus, forming an introduction
to the Iliad, and the Mthiopis and Iliu Persis
of Arctinus, forming its continuation. The in-
terval between the Iliad and the Odyssey was
covered by the "Nosti of Agias of Troezen, and
the Odyssey was supplemented by the Telegoma
of Eugammon of Gyrene. Of these and other
works only the titles, authors' names, and some
fragments have come down. The poems are
chiefly of importance from the fact that the
dramatists drew on them for their versions of
the myths. They were later arranged for educa-
tional purposes by the so-called cyclographs
and illustrated by artists. . A specimen of these
collections, the famous Tabula Iliaca (q.v.), is
in the Capitoline Museum at Rome.

EPTCHARTJtTTS (Lat., from Gk. 'Efr/xa/ywy,
EpioJiarmos) ( 0.540-450 B.C.). The greatest of
the Sicilian comic poets. He was born in Cos,
but spent practically all his life in Sicily, mainly
at Syracuse. Tradition says that he lived to be
90 years of age and was greatly honored by the
Syracusans. Epicharmus doubtless owed much
to the Syracusan tyrants, Gelon and Hiero, who
generously aided lyric and dramatic poets, that
they might increase the brilliancy of their courts;
it was probably under their patronage that he
produced his comedies, the representative plays
of the Sicilian or Dorian comedy. These num-
bered 36 (according to some authorities 52)
and roughly fall into two classes — mythological
travesties and realistic scenes from common
life — as the extant titles show. To the first
belonged his Busiris, Cyclops, Hephaestus, Mar-
riage of Hebe, and Promethetis ; to the second,
The Peasant, The Visitors at the Festival, etc..
The second class introduced new themes, among
them that of the parasite, closely allied to those
of the mime (q.v.), which was also first de-
veloped in Syracuse. Plato called Epicharmus
master of the comic type, and Horace (Epistles,
ii, 1, 58) preferred him to Plautus (q.v.). En-
nius named after him his didactic poem on,
natural philosophy. While Athenian comedy
was a local development, no doubt Epichar-
mus' influence on Attic comedians of the fifth
century was not without its effect. Yet the
statement that Epieharmus was the inventor
of comedy (due to an epigram. No. 17, of Theoc-
ritus) can be true only in this: that Epichar-
mus was one of the first to give comedy devel-
oped and artistic form. He was famous for
his philosophical utterances, and his comedies
continued to be studied long by philosophers
and grammarians; Apollodorus, of Athens, in
the second century B.C., published an edition in
10 books. The extant fragments are edited by
Lorenz (Berlin, 1864) ; Kaibel, Comioorum
flr&corwn Fragmenta, part i (Leipzig, 1899).
Consult Christ-Schmid, Gesohiohte der griechi-
schen Littcratwr, vol. i (5th ed., Munich., 1908).

EPIC POETBY

EPICCEUE, fipl-sen (Gk. MKOWOS, epikoinos,
of either gender, promiscuous), or THE SILENT
WOMAN. A comedy by Jonson (1609). Morose,
an old man who dislikes noise, is led to marry
Epicoene, because of her reputation for silence,
and in order to disinherit his fortune-hunting
nephew, Dauphine. After the marriage Epiecene
at once becomes a noisy shrew; and Morose,
by promises of reward, secures his nephew's
help in releasing himself from her. Thereupon
Dauphine shows Epiecene to be a disguised boy,
whom he had brought to his uncle to play him
a trick.

EPIC POETRY. A species of narrative
poetry, dealing with an action or series of ac-
tions and events of permanent interest and
power. Its theme, however varied in its aspects
and issues — and the epic manner favors multi-
plicity here — must be, in the last analysis, single
in its nature and must be developed in the region
of the ideal. Acts of trifling importance are
not for this reason excluded from epic poetn,
which rathor, in its endeavor to give a broad
survey of human life, abounds in matters of
everyday occurrence. But these should form,
at the most, only a background for the eleva-
tion and greatness of the rest and must, like
them, be set forth in noble phrase. By the
Greeks of the classical period it was, from one
point of view, distinguished from lyric poetry
by being recited or rather given iii recitative
instead of being sung, and from dramatic poetry
by being simply narrated instead of acted. But
there is a further difference, as they also saw,
A lyric is the expression of sentiment and mood,
while a drama deals primarily with the delinea-
tion of character through external action. In
either ease the interest is wholly personal and
lies in the portrayal of the character of the in-
dividual. The course of events, which in the
drama forms the plot, is the means whereby this
portrayal is accomplished and gains its 'value
from this fact, and not primarily from its own
intrinsic interest. The web of the action is
closely and compactly woven to show the devel-
opment of character. The successive scenes
have a direct and logical bearing upon the state-
ment and solution of the problem; and thus
episodes, which form an important feature of
epic structure, are properly excluded from the
drama. The epic poem, on the contrary, to
quote the words of Dr. Butcher, "relates a great
and complete action, which attaches itself to
the fortunes of a people or to the destiny of
mankind, and which sums up the life of n period.
The story and the deeds of those who past* acroHS
its wide canvas are linked with the larger move-
ment of which the men themselves are but a
part. The particular action rests upon forces
outside itself. The hero is swept into the tide
of events. The hairbreadth escapes, the sur-
prises, the marvelous incidents of epic story,
only partly depend upon the spontaneous energy
of the hero." In the poems universally recog-
ni/ed as epics the personages of the action, anrt
the forces outside it, alluded to in the quota-
tion above, are concretely presented through
the poetical machinery of a double plot and two
spheres of action with many points of contact—
a Imman plot and a divine plot, complicated
and resolved in the Iliad and the Odyssey* e.g.*
l>v the gods of mvthologv on the one hand and by
the Greek and Trojan heroes on the other. A
like double plot is found in Vergil; and in Mil
ton God and Satan and their opposing host*

EPIC POETRY j

play their parts and determine the course of
the human story of man's first disobedience.
In Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered and in the
Lusiad of Camoens the, so to speak, celestial
and terrestrial plots again coexist. Another
mark of works universally accepted as epics,
as implied in the quotation from Dr. Butcher,
is their tendency to be social or national as
opposed to individual, to sum up and express
in essence an epoch and a nation— witness the
great Greek and Roman epics — or an epoch and
a great company of people with a solidarity of
faith, thought, and sentiment, as in the case
of Dante's Divina Commedia, which is the voice
of mediaeval Catholicism, or of Spenser's Faerie
Queene and Milton's Paradise Lost, which are
the expressions respectively of the Renaissance
in England and of the sterner Puritanism of a
later day. The great types of character of the
primitive epic are national rather than indi-
vidual, and in the contemplation of them the
nation recognizes with exultant pride its glo-
rious achievements and ideals. Among the
Greeks, e.g., this was the secret of the power
exercised by the Iliad and the Odyssey, and for
the French by the Chanson de Roland. Again,
in the JEneid, in which the divine purpose that
Rome should wield the empire of the world is
carried out through human instruments, the
Roman people itself is the real hero, as indeed
Vergil's contemporaries must have seen when
they called the poem Gesta Populi Romani.

Ifyic poems fall naturally into two divisions:
(1) those which, like the Iliad, the Chanson de
Roland, and the Malwbharata, are the outcome
of a period of spontaneous composition of epic
songs; (2) those which, like the JSneid, the
Qerusalcmme liberata, and Paradise Lost, are
the creation of highly cultivated and widely
read minds, consciously using a long-established
form and accepted models. The artistic ex-
cellence of the Homeric poems, which stand at
the beginning of historical Greek literature,
noc'OHrttirily presupposes an extended period of
poetic production, during which the material,
partly mythological, partly historical, of these
long poems formed the subject of numerous
shorter folk songs. In the Iliad, e.g., Achilles,
to please his friend Patroclus, sings in his hut
before Troy of the »cX&t dvSp&v; and, in the
Qdysacy, the blind minstrel Demodocus, at the
court of Alcinoiis, sings to the assembled com-
pany at the hero's request a particular lay about
the making of the wooden horse by means of
which Troy was taken — a lay which, as the con-
text clearly implies, belonged to a longer tale
about Troy. Such epic, or epic-lyric, songs
must have abounded and must have shown in-
finite variation of incident and cxpreswon; for
they were the products of a youthful and buoy-
ant ape, in which fancy, not the passion for
scientific accuracy, was supreme. This is, in
fact, characteristic of popular poetry every-
where. It is markedly impersonal and national.
Ail its elements — structure, metre, phrase, style
— are common property, and every complete
poem is equally a part of the general stock. It
is never simply repeated, but at each recitation
undergoes fresh changes. In Italy, in Servia,
or in Russia a song of 8 or 10 lines will show
endless variations, and in Finland, where the
entire traditional poetry has one unvarying
form, we find a perfect type of popular poetry.
Bach son& says Comparetti, "not only differs
between singer and singer, but even the same

7 EPIC POETRY

singer never repeats it twice in exactly the same
manner, often going so far as to bind together
and give as one those songs which but recently
he recited as separate and distinct." This last
fact is especially noteworthy as bearing upon
the way in which the epic song ultimately grew
into the epos. In the Icelandic Poetic Edda
the lays which preserve different parts of the
earlier and grander form of the Vfllsung-Nibe-
lung story show great diversity of treatment of
a common legend. The material of these and
other lays, not now extant, was worked up into
the prose Tolsunga-8aga, the action of which,
as of the lays, moves wholly in the sphere of
the magical and supernatural and shows no
trace of Christian influence. But when towards
the end of the twelfth century this story, com-
mon to all the Teutonic stock, finally takes place
in south Germany as an epic poem, not only is
the tale itself different at times in detail and
incident, but the entire atmosphere and set-
ting is changed. History has taken the place
of myth. Brunhild is no longer a Valkyr, nor
is Siegfried able to change his shape. Belief
and manners are Catholic and mediaeval in-
stead of heathen and primitive. Early French
epic poetry shows, perhaps, even more clearly
the continuous change and growth of popular
song. The Chansons de Geste, as the name im-
plies, deal with historical facts; but it is his-
tory transformed and glorified by passion and
imagination. If one examines the Chansons
(whether, like the Roland, the PeJerinage de
Charlemagne, the Roi Louis, they belong to the
royal period, or, like Renaud de Montauban and
Qirard de Roussillon, to the feudal ) , one dis-
covers at once the same conditions that appear
among the Teutons and the Finns — a mass of
fluctuating poetic thought in a perpetual state
of composition, decomposition, and recomposi-
tion. This poetry developed among the warrior
class and those attached to its service, and there
is no doubt that the songs contemporary with
the events were often composed and chanted by
the knights themselves. But they were especially
composed and made familiar to all by the min-
strels, the jongleurs (q.v.). In the endeavor to
please by giving a touch of novelty to a favorite
old poem, they would combine two or three
songs, modify them to remove discrepancies,
and amplify for the sake of poetical embellish-
ment or more stirring description of incident.
In this way there came into existence an im-
mense body of epic material contained in short
songs, which towards the middle of the eleventh
century began to take the form of long epic
poems. Finally, the composition of the Chan-
sons de Geste comes to an end in a period (from
the end of the twelfth century to the middle of
the fourteenth) which is analogous to that of
the cyclic poets in Greece. The greatest of these
epics, the Chanson de Roland, must be dated, in
its earliest extant form, full three centuries
after the defeat at Roncesvalles (c.778), upon
which historical event it is based; and it weaves
into its story dim memories of the personages
and events of later periods. Over 100 years
later a redaction in rhyme instead of assonance
appears, with a new ending of some 2000 lines;
and of this version we have again a large num-
ber of remanietnents, or rehandlings. Moving
and fine as is the poetry of the Roland, it still
lacks something of the breadth and variety of
the great narrative poems which may be said
to constitute the norm of this literary genre.

The conclusions as to the genesis of epic poetry
to which we are thus far led are strengthened by
a study of the Sanskrit Mah&bharata. There
was a like warrior class, the Kshatriyas, proud
of its valorous deeds and delighting in their
celebration in song; and there is no reason to
doubt that, in India as in Greece, Iceland, Ger-
many, and France, popular poetry flourished in
the form of short epic lays.

That the poems which are sometimes called
the epics of growth were formed out of earlier
lleine Lieder is now universally accepted. What
is still a warmly disputed point is the mode in
which the combination was finally effected. Was
the epos a mere compilation of these shorter
lays, morei or less ingeniously fitted together,
with the help, perhaps, of some new connecting
links, but still with such preservation of the
original masses that the modern scholar with
his critical acumen can discern the junctures?
Or, was the entire material so fused in the mind
of some one great poet as to come forth a homo-
geneous and organically related whole? In 1795
F. A. Wolf published his famous Prolegomena to
Homer, in which he argued at length for the
view that "Pisistratus was the first who Lad the
Homeric poems committed to writing and
brought into that order in which we now read
them." Karl Lachmann, in two papers read to
the Berlin Academy in 1837 and 1841, maintained
that the Iliad was made of 16 independent lays,
with various enlargements and interpolations,
all finally reduced to order by Pisistratus. Since
that time the Homeric question has been much
discussed, and widely divergent theories, di (Tor-
ing both in principle and in detail, have been put
forth by scholars who deny the unity of the Ihad
and the Odyssey. Mr. Walter Leaf, e.g., in his
Companion to the Iliad (1892), holds that, to
an original Wrath of Achilles (about 3400 lines
in length), there were added in different ages
extensive expansions and interpolations, as well
as short passages by which the transitions from
one piece to another of different age were man-
aged; and he presents a tentative scheme of the
lines belonging to each of the five strata that lie
postulates. In regard to the Nibelungenl led, M.
Lichtenberger, a sane critic, believes that some
nameless redactor put together the ancient lays
after they had been adapted to the manners of
an age of chivalry; and M. Gaston Paris is in-
clined to call the poet of the Clianson de Roland
an arrangeur rather than an autcur.

An important contribution to the subject of
epic poetry in general, as well as to the charac-
ter of a particular epic poem was Signorc Com-
paretti's study of the Finnish Ealevala. Out of
the entire body of the traditional poems of the
Finns, by a process of selection and arrangement
and by the insertion of short transitional matter,
Dr. LBnnrot constructed a perfect epos; though
the popular singers, the laulajat, not only knew
no such poem, but were unable to imagine one.
In the edition of 1849 there are 50 cantos and
22,800 lines. Here, if anywhere, we have the
genesis of an epic in accordance with the Wolf-
ian and Lachmannian theory. Ltfnnrot, it is
true, did not merely stitch together such defi-
nibely shaped songs as those into which Lach-
mann resolved the NibelungenUed and the Iliad.
At times he divided the runes, recombined their
parts, and chose out of the innumerable variants
those best fitted for his purpose. But in doing
this without adding anything essential of his
own, he adopted a procedure, not of the poet,

5 EPIC POETBY

but of the scholar — the heir of the ages, famil-
iar with the Homeric question and with the
theory of the epos. Compaietti argues at length
that, to suppose a Greek of the time of Pisistra-
tus, a jongleur, or even the Indian Vyflsa, capable
of working in this way, is to commit it mere
anachronism; that the Kalcrala has in no scttac
that unity which is apparent in the Iliad and
the Odyssey, in the Chanson de Kolnnd^ and even
in the Nibehwgcnlied; and, finally, that "a long
poem, created by the people, does not exist, can-
not exist; epic popular songs, such as could
be put together into a true poem, have never
been seen, and are not likely to be seen among
any people. Every long poem, without excep-
tion, anonymous or not, is the work of an in-
dividual— is a work of art."

Epic poetry has not been produced by all
races nor by all nations. Tims, among the Ser-
vians, Eussians, and Siberian Tatars, we find
epic or epic-lyric songs; but they are never
welded together into an epos. The- same is true
of the Celts, who, in both the branches of the
race, the Gadhelic and the Cymric, developed an
abundance of epic material, especially in the two
great cycles of tradition, the Fingalinn or Ossi-
anic and the Arthurian. The Anglo-Savon #<"o-
u-uJf is finely epic in substance, but has scarcely
the range and complexity of a great epos. Spain,
too, had her truly heroic figure — the Oitl, the
Roland of his country. But the ballads and the
poem that sing his praises were never worked up
into a great national epic.

It remains to consider briefly the epics of the
second class. Like those of the first, these may
deal with the traditions, mythical or historical,
of the nation; but they are in every way the cre-
ation of an individual mind, from which they
receive their atmosphere and color. They stand,
therefore, in sharp contrast with the wholly im-
personal work of Homer, e.g., in Greece, and the
poets of the Nilclunflcnlted and (hulrun in Ger-
many, and of the Mahfibhfirnttt ami Kiiui'tttttnn
in India — poems which are the natural oiitcom»
of a fermentation cpujnc, as ]tf. (Jaston Paris
calls it, and of which it may be truly said that
the song dominates the singer rather than the
singer the song. Epics of this personal charac-
ter belong to no special period in the history nf
a people, and their number is si ill increasing.
It must suffice to mention a few of tlu^e. fn
India the renaissance of literary activity in the
fifth and sixth centuries A.O. produced lh<w epics
which, as being the work of a single poet ( A"»in },
are called JI/a7t/7A*f7i?//ffi, or great poems — a name
already applied to their model, the Jtiimutttnta*
as being composed by Yfihniki. In ftrecee, in the
centuries immediately following the composition
of the Iliad and the Or/j/ssry, the so-called cyclic
poets further developed and unified the Trojan
cycle of legends. In the Alexandrian period the
Argonautira of Apollonius Tthodius may be
noted; and in our own era, between the fourth
and sixth centuries, Nonmis and iMumviifl have
some claim to distinction. At "Rome national
epic poetry was early cultivated by NJPVIUH and
Knnius and comes to its most perfect form in
the Augustan age, in the .-7?«rM of Vergil, un-
doubtedly one of the great epie« of the world.
Later we find the Plutrttalia of Lucan, the Pnnicu
of Rilius Ttalicus, the Tfirbafs and .'tcfttf/rta of
Statins. Tn Persia, Firdausi, drawing upon good
historical sourccR, compowed the 8h<ih~Xam<ih,
or 'Book of Kings' — a complete history of Persia,
which was at once hailed with enthusiasm as the

EPIC POETRY :

national epic. Among the great epics of mod-
ern times must certainly be reckoned the Lusiad
of Camoe'ns, the Orlando Furioso of Ariosto, and
the Ocrusalenime liberata of Tasso, the Faerie
Queene of Spenser, the Paradise Lost of Milton,
and the Messias of Klopstock.

The epic has been written also in burlesque
form, as e.g., in the Batrachomyomachia, or
'Battle of the Frogs and Mice.' The animal epic
should also be mentioned, best represented by
Reineke FucJis.

Bibliography. Butcher, Aristotle's Theory of
Poetry and Fine Art (2d ed., London, 1898) ;
Steinthal, "Das Epos," in Zeitschrift filr Volker-
psychologie, vol. v (Berlin, 1868) ; Krohn, Die
Entstehung der einheitlichen Epen (ib., 1888) ;
Boissier, "Theories nouvellcs du poeme epique,"
in Revue des Deux Mondest vol. Ixvii (Paris,
18G7 ) ; Chassang and Marcon, Les chefs d'osuvre
tpiques de tous les peuples. Notices et Analyses
(ib., 1879); Sainte-Bouve, Etude sur Vergile
(ib., 1857), one of the great books on Vergil
and valuable for light thrown on the nature of
epic poetry; Gubcrnatis, 8toria della poesia epica
(Milan, 1883); Hopkins, Great Epic of India
(New York, 1901) ; Pizzi, L'Epopea persiana
(Florence, 1888) ; Darmestetcr, Les origvnes de
la pofaie persane (Paris, 1887) ; Volckmann,
Qeschichte und Kritik der Wolfschen Prolego-
mena (Leipzig, 1874) ; Lang, Homer and the
Epic (London, 1893) ; Ker, Epic and Romance
(New York, 1897) ; Woodberry, Great Writers,
"Virgil" and "Milton" (ib., 1907); Grimm,
"Uebor das finnische Epos," in Zeitschrift filr
die Wissenschaft der Sprache9 vol. i (Berlin,
1846) ; Comparetti, The Traditional Poetry of
the Finns (London, 1898) ; Lichtenberger, Le
podme ct la Ugende des "Nibelungen (Paris,
1891); Grimm, Die deutsche Heldcnsage (3d
ed., Giltersloh, 1889) ; Golther, Studien zur ger-
manischen 8agongescMchte. I. Der Valkyrjen-
my thus. 77. Ueler das Vorhaltms der nordi-
schcn und dcutschen Form der Nibelungensage
(Munich, 1888) ; Miillenhoff, Bdoioulf: TJnter-
sucJiungcn uber das angel sachsisclie Epos und
die altvute Qeschichte der germanischen 8ccvbl-
kcr (Berlin, 1889); Ten Brink, "Beowulf: Un-
tcrsuehungcn," in Quellcn und Forschungcn tsur
SpracJir und Cultwrgeschiohte dor gei-manischcn
VSlker, No. 6% (Strassburg, 1888) ; D'Arbois de
Jubainville, Cours de litteratwre celtique (Paris,
1883-90); Tobler, "Ueber das volkstumliche
Epos dor FranKosen," in Zeitsohrift filr Volkcr-
psychologic, vol. iv (Berlin, 1867) ; Nyrop, Bto~
ria dell' epopca frtwicese nel medio evo (trans,
from the Danish, Turin, 1886) ; Paris, Eistoire
potitique de Charlemagne (Paris, 1865) ; id., La
literature fran(;aise au moyen age (2d ed., ib.,
1890) ; Oautier, Les 6pop6es franchises (2d ed.,
ib., 1874-94) ; Pio Rajna, Lc origim dell' epopea
francese nel medio evo (Florence, 1884), re-
viowod by Paris in tfomama, vol. xiii (Paris,
1884); Petit de Julleville, Histoiro de la
langue ct do la litttraturc Jrannaise, vol. i
(ib., 1890); Kurth, ffistoire po6tique des
Mc"rovinflic,ns (ib., 1893) ; Heyse, "Ueber italie-
niBchfl Volkspoesie," in Keitschrift fur Vb'lkerpsy-
chologie, vol. i (Berlin, 1864) ; Pio Bajna, La
rotta1 di ftonmsvallc, nella Icttvratura cavalle-
rcttcn itaUana (Bologna, 1871) ; id., Le fonti dell*
Orlando Furioso (Florence, 1876) ; Milft y Fon-
tanala, De la poesia hcroioo-popular castellana
(Barcelona, 1874) ; Comto de Puymaigre, Les
vieux autvurn castillans (2d cd., Paris, 1890) ;
Doay, Reolwched sur VUdtovre et la litterature

:p EPICUREANISM

de rEspagne pendant le moyen age (3d ed., Ley-
den, 1887); Saint-Marc Girardin, "De 1'epopee
chr^tienne depuis les premiers temps jusqu'a
Klopstock," in Revue des Deux Mondcs, vols. ii,
hi, iv (Paris, 1849-50) ; Paris, Le roman de
Renard (ib., 1895) ; W. M. Dixon, English Epic
and Heroic Poetry (New York, 1912).

EP'ICTE'TTJS (Gk. 'ETrk-nyros, Epictctus,The
Acquired: a nickname) (c.50-?). A celebrated
Stoic philosopher, born at Hierapolis in Phrygia,
He was at first the slave of Epaphroditus, a
freedman of Nero, at Rome. He was aftcrwaid
manumitted and devoted himself to the Stoic
philosophy. Domitian hated him on account of
his principles and banished him, along with sev-
eral other philosophers, from Rome (90 A.D.).
Epictetus settled at Nicopolis in Epirus, near
Actium. Under the pressure of the times in '
which he lived his serious moral views received
a character rather of self-denial than of energy.
His pupil, Arrian, collected the maxims of Epic-
tetus in the work entitled Encheiridion (Hand-
book) and in eight books of commentaries, four
of which are lost. (See AERIANUS.) The pecu-
liar excellence of the writings of Epictetus is
simple and noble earnestness. The real heartfelt
love of good and hatred of evil, which are often
thought to be exclusively Christian feelings,
manifest themselves very finely and beautifully
in the philosophy of Epictetus, yet there is no
evidence that he knew anything of Christianity.
There are several good editions of the works of
Epictetus, the most complete of which is that of
Schenkl (Leipzig, 1898). Consult translations
by Mrs. Elizabeth Carter (London, 1758), Hig-
ginson (2 vols., Boston, 1890), and Long (Lon-
don, 1848, 1877, 1892, 1897). Consult: Mclcher,
De Sermone Epioteteo (Halle, 1900); Arnold,
Roman Stoicism (Cambridge, 1911) ; Ritter and
Prellor, Historia Philosophies Qrccc& (9th cd.,
Gotha, 1913).

EPTCUBE'ANISM. The name applied, often
very loosely, to the system of philosophy based
more or less on the teachings of Epicurus ( q.v. ) .
The philosopher himself, although the majority
of his writings referred to natural philosophy,
was not, properly speaking, a physicist. He
studied nature with a moral rather than with a
scientific design. According to him, the great
ovil that afflicted men — the incubus on human
happiness — was fear: fear of the gods and fear
of death. To get rid of these two fears was the
ultimate aim of all his speculations on nature.
He regarded the universe as corporeal, as infi-
nite in extent, and as eternal in duration. He
recognized two kinds of existence — that of bodies,
and that of vacuum or space. Of his bodies,
some are compounds, and some are atoms or in-
divisible elements, out of which the compounds
are formed. The world as we now see it is pro-
duced by the collision and whirling together of
these atoms, which possess only the attributes
of shape, size, and weight. Of these atoms there
is an infinite number, varying in size and shape,
but of equal specific gravity. Those atoms natu-
rally fall downward in the* empty space, but tho
direction they take is not absolutely uniform.
Hence come clashes between them, and combi-
nations which result in the universe as we know
it. But beyond our known world Epicurus held
that there are innumerable others. He also held
the doctrine of perception by images (Gk.
eftwXo, eiddla), which are incessantly streaming
off from tho surface of all bodies, and which are
necessary to bring man into relation with the

EPICUREANISM: 30

world without. In like manner lie believed that
sounding bodies threw off emanations by which
human beings were brought into sympathy with
them, and that perception by smell took place
in the same way* In psychology Epicurus was
a decided materialist, holding, for various
reasons, that the soul is a bodily substance, com-
posed of subtle particles, disseminated through
the whole frame, and having a great resemblance
to spirit or breath with a mixture of heat. It
is interesting to note that Epicurus, following
Empedocles (q.v.), anticipated the modern doc-
trine of natural selection in maintaining that
natural causes gave rise to various differences
in organic forms, but only those able to sup-
port themselves and to propagate their species
have survived. Epicurus did not deny that there
are gods, but he strenuously maintained that,
as "happy and imperishable beings," they could
have nothing to do with the affairs of the uni-
verse or of men. This Epicurean theology is
admirably expressed in the closing lines of Ten-
nyson's The Lotus Eaters.

Epicurus next proceeds to deal with the fear
of death. Having proved in his psychology that
the dissolution of the body involves that of the
soul, he argues that the most terrible of all
evils, death, is nothing to us, since when we
are, death is not; and when death t's, we arc
not. It is nothing, then, to the dead or the
living; for to the one class it is not near, and
the other class are no longer in existence. The
insight shown by this remark has not boon
sufficiently appreciated.

The ethical side of Epicurus' system may be
noticed in a few words. He hold that pleasure
was the chief good, and it is from a misappre-
hension of the meaning of this word as used by
Epicurus that the term "Epicurean" came to
signify one who indulged liis sensual appetites
without stint or measure. At the same time it
is easy to see that the use of the word "pleasure"
was prone to produce the mischievous results
with which the later Epicureanism was charged.
The whole question of ethics, then, comes to a
calculation and balancing of pleasure and pains ;
in other words, the cardinal virtue is prudence.
Epicurus rests justice on the same prudential
basis as temperance. Denying any abstract and
eternal right and wrong, he affirms that injus-
tice is an evil because it exposes the individual
to disquietude from other men; justice is a vir-
tue because it secures him from this disquietude.
The duties of friendship and good-fellowship are
inculcated on the same grounds of security to
the individual. Epicurus is distinguished from
his contemporaries by the fact that he taught
the doctrine of the freedom of the will.

Among the Romans the system of Epicurus
was adopted by many prominent men. Horace,
Atticus, and Pliny the Younger were Epicu-
reans; and the splendid poem of Lucretius is
the finest literary expression that Epicureanism
has achieved. In modern times Epicureanism
was resuscitated in France by Pierre Gasscndi,
who published an account of Epicurus' life and
a defense of his character in 1647. Many emi-
nent Frenchmen have professed his principles;
among others, Moliere, Saint-Evremond, the
Comte de Gramont, the Due de la Rochefoucauld,
Rousseau, Fontenelle, and Voltaire. Consult:
Lange, History of Materialism (Eng. trans.,
Boston, 1886) ; Asener, Epicurea (Leipzig,
1887) ; Watson, Hedonistic Theories (Glasgow,
1395); Wallace, Epicureanism (London, 1880);

EPICTTBTTS

Trezza, Epicuro e I'Epicureismo (Florence, 1877) ;
Zeller, Philosophy of the Stoics, Epicurean, and
Skeptics (Eng. trans., London, 1870; 2d ed.,
1880); Kreibig, Epicurus (Vienna, 1886); Geo-
deckemeyer, Epicurus' Terhaltnis zu Demount
in der Naturphilosophie (Strassburg, 1897) ;
Gizycki, Ueber das Leben und die Moral philoso-
phic des Epicurus (Halle, 1879) ; Gomperz, Her-
culamsche St-udien (Leipzig, 1805-66) ; Cassol,
Epikur der Philosoph (Berlin, 1892); Guyan,
La Morale d'Epicure (3d ed., Paris, LS8G) ;
Joyau, Epicure (ib., 1!)10) ; Taylor, Epicurus
(London, 1911); Santayana, Three Philosophi-
cal Poets (Cambridge, Mass., 1910); Pater,
Marius the Epicurean (2 vols., New York, 1913),
presents in the form of a story the philosophical
attitude of Epicureanism; and the histories of
philosophy by Schwegler, Ueberweg, Windel-
band, and others. See EPICUKUS; HBDOXISM.

EP'ICTKRUS (Lat., from Gk. 'Eirfeoi'pos, Epi-
kouros) (c.342-270 B.C.). An illustrious (I reck
philosopher. He was born probably in the island
of Samos, in December, 342, or "January, 341,
HC., six or seven years after the death of Plato.
ITis father, Neocles, is said to have been a school-
master, and his mother, Gluvrestrate, to have
practiced arts of magic. In his boyhood ho
heard Pamphilus and ftausiphanes lecture on
philosophy, but did not claim to he a pupil of
either. At the ago of 18 Epicurus repaired to
Athens to present himself before the memborrf
of his demos and to be duly confirmed as an
Athenian citizen. His stay at Athena on this
occasion was not long; when he rejoined his
father's family, however, it was not at Samos
but at Colophon, whither Neoeles had repaired
upon being1 dispossessed of his home at Samos.
Tn his thirtieth year Epicurus was settled at
Mitylenc, and there lie first won recognition as
a philosopher; at Lampsacus two or throe years
later he became the head of a school. I*ut
Athens waa the place where philosophers could
expect to get their best hearing, and thither
HpicuruB returned about 300 n.c1. Here hf
bought a garden which he used as the seat of
his school. From this circumstance his fol-
lowers were called the "philosophers of the
garden." Although women as well as men fre-
quented the garden, and although among these
women were many of the hctcrrce (q.v.), the life
of the brotherhood was not marked by sexinl
excesses, popular scandal to the contrary not-
withstanding. The calumnies which the Stoic**
circulated concerning the school are \indeworv-
ing of notice. The success of Epicurus as a
teacher was signal; great numbers flocked to
his school from all parts of Greece and from
Asia Minor, most of whom became warmly at-
tached to their master as well as to his doc-
trines, for Epicurus seems to have been charac-
terized not less by amiability and benevolence
than by force of intellect Tie died 270 B.C., in
the seventy-second year of his age,

Epicurus was a rhost voluminous writer. Ac-
cording to Diogenes LaPrtius he left 5500 vol-
umes. Among others he had written 37 book*
on natural philosophy, a treatise on atoms and
tho void, one on love, one on choices and avoid-
ances, another on tho chief good, four essays
on lives, one on sight, one on touch, another on
images, another on justice and the other vir*
tues, etc. From all these works there have
come down to us three letters and a numbor of
detached sentences 01 sayings, preserved b«
Diogenes LaSrtius in his life of the philosopher-

EPICYCLE

Outside of these the principal sources of our
knowledge of the doctrines of Epicurus are
Cicero, Seneca, Plutarch, and, above all, Lucre-
tius, whose great poem, De R&t um Natura, con-
tains substantially the Epicurean philosophy.
To these must be added a large number of
papyri found at Herculaneum about the middle
of the eighteenth century. These contain frag-
ments from Epicurus and many writings of
Epicureans, especially of Philodemus. But
unfortunately the manuscripts are in a deplor-
able condition. See EPICUREANISM.

EPICY'CLE (Lat. epicyclus, Gk. MKVK\OS,
epikyklos, epicycle, from M, epi, upon + /cti/eXos,
kj/klos, circle). The earlier astronomers assumed
that all the motions of heavenly bodies take
place in circles, and that all the heavenly bodies
move round the earth, which remains at rest
in the centre. The observed phenomena of the
heavens, however, were soon seen to stand in

flaring inconsistency with these assumptions,
or the sun and moon, which manifestly do not
always move with the same velocity, the eccen-
tric circle (q.v.) was imagined. The case of
the planets, whose motions were seen to be some-
times direct, sometimes retrograde, and some-
times altogether arrested, offered still greater
difficulties; to get over which, the idea of epi-
cycles was hit upon. According to this hypoth-
esis, while a planet was moving in a small circle,
the centre of that small circle was itself describ-
ing a larger circle about the earth. This larger
circle was called the deferent (q.v.), and the
smaller, which was borne upon it, was called
the epicycle. In this way the motions of the
planets about the earth were conceived to be
something like what the motion of the moon
about the sun actually is. By assuming proper
proportions between the radii of the deferent
circle and the epicycle, and between the veloci-
ties of the two motions, it was found possible
to account for the motions of the planets.

EP'ICY'CLOID (Gk. iirt, cpi, upon + K<J/cXoj,
kyklos, circle + «^os, eidos, form). If a circle
moves on the outside of the circumference of
another circle, every point in the circumference
of the first circle describes an epicycloid. This
ciirvo first appeared in a work of Dftrer's ( 1525 ) ,
but the name is due to Roeraer (1672). It has
many remarkable properties and is also in-
teresting from a practical point of view. The
teeth of cogwheels must, as shown by Desargues,
have an epicycloidal form, in order that fric-
tion may be minimum. The term formerly in-
cluded the curve described when the moving
circle was on the inside of the other, but this
"inner epicycloid" is now called the "hypocy-
cloid." For the equation of this curve and ref-
erences to its history, see CYCLOID; and for a
more extensive bibliography, consult the Intarmd-
diairc dot UatMmaticicns (Paris, 1898, 1800).

EPTDAMOffTTS. See DURAZZO.

EP'IDATFBTTS (Lat., from Gk. 'Eir&avpos,
fipidauros). A maritime town of ancient
Greece, on the Saronic Gulf, in tho northeast
part of Argolis, situated on a small promontory,
in lat. 37° 38' K, long. 23° 10' E. (Map: Greece,
Ancient, 03), The early history of Epidaurus
is involved in myth, but numerous religious
connections with Attica lend probability to the
legend of an original Ionian population. Later,
it "was a Dorian city, closely connected with
Argos, though 'not subject to that city. The
greatest prosperity of Epidaurus seems to have
been in the early period, when it was a, mem-

EPIDEMIC

ber of the Calaurian Amphictyony and ranked
as a naval power; at that time it controlled,
it is said, JEgina and colonized Cos, Calydnus,
and Nisyrus. Its power afterward declined, and
during the historical period it owed its im-
portance chiefly to the proximity of the cele-
brated sanctuary of JSsculapius, which attracted
patients from all parts of the Greek world.
The site of this temple was a plain sur-
rounded by mountains, about 8 miles west of
the town, still called Hieron (the sanctuary).
Epidaurus (modern Greek, Epidaiwo) is now a
small village, with scarcely 100 inhabitants, em-
ployed for the most part in raising vegetables
for the Athenian market. The plain surround-
ing the village is productive and highly culti-
vated. Here, in January, 1822, a congress from
all parts of Greece assembled, and promulgated
the constitution, known as the Constitution of
Epidaurus. The site of the sacred precinct was
excavated, from 1881 on, by the Greek Archaeo-
logical Society, under the direction of M. Kawa-
dias. Conspicuous among the ruins is the
Tholos, a circular structure of large diameter,
which excited the warm admiration of the
ancients. The theatre of Epidaurus is one of
the best preserved and the most beautiful of
ancient theatres. In the sacred precinct were
found two colonnades, a temple of JSsculapius,
baths, gymnasium, and a hospital. Numerous
inscriptions, too, were found, of great value
with respect to the cult of ^sculapius. Con-
sult: Gardner, New Chapters in Greek History
(London, 1892) ; Diehl, Excursions in Greece
(ib., 1803). The detailed descriptions may
be found in the npcucTifca of the Greek Archaeo-
logical Society, particularly for 1881-84 and
1880 ; 'E0i^epfc 'ApxawAoyim) (1883, 1885 ) ;
Kawadias, Les fouilles d'Epidaure (Athens,
1803); Defrasse and Le*chat, Epidaure (Paris,
1805), magnificently illustrated with conjectural
restorations of the principal buildings; Kawa-
dias, Ti lepbv TOV 'AffK^iriov cv 'Em5ai5p<w Kal i)
Qepdireta r&v foQewv (Athens, 1000) . For a plan,
consult Baedeker, Handbook to Greece (4th Eng.
ed., Leipzig, 1909).

EPTDEM1C (Lat. epidemus, Gk. Mdypos,
among the people, from M9 epi, upon + SiJ/tos,
dt'mos, people) . A name applied to diseases
which appear at intervals and spread over a
certain area, or traverse a large section of the
world and attack a large number of people. An
epidemic disease may become endemic (q.v.)
and remain permanently in a locality. Cholera
is epidemic in certain parts of Europe, at inter-
vals subsiding and disappearing, while it re-
mains endemic in India. Probably all diseases
which are epidemic in various parts of the world
are endemic in certain localities, and the epi-
demics are brought by travelers from these
localities, or follow commerce under favoring
conditions, such as debility dependent upon ex-
posure to miasms after inundations, swarming
and migration of insects which carry contagion,
e.g., mosquitoes carrying germs of yellow fever
or of malaria. Drainage and paving of streets
result in checking and eradicating an epidemic
of malaria in a town. Opening the pavements
and tunneling the streets afford harbors in damp
spots and puddles for mosquitoes, which propa-
gate rapidly, become infected with the plasmo-
dium of malaria, and transmit the microBrgan-
ism to human beings; and thus an epidemic of
malaria is started. Epidemics of typnoid fever
are almost invariably traced to one or a few

EPIDOTE

cases of the disease, from whose excrement drink-
ing water has become polluted. Epidemics are
due, primarily, to dissemination of bacterial
germs, though in some diseases of the contagious
class (such as scarlet fever and smallpox) the
causative germs have not yet been isolated.
They must be checked, therefore, by bacteriologi-
cal precautions. It is difficult to explain the
cause of certain cycles in which epidemics ap-
pear to move, regularly recurring in certain
localities; but in all cases precautions should
be taken to quarantine people entering a port
from an infected country, and clothing and all
merchandise should be disinfected. Serum ther-
apy (q.v.) promises a protection against many
epidemic diseases, notably typhoid fever, as
well as treatment during disease.

Epidemics of nervous diseases have appeared
at times in the history of the world: as of
chorea (q.v.) or of dancing mania. Under the
leadership of a person afflicted with paranoia
(q.v.), many people of unstable mental equilib-
rium have been dominated by suggestion (q.v.),
and the results have been crusades, persecution
of k'witches," epidemics of suicides, etc. Con-
sult Hecker, Epidemics of tJie Middle A ges, trans.
by Babington (London, 1849), and Creighton,
The History of Epidemics vn Great Britain
(2 vols., Cambridge, 1891-94). See CLIMATE;
CONTAGION; INFECTION; CHOLERA; TYPHOID
FEVEU; INFLUENZA.

EPIDEMIC CEBEBROSPIlTAIj MENIN-
GITIS. See MENINGITIS.

EP'IDEN'DiRTJM: (Neo-Lat., from Gk. M,
epi, upon + SMpov, d&ndron, tree). A genus of
strong-growing, long-stemmed epiphytal orchids,
of which nearly 600 species have been found in
Central America alone. Though some of the
species produce showy blossoms, the majority
have flowers of rather unattractive appearance,
various shades of greenish purple being common.
The group is of special interest, however, from
its increasing popularity in hybridizing with the
gaudier, weaker, short-stemmed, and more diffi-
cultly cultivated members of other genera, e.g.,
Oattleya and Lcelia. The operation is of fairly
easy performance and often results in vigorous
plants, long stems, graceful racemes, and attrac-
tive flowers.

EP1DEB/M3S (Lat. from Gk. tirideppls, upper

skin, from M, epi, upon + &p/*a, derma, skin).

The cuticle, or scarf skin, a semitransparent

membrane, containing neither vessels nor nerves,

and everywhere forming an external covering

to the derma, or true skin. It consists of two

distinct layers, viz., the mucous layer, which lies

immediately upon the corium, and the homy

layer, which forms the outermost surface of the

body. The mucous layer (the rcte muoosum, or

rete Malpighi) is of a whitish or slightly brown

tint (in the negro dark gray or black), and is

composed of rounded or cuboidal cells, distended

with fluid, and likewise containing minute gran-

ules, which diminish in number in the more

external cells. The horny layer forms the ex-

ternal semitransparent part of the epidermis,

which in the white races is colorless, and is com-

posed almost wholly of uniform cells aggluti-

nated and flattened. The color of the epidermis

differs in different persons and in different parts

of the body. It is deepest around the nipple,

especially in women during pregnancy and after

they have borne children. A more or leas dark

pigment is often deposited in persona who are

exposed to the sun, in the face, neck, back of

the hands, etc. These tints are not produced by
special pigment cells, but are seated in the com-
mon cells of the mucous layer, round whose nu-
clei granular pigment is deposited. In the negro
and the other colored races it is also only the
epidermis which is colored. Morbid coloration of
the epidermis (freckles, moles, etc.) is produced
in the same way as the color of the negro's skin.
Numerous instances of partially or entirely
white negroes and of black Europeans, not as a
consequence of change of climate, but as an ab-
normal condition of the skin, are on record.

The thickness of the epidermis varies ex-
tremely. While upon the cheeks, brow, and eye-
lids it varies from ^ to -fa of a line (a line
being fa of an inch), on the palm of the hand it
ranges from % to % a line, and on the sole of
the foot sometimes even exceeds a line. In some
parts of the body the horny layer is thicker than
the mucous; in others the mucous is the thicker
of the two. As the chief use of the epidermis ia
that of affording protection to the soft and
tender subjacent part, it attains it« greatest
thickness on those portions of the body (the
palm of the hand and the sole of the foot)
which are most exposed to pressure and friction.
The hair and nails belong to the integumentary
system, as well as horns in lower animals, and
are modifications of epidermis. Seo 1 NTEGTIMENT.
EPIDERMIS. A special superficial layer
covering the whole body in higher plants. Among
the lowest plants there is no distinct epidermis,
a fact related to their simple structure and also
to the conditions in which they grow. The epi-
dermis becomes established, as a definite layer of
a special character and with special functions,
in land plants exposed to the air. Such a layt-r
is a very efficient protection against the exces-
sive loss of water. See BAUK; COBTEX; MOB-
PHOLOGY OF PLANTS.

EP'IDID'YMFTIS. Inflammation of the epi-
didymis, a complexly convoluted tube lying upon
the posterior surface of the testicle, and convey-
ing the seminal iluid from it to the ra* dcfcrrns,
the proper ojaculatory duct. Epididymitis in
the acute form arises commonly from gonorrhcva
or, more rarely, from injury. The chronic forms
arc tubercular or syphilitic. Sterility in the
male is a frequent consequence of gonorrhwal
opididymitis. The acute form of the affection
is very gainful and lasts from one to three
weeks, with symptoms of swelling, pain, and
exquisite tenderness Treatment consists of rest
in bed, support for the affected part, application
of soothing lotions, such as lead and opium
wash, or ointments containing ichtliyoi, or ]>oul-
tices. Internally saline purgatives, sedatives for
the pain, and specific remedies addressed to the
particular form of the disease under treatment
are indicated*

EPTDOTE (from (3k, M, epi, upon + $or&,
dotos, given, from 8i86vai, didonai, to give). A
name given to a group of basic orthoiulicat*
minerals that include zoiwite, epidotc, picdmon-
titc, and allanite. The mineral epidote proper
is an aluminium-iron-calcium silicate that crys-
tallizes- in tlie mouoelinie system, has a vitreoiw
lustre, and is commonly some, shade of pistachio
green in color, sometimes shading to brown or
nearly black. H is also found massive, fibrous,
and granular, and is common in crystalline*
rocks. Its distribution is world wide, "but line
crystals, which may be cut as gems, occur in
Norway, Siberia, the Tirol, and in the United
States in Haddatn, Conn., Chester Co., Pa., at

EPIGJEA . :

various places in North Carolina, in the Lake
Superior region, and in Pike's Peak region, Colo.

EP'IG-JE'A. See ABBUTUS, TRAILING.

EF'IQAS'TBXITM: (Neo-Lat., from Gk. tvi-
ydurrpios, epigastrios, over the stomach, from hrt9
epi, upon + yaffr^p, gasl&r, stomach). The part
of the abdomen (q.v.) which chiefly corresponds
to the situation of the stomach, extending from
the sternum towards the navel, or umbilicus
(q.v.). It is called, in popular language, "the
pit of the stomach." See ABDOMEN.

EPIGEAN- (ep'I-jVan) GEBMI3STATION-.
The type of germination in which the cotyle-
dons remain below the surface of the soil.

EP'IGKEIT'ESIS (Neo-Lat., from Gk. M, epi,
upon + y&ea-is, genesis, production, from ylyve-
ffffai, gignesthat, to be produced). A special or
technical name for the modern conception of
the growth and development of the animal
organism from the undifferentiated mass of
protoplasm constituting the egg. The word is
the equivalent of the word "evolution" and is
opposed to the preformation views of writers
before the time of Harvey, Wolff, and Von Baer,
and to somewhat similar views advocated at the
present day by Weismann. The older writers,
as Bonnet and Haller, used the word "evolu-
tion" in the sense that we now employ the term
"preformation," or the embottement theory.
See PREFORMATION.

The doctrine of phenomenon of epigenesis is
the result of the scientific study of the embry-
ology of animals of all grades from the sponge
to man. Before the rise of modern embryology
the ablest, most sagacious biologists and philoso-
phers were evolutionists, i.e., preformationists.
They know or recognized only the external signs
of the process of development. They witnessed
the embryo becoming an adult animal, as a bud
develops into a blossom. They knew nothing
of the nature of the egg cell, how it became
fertilized, subdivided, and how by the multiplica-
tion of colls tissues were formed and the different
organs of the embryo became developed. They
saw the butterfly emerge from the chrysalis, the
latter from the caterpillar, and they conceived
that the preformed germ of the butterfly and
chrysalis and caterpillar existed, in miniature,
in the egg laid by the butterfly. Hence they
believed that animals in general were a series of
cases or wrappings, germ folded within germ,
and that the process of birth was a throwing off
of these wrappings — a process of evolution.

This ignorance was partially dispelled by Har-
vey (1651), who maintained that every living
being arose from an egg (Omne vivum em
ovo). But the founder of embryology was
Ka»par F. Wolff, who published his famous
Theoria Oenerationis in 17fiO. He was the first
to study the embryology of a vertebrate animal
—the barnyard fowl. By means of actual ob-
servation of the embryo chick he endeavored to
expose the fallacy of the doctrine of preforma-
tion, to show that the animal was not fully
formed in the germ, but that all development
proceeded by new formation, or "epigenesis/*
H$ maintained that the embryo consisted of un-
organized organic matter, which only gradually
became perfected in the course of its develop-
ment, and that Nature really was able to pro-
duce an organism from an undifferentiated ma-
terial, simply by her inherent forces. Wolff
failed to convince his contemporaries, because
he could bring only isolated observations and
these doubtful of interpretation, and because

3 EPIGRAM

he was ahead of his time, naturalists then at-
taching more importance to abstract reasoning
than to observation.

The next embryologist to lend, by his observa-
tions, support to the views of Wolff was Von
Baer in 1829, and after his time the cell theory
was formulated, and the epoch-making works
of the later embryologists, J. Mtiller, Rathke, Kbl-
liker, Remak, Bischoff, E. Van Beneden, Kovalev-
sky, the Hertwig brothers, Weismann (in his
earlier works), and many others, gradually built
up the modern science of embryology (q.v.) and
entirely dispelled the old-time preformation views.

Bibliography. 0. Hertwig, The Biological
Problem of To-Day: Preformation or Epigenesis f
(Eng. trans., New York, 1894). Also the works
of Haeckel, Niigeli, Strasburger, H. de Vries,
His, Roux, Driesch, H. Spencer, Whitman, Wil-
son, and other authorities under EMBRYOLOGY.

EP'IGLOTTIS. See LARYNX.

EPIG'OWI (Lat., from Gk. eirtyovos, epigonos,
descendant, from M, epi, upon, after -j-

gonos, offspring, from ylyveo-Bai, gignesthai, to
become). In Greek legend, a name applied to
the descendants of the seven chiefs who attacked
Thebes in the war between Eteocles (q.v.) and
Polynices. After the disastrous defeat of this
expedition and death of all the leaders except
Adrastus, a second war was undertaken by the
children of the fallen chiefs, and this is known
as the "war of the Epigoni." It seems that the
story was told in two forms in the early epic,
for two lists of names are preserved, agreeing
only in six out of eight or nine heroes. The
result is said to have been the capture and
destruction of Thebes, the death or flight of
King Laodamas, son of Eteocles, and the estab-
lishment of Thersander, son of Polynices, on the
throne. In literary history the term "epigoni" is
sometimes applied to scholars who limit them-
selves to unfolding the idean of the great masters
of a previous age. See SEVEN AGAINST TUEBES.
EPIGRAM (Lat. epigram ma, Gk. falypawa,
epigramma, inscription, from fat, epi, upon +
yp&fjifia, gramma, writing, from yp&$ew, graphewi,
to write). The epigrams of the early Greeks
were simply inscriptions on tombs, statues, and
monuments, written in verse, and marked by
brevity and simplicity of style, but having noth-
ing in common with what now passes under the
name. It was among the Romans that the
epigram first assumed a satirical character.
The great masters were Catullus and Martial.
In modern times an epigram is understood to be
either a very short poem, generally from two to
eight lines, containing a witty or ingenious
thought expressed in pointed phraseology, and
in general reserving the essence of the wit until
the close; or a pithy and pointed saying ex-
pressed in prose. Epigrams flourished in the
period following tho revival of learning. John
Heywood wrote 600, and almost every Eliza-
bethan versifier tried his hand at them. Later,
Pope became the great master. Among the
French Cldment Marot was one of the first to
write epigrams. He was afterward excelled by
Boileau, Voltaire, and Piron. Epigrams in Ger-
man are for the most part happily expressed
moral proverbs, but the Xenien of Schiller and
Goethe contain not a few sharp and biting verses
of a satirical character. In English the art of
epigram, after having been practiced by Byron
and Moore, fell into disuse, until revived by
William Watson in his Epigrams of Art, Life,
and Nature (Liverpool, 1884). Consult; Booth,

EPIGRAPHY :

Epigrams, Ancient and Modern (2d ed., Lon-
don, 1865) ; Dodd, Epigrammatists of Mediaeval
and Modern Times (2d ed., ib., 1875); Adams,
Book of Epigrams (ib., 1890).
EPIGRAPHY. See INSCBIPTIONS.
EPIGY3STY, 6-pIj'I-nI (from Gk. M, epi, upon
+ 7^17, gyn&t woman). In flowers, a condition
in which the sepals, petals, and stamens seem
to arise from the summit of the ovary. In
epigynous flowers the ovary appears just below
the "flower," and is often said to be "inferior."
Contrasting terms are hypogyny (q-v.) and
pcrigyny. See FLOWER.

EPILEP'SY (Lat. epilepsia, Gk. MMtfrfe, epi-
Upsia, epilepsy, from tirtXappdvetr, epilamlanein,
to seize upon, from M, epi, upon + Xa/AjSeiyeip,
lamlanein, to seize ) . A form of disorder, known
also as morlus sacer, morbus comitialis, "great
disease," grand mal, and, more commonly,
"the falling sickness." It is characterized by
sudden insensibility, generally with convulsive
movements of the voluntary muscles, and oc-
casionally arrest of the breathing, owing to
spasm of the muscles of respiration and tem-
porary closure of the glottis. (See LARYNX.)
Owing to the striking character of the convul-
sion of epilepsy it was, in ancient times, sup-
posed to be due to the influence of the gods
or of evil spirits and was therefore called by
the Romans "sacred disease." There are four
varieties of this condition: (1) grand mal; (2)
petit wal; (3) psychic epilepsy; (4) Jackso-
nian epilepsy.

In the ordinary form, or grand mal, the
patient is seized with insensibility, often so
complete and sudden as to lead to serious bodily
injuries; in the most aggravated cases he has
no premonitory sensations whatever, but falls
down without any attempt to save himself, and
usually with a wild inarticulate cry, immediately
after which the face is violently distorted, the
head drawn towards one or other shoulder, and
the whole body convulsed. These convulsions
follow in rapid succession for a few minutes, and
are attended by foaming at the mouth and by
great lividity, or, in some cases, pallor, which,
with the regular spasmodic movements of the
lips, nostrils, and eyes, almost invariably lead
the bystanders to an exaggerated idea of the im-
mediate danger of the fit. The immediate danger
is, in reality, not great, excepting that the sud-
den attack may lead to an injurious or fatal
fall; the tongue, however, may be bitten, or the
patient may be so placed as to injure himself
seriously by the repeated and unconscious move-
ments of his body, or he may suffocate himself
by accidentally falling with his face in -water,
or otherwise closing up the mouth and nostrils,
or by dragging upon a tightened neckcloth. Care
should always be taken to avoid these accidents
by keeping the epileptic as much as possible
within view of persons acquainted with his con-
dition and able to give such assistance as may
be required, and the patient himself should
avoid places in which a fall would be dangerous.
Any attempt to rouse the patient by violent
stimuli, or by administering medicines hastily
recommended, is almost certain to do more harm
than good. The patient should, if possible, be
placed on a mattress or other soft place near
the ground; his clothing loosened round the
chest, the head a little raised, and a free circula-
tion of air maintained. The ordinary course of
the fit (which may last from 5 to 20 minutes
altogether) is as follows: the convulsions

t4 EPILEPSY

gradually diminish in intensity, and the patient
passes into a state of deep but 'motionless stupor,
with dilated pupils, and sometimes, but not
always, with snoring or noisy breathing; the
foaming at the mouth ceases, the color gradually
returns, and this state leads to recovery through
a more or less protracted but apparently natural
sleep, the patient, on awakening, feeling fatigued
or tender in the muscles which have been con-
vulsed. The sensations which precede the fit —
the aura epileptica — resemble a current of cold
air passing over the body and proceed from the
extremities towards the head. In some cases
the aura consists of noise in the ears, or a black
cloud appearing above the head, cr a feeling of
nausea or faintness, or loss of breath. In some,
the premonitory symptoms allow of time enough
for the patient to lie or ait down and thus
avoid falling. In -most cases a peculiar inspira-
tory noise or a moan or iscream is emitted,
called the epileptic cry, as the lit begins. Kot
infrequently there is no aura or unusual sensa-
tion of any kind, preceding the (it. A tight
bandage placed suddenly upon the limb in which
the aura begins may cut short the n't, or even
prevent it altogether.

In petit mal the loss of eonHeitmsiiesrt lasts
two or three seconds, and the patient does not
fall, but simply suspends operations, sttuvs
fixedly before him, gasps, and resumes conscious-
ness, generally without knowing that he IMS
experienced the attack. Xo treatment in neces-
sary during the attack.

In psychic epilepsy there are the usual
premonitory conditions noticed. After a period
of despondency, irritability, restlessness, dread,
giddiness, or, in some patient*, intense- elation,
in others an exhibition of voracious appetite,
instead of a fit the patient experiences a Midden
attack of laughing, weeping, or flhnutimr, \\li\i
extravagant gesture and maniacal appearance,
and even in some examples with unemitrollaMe
homicidal impulse devoid of motive. Tin?* i* tlie
"psychic equivalent*'*

In JacJcsonian epilepsy there is no lo-'s of con-
sciousness; the spasmodic movements are con-
fined to a limited area or to one extremity. It
is generally due to tumor of, or pressure *uponT
the brain in the motor urea which controls the
part convulsed; it may lie due to ahscvss of the
brain, injury, or meningitis.

The ultimate danger of the disease hm little
relation to the severity of the individual tits,
except in the modi lied Hexme explained above; the
frequency of the attacks being apparently much
more apt than their character to inlluenw the
duration of life. Indeed, although epileptic*
may survive several severe paroxysm* at distant
intervals and recover in the end completely, it
rarely happens that very frequently repeated
attacks, especially of the pt;t!t maf, are un-
attended by some permanent depreciation of
the powers of mind or body. The most frequent
of the more serious contuNineneea !H insanity
(q.v.). ftometimes the development of epileptic
insanity is attended by palsy, and other indica-
tions of structural disorder of the brain; in
other instances no such consequence*} occur, und
the brain after death may be found to have
verv little tangible disease, or only such disease
as is found in numerous other caw** of fune
tional derangement. Very often there in low* of
memory. Yet history furnishes several example*
of epileptics who were men of uinwwa! wentul
ability and intellectuality, as, e,g,, Julius Cj

EPILEPSY 2

Petrarch, Peter the Great, Mohammed, and
Napoleon. Disorders of the digestion are also
not uncommon, and there is frequently a want of
tone or vigor in all the bodily functions, which
communicates an habitual expression of languor
and reserve to the epileptic.

In some case of grand mal the patient has a
succession of fits, one after another, without re-
gaining consciousness for several hours. This is
termed status epilepticus, and is a grave condi-
tion, as the patient may die in it. After an at-
tack of grand or petit mal a patient may experi-
ence a condition of reduced consciousness, during
which he wanders off for a day or a week, enter-
ing shops, talking with people, eating in restau-
rants, and otherwise acting as if conscious; on
awakening he forgets entirely all that has hap-
pened. Or there may be a postparoxysmal
psychic manifestation in which the patient is
excited and homicidal.

Masked epilepsy, or epilepsia larvata, is the
term given to a condition succeeding a minor
attack of epilepsy, in which there are random
remarks made and automatic acts performed by
the stupid and dazed patient. Gowers states
that imperfect loss of consciousness with auto-
matic action constitutes the minor seizures in
some cases, without any initial epileptic stage.
He considers epilepsy as a disease of the gray
matter of the brain, most frequently of the
cortex, which results in an impairment of the
resistance of the nerve cells to the liberation of
energy. A sudden and violent liberation of
nerve force results in derangement of function
and impairment of consciousness. Certain cases
undoubtedly depend upon organic disease, as
tumors or injuries to the brain and its mem-
branes, more especially near the surface. Local
sources of irritation in other parts of the body
have acted as reflex exciting causes of epilepsy,
and cases are recorded in which the disease has
been cured by the amputation of a finger or the
division of a nerve. The treatment of epilepsy
should consist of alleviation of conditions and
depends upon the variety of the disease. Iron,
zine, nitrate of silver, borax, digitalis, antipy-
rine, the bromides, and many other drugs have
been used. Bromides control the fits, while they
are used, in almost all cases, but are not cura-
tive, and their effect is deteriorating and de-
plorable. Attention to the digestive tract and
prevention of fermentation therein, out-of-door
life, proper food, and baths have resulted in re-
covery in many cases. Recovery may be looked
for in 8 or 10 per cent of cases. Any treatment
must be prolonged at least two years. Marriages
of epileptics should be absolutely forbidden. It
is cHtimated that epilepsy claims 1 in 500 of
the population in the United States. No race is
free from it. Fully 75 per cent of cases bsgin
before the sixteenth year.

Medico-Legal Importance of Epilepsy. At-
tacks of psychic epilepsy are of vast medico-legal
importance. Epilepsy is common among the
criminal class, and the lower type of epileptic is
cunning, deceitful, treacherous, and bold. Sevan
Lewis calls attention to the fact that leading
ideate, delusional or otherwise, prevailing in the
preparoxysmal stage, are likely to become opera-
tive in conditions of postepileptic automatism
and during psychic equivalents. It is a hard
tank to decide whether an epileptic is accountable
and should be punished for crimes committed
during a psychical manifestation, equivalent or
postepileptic. The epileptic will perform auto-

5 EPILEPTIC COLONT

matically complex acts that have the very ap-
pearance of deliberate volition. The discovery
of motive in an interparoxysnial complaint or
threat is not proof of the responsibility of the
patient for crime committed during the attack.

A just disposal will be made of these criminals
and of the malingerers for whom their legal ad-
vocates enter a plea of transient insanity due to
epilepsy, when they are promptly confined in a
hospital under the eye of a competent alienist,
that their interparoxysmal mental state may be
studied, and the preparoxysmal and postparoxys-
mal stages of subsequent attacks may be ob-
served. Study of the intervallic period will
generally prove barren of result; rarely will it
afford evidence of a mind governed by delusions.
Study of the conditions immediately antecedent
and subsequent to the attacks will give evidence
as to the presence of genuine automatism, of
uncontrollable impulse, or of blind fury operat-
ing during reductions in consciousness.

Epilepsy in the Lower Animals. Some of
the lower animals are subject to epileptic fits.
The disease is common in dogs, cats, and highly
bred pigs. The creatures writhe with involun-
tary spasms and are for the time without sight
or hearing. Sometimes the muscles of the throat
are so involved that fatal suffocation occurs.
The attack is generally preceded by dullness and
lasts from 10 to 30 minutes. It is generally
traceable to torpidity or irregularity of the
bowels, worms, debility, or plethora. In dogs it
is a frequent sequel to distemper. In cattle it
usually occurs in connection with the engorge-
ment of the first or third stomach; they throw
themselves violently about, bellowing loudly, but
seldom die. It is rare in horses. The 'treat-
ment consists in freely opening the bowels, re-
moving worms if any are present, with bleeding
and spare diet if the patient's condition is
high, and generous feeding and tonics where it
is low. The best preventives are carefully regu-
lated diet, an occasional laxative, with a course
of tonics, and especially of arsenic. Good re-
sults may be obtained in the treatment of cattle
by giving four drams of bromide of potash three
times daily.

Consult: Gowers, Diseases of the Nervous Sys-
tem (London, 1904) and The Borderland of
Epilepsy (ib,, 1007) ; Spratling, Epilepsy and
its Treatment (Philadelphia, 1904) ; Turner, A
Study of the Tdiopathic Disease (London, 1007).

EP'ILEP'TIC COI/ONY. An establishment
that differs from an asylum or a hospital for
epileptic patients, in that it consists not of one
building or a group of buildings in which the

Eatients are kept for treatment, but of a large
arm, in which groups of epileptics live in cot-
tages or in many segregated buildings, and spend
their time in gardens, out of doors, or in work-
shops, schoolhouses, gymnasia, amusement build-
ings, and chapels, hospitals, and libraries. The
greatest improvement in previously hopeless
cases and the largest proportion of cures are
secured in the colony system, with little drug-
ging and with natural and hygienic conditions of
life. The first epileptic colony, that of Bethel,
at Bielefeld, in the Prussian Province of West-
phalia, was established with four patients. The
celebrated pastor, Friederich von Bodelschwingh,
first took charge of it in 1872. It has been
marvelously successful. With its officers, physi-
cians, nurses, and employees, and over 1600
epileptics, the colony contains over 3600 persons.
The patients are about equally divided in num.-

EPILEPTIC COLOOTT 26

ber Between the sexes. About 8 per cent are
cured; about 21 per cent are discharged im-
proved; about 21 per cent leave unimproved;
about 20 per cent die. About 61 per cent of the
cured are under 18 years of age. Only 47 out of
over 5000 patients ha-ve been turned over to
insane asylums.

Several other colonies have been established in
Germany; there is one in Zurich, Switzerland;
one in Holland; and one was established at
La Force, near Lyons, France, by John Bost, a
clergyman. At Chalfont St. Peter, England, a
farm* of 135 acres was purchased in 1893 by
the National Society for the Employment of
Epileptics, and the first building was opened
for patients in August, 1894. There are six
houses, with accommodations for 66 men, 24
women, 24 girls, and 24 boys. England's second
colony for epileptics was established at War-
ford, "near Alderley, Cheshire, in 1900, upon an
ustate of 400 acres. Detached buildings capable
of holding 24 inmates have been erected.

The Craig Colony of New York, at Sonyea, the
most extensive in the United States, was opened
Feb. 1, 1896, starting with 1900 acres of well-
cultivated fields, orchards, and market gardens,
with about 30 buildings already thereon; resi-
dences, barns, and shops, the latter used in
broom making, canning fruits and vegetables,
etc. On the grounds are building-stone quarries,
brick-clay deposits, and many acres of standing
timber. A saw mill and a Hour mill stand on a
stream, which divides the tract of land into
halves. The property formerly was the Bite of
a settlement of thrifty Shakers. It is the larg-
est in use for this purpose in the world, and is
ideal in situation and facilities. An athletic
field has been built where the patients engage
in bicycling, tennis, baseball, and track sportn.
There is a military company of boys and young
men, with a band of about 20 pieces. Instruc-
tion is given in reading, writing, letter com-
position, language, arithmetic, drawing, kinder-
garten work, clay modeling, and basket weav-
ing. There is also a class in manual training.
A training school for nurses was started in
May, 1912. The census, Sept. 30, 1912, was as fol-
lows: 745 males, 673 females, total 1418. Dur-
ing the previous fiscal year 130 males and 97
females were admitted; 146 males and 83 fe-
males were discharged, transferred, or died; 4
recovered. Only chronic coses are taken. The
per capita cost of maintenance has decreased
with the increase of population. With an aver-
age daily attendance of 1433 in 1911-12, the
annual per capita cost was $212.02. The total
cost of maintenance was $305,261.17, which was
reduced by home production of canned good**,
hay, grain, fodder, vegetables, and other prod-
ucts to $272,615.35, and the net per capita
cost was $175.79.

The New Jersey State Village for Epileptics,
founded 1898 at Skillman, has an area of 779
acres. The Massachusetts Hospital for Epileptics,
a colony, was opened in 1808 at Monson (P. O.
Palmer) and comprises 658 acres, of which 203
are tilled. It sheltered 900 patients in 1912.
A private corporation, known as the Pennsyl-
vania Epileptic Hospital and Colony Farm,
established in 1898 a colony of 30 patients at
Oakbourne, on a farm of 110 acres. There ia
also a colony for the feeble minded and epileptic
at Spring City, with a population of 600
(males). Texas established a colony for epilep-
tics near Abilene in 1904.

Several other States have established farm
colonies for epileptics. Michigan has a Home
for feeble minded and epileptics lit Lupeer
sheltering 306 persons. The Indiana Village ft»/
Epileptics is situated at Newcastle, and hab a
capacity of 116. The Virginia State Epileptic
Colony houses 100 patients, all males.

EP'ILO'BIUM (Neo-Lat., from Gk. M, t'pi,
upon + Xoj86s, Jobos, lobe, pod). A genus of
plants of the family Onagracea?. The species
are herbaceous perennials, natives of temperate
and cold countries, and very widely diffused in
both the Northern and the Southern Hemi-
spheres. The firewced (Epilolnum ant/nut ijvlituti)
is frequently planted in gardens and shrubberies
on account of its numerous and beautiful iose-
colored flowers. It is called iire\veeil, from its
very early and common occurrence in tract* that
have been recently burned over. It is found in
very northern regions. The pith, when dried.
yields a quantity of sugar to boiling water, and
is used in Kamchatka for making a kind of ale.
EpiJobium hirsutum, a European species fre-
quently cultivated as an ornamental, has escaped
and become established in many parts of the
United States. It has showy magenta-colored
petals and is very attractive.

EP1LOGTTE (Lat. epilogue Ok. eVtXcr/o;, (-(in-
clusion, from eiri\4yetv, cpilcgrtn, to say in addi-
tion, from eirl3 epit upon + \eyetVj Icffftn, to Miy ) .
Jn oratory, the summing up or etmcluMun of a
discourse; in a drama, the short speech in prose
or verse which frequently, in former times, was
subjoined to pUvs, especially to comedies.

EPIMENTDES, ep'I-men'i-'dex (Lat., from Ok.
*Eirt/tteW5i7s). A Creek priest of Crete, sai<l to
have come to Athens about <i()0 u.r., anil to have
purified the city from the guilt contracted by
putting to death the adherents of C\lon hj.v.f.
The personality of Epimeniclcs early became
hidden under a mass of legend, as in the CUM*
of other prophets of new religious revelations
in the seventh and sixth centuries u.t1., when the
Orphic, movement (see OKIMIKI-SJ \\as at its
height, and to him was attached the common
folk tale of a prolonged sleep. To him ar»»
attributed the lines cited hy St. Paul (Titus i.
12) : "The Cretans are always liars, evil Itca-t-,
idle gluttons." lie is also waid to have written
a poem on the voyage of the Argonauts, to ha\v
composed numerous oracles, and to huve written
prose works on purificatory rito. Consult:
Schultess, DC JKpimrHulc oWtm-t ((iiittintri'tt,
IS77) ; Loescheke, Die KHHwikrunnfrKitiii'nh' tnfi
^aitxanias (Dorpat, ISS.'J); Toepfer. A
llmcaJoffic (Berlin, 1H81>) ; Kern, Hr
Kjnmcnidis, ['hcrcayditt '/'faw/pwiiVr Mb.,
Diels, Kinmcnitlrtt run Krtla iSit/.ungribi»rifhti»
der Berliner Akadcmic, ISiU) ; IlohoV, 1'ttm'kc
(•Freiburg, 1800-94); Demoulin,
QrMc (Brussels, 1001); Diels, M< F
dcr rowjAva£j'Avr, 2d eti. (*2 vol«M
ISWtt-lO). _

BPIHE/THEITS (Lat., from Gk, 'Ei
afterthought) . The son of Tapctus and Clynicnc.
brother of Prometheus and hnsttaiul of Pandora,
by whom he was father of Pyrrha, the wife of
Deucalion. See

A'pft'nal'. The capital of the De-
partment of Vosges, France, situated at the
western base of the Vosgcs Mountains, 1070 fwt
above «ea level, on both bunks of the Alow-lit*,
204 miles by rail oaat-KoiithcHht of Purirt (Man:
Northern France, M 4). It SK u wi'H-buut,
handaome town, with clean and regular streets.

GL4SABY

ing, according to Josephus (Wart, II, viii, 13),
a different order within the society who married
— innumerable washings, scrupulous bodily
cleanliness, the avoidance of contact with lower
orders in the brotherhood, the exclusive wearing
of white raiment, and particularly the peculiar
ceremonial requirements of their common meal,
to which none but full members of the order
were admitted, the food of which was specially
prepared by their priests, and the whole conduct
of which partook of the nature of a sacrificial
feast. As communists, all possessions and all
rewards of labor were held in common and dis-
tributed according to need. The chief employ-
ment of the brotherhood was agriculture, though
handicrafts of all kinds were carried on — the
only prohibition being trading, as leading to
covetousness, and the manufacture of weapons
and instruments which might injure men, as
being against their fundamental principle of
peace, though some members of the order were
found among the leaders and the fanatic fol-
lowers in the Jewish War. As a society they
were the first in history to condemn slavery, in
practice as well as in theory, as violating the
brotherhood of man.

The order had its chief roots in Judaism, its
struggle after ceremonial purity showing it to
be a refinement of Pharisaism. At the same
time it had elements so strongly at variance
with Judaism in general, and Pharisaism in
particular, as to suggest influences foreign to
Palestine. These elements were especially the
rejection of animal sacrifices, by which its 'mem-
bers were excluded from the temple worship;
the peculiar attention to the sun, which was
considered as representing the divine bright-
ness, the members praying towards it at its ris-
ing and avoiding all uncovering of themselves
before it; and especially the view entertained
regarding the origin, present state, and future
destiny of the soul, which was held to be pre-
" existent, being entrapped in the body as in a
prison and having before it, as a reward of
righteousness, a blessed paradise in the farthest
west, and, as a penalty of iniquity, a dark and
gloomy cavern full of unending punishments.
As to what these foreign influences were, there
is considerable discussion, in which perhaps no
conclusions can be reached beyond the general
one that they were Oriental, rather than Greek,
gathering around an essential dualism whose
influence can be traced in other peculiarities of
the order's belief and custom. This is con-
firmed by the fact that Oriental influences were
prevalent in the West from the third century
B.C. to the third century A.D., within which time
Essenism flourished.

It is an interesting question as to how much
Christianity owed to Essenism. It would seem
that there was room for definite contact between
John the Baptist and this brotherhood. His time
of preparation was spent in the wilderness near
the Dead Sea; his preaching of righteousness
towards God, and justice towards one's fellowmen,
was in agreement with the propaganda of Es-
senism; while his insistence on baptism was in
accord with the Essenic emphasis on lustra-
tions. But the Baptist was much more of an
ascetic than an Essene would have needed to be,
and had a Messianic outlook, which does not
seem to have entered into the Essenic belief.
Doubtless the fundamental teachings of Essen-
ism—love to God, to virtue, and to fellowmen
— which also existed in Judaism outside Essenic

EPIPHYSIS

circles, had vital agreement with the precepts of
Christianity; so that from this element in Ju-
daism in general Christianity may have taken
many of its earlier converts, while it is more
than probable that Christianity's world-wide
development of these common ideals did as
much as anything to prepare Essenism for its
final disappearance as a distinctive organization.
Bibliography. A laige literature has been
produced on this subject. Among the later
books, consult: Lightfoot, "Excursus," in Com-
mentary on Colossians and Philemon (3d ed.,
London, 1879) ; Sehiirer, Geschiehtc des Ju-
dischen VoUc.es sur Zcit Jesu (3d ed., 3 vols.,
Leipzig, 1808-1001); Fricdlunder, Die Reh-
gio'sen Beicegungen Jnnerhalb des Judenthums
im Zeitalter Jesu (Berlin, 1005) : Bousset, Re-
ligion des Judentums (2to Aufl., Berlin, 1906) ;
Pfleiderer, Primitive Christianity (Eng. trans.,
New York, 1006) ; Fairwcather, The Back-
ground of the Gospels (ib., 1008). Also the
article by Moffatt, in Enoi/cL of Religion and
Ethics (New York, 1912), which quotes at
length the original sources. See JEWISH SECTS
and its bibliography.

ESSENTIAL OIL. See OILS.

ESSENTTT'KI, or ESSENTTJKSKAYA. A water-
ing resort in the Territory of Terek, in the
Northern Caucasus, Russia, about 10 miles
northwest of Pyatigorsk (Map: Russia, F 6).
It is situated at an altitude of about 2000 feet
and is much frequented during the summer
months because of its cold alkaline Hprings.
Pop. (eat.), 8000.

ESSEQTTIBO, eVse-ke/bO (native name Dis-
sequebe). The largest river of British Guiana,
rising about 1° north of the equator on the
north slope of the Akarai Mountains, which
separate its valley from that of the Amazon
River (Map: Guiana, F 3). It flows in a
northerly direction, emptying into the Atlantic
west of Georgetown, after a course of over 000
miles. At its mouth, an estuary about 20 miles
wide is formed, containing numerous islets. Its
course is very tortuous and interrupted by
numerous cataracts, while its mouth is closed
l>y bars which can be passed by deep-draft ves-
sels only during high tide. It is navigated
for a considerable distance, and even heavy
vessels can ascend for a distance of about 40
miles from its mouth. Its chief tributaries are
the Rupununi, Potaro, and the Cuyuni-Mazaruni,
all from the west. On the banks are forests of
locust tree, ironwood, ebony, greenheart, and
other fine timber trees. The, region adjoining
the river was the subject of conflicting claims
between the British and Venezuelan govern-
ments, which led to the Arbitration Treaty of
Feb. 2, 1897. The award was made Oct. 3,
181)9. See VENEZUELA, History.

ESfinsS, COLLAB OF. A collar composed of a
series of the letter S. See SS, COLLAR OF.

ES'SEX (AS. East-Boaae, East Saxons). A
maritime county in southeastern England,
bounded on the north by Cambridge and Suffolk,
on the east by the North Sea, on the west by the
County of London and Hertford, and divided
from Kent on the south by the Thames estuary
(Map: England, G 5). It has 85 miles of coast
line, and an area of 1530.5 square miles. On the
coast the surface is low-lying and marshy, but
from the centre to the north is undulating and
well wooded. The chief rivers are the Lea,
Roding, Roach, Blackwater, and Colne. Chalk,
brick, clay, and sea salt are the chief mineral

EPIPHYTE

EPISCPAL CHTTBCH

in the construction of fences. At best, sod fences
are makeshifts.

Hedges. In England and other European
countries hedges are employed in place of fences
to a much greater extent than in the United
States. The objections to them are that they
are slow of growth, expensive to keep in order,
that they <rdraw" the adjacent land, harbor
weeds, insects, etc., and throw a considerable
amount of land out of cultivation. There are
many cases, however, in which the hedge proves
both useful and ornamental. The favorite hedge
plant in England is the hawthorn. In the Mid-
dle and Southern United States the o?age orange
is probably most commonly used. The arbor
vitie and the boxwood (for evergreen hedges)
and the privet are also frequently used. When
used as fences, hedges are frequently planted on
embankments of ditches or double ditches.

The Picket Fence. This form of fence is used
especially for inclosing yards and gardens. It
may be constructed of cheap split pickets, or of
the very ornamental and expensive kind, the
variety of styles being almost infinite. The
picket fence forms an especially effective bar-
rier for small animals. It may be constructed
entirely of wood, of wire and wood, or of iron.

Wire Fences. Post and wire fences are prob-
ably more extensively used than are any other
kind, especially in regions where timber is
scarce. The single wire does not resist changes
of temperature and is not as strong as the
twisted wire. Firmly twisted steel wire, with
barbs at short intervals, is the kind most widely
used. The barb-wire fence takes up little space,
is not destroyed by fire, is easily repaired, and
is readily adapted to inequalities of surface.
It may also be so constructed as to form an
effective barrier to stock and trespassers of all
kinds. The principal objection urged against
it is its liability to injure stock. For this reason
it is better suited to large areas than to small
inclosures in which animals are likely to bo
more or less crowded. Various means have been
proposed for overcoming this danger, but with
only partial success. Two-strand twisted wire,
with two-pointed and four-pointed barbs, arc
used, as well as fiat and twisted, barbed and
unbarbed, fiat steel straps. The barbs should
be just long enough to repel infringing animals
without inflicting serious injury. Various im-
plements have been devised which greatly facil-
itate the construction of wire fences. It is
("generally considered that two strands of barb
wire, 22 inches apart, the lower 22 inches from
the ground, will turn horses, cattle, and young
stock, and one strand is sometimes used as
a temporary barrier for the larger stock. A
fence of three strands, 12, 23, and 42 inches
from the ground, is more effective than a two-
strand fence. Four-strand fences, with the
s brands 5, 12, 22, and 48 inches from the ground,
are commonly used, with or without a baseboard
close to the ground. Five strands, it is claimed,
will turn dogs, pigs, poultry, and other small
animals. With embankments, fewer strands
are required for an effective fence. It is com-
mon to use posts 8 feet apart, as in board fences,
but fewer posts are frequently made to serve.
The corner posts should be securely braced, in
order that the wires may be tightly stretched.

Flood Fences. Across streams subject to
floods, or sloughs too wide for floodgates (see
below), fences are often a necessity. These are
usually constructed in panels, on logs, which

are linked together and fastened to posts on
the banks with iron couplings, so that the fence
rises and falls with the flood.

Hurdles, or Portable Fences. These are
often useful. They may be constructed of wood
or of wire, in a variety of ways, depending
upon the purpose for which they are to be used.
Gates have generally replaced the more primi-
tive bars, being more sightly and convenient.
When properly made of well-seasoned lumber or
of metal, they are very durable. The styles of
construction are almost infinite. Gates for road-
ways should be at least 14 feet wide and should
be well braced so that they will not sag. The
styles of hinges and especially of fastenings are
almost as numerous as the kinds of gates. (See
also GATEWAY.) When fences cross streams or
gulleys subject to flood, it is necessary to employ
floodgates, which are panels of fence suspended
on hinges so that they yield to the force of the
flood and resume their position when it subsides.

Posts. The best timber for posts is probably
supplied by red cedar, yellow locust, black wal-
nut, white oak, and chestnut. Timber for posts
should be cut when the sap is dormant, e.g., in
midwinter or in August. The bark should be
removed before setting the posts. Various
means of preserving posts have been proposed.
Soaking the part to be placed in the ground
in kerosene and afterward coating with coal
tar has been found effective. Soaking in blue
vitriol (1 pound of vitriol to 40 of water) and
in hot creosote and charring have also been
recommended. The creosote treatment has been
found most practical by the United States
Forest Service. In recent years, as a result of
scarcity or high cost of suitable timber for the
purpose, concrete posts for wire fences have
come into considerable use.

In general it may be said that fences should
be built only when absolutely necessary, and
then substantially constructed of good material,
since a good fence will prove more economical
in the end than a poor one.

FENCE, FENCING (IN LAW). At common
law, a landowner is under no duty to maintain
a fence, either to mark his boundary line or to
protect his premises from trespass by man or
beast. On the other hand, every one is under a
common-law duty to keep his cattle from tres-
passing upon the land of others. Accordingly
the introduction of fences, in agricultural re-
gions at least, appears to have been for the pur-
pose of keeping cattle in rather than of shutting
them out. They were resorted to as a conven-
ience rather than a protection.

While the common law does not confer upon
a landowner the right to force his neighbor to
maintain a fence, it does permit him to acquire
such a right by grant or prescription. When
the right is so obtained, it is called an easement,
and the land, whose owner is thus bound to
maintain a fence, is said to be subject to a serv-
itude. A contract under seal by a property
owner with his neighbor to build and maintain
a fence upon the land of the former for the pro-
tection of the neighbor's premises, not only
creates a personal liability enforceable against
the promisor, but it may, if so intended, create
an incumbrance upon his land in .the nature of
an easement. A prescriptive liability of this
character is not common, nor is it easily es-
tablished. One who claims it must be prepared
to show not only that the person charged has
uniformly repaired the fence in question, but

EPIPHYTES

1. JONOPUS. species.

2. FROM RIGHT TO LEFT: above, Phllodendron cannlfollum; beneath, Codopaithe Devosll; above (tree-like; Flcus

species; Vrlesea: beneath, Anthurium species; Rhipsalis, two species.

(After Schlmoer,)

EPISCOPAL CHURCH a

on their outward privileges. Discipline became
very lax, and the temper was Erastian. The
distinctive ecclesiastical and theological notes
of Anglicanism were not emphasized. The
Colonial churches of Virginia, Maryland, and
South Carolina came up to the General Conven-
tions of 1785 and 1789 with a somewhat languid
zeal and a disposition to minimize rather than
enlarge and strengthen the essential and special
features of episcopal government.

In New England and the Middle States the
tone and temper were different. There was not
even a quasi-establishment of the English church
in either. In Massachusetts it had come in
as it were at the point of the bayonet. An-
dros, the first royal Governor of the Colony,
brought it with him into a community which
both disliked and dreaded it— disliked what was
considered its lax discipline and dreaded the
ecclesiastical tyranny from which the colonists
had suffered in the mother country and from
which they had escaped in coming to America.
In the midst of a community thus minded, the
Engflish church assumed a rigid attitude, both
defensive of its rights and somewhat denuncia-
tory in its criticism of its despisers. The
churchmanship of its adherents was high and
dry, and their political creed was Toryism.
Very generally Northern churchmen took the
side of the English government in the Revolu-
tion, in contrast with the attitude of the South-
ern churchmen, which was largely patriotic.

In Connecticut the English church was not
introduced from without, but came into exist-
ence by a spontaneous movement from within,
hi 1722 the Rev. Timothy Cutler, rector of
Yale College, and Mr. Daniel Brown, his as-
sistant instructor, together with two noted
Congregational clergymen, Rev. Samuel Jolm-
wm and Rev. James Wetmore, left the Congre-
gational ininLstry, went abroad, and were or-
dained in London. The conspicuous position of
tliewe men drew universal attention to their
act, which gave riso to a spontaneous movement
in the Colony towards the Episcopal regimen.
The church thus produced was very strong in
its attachment to its doctrinal and practical
system. Not so much, as in Massachusetts,
from hatred of dissenters, but rather out of
deep love for their own system and sincere con-
viction of its obligation, Connecticut church-
men became the most conservative of all the
dements which entered into the national body.
In the remaining portion of New England, as
at Portsmouth and Claremont in New Hamp-
shire, at Portland and Gardiner in Maine, and
at Narragansett, Newport, Bristol, and Provi-
dence in Rhode Island, there wore a few
churches, but, owing to the ravages of the war,
there were in all New England outside of Cou-
mn'ticut only six Episcopal ministers at the
close of the Revolution. The few remaining
effective parishes were not of a rigorous type
and were generally characterized by a sense of
the propriety of worship in the use of the
liturgy rather than by a hearty zeal for the
principles and purposes of an episcopal gov-
ernment.

In the Middle States there were other differ-
ences. The English church was introduced into
New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Dela-
ware about the same time, but in different ways.
In New York it found a footing in 1064, when
the English wrested New Amsterdam from the
Dutch, but it was not until 1CJ)3, under an

EPISCOPAL CHTTBOH

Act of Assembly procured by Governor Fletcher,-
that it began to grow and became a quasi-
establishment. Its temper was kindly towards
the Dutch church, which it supplanted as the
ruling ecclesiastical influence, but it was stanch
in its advocacy of Episcopal principles. In
New Jersey the first traces of the church are
found in 1700. But it was in 1702 that two
agents of the London Society for the Propaga-
tion of the Gospel in Foreign Parta, Keith and
Talbot, visited the Colony, where as yet no
Episcopal church existed. They were very
earnest and energetic, and the corner stone of
St. Mary's Church at Burlington was laid in
1703. The church from this time was widely
disseminated through the province and main-
tained a character of steadfast adherence to the
traditions of the Church of England. In Penn-
sylvania the English church was not introduced
by foreign officials, as in New York, nor by
foreign missionaries as in Nc-vv Jersey, but arose
from a demand of the inhabitants themselves,
holding an analogous position to that of Con-
necticut in relation to Massachusetts and Hhode
Maud. The charter granted to William Penn,
sole proprietor of Pennsylvania and Dela-
ware, stipulated that "on the petitions of 20
persons, a preacher or preachers might be sent
out for their instruction and should be per-
mitted to reside in the Province without any
denials or molestation whatever." According
to this proviso the first church building, the
precursor of Christ Church, was erected in
Philadelphia in 1685, and George Keith, a se-
ceder from the Quakers, became the first travel-
ing missionary of the S. P. G. in 1702. But
before Keith's coming, in the latter part of
1701, the society, in answer to a lawful petition
of Kudicient citizens, according to the charter,
had sent the firwt settled missionary, Rckv. Evan
Evans, a atrenuoua man who, before Keith's ar-
rival, had baptized over 500 adults and children
of Quaker families, thus making evident a legiti-
mate demand for the Episcopal church.

The movement to constitute one Episcopal
church for the whole United States began on
May 11, 1784, at New Brunswick, N. J. Clergy-
men from New York, New Jersey, and Pennsyl-
vania had gathered there by appointment in the
interests of the Corporation for the Relief of
the Widows and Orphans of the Clergy. But
their minds were charged with larger interests
than the resuscitation of this benevolent cor-
poration. They began at once to discuss the
principles of a national ecclesiastical union. A
committee of correspondence was appointed "for
the purpose of forming a continental representa-
tion of the Episcopal church and for the better
management of the concerns of said church."
It was resolved also to call a meeting, as gen-
erally representative as possible of the clergy
and laity of the different States, in the city of
New York, on October 6 of the same year.

Eight States were represented at this meet-
ing, hut some of the delegates had not been
regularly appointed, and those who were had
only received authority to propose and delib-
erate. The convention, however, signed a dec-
laration of "Fundamental Principles of an Ec-
clesiastical Constitution," and appointed Sep-
tember 27 of the following year (1785) as the
date of a general convention to discuss their
proposals, which advocated "one general Epis-
copal church for the, United States, to be con-
stitutionally governed by representatives, cleri-

EPISCOPAL CHURCH 3<>

cal and lay, from the church in each State."
It was further resolved "That this church em-
body the doctrine and adopt the liturgy of the
English church, so far as consistent with the
changed political condition," and "That bishops
be recognized as ex officio members of the Gen-
eral Convention, and that the concurrence of
clergy and laity be essential for the validity of
all measures."

This was a bold anticipation of a future
which was uncertain at the time of its formu-
lation. The clergy of Connecticut had elected
the Rev. Samuel Seabury as their first Bishop,
and he had already made an attempt to secure
consecration from the Church of England, which
had failed through political obstacles which
stood in the way of free action on the part of
an established church. In the event, after wait-
ing 16 months, he proceeded to Scotland and
there (on Nov. 14, 1784) was finally consecrated
by three bishops of the Scottish Episcopal
church, who were not hampered by any con-
nection with the state. Thus was ended the
anomalous condition which had so hampered
the Colonial churches, by obliging their candi-
dates for ordination to take the long and peril-
ous sea voyage in order to receive the episcopal
laying on of hands.

The first authorized General Convention was
held in Christ Church, Philadelphia, Sept. 27,
1785. After it had been called, the churches in
the separate States had met in convention, or-
ganized thoir dioceses, and appointed their dele-
gates. Bishop Seabury was invited to attend,
but his dissent from several of the fundamental
principles kept him away, and with liim all the
delegates from New England absented them-
selves. However, of the 13 States, seven (in-
cluding all the Middle and Southern States,
except Georgia) were represented by 16 clergy-
men and 24 laymen. The fundamental prin-
ciples formulated in 1784 were adopted with
some slight modificationa. In accordance with
them, the "General Ecclesiastical Count! button,
of the Protestant Episcopal Church in America"
was completed, which was to bo presented to
the churches in the various dioceses and ratified
by the General Convention in 1789. It contained
the general provisions already expressed and
was firm in its maintenance of lay represen-
tation in the legislature of the church. The
committee which drafted the constitution was
empowered to make necessary liturgical altera-
tions in the Prayer Book and to prepare a
plan for obtaining the consecration of more
bishops. The Convention then adjourned, to
await the reply of the English bishops, and to
meet again in Philadelphia, June 20, 1780. The
answer of the English bishops, which arrived in
May, indicated that they would gladly comply
with the request to consecrate bishops for
America, could they be assured of the doctrinal
and disciplinary soundness of the constitution
and liturgy of the Protestant Episcopal church.
A reply was sent, acknowledging the reasonable-
ness of hesitation on their part and furnishing
copies of the ecclesiastical constitution and the
Proposed Book, as evidences of the soundness of
the American church in doctrine, discipline, and
worship. The English bishops expressed dis-
satisfaction with the liturgical changes of the
Proposed Book, insisting only on the restoration
of the Apostles' Creed in its integrity, yet urg-
ing a retention of the Nicene and Attianafiian
creeds, even if the use of them were merely

EPISCOPAL CHURCH

optional. Before an answer to this could be
sent, another communication came from the
Archbishop of Canterbury, inclosing the Act of
Parliament authorizing the consecration of
bishops for America and announcing that only
three bishops would be consecrated.

The Convention of 1785, already t \\ice ad-
journed, met again at Wilmington, Del., Oct.
10, 1786, and consented to restore the Apostles'
Creed in its integrity, introduced the JS'ieeiie
Creed into optional use, but declined e\en to
insert the Athanasian Creed. Other changes
of legislation, nut very essential, commended
by the English bishops, had either been already
accomplished or were now conceded. It was
found that three bishops had already been
elected by their respective diocesan conventions
— Dr. Samuel Provoost of New York, Dr. Wil-
liam White of Pennsylvania, and Dr. David
Orimth of Virginia. Their testimonials were
signed by the Convention, and two of them,
Drs. White and Provoost, were consecrated
in the chapel of Lambeth Palace on Feb. 4,
1787.

The General Convention of 1789 met in Phila-
delphia, to ratify the constitution, establish the
Prayer Book, and enact necessary canons. It
was of the utmost importance that there should
be unity of the Episcopal church throughout
the length and breadth of the land The- times
were more favorable than before for this eon-
Hiimmation. The national spirit hail been at-
tuned to unity by the ratification of the con-
stitution and the election and inauguration of
Washington three months earlier. The eoclesi-
astical spirit had been so fur modified MIKV
1785, by correspondence and consideration, that
the Convention at once formally affirmed the
validity of Bishop Seabury's consecration and
enacted 10 canons, which showed increased and
marked respect for the, episcopal ofHce. They
adopted the constitution with such alterations
us allowed representation of a church by cleri-
cal members only and provided for a separate
House of Bishops when there should be tlir«n»
of that order.

On August 8 the Convention took a rw-*«,
during which Bishop Seabury and the New
England churches concluded, in view of its ac-
tion, to join it; and when it reassembled, on
September 30, it represented the \\huli* ehureh
in all its orders. A Prayer Book wjm adopted
—not the- Proposed Book, which had <M)-t so
much labor, but a simple adjustment of the
l(2n«lish Prayer Book to American conditions,
with certain verbal omissions and ruhrieal
emendations, which, however, left it essentially
the same book. (See PKAYEK BOOK, COMMON/'*
The Communion Office* in accordance with the
wishes of Bishop Seabury, was perfected by
closer adherence to the Scottish, and therefore
to the Eastern, liturgies. The Convention ad-
journed October 10, leaving the Protestant
Episcopal church fully organized.

For 20 years its energy seemed to have been
exhausted by its organization. It was un-
popular, as being identified with the Knglixh
church. It was not alert in action. Its wor-
ship was regarded as formal, its discipline HH
lax. The 20 clergymen and 10 laymen of the
Convention o* 1780 were increased* by only live
clerical and four lay reproKMitativen in '1811:
and only once in those 22 yearn were there
as many as five bishops at any General Con-
vention.

EPISCOPAL CHTTBCH 3

From the latter date, however, the church
took a vigorous start, whose impulse has been
felt ever since. It was due chiefly to three
men — Bishops Hobart of New York, Griswold
of New England, and Channing Moore of Vir-
ginia— who reconstructed the church in their
dioceses, both in number and in. character. The
leaven spread more widely still. In 1817 some
of the Western States were organized into dio-
ceses, and in 1820 the church is reported as
organized, though not supplied with bishops, in
all the original States. The pioneer Bishop of
the West was Philander Chase, consecrated in
1819. Two dioceses, Ohio and Illinois, of which
he was successively Bishop, and two colleges,
Kenyon and Jubilee, founded by him, are his
monuments. John Stark Rayenscroft, conse-
crated Bishop of North Carolina in 1823, did
a similar work in the wilder regions of the
South, and in seven years changed a diocese of
four churches into one of 23.

By the time of Bishop White's death, in 1836,
two great changes had begun to be apparent,
which were to characterize the next period. One
was the crystallization of party spirit, which
was destined to give rise to heated controver-
sies. On the one side stood the old Evangeli-
cal party, represented by such distinguished
men as Bishops Burgess, East burn, Chase, Lee,
Alonzo Potter, M'llvaine, Bedell, and Stevens;
by Richard Newton and Alexander H. Vinton
and Francis L. Hawks; by Dr. Sparrow of the
Virginian Seminary, its most learned theologian,
and Stephen H. Tyng, for years its recognized
loader. The opposite school, to whose growth
a great impetus was given by the Oxford move-
ment across the sea (though the earlier bishops,
Seabury and Hobart and Ravenscroft, are to be
classed with it), emphasized the objective, the
institutional side of religion — a tendency es-
pecially natural in a country where the church
was left to vindicate and sustain itself without
aid or countenance from the state. While for
a long time, by a sort of tacit compact, the
foreign missionary work was left to the Evan-
gelicals, the home field was cultivated rather
by the High Churchmen. The General Theolog-
ical Seminary (founded in New York in 1817
and molded by Bishop Hobart's influence) in-
clined its pupils to the views of the latter.
Otcy and Kemper in the West acted on their
principles; Breck and Adams founded their
associate mission at Nashotah on them. Bishop
George Washington Doane of New Jersey, than
whom no one in his day was more instrumental
in shaping the history of the church, was the
moat commanding representative of this school,
as Bishop Whittingham of Maryland was its
most learned counselor.

The other distinctive feature of the central
period of the nineteenth century was the expan-
sion of the church beyond the narrow limits
which had at first confined it. The General
Convention of 1835 elected the first missionary
Bishop so called— Jackson Kemper, who became
the apostle of the northwestern territory lying
east of the Rocky Mountains, founding and fos-
tering the church in Missouri, Indiana, Iowa,
and Minnesota. Such vast and unexplored re-
gions were confined to the charge of single
bishops that one of them used playfully to
style himself Bishop of All-outdoors; but their
labors were so earnest and continuous that it
was only a logical consequence of them when,
in 1859, the General Convention made the epis-

i EPISCOPAL CHURCH

copate coextensive with the boundaries of the
United States.

The history of the Episcopal church at the
time of the Civil War is of special importance
because of its bearing on both national and
religious reunion after peace had been restored.
To the influence which it had acquired by the
abstinence of its clergy from political strife, the
delay of the actual conflict was largely due;
and a strikingly fraternal spirit prevailed in
its councils throughout even the height of the
bitter struggle. When the General Convention
met in New York in 1862, seats were assigned
to the Southern bishops and deputies, and their
names were called as usual. The latter had
considered themselves forced to outward eccle-
siastical separation, but declared that, "though
now found within different political boundaries,
the church remains substantially one," By the
time that the next General Convention met
peace had been declared; and so tactfully were
the delicate questions of the moment handled
that complete reunion was effected with the
least possible friction. The whole attitude of
the church gained public respect and confidence,
and the manner in which it led the way in
reunion was of undoubted service to the work
of national reconstruction.

After the reunion of churchmen as citizens
had been thus happily accomplished, they were
for a while divided in spirit by fierce theological
controversies. A determined attempt was made
to suppress the outward developments of what
is known as ritualism, especially in the Gen-
eral Conventions of 1868, 1871, and 1874. The
opposing parties valued or condemned these
external manifestations, not for their own sake,
but because of the doctrines they were sup-
posed to symbolize, which were held by their
opponents to be practically those of the Roman
Catholic church. In spite of the eloquent argu-
ments of the leader of the High Church forces,
the distinguished warden of Racine College,
Jaines Do Kovcn, a canon which marks the
height of the movement in favor of repression
was passed in 1874, limiting the ritual which
might be employed in the celebration of the
Holy Communion; but it remained practically
a dead letter until its repeal in 190-1. The ques-
tion of baptismal regeneration was also pro-
ductive of heated debate; in 1871, 48 out of
53 bishops issued a declaration that in their
opinion "the word regenerate in the offices for
the ministration of baptism of infants is not
there so used as to determine that a moral
change in the subject of baptism is wrought
in the sacrament." This failed, however, to
satisfy the extreme Low Churchmen, a number
of whom withdrew in 1873, under the leadership
of Dr. Cummins, then Assistant Bishop of Ken-
tucky, and constituted the Reformed Episcopal
church (q.v.).

Partly through the withdrawal of these ag-
gressive elements, and partly through the gen-
eral drift of opinion in the church, the old
Evangelical party, as a party, has had less and
less influence in late years. The High Church
party, on the other hand, has grown continu-
ously both in numbers and influence ; and wh;it
were advanced ritualistic practices a genera-
tion ago are now placidly accepted by the most
moderate churchmen. At the same time the
Broad Church school, which was an outcome of
the movement of Maurice and Kingsley and
Stanley in England, has attained a large and

EPISCOPAL CHTTBCH 32

increasing sliare of power. The two older par-
ties agreed in their insisting on the importance
of dogmatic belief, differing only as to which
particular set of dogmas were to be empha-
sized. The new one stands for individual free-
dom of both thought and action and looks
doubtfully upon claims to absolute* authority,
whether in church or Bible. In its conception
of applied Christianity it is largely humani-
tarian and is forward to piovide for the tem-
poral as well as the spiritual needs of men.

By this growing latitude of belief on the one
hand, and by its connection with the historic
past and its dignified liturgical form of wor-
ship on the other, the Episcopal church has in
recent years appealed so strongly to numbers
of educated men and women as to make nat-
ural its consideration of itself as a possible
centre and rallying point for the reunion of
the widely varying forms of Protestant Chris-
tianity in America. This movement really be-
gan with the memorial presented to the House
of Bishops in 1853 by Dr. Mulilenbcrg, a man
far in advance of his generation in many par-
ticulars, which looked to "some ecclesiastical
system broader and more comprehensive . . .
providing for as much freedom in opinion,
discipline, and worship as is compatible with
the essential faith and order of the Gospel."
This spirit of conciliation found definite ex-
pression in the declaration of tlie House of
Bishops in 1886, which was confirmed, with
some minor changes, by the Lambeth Confer-
ence two years later. It set forth as an ir-
reducible minimum, "as inherent parts of tho
sacred deposit, and. therefore as essential to
the restoration of unity among the divided
branches of Christendom : ( 1 ) tho Holy Scrip-
tures of tho Old and Now Testament as tho
revealed word of Cod; (2) the Nieenc Creed
as the sufficient statement of the Christian
faith j (3) the two sacraments — baptism and
the supper of the Lord — ministered with un-
failing use of Christ's words of institution und
of the elements ordained by Him; (4) tho
historic episcopate locally adapted in the meth-
ods of its administration to the varying needs
of the nations and peoples called of (Jod into
tho unity of His Church." This is the "Chi-
cago-Lambeth quadrilateral.*'

The general position of the Episcopal church
is explicitly declared in tho preface to the
Prayer Book, which states that "this Church
is far from intending to depart from the Church
of England in any essential point of doctrine,
discipline, or worship/* Its organization in
spiritual matters is substantially tho mime as
that of tho mother church, with which it main-
tains close relations, mado more- effective by tho
participation of American bishops in the 'Lam-
beth conferences, hold approximately every 10
years. (See ANGLICAN COMMUNION*; LAMBETH
CONFERENCE. ) Its const itution, of which a re-
vision, together with a revised body of canons,
was adopted in 1904, is in many particulars
analogous to that of the nation, except that the
powers of its executive head are strictly limited
and hardly more than nominal. H<» is called
the Presiding Bishop, and is tho senior Bishop
in order of consecration. A movement in favor
of facilitating tho government of the church
culminated in, 1004, when constitutional provi-
sion was made for a division of the country
into strictly organized provinces, with a metro-
politan see at the head of each, and when eight

EPISCOPAL CHURCH

judicial "departments" for Courts of Review
were established by canon.

In legislative matters, for purposes affecting
the whole church, the General Convention is
supreme. The body, which meets triennially
in different places, is composed of two houses,
the House of Bishops, consisting of all bishops
of the United States and foreign missionary
bishops, and the House of Clerical and Lay
Deputies, composed of four clergymen and four
laymen elected from each diocese; missionary
jurisdictions are represented in the House of
Deputies by one, clergyman and one lay delegate.
Legislation, to be effective, must be passed hy a
concurrence of both houses ami, in the lower
house, of both orders. At the General Conven-
tion held in Now York City in October, 1013,
provision was mado for the further or^anixution
under a provincial system according to which
the dioceses and missionary jurisdictions in tho
United States and its colonies are grouped in
eight provinces, each to have certain fum-hons
as to organization, holding of conventions, ami
legislation, but in subordination to the general
organization. Each diocese holds its o\\n an-
nual convention, composed in most instances of
the clergy canonically resident within it, anil
of lay delegates for each parish, sitting as one
house and presided over by the- Bishop. The
General Convention can make no alteration in
the constitution or the Prayer Book until it
lias been laid over for three years, ollicinlly
Aigniiicd to every diocese, and passed again n't
the subsequent Convention. The diocesan con-
ventions legislate for the internal alTtun* of
each diocese, in harmony with the general
ca nons. Each diocese lias also a standing com-
mittee, composed of both clergy and laity, which
has various administrative functions, and hi the
case of a vacancy in the see acts as tho "ee-
clcKiastical authority" of the diocese; the elec-
tion of new bishops must be continued hy a
majority as well of the standing committees as
of the other bishops of the whole church.

In 1014 there were 07 dioceses ami 21 mis-
sionary districts (which may be cicii'iihrd as
embryo dioceses) in the United States and its
colonies; also one missionary district in Africa,
one in Cuba, one. in Mexico, three in China, ami
two in Japan, besides two bishopric**, not stru-tly
forming a part of the Episcopal church, in
Brazil and Haiti. There were alw» nine organ-
ized chaplaincies on the continent of Kuropc,
which minister primarily to Americans. The
organized parishes and mission^ in tin* Tuiti'd
States, including Alaska, Honolulu, tlu» Phil-
ippine Island*, and Porto I*ico% in litll num-
bered 832(5, and the clergy 3715, including
J10 diocesan, coadjutor, and missionary bishop*.
There, wen* 1,004,217 com muni tout's 5 1,2157
Sunday-school teachers, and 4WMW1 Sunday-
school scholars. During the year ti!t,t'&i person*
wens baptized and S;">,771 confirmed. The total
contributions for the year amounted to $11),-
48!>,809.

Aa the church haw expanded, many new agen-
cies have arisen to foster and extend its exuber-
ant life. Chief among these arc 18 sister-
hoods (q*v.) in which women are bound together
for work and devotion, three religion* orders
for men, and the revived order of Deaconesses
(q.v,) ; the Domestic and Foreign Missionary
Society, to which every baptized member of the
church is considered ipso facto to belong; the
Brotherhood of St* Andrew (q.v.), which imitate

EPISCOPAL CHTTBCH 33

the active work of laymen, and the church
clubs, also for laymen, of which there are 24;
the Daughters of the King (q.v.), for women;
the Church Temperance Society (q.v.) ; the
Parochial Missions Society, and the American
Church Sunday School Institute. Church hospi-
tals, begun by Dr. Muhlenberg with St. Luke's
in New York and followed by the Episcopal
Hospital in Philadelphia, have exemplified the
humanitarian side of religion; while schools
under religious influence, which owe their in-
ception to the same far-seeing founder, have
multiplied throughout the country. Colleges
such as those at Hartford, Geneva, Racine,
Sewanee, Gambier, and South Bethlehem, pro-
vide for higher education. Schools for the train-
ing of clergy are maintained in New York City
(established 1817) ; Theological Seminary, Fair-
fax Co., Va. (1823); Gambier, Ohio (1828);
Nashotah, Wis. (1842); Middletown, Conn.;
Philadelphia, Pa., (1857); Sewanee, Tenn.
(1857); Faribault, Minn. (1858); Geneva,
JST. Y.; Cambridge, Maes. (1867) : Denver, Colo.
(1871): Syracuse, N. Y. (1876); Topeka,
Kans.; Chicago, 111 (1885); San Mateo, Cal.
(1894); Petersburg, Va. (1884), and Wash-
ington, D. C. (1891), for colored students; and
Tokio, Japan. The principal organn of the
church in the press are The Churchman (New
York), The Living Church (Milwaukee), and
The American Catholic (San Francisco). Other
church publications are The Parish T-isitor
(New York), The Spirit of Missions (New
York), The Church MiJitant (Boston), and St.
Andrew9 s Cross (Boston).

Bibliography. Perry, History of the Ameri-
can Episcopal Church, 1587-1883, with mono-
graphs (2 vols., Boston, 1885) ; id., A Half
Century of Legislation, journals of General Con-
vention, 1785-1835, with historical notes and
documents (3 vols., Milwaukee, 1874) ; Colomun,
The Church m America (New York, 1805) ;
Tiffany, History of the Protestant Episcopal
Church (ib., 1895) ; McConnell, History of the
American Episcopal Church (ib,, 1890) ; An-
derson, History of the Church of England in
the Colonies (3 vols., 2d ed.t London, 185G) -,
White, Memoirs of the Protestant Episcopal
Church in America (3d od., New York, 1880) ;
Digest of the Records of the Society for the
Propagation of the Gospel, 1701-1892 (London,
1893); Perry, Historical Collections Relating
to the American Episcopal Church (4 vols.,
covering Virginia, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts,
Maryland, and Delaware, Hartford, 1870) ;
Hawks, Contributions to the Ecclesiastical His-
tory of the United States of America (2 vols.,
covering Virginia and Maryland, New York,
1836-39) ; Beardsley, History of the Episcopal
Church in Connecticut from 163$ to J8G5 (4
vols., Boston, 1883) ; Burgess, Pages from the
Kcclesiastical History of New England (ib.,
1862); Wilson (ed.), Centennial History of
the Protestant Episcopal Church in tlte Diocese
of New York (New York, 1886) ; Cross, The
Anglican Episcopate and the American Colonies
(ib., 1902) ; Addison, The Episcopalians (ib.,
1904) ; Seabury, Memoir of Bishop Seabury
(ib., 1008).

EPISCOPAL CHURCH, REFORMED. See RE-
FORMED EPISCOPAL CmiECir.

EPISCOPAL THEOLOGICAL SCHOOL. An
institution for the education of Episcopal
clergymen, situated at Cambridge, Mass. It
was founded in 1867 by Benjamin Tyler Reed.

EPISTAXIS

The school offers courses leading to the degree
of B.D., which is conferred on students holding
bachelor's degrees. The principal buildings in-
clude the chapel, the deanery, the library, and
Reed, Burnham, Lawrence, and Winthrop halls.
The students in 1914 numbered 56. The school
is affiliated with Harvard University.

EP'ISCO'PITTS (Neo-Lat., from Lat. episco-
pus, Gk. MffKovo3, episkopos, bishop; a transla-
tion of his Dutch name, Bisschop, Bishop ) ,
SIMON (1583-1643). A Dutch theologian, after
the death of Arminius the head of the Arminian
party. He was born in Amsterdam, studied at
Leyden, took his degree of M.A. in 1606, and
was ordained pastor of the village of Bleyswyck
near Rotterdam, in 1610. In the following year
the States -General, with the intention of putting
an end to the agitations created by the con-
troversies between the Gomarists, or Calvinistic
party, and the Arminians, or Remonstrants,
ordered a conference to be held in their presence
at The Hague between six ministers of each
party. Episcopius was one of the six charged
with the advocacy of Arminianism and highly
distinguished himself by his good temper,
ability, and learning. In 1612 the curators of
the University of Leyden appointed him pro-
fessor of theology in the place of Gomarus, who
had gone to Zeolancl; this enraged the leaders
of the orthodox party, who unscrupulously ac-
cused him of Socmiaiiism. This was one factor in
the calling of the Synod of Dort (q.v.), 1018-19.
Episcopius was present, along with several other
Arminians; but the Calvinists, who were in an
overwhelming majority, would not allow him to
speak. He was expelled from the church and
banished from the country. Episcopius betook
himself first to Antwerp and afterward to Rouen
and Paris, but in 1626 returned to Rotterdam,
fn 1634 he was made professor of divinity in
the newly established seminary of the Remon-
strants in Amsterdam. His works were pub-
lished in Amsterdam (1650-05). The chief are
the Confessio liemonstrantlum (1621) and the
Apologia pro Confessions (1020). Consult Cal-
der, Hfwioirft of Simon Kpiscopius (London,
1838). See. GoAtABUH: AUMINIUS.

EPISTATES, H>l8'ta-t6z (Lat., from Gk. im-
trranjc, commander, president, from e0«rra<T0<u,
ephislasthai, to preside, from M, epi, upon, over
-j- icrrdvai, his tan ai, to stand). In general, the
title in ancient Greece of any officer in charge of
certain functions, but in. particular the title of
the presiding oflicer of the. two great Athenian
councils, the Kcclesia and the Senate of Five
Hundred. (See Bouue.) The Senate was di-
vided into 10 bodies, representing the 10 tribes,
of 50 members each, and each body of 50 acted
in turn as a committee of both couneilfl for a
period of from 35 to 80 days. The members of
this committee were called Prytanes, and every
day there was chosen from among their number
a single member, called the Epistates of the
Prytanos, or briefly the Epistates, to act as chief
presiding oflicer for that day.

EP'ISTAX'IS (Neo-Lat., corrupted from Gk,
lTrurrav/j,6s, epistagtnos, ilOStt-bleed, from iTrurrd-
£eiv, cpistazein, to bleed at the nose, from Mt
epi, upon + <rrd£e*i», stazein, to drip). Hem-
orrhage from the nose, a symptom of various
conditions. It occurs in some people frequently
after heavy work or exertion causing the heart
to beat violently, or during paroxysms of cough-
ing, as in whooping cough. It may be a pre-
monitory symptom of typhoid fever, or it may be

EPISTEMOLOGY

EPISTOL^B

a symptom of disease of the heart or kidneys in
which the blood vessels are diseased, or during
purpura or haemophilia (q.v.). Menstruation
sometimes manifests itself, vicariously, as a
nosebleed. It is caused by picking the nose,
whereby small ulcerations are produced. If it
does not stop through spontaneous clotting in
the nostril or after pressure of the wiug of the
nostril against the septum, it may be necessary
to have a physician look into the nostril, find the
bleeding point, and apply cotton alone or mois-
tened with adrenalin or tannin or alum to it.
In serious cases the nostril must be plugged in
front and behind in the throat. In haemophilia,
a disease in which the blood loses its plasticity
or clotting power, nosebleed may be fatal. See
BLEEDING.

EPIS'TEMOI/OGY (from Gk. tirurrjpn, epis-
tem€, knowledge, from MffraffBai, epiatasthai, to
know + -\oyta,, -logia, account, from \tyeiv,
legein, to say). A technical term, probably
originated by Terrier, and used in philosophy to
designate that branch of inquiry which deals
with the origin, validity, and limits of our
knowledge. Before we can arrange and classify
scientifically the knowledge we have attained,
it is necessary, so some have claimed, to have at
least a theory to account for our possession of
it and to guarantee its value. Epistemplogy is
often differentiated from psychology by its deal-
ing with the validity of knowledge rather than
with the analysis of the knowing mind (struc-
tural psychology), or with the development of
cognition (genetic psychology) , or with the part
the knowledge plays in life (functional psychol-
ogy). In recent literature, especially in prag-
matic circles, epistemology is used in a dyslo-
gistic sense as applied only to those theories
of knowledge which regard knowledge as a thing
to be considered in a different way from other
subjects of inquiry and which therefore repudi-
ate in this study the methods in vogue in the
natural sciences. Such a theory was Kant's,
who maintained that there are a priori (q.v,)
percepts and concepts, that a careful listing
and examination of these are prerequisite to any
acceptable metaphysics, and that there can be
genuine knowledge, as distinct from disconnected
sensations, only when these a priori percepts
and concepts have playod their part in con-
structing the object known.

But there is no very good reason to confine
the term "epistemology" to just one type of
dealing with knowledge. Whether a philosopher
regards knowledge as having a transcendental
origin or a biological origin, whether he treats
knowledge as a thing unique or as an instrument
of adjustment when difficulties are met in ex-
perience, he has a theory of knowledge or an
epistemology. Consult, for the Kantian epis-
temology, the works referred to under KANT.
For more recent views, consult: Dewey, Studies
in Logical Theory (Chicago, 1903); T7io In-
fluence of Darwin on PUlosophy (New York,
1910); James, Pragmatism (ib., 1007); The
Meaning of Truth (ib., 1900) ; Essays in Radical
Empiricism (ib., 1012); Bergson, Creative
Evolution (Eng. trans., ib., 1911); Marvin, in
The New Realism (ib., 1912). See KNOWLEDGE,
TITEOBY OP; INSTRTTMENTATJSM; PRAGMATISM.

EPISTLE (AS- epistol, OF. epistle, epistret
Fr. epttre, Lat. epistola, from Qk. te<rro\i}, epis-
tol€, letter, from tirtsr&\eiv, epistellein, to send,
from M, epi, upon + ffrfr\ew, stellein, to send ) .
Properly, a letter; used specially for a letter

intended for publication, or which, having been
published, belongs to literature. The 21 books
of the New Testament immediately following
the Book of Acts are called the Epistles, having
been originally letters or cast in epistolary
form. The first 13, traditionally assigned to St.
Paul, used to be called the Apostle. The two
epistles to Timothy and that to Titus arc called
the pastoral Epistles because they treat of the
duties of a pastor. The general or catholic
Epistles arc those of Peter, James, John, and
Jude. For discussion of the authorship, date,
and other questions connected with these books,
see the articles on the separate books.

The lesson in the liturgy which precedes the
gospel for the day is called the epistle, because
generally taken from the New Testament Epis-
tles; in the Middle Ages, because moat of them
were taken from St. Paul, it was frequently
called the apostle. In the earlier ages it was
customary to read two lessons, one from the
prophets and one from thy Epistles, on feast
days. In the modern Roman missal many of the
epistles are taken from the Old Testament; on
a few days two lessons are still read in this
place, on Ember Saturday six, of which the first
five are from the Old Testament. St. .Jerome
is said by the mediaeval liturgical writers to
have made the selection of the epistles and
gospels at the request of Pope Damasus, The
epistle was formerly read or sung from the
ambo (q.v.) ; about the end of the Middle Ages
it became customary to recite it facing the
altar. Being addressed to the faithful, it is
read at the south side of the altar, which in
medieval symbolism typifies the quarter of light,
while the gospel, preached to the heathen, is
read towards the north, the quarter of darkness
and evil. Down to the eighth century the ?/*r/«r,
or reader, was charged with the recitation of
the epistle; then it was attributed to the sun-
deacon, not at Hrst as a function of his oiliee,
but as a concession.

EPISTLES, RpuBions. See APOCRYPHA.
EPISTLE SIDE OF THE ALTAK. The
left sidi* of tlio altar or communion table, look-
ing from it, at which in the church service tint
epiatlc of the. day is read. It is of letter dis-
tinction than the right, or gospel, side anil is
occupied by the clergymen of lover ecclesiastical
rank. Jn early churches, when in the choir
there was an ambo (q.v.) on each side — one for
the epistles, the other for the gospels — the term
was applied to the choir also.

EPISTLES OF HORACE. A scrips of poems
by Horace, in the form of letters to individuals,
published between 20 and 12 B.C. They jm» ii
continuation of the FtatircSi but differ from the
latter in their more tolerant and philosophical
atmosphere, in their better tasie, nn<l in literary
form. They are arranged in two honk*, and an*
in hexameter verse. The Kpitttula ad I'ifioncx is
a famous piece of criticism, better known as the
Ars Portica (q.v.).

EPISTOLJB OB'SCTTRO'RtTM: VTROIOrM:
(Lat., Letters of Obscure Men). The title of a
collection of satirical letters winch appeared at
Hagenau in 1515, professing to be issued by the
Aldinc Press at Venice. It purported to be the
composition of certain ecclesiastics and pro-
fessors in Cologne and other places in Rhenish
Germany. The letters were directed against the
scholastics and monks and helped in no small
degree to bring about the "Reformation. The con-
troversy of Reuchlin (q.v.) with the baptized

EPISTOLEB

Jew Pfefferkorn concerning the destruction of
the Talmudic books gave the first occasion to
the Epistolce, and probably their title was sug-
gested by the letters to himself from distin-
guished men which Reuchlin published, under the
title Virorum Epistolce Clarorum ad Reuchlinum
Phorcensem (1514), to show that his position in
this controversy was approved by the learned.
The Epistolce Obscurorum were addressed to
Ortuinus Gratius in Deventer, who had made
himself odious to the liberal minds of the time
by his arrogant pretension, his determined hos-
tility to the spirit of the age, and his lax mo-
rality. On the first appearance of the work it
was ascribed to Reuchlin, afterward to Reuchlin,
Erasmus, and Hutten. The first part contained
41 letters, a number which was increased in
subsequent editions. It was probably mainly the
composition of the distinguished humanist Cro-
tus Rubianus, who originated the idea. In the
composition of the second part (1519) Ulrich
von Hutten had much share, but others partici-
pated, including Crotus. The Epistolce were
placed in the catalogue of forbidden books by a
papal bull. The classical edition is that by
Booking, Supplementum Ulrici Hutteni Operum,
vols. vi, vii (Leipzig, 1864-70). There is a
German translation by Binder (Stuttgart, 1876).
Consult: Strauss, Ulrich von Hutten (6th ed.,
Leipzig, 1895), of which there is an English
translation (London, 1874) ; Pattison, Essays
(Oxford, 1889) ; Brecht, Die Verfasser d&r Epis-
tolce Obscurorum Virorum (Strassburg, 1904).

EPIS'TOLER, or EPISTLEB. An English
term for the clergyman (answering to the sub-
deacon in the Roman mass) who, in accordance
with the twenty-fourth canon of 1603, assists
the celebrant in the administration of Holy
Communion. The name is derived from the fact
that his principal duty is to read the epistle.
See GOSPELEB.

EPIS'TROPHE. See CHLOROPLAST,

EPIS'TUL-ffi EX PON'TO (Lat., Letters
from Pontus). Four books of letters, written
by Ovid from his place of exile on the Black
Sea. In them the poet bitterly complains of his
dreary life and his separation from his family
and appeals frantically to his friends at Rome to
intercede for him with the Emperor. As were
the Tristia, which preceded them, the letters are
in the elegiac measure (sec DISTICH; ELEGY),
but give the names of the persons addressed.

EP'ISTY'LniM: or EPISTYLE (Lat., from
Gk. eTTwrtfXiop, epistylion, from M, epi, upon +
ffTiJXos, stylos, column). A beam of stone or
sometimes of wood, which rests upon the capitals
of columns or pillars and spans the space be-
tween them. It is synonymous with the more
customary term "architrave" (q.v. ) . See COLUMN.

EPITAPH (Lat. epitaphium, epitaphius,
from Gk. &rir(£0«os, epitaphios, funeral, from hrl,
epi, upon + rd<f>os, taphos, tomb: supply \6yos,
logos, word, utterance). Properly a brief com-
memorative inscription on a tomb or other
monument over a grave. The oldest inscriptions
of this kind are inscriptions on ancient Egyptian
sarcophagi. These epitaphs all contain simply
a statement of the name, family, and condition
of the deceased, with a prayer to some deity,
generally Osiris or Anubis. The earliest Greek
epitaphs are from the island of Thera and date
from a time as early at least as the seventh
century B.C. They contain simply the name of
the deceased. The earliest Athenian epitaphs
are also very short, containing hardly more than

EPITHALAMITJH

the name of the deceased, together with that of
the deceased's father, and are often written in
verse, generally in an elegiac distich. The Greek
epitaphs from later times are often of consider-
able length and are very various in character;
they are frequently, also, in the form of the
epigram. Roman epitaphs were much more
meagre than the later Greek epitaphs. On the
Roman urns are the letters D. M. or D. M. S.
(Diis Manibus or Diis Manibus Sacrum), fol-
lowed by particulars with regard to the deceased,
his age, name, and office, and the name and re-
lationship of the person who has had the urn
made. The letters D. M. frequently occur in
Christian epitaphs found in the Catacombs. A
not uncommon feature of the Roman inscription
is the strong adjuration addressed to the
passers-by not to disturb the tomb, and a griev-
ous curse for the man who should violate this
injunction. They contain often, also, an ad-
monition to the passer-by to stop and read the
record on the tomb. Latin remained till very
recent times the usual language for epitaphs in
England, at least in the case of famous men
and women.

In modern as in ancient times, the epitaph has
been made a literary form, as, e.g., by Ben
Jonson and Pope. Dr. Samuel Johnson wrote
an essay on epitaphs; so, too, did William
Wordsworth. For Greek epitaphs, consult:
Kaibel's Epigrammata Orceca ex Lapidibus Col-
lecta (Berlin, 1878); Reinach, Trait6 d'epi-
graphie grecque (Paris, 1885); Preger, Inscrip-
tiones Qrcccce Metricoe ex Scriptoribus prosier
Anthologiam OollectcB (Leipzig, 1891) ; Corpus
Inscriptionum Atticarum (Berlin, 1878-82).
For Latin epitaphs: Corpus Inscriptionum Lati-
narum (ib., 1863 et seq.) ; Bticheler and Riese,
Anthologia Latino,, vol. ii (Leipzig, 1869-70), es-
pecially the second part, Carniina Epigraphica
Latina (ib., 1895-97), interestingly reviewed by
Abbott, in American Journal of Philology, vol.
xix (New York, 1898) ; Tolman, A Study of the
Sepulchral Inscriptions in Biichelcr's Carniina
Epigraphica Latina (Chicago, 1910) ; Clara L.
Thompson, TcedMwn Vitce in Roman Sepulchral
Inscriptions (St. Louis, 1911) ; Armstrong, Au-
tobiographic Elements in Latin, Inscriptions
(New York, 1910) ; Cholodniak, Carmina So-
pulcralia Latina (St. Petersburg, 1897). For
modern epitaphs, consult: Kippax, Churchyard,
Literature: A Choice Collection of American Epi-
taphs ( Chicago, 1876 ) ; Andrews, Curious Epi-
taphs (London, 1883). See EPIGRAM; ANTHOL-
OGY; SIMONIDES (oir CEOS).

EP'ITH A Ti A 'MITTM: (Lat., from Gk. &rt0aX<£-
fjnos, epithalamios, nuptial, from M, epi, upon,
at + 6d\afjLos, thalamos, bridal chamber: supply
tinvos, hymnos, hymn). Among the ancient
Greeks and Romans a marriage song sung by a
chorus of maidens, or of youths and maidens,
before the chamber of a newly married couple.
It was sung ordinarily on the evening of the
marriage day; but there was also a waking
song. Closely connected with the epithalamium
is the hymeneal song (iif^vaios) , which was sung
either at the wedding banquet or during the
marriage procession to the new home. As a
general term, the hymeneal includes the epitha-
lamium. Among the Greeks the epithalamia and
hymeneals of Sappho were prized above all
others; but Alcman, Anacrjon, Stesichorus,
Pindar, and others also composed such marriage
hymns. The eighteenth Idyl of Theocritus is an
epithalamium on the marriage of Monelaus and

EMTHALAMltTBt 36

Helen. At Rome, in the first century B.C., the
Alexandrine school of poets practiced epithala-
mia after Greek models. Three by Catullus are
extant (Nos. 61, 62, and 64), in which the Greek
form is greatly modified. The epithalamium
gradually became a laudatory poem on the occa-
sion of a wedding; in this form it was cultivated
in the Imperial period, by Statins, Ansonius,
Sidonius Apollinaris, and Claudianns. A col-
lection of Latin epithalamia, with an introduc-
tory essay, is to be found in Wernsdorf, F*octcc
Latvnce M mores, vol. iv (Helmsteclt, 1780). In
modern times epithalamia have been written in
Latin, Italian, and French; in English epitha-
lamia were composed by Spenser, Ben Jonson,
Donne, Quarles, and Tennyson (at the close of
In Memoriani).

A poem by Edmund

Spenser, written to celebrate his marriage to
Elizabeth Boyle (June 11, H94).

EP'ITHE'LIO'MA (Neo-Lat., from Gk. Mt
epi, upon + 0i?X^, thcl<~9 nipple, from 6av, titan,
to suckle). A variety of can cor. which attackw
surfaces covered with epithelium or epidermis.
See TUMOB.

EP'ITHEOOITTM (Neo-Lat., from Gk. M, cpi,
upon + #97X1}, thcl€'< nipple) . A tissue widely di.s-
tributed in the animal body. HH main function

FlO. 1. SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM OF EPIDERMIS.

Magnified 250 times : a, squamous cell; 6, nucleus.

may be said to be that of acting as a covering
for various surfaces, both external and internal,
and as the active structural elements of those
organs of the body
which are known as
glands. Tims, as the
outer layer of the
skin, epithelium cov-
ers the entire body
and forms the hair,
nails, sweat glands,
etc. It covers all
the mucous mem-
branes, thus lining
the entire respira-
tory tract, the gen-
ito-urinary tract,
and the alimentary
canal. It forms the
essential elements of
the true glands, such
as the liver, pan-

classified as
follows: 1. Squa-
mous: (a) simple, (b) stratified. II. Columnar:
(a) simple, (6) stratified. III. Modified: (a)
ciliated, (&) goblet, (c) pigmented. IV* Spe-
cial: (a) glandular, (&) neuro-epithelium.

EPITHELIUM

I. Squamous Epithelium, (a) Simple
•mous Epithelium. — This is not abundant in the
human body. It lines the air spaces of the
lungs, the membranous labyrinth of the ear,

FlO. 3. T11ANSIT1UNAL J£1>1T1IL,LIUM OF JJLA1>DLU.

Magnified 300 tiuioi* a, superficial layer of eolli, b, in-
termediate layer ot colls, r, deep luyci ot crUs; tt, fibrous
tisauo.

and occurs in a few other places. It consists
of a single layer of flat cells, presenting the
appearance of a mosaic when seen from the Hat
surface. (b) tit ratified ti<iuani<jus Kiritht'lium.
— Uore the cells are laid down in *everal layers,
only the surface cells bein/jf Hat, the deeper lay-
ers irregular or ouboidul in shape, the innei-
most layer resting on a distinct membra ne, the
mcHibrdtHi proprui. Sometimes the cells of the
middle layers are, united by minute spims ami
are known as prickle cells. * The main locution**
of this form of epithelium aie the skin and all
its openings — the (esophagus, laiynx, pharynx,
ureter, bladder, pelvis of the kidney, the entire
female urethra, and the terminal* portion of
the male urethra.

It. Columnar Epithelium. (a) tiiwplr. —
This consists of a single layer of columnar cells
placed side bv side, their bases resting on a thin
membrane, the Meuihntna- ;jr<>/>na, or basement
membrane. Epithelium of this type lines the
entire alimentary tract, the duets of glands, and
their alveoli, ami portions of the male urethra.
(&) Stratified Columnar Kpil helium. — Only the
surface cells are trulv columnar, the dVeper
layers being made up of cells irregular in shape.

FlQ. 4, COLUMNAR EPITHKUUJtf OP

Magnified 300 times: a, luyc*r of columnar vnUhclml cells;
6, striated hem of epithelial cells; c, mucous coll.

Tt is not widely diHtributed, extunple*
found in the va& tfcfcrwis and in the irnsul

III. Modified Epithelium, (a)
These cells have minutes hairlike project ionn
from their free tmrfacea, known as cilia. Thctw
cilia possess a vibratory motion, always acting
in the same direction and thus determining flow

EPITHEM

of currents. They occur only on columnar epi-
thelium, either of the simple or stratified type.
Ciliated epithelium lines the cavity of the
uterus, the oviducts, the lacrymal ducts, the

EFOMEO

FlQ. 5. CILIATED EPITHELIUM OF TRACHEA.

Magnified 300 times- a, ciliated cells; 6, goblet or mucin
cells; c, germinal cells; d, basement membrane.

Eustachian tubes, and parts of the tympanic
cavity, nasal fossae, larynx, trachea, bronchi,
and vas deferens. These minute cilia exert a
considerable power. Thus, in the respiratory
tract they seem to keep the tubes free from any
minute particles of foreign substance which may
have entered them. (6) Goblet. — This is a form
of cell occurring in columnar epithelium in

which the contents
of the cell are trans-
ferred into a trans-
parent substance
known as mucus,
which is finally dis-
charged upon the
free surface of the
membrane, (c) Pig-
mented. — -In this
form of epithelium
FIG. 6. DISSOCIATED GOBLET EPi- the cells contain
THEUUM FBOM INTESTINE. granules usually of
Magnified 450 times: a, mi- a brown or black
rf'Si.6' r6mams rf *>rotoPl!um color and known as

pigment. Such colls

are found in the retina and in the skin, especially
of the darker races.

IV. Specialized Epithelium, (a) Glandular
Epithelium. — This name is applied to those
forms of epithelium which make up the various
glands of the body. Such epithelium presents
wide ranges of variations for different glands.
(&) N euro-Epithelium. — This is a specializa-
tion of epithelium for the purpose of forming
terminations for nerve fibres. Many of these
terminations in certain organs are extremely
complex — e.g., the rods and cones of the retina,
the hair cells of Corti's organ, and the taste
buds. Consult Bailey and Stiller, TeatbooJc, of
Histology (New York, 1013), and Sturling,
Principles of Human Physiology (London, 1012).
EPITHET (Gk. faiewa, epithvma, cover,
from M9 epi, upon + 0*w*«*» tli&ma, box, from ™-
0&atj tithenai, to place). In plants, the internal
tissue of a hydathode; a gland that excretes
water. See HYDATHODE.

EPITOME, S-pIt'6-mS (Lat., from Gk. ^TITO^M},
from M, epi, upon + roM» tom$, a cutting, from
rfyvciv, tewnein, to cut) . A condensation of the
work of an author or of an encyclopaedia or the
like. Condensations were frequently made by
mediaeval scholars, and the practice is not rare
in later times; witness the condensed version of
Richardson's interminable novel Clarissa Har-
loine, that of the French encyclopaedia Laroussc,
and the Epitome (1900) in one volume of the
monumental Dictionary of National Biography,

EP'IZO'A. See ENTOZOA.

EPIZOOTIC, Sp'I-zo-ot'Ik (Gk. M, epi, upon
+ $$ov, ffOon, animal). A disease which is car-
ried from one place to another by means of in-
fection, and which occurs as a more or less seri-
ous outbreak of limited duration. Epizootic in
veterinary medicine corresponds to the tei m "epi-
demic" in human medicine. See INFLUENZA. IN
ANIMALS.

E PLU'TRIBTTS TKNTUM: (Lat., one out of
many) . The national motto of the United States,
proposed l>y Franklin, Adams, aud Jefferson, the
committee appointed by Congress on July 4,
1770, to prepare designs for a seal.

EP'OCH, Sp'ok or e/pok (ML. epochat Gk.
. ^TTOX^J epoclic, epoch, pause). In astronomy, one
of the elements (q.v.) of a planet's orbit. It ia
necessary that these elements should include a
statement of the date when the planet passed
through perihelion, or its point of nearest ap-
proach to the sun. That date, with the hour
and exact fraction of tin hour, is called the
epoch. It may also be an arbitrary fixed date —
generally the beginning1 of a century or half
century — to which all tlio elements are referred.
The heliocentric (q.v.) longitude is then given
for this instant, and this is frequently referred
to as the epoch; moie properly, it is the longi-
tude of the epoch. See also CIIHONOLOGY.

EPOCH, IN GEOLOGY. See GEOLOGY.

EP'ODE (Lat. epodus, from Gk. &rq>86s, op fa
dos, epode, from M, epi, upon, in addition to
+ uS1/!, ode, song, from delSew, aeidem, to sing).
A name given by grammarians to any poem in
which the metrical unit is a distich, consisting
of a long verse and a shorter verse, especially
when an iambic trimeter is followed by an iam-
bic dimeter, as in Horace's Epodes 1-10. Epodes
of this sort had been written by Archilochus
(q.v.) and Stesichorus (q.v.). In the distich
here used the second verse of such couplet ia a
sort of metrical refrain. Horace called these
poems fambi, partly by reason of their metre,
partly because in them he reproduced the cen-
sorious spirit of the poems of Archilochus,
themselves largely in iambic verse. Consult
Scllar, Horace and the Elegiac Poets, 118-11J1
(Oxford, 1912). In Greek choral poetry the
term is also applied to an ode which follows a
strophe and an antistrophe, or a serioa of
strophes and antistrophes, and no forms the
third or after part, so to say, in the scries.

EPO3YEEO, a'po-ma'6 (Lat. Epomeus, JSpo-
peus). A volcanic mountain, rising to 2588 feet,
10 miles southwest of Naples, on the island of
Ischia (Map: Italy, B 11). It is also called
Mount San Nicola, from the hermitage, of San
Nieola, hewn in the rock just below the summit,
which commands on the west a panoramic view
of the sea; on the north, of the distant snow-
capped peaks of the Abruzzi, of the Bay of
Gaeta, and of the coast from Mount Circeo to
Cape Miseno; on the east, of Vesuvius and
of the Bay of Naples and its beautiful shore
from the island of Procida to the island of
Capri. On account of the eruptions 'of the
volcano the island was deserted by most of the
inhabitants in 474 B.C. The last of numerous
recorded eruptions occurred in 1302; it left a
stream of lava that is still plainly noticeable
where it is crossed by the road near the town
of Ischia. A large mass from Mount Epomeo
was displaced by the earthquake of July 28,
1883. Mythology pictured the giant Typhoeus
(Vergil, JEneid, ix, 716), after being transfixed

EPOMETTS 38

by the thunderbolt of Jupiter, 'as buried beneath
Mount Epomeo and by his struggles causing its
eruptions.

EPOMETTS, EPOPEUS. See EPOMEO.
EP03STA, ep'6-na (Lat. Epona). A goddess of
stables and of horses, asses, and mules, wor-
shiped first in ancient Gaul, and later, by the
first century A.D., in Rome (Juvenal, viii, 157).
She was believed to secure for the animals
named above their food, and to protect thorn,
not only against accidents, but against the ma-
lign beings that, it was thought, cast spells over
stables by night. Inscriptions in her honor
have been found in Gaul, Germany, the Danube
country, and in Rome (in the latter city chiefly
on the site of the barracks occupied by re-
cruits from tbe Batavi ) . Consult Wiasowa,'
Religion und Kultus der Romer (2d ed., Munich,
1912).

EPCWYMnTS (^(avvfj.os, cpvnymos, an ad-
jective of various meanings, but for the purposes
of this article definable as "giving one's name to
something or someone," from M, upon, and Svopa,
name). A term applied to the arclion (q.v.)
or to the ephor (see EPIIORI) who gave his
mime to tho year. The Greek tribes and cities
commonly traced their origin to some eponymous
hero; so 'the 10 tribes established at Athens by
ClisUicnes were each named after some national
hero.

EP'ORE'DIA. See IVEEA.
EPOS. See EPIC POETKY.
EP'PING-. A town of Essex Co., England,
at the north end of Epping Forest, 17 miles
north-northeast of London (Map: England, G
5). It is noted for its cream, butter, sausages,
and pork, large quantities of which are sent to
London. Pop., 1901, 3800; 1911, 4253. Epping1
Forest is a part of Waltham Forest, which
covered all Essex and extended almost to Lon-
don. It is now limited to a comparatively small
area in the southwest part of the county. Here
for many centuries a fair was held under the
enormous Fairlop oak, no longer existent, and
a stag was yearly turned out in the forest on
Easter Monday to be hunted by the general
public. In 1882, 5600 acres of Epping Forest
were bought by the Corporation of London and
declared free to the public in perpetuity.
EPPING- FOREST. See EPPING.
EP'SOM. A market town on the margin of
the Banstcad Downs in Surrey, England, 14
miles south-southwest of London (Map: Eng-
land, F 5). The famed sulphate of magnesia
springs of Epsom gave their name to the Epsom
salts formerly manufactured from them. The
Royal Medical College erected on the Downs
provides education for about 170 boys, the sons
of medical men, and affords a home to indigent
members of the profession and their, widows.
The electric-light and water supply are owned
by the corporation. Pop., 1901, 10,900; 1911,
19,156. On the Downs, 1% miles south of the
town, the famous Epsom horse races are held
yearly. They are said to have been held here
in the reign of James I. See HORSE RACING.

EP'SOMITE. A natural hydrous magnesium
sulphate corresponding in composition to Epsora
salt (q.v.). It is usually found in -white botry-
oidal masses and delicately fibrous crusts and is
characterized by its bitter saline taste.

EPSOM SALT. A hydrous magnesium sul-
phate found native as the mineral kieserite and
as cpsomite, also in mineral waters. The kieser-
ite is found in the Stassfurt salt beds, and the

EPWOBTH LEAGUE

epsomite occurs in the gypsum quarries of Mont-
martre, France, in Spain, in Chile, and in the
limestone caves of Indiana, Kentucky, and Ten-
nessee, and especially in the Mammoth Cave,
Kentucky. It was originally obtained from the
waters of the mineral spring in Epsom, England,
and subsequently was made by decomposing
dolomite with sulphuric acid; but the principal
source of the commercial salt is now the Stass-
furt salt mines in Saxony, where tbe crude min-
eral is separated from the accompanying mag-
nesium and sodium chlorides by dissolving out
these two salts with water, which leaves the
magnesium sulphate as a fine powder that may
be purified by crystallization from water. Epsom
salt is used in medicine as a cathartic; it is al.so
employed for agricultural purposes, in the proc-
ess of warp-sizing cotton, and for dyeing with
aniline colors.

EPSTEIN, JACOB (1880- ). An English
sculptor. IFe was born in Xew York, of Uussian-
Polish parentage, studied under Rodin in Paris,
and lator took up his residence in London. Hi ;
first important work was 18 symbolical nude
figures for the facade of the new'building of the
British Medical Association on the Strand
(1J)07-08), plated 30 feet above the ground and
representing "Hygeiii," "Chemical Research."
''Maternity," "Youth," etc. By reason of their
excessive realism they excited the animosity of
the press and various religious bodies, but the\
found able defenders in Herbert Gladstone und
Sir Martin Conway. Epstein's tomb of Oscar
Wilde in Pere Lachaise Cemetery, Paris, \\as
erected in 1909. Later he executed the decora-
tion of Church Square, facing the government
buildings, at Pretoria, Transvaal. His art is
exceedingly modern and represents a revolt
against mere prettiness in imitation of the
Greek.

EP'WOB.TH LEAGUE. An organization of
tho young people of the Methodist Kpiscopal
church, formed in 1880 at Cleveland, Ohio, by
the combination of five young people's organiza-
tions at that time existing. The purpose of flu*
league is the. promotion of intelligent and vital
piety among the young people of the church. It
conducts classes in T»ible study, mission*, social
service, and personal evangelism, institutes an*
held annually, in which trained specialists give
instruction in the different forms of fhri.sliaii
work. The/ league also supplements the work
of tho denomination in its vari<m> minion
fields. The league exists in both the Xorlliern
and Southern branches of the Methodist Kpisco-
pal denomination and also in the Methodist
church of Canada. In the latter it was or-
gunizod in 1800. The Junior ICp worth Len'jue
is an organization of the baptized children over
the age of 30 years. The admission of children
not baptized is also permitted. Plans for the
Junior league include a graded outline* for th<»
social life and activities coordinating the. \vorK
of the boys' and girls' clubs, and a grade- 1
course of study covering a practical method of
bringing the Bible in touch with the everyday
life of children. Courses in Church history/go','-
ernment, doctrines, and benevolences are also
included. The membership of the senior branch
in the Methodist. Episcopal church Korth in
1913 was 593,405, and of the junior branch
218,509. In the Methodist Episcopal church
South there were, in 1913, 3840 chapters of the
league, with 133,707 jncmlxw. The headquar-
ters of the Northern League are in Chicago, and

EQUALITY

its organ is the Epworth Herald. The organ
of the Southern branch is the Epworth Era, pub-
lished monthly at Nashville, Tenn. Consult:
Bacon and Northrop, Young People's Societies
(New York, 1000); The Methodist Year Book;
Dan B. Bruin niett, Ep worth League Methods
(ib., 190G).

EQUAI/ITY. A vague term of varying sig-
nification in the recent history of social and
political speculation. In its primary sense it
denotes the equal worthiness of all human be-
ings, and calls for such an arrangement of the
structure of society as to insure to all an equal
degree of the essential advantages of life. It is
in this sense that it was employed by Rousseau
in his famous declaration that it was the func-
tion of the state to maintain liberty and equal-
ity among its subjects (Contrat^ Social, ii, 11),
and in the assertion of the American Declaration
of Independence of the "self-evident" truth that
all men are created equal. It was this kind of
equality that, under the influence of Rousseau,
the French Devolution aimed to realize, and
uhe ideal to which it points has been the in-
spiration of more than one p movement for the
emancipation of humanity. How much the
steady march of the democratic movement of the
lust century and the spread of popular govern-
ment owe to this humanitarian sentiment for
equality can only be imagined. It is in this
extreme and sentimental form, also, that the
doctrine has incurred the hostile criticism of
hard-headed and unsympathetic writers such as
Mr. Justice Stephen (Liberty, Equality, and
Fraternity) and Sir Henry Maine (Popular
(xorrrnment). The influence of the doctrine in
the communistic and socialistic movements of
the day will be described in connection with
those topics.

The term "equality" is somewhat more defi-
nitely employed in a secondary sense to denote
one of the two great aims of the modern demo-
cratic movement in society and politics. One
of those aims is individual liberty, and the other
is such a measure of equality as is compatible
with a rational liberty. The reconciliation of
tlieso two conflicting aims is the great task of
government, and it is through this process of
reconciliation that the conception of equality
has been brought within the sphere of practical
discussion. As a political programme, then, it
includes the following definite aims: first, equal-
ity of political status; second, equality of civil
rights; and third, equality of opportunity. The
first of these is secured by the widest possible
extension of the principle of popular govern-
ment; the second by the abolition of privilege,
whether based on wealth, on birth, or on pub-
lic service; the third by breaking down the
artificial barriers of caste, affording to all an
equal enjoyment of public utilities and the
advantages of a common education. Equality
of political rights and equality before the law
have been measurably attained in some favored
lands, but industrial equality is still far to
seek.

This principle of human equality is a purely
modern conception and had its origin in the
Christian conception of the equality of all men
before God. It derived its impulse, as a social
and political principle, mainly from the passion-
ate writings of Jean Jacques Rousseau. See DE-
MOCRACY; LIBERTY OF THE INDIVIDUAL. Consult
the authorities referred to under such titles as
DEMOCRACY; POLITICAL SCIENCE, ETC.

EQUATION

EQUAL BIGHTS PARTY, THE. See Loco-

FOCO.

EQUA'TIOW (Lat. cequatio, from (square, to
equalize, from cequus, equal). In algebra, an
equality which exists only for particular values
of certain letters representing the unknown
quantities is called an equation. These particu-
lar values are called the roots of the equation,
and the determination of these roots is called
the solution of the equation. Thus, 2# + 3 = 9
is an equation, because the equality is true only
for a particular value of the unknown quantity
#, viz., for a? = 3. The expression 2 + 5 = 7 ex-
presses an equality, but it is not an equation as
the word is technically used in mathematics.
Expressions like (a + #)2 = fla + 2<w? + tf3 are
true for all values of the letters and are called
identities to distinguish them from those equal-
ities which are, in the stricter use of the term,
known as equations. If an algebraic function
/(j?) equals zero, and is arranged according to
the descending, integral, positive powers of #,
it has the form /(#) = a{^,+ a1o?*-i+ ....
+ an_i so + an= 0. Such an equation is called a,
complete equation of the nth degree with one
unknown quantity; e.g., a<&* H~ Q>\.® -{- a3 = 0 is
a complete equation of the second degree, while
a,fl!2 + as = 0 is an incomplete equation of the
second degree. The letters a0> at, . . . . ttn-i, ffn
stand for known quantities, and in the theory
of equations, so called, they stand for real quan-
tities. They are all coefficients of powers of
a?, except the absolute term, an, which may be
considered the coefficient of #°. fn case «„» fli,
.... a are all expressed as numbers, the equa-
tion is said to be numerical; otherwise it is
known as literal.

Equations may be classified as to the number
of their unknown quantities. Those already
mentioned involve a single unknown, but as9 +
®V + 2/2 = 0 and asy = 1 involve two unknowns.
There is no theoretical limit to the number of
unknown quantities. Equations may also be
classified as to degree, this being determined by
the value of n in the complete equation already
given. Thus,

+ fli "• 0

re8 4-

are equations respectively of the first decr
(simple or linear equation), of the wer-oncl de-
gree (quadratic equation), of the third degree
(cubic equation), and of the fourth degree
(quartic or biquadratic equation).

If two or more equations are satisfied by the
same value of the unknown quantities, they are
said to be simultaneous, as in the case of or* + .V
•=7, J? + 2/a = 11, where ID = 2, y = 3 ; but
a?2 + y = 7 and Sa?3 + 3?/ = 9 are not simulta-
neous; they are inconsistent, there being no val-
ues of a? and y that will satisfy both; and
a? + y = 7 and 30* -f 3,v = 21 are said to b<;
identical, each being derivable from the other.
In case there is not a sufficient number of rela-
tions given to enable the roots of an equation
to be determined, exactly or approximately, the
equation is said to be indeterminate: e.g., in the
equation r + 2y = 10, any of the following pairs
of values satisfies the equation: (0, 5), (1, 4.5),
(2, 4), (3, 3.5),.... (10, 0), (11, -0.5),....
In general, n linear equations, each containing
n + 1 or more unknown quantities, are indeter-
minate. Thus, 2a? + By + & = 10, 3# + 2y + # =
8, give rise to the simple equation — o> + y ^ 2,

EQUATION

which is indeterminate. Equations may also be
classified as rational, irrational, integral, or
fractional, according as the two members, when
like terms are united, are composed of ex-
pressions which are rational, irrational (or
partly so), integral, or fractional (or partly so),
icspectively, with respect to the unknown quan-
tities; e.g.:

to 4-V5~= 0 is a rational integral equation,
6 + f V# = 0 is an irrational integral equation,
o

= 0 is a rational fractional equation,

=• 5 is an irrational fractional equa-

tion.

Algebra is chiefly concerned with the solution
of equations, and definite methods have been de-
vised for determining the roots of algebraic
equations of the first, second, third, and fourth
degrees. Equations of the first degree are
solved by applying the common axioms: if
equals are added to equals, the results are
equal; if equals are subtracted from equals, the
results are equal; and the corresponding axioms
of multiplication and division. Equations of
the second degree may be solved by reducing
the quadratic function to the product of two
linear factors, thus making the solution of the
quadratic equation depend upon that of two
linear equations.
Thus, or1 + px + q = 0 reduces to

whence

~-4g = 0, and x = —

Similarly the solution of the cubic equation is
made to depend upon that of the quadratic equa-
tion, and that of the biqiiadratic equation upon
that of the cubic equation. These formulas,
however, when applied to numerical equations,
often involve operations upon complex numbers
not readily performed and hence are of little
value in such cases; e.g., in applying the gen-
oral formula for the roots of the cubic equation,
the cube root of a complex number is often re-
quired, in which case the methods of trigonom-
etry are employed. The real roots of numerical
equations of any degree may be calculated ap-
proximately by the methods of Newton, La-
grange, and Homer, the last being a rediscovery
of an old Chinese method and being the one
generally preferred.

Equations of the first degree were familiar to
the Egyptians in the time of Ahmes (q.v.),
since a papyrus transcribed by him contains an
equation in the following form: Mass (Jiau), its
%, its yS3 its */7i its whole, gives 37; i.e.,

»* + 4* + ** + *-87.
The iincicnt Greeks knew little of linear equa-
tions except through proportion, but they treated
in geometric form many quadratic and cubic
equations. (See CUBE.) Diophantus (c.275 A,D.),
however, distinguished the coefficients (7rXijf0os)
of the unknown quantitv, gave the equation a
symbolic form, classified equations, and gave
definite rules for reducing them to their sim-
plest forms. His work was chiefly concerned
with indeterminate systems of equations, and
liis method of treatment is known as Diophan-
tine analysis (q.v.).

The Egyptian mathematicians were acquainted
with problems which we would solve by quad-

40 EQtJATION

ratios. The Petrie papyrus (published in 1897)
and the Berlin papyrus (No. 6G10) both con-
tain such problems. One pair of equations,
expressed in modern form, is as follows:
tf + tf = 100

The Greeks of the time of Euclid could solve
a quadratic equation geometrically, and Dio-
phantus could do so with some approach to the
symbolic methods.

The Chinese likewise solved quadratic equa-
tions geometrically, and Sun Tse (third cen-
tury), like Diophantus, developed a method of
solving linear indeterminate equations. The
Hindus advanced the knowledge of the Greeks.
Bhaskara (twelfth centuiy) u-ied only one type
of quadratic equation, tt.r2 + &a' + c1 = 0, Con-
sidered both signs of the square root, and dis-
tinguished the surd values, \\hile the Greeks
accepted only positive integers. Tin1 Arphs
improved the methods of their predecessors.
They developed quite an elaborate system of
symbolism. The equations of Al Kalsudi (fif-
teenth century) are models of brevity, and this
plan for solving linear equations, a modified
Hindu method, was Mhat was later kiumn as
the rcgitla falsL See FALSE POSITION.

The Europeans of the Middle Ages made little
advance in the solving of equation* until the
discovery by Fcrro, Tartaglia, and Cardan (six-
teenth century) of the general solution of the
cubic equation. The solution of the biquadratic
equation soon followed, and the general quintal
was attacked. But, although much vuis done to
advance the general theory of the equation by
Vandermonde, Kuler, Lagrange, Bezout, Waring,
Malfatti, and others, it was not until the begin-
ning of the nineteenth century that equations of
a degree higher than the fourth received satis-
factory treatment, llufiim and Abel were the
first to demonstrate that the solution, by alge-
braic .methods, of a general equation of a 'degree*
higher than the fourth is impossible, and to
direct investigation into new channels. Mathe-
maticians now sought to classify equations
which could be solved algebraically* and to dis-
cover higher methods for those* which could
not. Gauss solved the cyclotomic group, AU*1
the, group known as the Abelian equation*, and
Galois stated the necessary and sufficient condi-
tion for the algebraic solubility of any equation
as follows: Tf the degree of an irreducible equa-
tion is a prime number, the equation is soluble
by radicals alone, provided the root.* of this
equation can be expressed rationally in terms of
any two of them. As to higher method*,
Tschirnhausen, Bring, and Jlermite have shown
that the general equation of the fifth degree
can be put in the form /5 — t — A = 0; H<*r-
mite and Kronecker solved the equation of tlii*
fifth degree by elliptic functions and Klein
has given the simplest solution by transcen-
dental functions.

A few of the more important properties of
equations aro: 1. Tf r is a root of the equation
/(,r) = 0, then # — r is a factor of /f,r) ; e.g.,
2 being a root of a* + 2a» — 8 = 0, then x — 2
is a factor of .r2 + 2,r — R.

2. Tf /(#) is divisible by x — r, r is a root of
/(*) =s 0; e.g., in (J8 -2) (o?a + ,r + 1) =0,
as — 2 is a factor, hence $ — 2 = 0 RatisfSen the
cqtiation, and y = 2.

3. Every equation of the nth degree has »
roots and no more (the fundamental theorem of

EQUATION i

equations due to Harriot, or, in its complete
form, to IHAlembert) : e.g., a>* — 1 = 0 has four
roots, ao = 1, — 1, if — i, and no more.

4. The coefficients of an equation are func-
tions of its roots. Thus, in

rit ra, . . . . rn are the roots, then

= — (n + ra + . . . . + rn), a* = n r2 + n rs -f

rn-2 rn-i rn) .... On = =«= ri ra .... rn.

5. The number of positive roots of f(oc) =0
does not exceed the number of changes of signs
in f(oo). (Descartes's rule of signs.) For in-
stance, in #* — Sa?3 — 2a? + x — 1 = 0 there
are 3 changes of signs, hence there can be no
more than 3 positive roots.

6. The special functions associated with the
roots of an equation which serve to distinguish
the nature of these roots are called discrimi-
nants', e.g., the general form of the roots of the
quadratic equation, of + pa + q = 0, may be
taken as

The expression

p*-4g

is the discriminant, for, if 4g > pa, the roots are
complex; if 4# = p2, the roots are real and
equal; if 4? < p*, the roots are real and un-
equal; and if pa — ±q is a perfect square, the
roots are rational. Similarly the discriminant
of the cubic tf + 37w» + g = 0 is

g* + 4A'.

The discriminants of equations of higher degree
are fully explained in works on the theory of
equations.

A differential equation is an equation involv-
ing differential coefficients ( see CALCULUS ) ; e.g.,

from which it is required to find the relation be-
tween y and #. The theory of the solution of
such equations is an extension of the integral
calculus and is a branch of study of the highest
importance.

For the general theory of equations, consult:
Dickson, Introduction to the Theory of Alge-
braic Equations (New York, 1903) ; JJurnside
and Panton, Theory of liquations (4th ed.,
London, 1899-1901), the appendix to which
contains valuable historical material; Peterson,
Thforie des Equations algebriqucs (trans, by
Laurent, Paris, 1897) ; Salmon, Lessons Intro-
ductory to Modern Higher Algebra (Dublin,
1859, and subsequent eds.) ; Serret, Cours d'al*
gdore supfrieure (3d ed., Paris, 1806) ; Jordan,
Trait6 des substitutions et des equations alg&-
briques (ib.. 1870). An extensive work, cover-
ing both history and method, is Matthiessen,
Grundaiige der antiken und mod&i-nen Algebra,
der Utteralen Oleichungen (Leipzig, 1896).

EQUATION, ANNUAL. One of the most
conspicuous of the subordinate fluctuations in
the moon's motion, due to the action of the sun.
It consists in an alternate increase and decrease
in the moon's longitude, corresponding with the
earth's situation in its annual orbit, i.e., to its
angular distance from perihelion, and there-
fore it has a year instead of a month, or aliquot
part of a month, for its period. See LUNAR
THEOBT.

I EQUATION OF TI3CB

EQUATION, CHEMICAL. See CHEMISTBY.

EQUATION, PEBSONAL. A very important
factor in astronomical or other scientific obser-
vations. Two observers, each of admitted skill,
often differ in their record of the same event
— as the passage of a star before the wires of
a transit instrument — by a quantity nearly the
same for all observations by those persons.
This quantity is their relative personal equa-
tion. Each observer habitually notes the time
too early or too late, by a small and nearly uni-
form portion of a second. This quantity is his
absolute personal equation. Machines have been
invented for determining the amount of per-
sonal equation by reproducing artificially the
kind of observation usually affected with this
form of error in actual work on the sky. The
so-called Rcpsold apparatus is a mechanical de-
vice which so changes the condition of observa-
tion with a transit instrument or meridian
circle that the personal equation is removed
altogether, and its quantitative evaluation is
rendered unnecessary.

EQUATION OF LIGHT. In astronomical
observations, the ray of light by which we see
any celestial body is not that which it emits at
the moment we look at it, but which it did emit
some time before, viz., the time occupied by
light in traversing the space which separates
us from the celestial body. The quantity of
time so required for the passage of light from
the sun to the earth is the so-called light equa-
tion. It amounts to about 8 minutes, 20
seconds.

EQUATION OF PAYMENTS. A methqd
of finding the time when, if a sum of money is
paid all at once by a debtor, instead of several
debts payable by him at different times, no
loss will be sustained by either the debtor or
creditor. The common rule is: Multiply each
debt by its term of credit, and divide the
sum of" the products by the s\im of the debts.
The quotient will be the average term of credit.
This added to the date from which the credits
were i*ec'koned will give the average time of
payments; e.g., to find the average time of pay-
ing $200 due April 1, $200 due May 11, and
$400 due June 30: $200 + 40 X $200 + 90 X
$400 = $44,200; $44,200 -r- $800 = 55. April
1 -f 55 days = May 26, the equated time. This
method is incorrect, except for equal debts, be-
cause it takes no account of the balance of inter-
est and discount. It is, however, sufficiently
accurate for ordinary use.

EQUATION OF THE CENTRE. A term
used by astronomers in connection with the
planets' orbital motions. The anomaly (q.v.) of
a planet docs not increase uniformly after peri-
helion passage, because, according to Kepler's
law, a line joining the planet with the sun
sweeps over equal areas (not equal angles) in
equal times. The angle by which the true
anomaly exceeds the mean anomaly is called the
equation of the centre.

EQUATION OF THE EQUINOXES. The
difference between the actual position of the
equinoxes (q.v.) and the position calculated
on the assumption that their motion is uniform.
Sec PBECESSIOIT.

EQUATION OF TIME. The amount which
must be added to the apparent time to obtain
the mean time; in other words, the mean time
of apparent or true noon. The sun's motion
in the ecliptic is not uniform. This want of
uniformity would of itaelf be sufficient to cause

EQUATOR *

an irregularity in the intervals of time between
successive returns of the sun to the meridian,
day after day; but besides this want of uni-
formity in the sun's apparent motion in the
ecliptic, there is another cause of inequality in
the time of his coming to the meridian, the
obliquity of the ecliptic to the equinoctial.
These two independent causes conjointly pro-
duce the inequality in the time of his appear-
ance on the meridian, the correction for which
is the equation of time. The equation of time
varies from day to day and is to be found tabu-
lated in astronomical almanacs, such as the
Nautical Almanac, under the heading "Sun be-
fore clock" or "Sun after clock." It is zero
at four different times in the year, when
the mean and unequal motions exactly agree —
viz., about April 15, June 15, August 31, and
December 24; on account of leap year, those
dates may vary by a day. From December 24
to April 15 and from June 15 to August 31,
the equation of time is positive, i.e., the sun
is slow or "after the clock," the maximum
amounts being 14 minutes, 28 seconds on Febru-
ary 11, and 6 minutes, 17 seconds on July 20;
during the remaining portions of the year the
equation of time is negative, and the sun is
fast, or "before the clock," the maximum
amounts being 3 minutes, 40 seconds on May
14, and 16 minutes, 21 seconds on November 3.
EQTJA'TOR, CELESTIAL (ML. ccquator, equal-
izer, from Lat. wquare, to equalize). The great
circle which would be cut out on the sky by
extending the plane of the earth's equator.

EQUATOR^ TERBESTKIAL. The givat circle on.
the earth's surface, halfway between the poles,
which divides the earth into the Northern and
Southern hemispheres.

E'QTJATO'RIAIi (from ML. aqua tor, equal-
izer). A term applied in astronomy to a method
of mounting astronomical telescopes, by which a
celestial body may be observed at any point of
its diurnal course. It consists of a telescope
fastened to a graduated circle, called the dec-
lination circle, whose axis is attached at
right angles to that of another graduated circle
called the hour circle and is wholly supported
by it. The hour-circle axis, which is called the
principal axis of the instrument, turns on fixed
supports; it is pointed to the pole of the
heavens, and the hour circle is of course parallel
to the equinoctial. This combination of axes
gives us a universal joint, thus enabling us to
point the tube at any star in the sky; and
with the pair of circles we can measure and
record the exact position in the sky of the
star under observation. On account of one axis
being pointed at the pole, about which all the
stars revolve in their diiimal course, it becomes
possible to follow their motions by rotating the
telescope about this one axis only, and this
rotation can be effected easily and conveniently
with clockwork. See TELESCOPE.

E'QUES'TRIAIT ORDER (Lat. ordo eques-
ter), or EQTTITES (Lat., horsemen, knights,
from equus, horse). Originally the cavalry of
the Roman army. Romulun, it is said, selected
from the three principal Roman tribes a cav-
alry bodyguard of 300, called celeres. By the
constitution of Servius Tullius 18 centuries (see
COMITIA) of equites were created. (See ROME,
History of Rome during the Earliest or Regal
Period.) The number was afterward gradually
increased to 1800, who were partly of patrician
and partly of plebeian rank and were required

.2 EQUESTRIAN" STATtTE

to possess a certain amount of property (400,-
000 sestertii, about $17,000). Each of lhe&u
equites received a horse from the state and an-
other for his groom, together with an allotment
for the keep of the horses; such horsemen weie
known as equites equo pitllico, horsemen or
knights with a state horse; but about 403 B.C.
a new body of equites began to make their
appearance, composed of wealthy citizens who
furnished a horse at their own expense (cquih-t
equo privato). The equites were reviewed la-
the censors (see CENSOK) ; equites who failel
to meet the tests of physique and character
were dropped from the rolls. Until 12:1 i;u,
the equites were exclusively a, military luxh Imi
in that year Caius Giacchus carried a meuMiiv
by which all the judiccs (jurors) had to 1» •
selected from them. Now, for the fir^t time,
they became a distinct order or class in tl in-
state, nonmilitary in character, and uere eallnl
ordo equcster. Sulla depiive'l them of thin
privilege; but their power did not then ilecrea-e,
as the farming of the public revenues appear* to
have fallen into their hands. (See PI'JJUOAM.)
They became the money aristocracy of Rome.
To the title of Senatus populmtqiic Jirtnnitttttt
was added ct ordo equcster. As their insignia,
the equites wore a gold ring and the atuntati-
clavus (the tunic with two narrow crim-oii
stripes down the front). From the time of
Augustus the ordo equcster became again mili-
tary in character.

From these equites the higher oflicers of the
army were chosen. To fit him for high com-
mand, each eques was required to pass through
a definite sequence of offices, known as the
equestris ourswt honor urn. From the equites,
too, certain magistrates were chosen. Hence
admission to the cquites constituted, in effect,
an introduction to public life. Consult JSghert,
Introduction to the tftudy of 7*atin Iiutc
(New York, 1800). On the equitcs in
consult article "KquitcK11 in Smith, .-I
ary of Greek and It o in an Antiquities (3d H.,
London, 1890); Greeiiidgr, .1 Hittfam of If<ntn,
vol. i (ib., 1905) ; the article "Kqu'tes Rnmani,"
in Pauly-Wissowa, Rral-KncwIoiM'ttlic tier elan-
siscJien AUertumswissenschaft, vol. vi (Stutt-
gart, 1909).

EQUESTRIAN STATUE. The representa-
tion in sculpture of a person on horseback.
Equestrian statues wore not commonly i-ivctcd
in Greece, but in Rome they were often awarded
as a higli honor to military commanders and
persons of distinction, and "latterly were, for
the most part, restricted to the emperors, the
most famous in existence being that of the
Emperor Marcus AurcliuH, which now stands in
the piazza of the Capitol at Koine. It is the
only ancient equestrian statue in bronze thai
has been preserved. They won* not erected
during the Middle Ages, except at the. close of
the epoch when stone equestrian statues of St.
George* and St. Martin were- carved, especially
in France. From the same period are the three
remarkable Bella Scala monuments afc Verona.
The first bronze equestrian statue of the Ren-
aissance, and therefore of mo<lern art, wan
that of Gattemelata by Donatello at Padua,
and the finest that of Bartolonnneo Cnllponi
by Verrocchio in Venice-— probably the grandest
equestrian statue in existence, (liar act eristic
examples of equestrian statues (hiring the ba-
roque period are : "The Great Elector" by Andreas
Schluter in Berlin, Louis XI by Petitot in

EQUID/E

1. AFRICAN WILD-ASS (Equus aslnus).

2. 7 RUE, OR MOUNTAIN ZEBRA (Equus zebra). v

3. KIANG, OR ASIATIC WILD-ASS (Equus hemlonus).

4. QUAGQA (Equus quaggajj extinct.

5. MUSTANG OF SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES.

6. BURCHELL'S ZEBRA (Equus Burchelll).

EQUIASTGULAB

Versailles, Peter the Great by Falconet in St.
Petersburg. During the nineteenth century
bronze equestrian statues were indefinitely mul-
tiplied to such an extent that few important
cities in Europe or America are without one
or more examples. According to statistics
gathered in 1913 there are about 030 in the
world, 89 of which are in the United States.
Paris leads with 25, including the statue of
Joan of Arc by Fremiet, Lafayette by Paul
Bartlett, and Washington by Daniel Chester
French and Potter. Berlin has 14, including
Frederick the Great (for illustration see the
Plato with article RAUCH) by Christian Ranch
— imp of the very finest of modern times — and
William 1 by Jleinhold Begas. Other prominent
European examples are: Maximilian I by Ihor-
tjldHen at Munich; the four equestrian statues
of the Maria Theresa monument by Ziimbusch;
and Alexander III by Troubetskoy at St. Peters-
burg. Among the finest recent examples in
England are Hugh Lupus by G. F. Watts
(Chester) and the Duke of Wellington (in St.
Paul's Cathedral) by Alfred Stevens.

The first equestrian statue in the United
States was that of General Jackson in Washing-
ton, designed and cast by Clarke Mills in 1853
(replicas in Nashville and New Orleans) ; the
second was the well-known "Washington" by
H. K. Brown in New York— still one of the
most notable in the country. There is an espe-
cially large number at Washington (12 in 1013),
including General Thomas by J. Q. A. Ward,
General McClcllan by MacMonnics, and General
Sheridan by Gutzcm Borglum; an equal number
in Philadelphia, particularly in connection with
the llidmrd Smith Memorial, Fairmount Park.
Boston also possesses nevera! good examples, in-
cluding theme of Washington by Thomas Ball,
Colonel Shaw by Saint-Gaudens, and General
Hooker by D. 0. French and E. C. Potter; Chi-
cago also has good examples. Among other
notable equestrian statues in tho United States
arc those of General Sherman by Saint-Qaudens
in New York, General Slocum by MacMonuies
in Brooklyn, N. Y., Robert E. Leo by Mcrcicr in
Richmond, Va., and the Volunteer Monument
by Douglas Tilden in San Francisco. Some of
the battlefields of the Civil War, particularly
Gettysburg, have been transformed into parks
and contain a number of equestrian statues.
Consult Quimby, Tho Equestrian Monuments of
the, World (New York, 1903).

E'QUIAN'GflJLAB, (from Lat. ccquus, equal
+ angulus, angle). A figure is said to be
equiangular If all of its angles arc equal, as is
the case with the angles of a square or a regu-
lar polygon. Triangles which are mutually
cHiuiangulur are called similar; but other mutu-
ally equiangular polygons are not similar unless
their corresponding sides arc proportional. ( See
SIMILARITY.) A polyhedron is equiangular when
all itH polyhedral angles arc equal, as is the
cane with the angles of a cube. A spiral (q.v.)
!fl called equiangular when tho angle included
between any radius vector and the tangent at
its extremity is the same in all cases. This is
thft characteristic property of the logarithmic
spiral.

EQTJTOaS (Neo-Lat. nom. pi., from equus,
horse), or SOLIDUNGTJLA. The horses, a family
of hoofed mammals of tho suborder Peris-
sodaetvla, containing only a small number of
aneeicH, which so nearly resemble each other
that mofit zoologist* agree in referring them to
VOL. VIII.— 4

43 EQTTILIBRnJH

one genus, Equus, though some have put the
asses in the separate genus Asinus. They are
distinguished from other quadrupeds by the con-
centration of the foot and toes, or the extraor-
dinary development of the middle toe, which
thus carries the whole weight and is incased in
a bootlike hoof. There are, however, two small
protuberances ("splint" bones) on each side of
both the inetacarpal and metatarsal, or "cannon"
bones, which represent the former existence of
other ^ toes. The Equidro have six incisors in
each jaw, and six molars on each side in each
jaw; the males have also two small canine teetli
in the upper jaw, sometimes in both jaws, which
are almost always wanting in the females. The
molars of the Equidte have square crowns, and
are marked by the lamino of enamel with ridges
forming four crescents. The wearing down of
these develops different patterns at different
ages, by the examination of which, in the in-
cisors, a person may determine with consider-
able accuracy the ago of a horse. (See Plate
illustrating this under HORSE.) There is a wide
space between the canine teeth and the molars.
The stomach of the Equidcc is simple, but the
intestines are long, and the caecum extremely
large; the digestive organs thus exhibiting an ad-
aptation, very different from those of the rumi-
nants, to the same kind of not easily assimilated
food. Another distinctive peculiarity of the
EquidsB ifl that the females have two teats situ-
ated on the pubcs, between the thighs. The
Equidoo are now found in a truly wild state only
in Asia and Africa. FosHil remains exist in the
newer geological formations in great abundance
in many parts of both the Old World and the
New; and the whole evolutionary history of the
Equidte has been admirably worked out. (Sec
HOBSE, FOSSIL.) The horse and the ass arc
by far the most important species of this
family. The quagga is extinct. The zebra
seems incapable of useful domestication. Some
attempts have been made, however, to cross
zebras with horses in the hope that the hybrid
might be able to withstand the attacks of the
tsetfie fly (q.v.) in South Africa; but thoxigh
tho hybrids arc easily obtained and seem hardy,
they cannot survive the bites of that terrible
scourge. See Ass; HORSE; MITLIC; QUAGGA;
ZEBRA.

E'QTTILIB'BnJM:, MECHANICAL (Lat. equi-
librium, level position, from aqiwu, equal +
libra, balance). The condition of a body or of a
system of bodies when there is no change in
its motion; i.e., there is no acceleration of any
kind, either of translation or of rotation. The
mathematical conditions are, therefore, that
the resiiltant force in any direction is zero, and
tli at the resultant moment of the forces around
any axis is zero. Equilibrium is called stable,
unstable, or neutral, depending upon the conse-
quence of giving the body or syatem of bodies a
small impulse; if the change which results from
this impulse IB decreaned by the forces called
into action by the motion, the equilibrium is
stable; if it increases, the equilibrium is un-
stable; if it remains unchanged, it is neutral.
Thus, a body suspended at rent by a string is in
stable equilibrium; a knife balanced on its point
is in unstable equilibrium ; a sphere lying on a
smooth horizontal table is in neutral equilibrium.
The use of the word "equilibrium'1 is extended
also BO as to include the condition of no ap-
parent change in many other cases. A liquid
IB in equilibrium with its vapor if there IB no

EQUIMULTIPLE 44

longer any apparent evaporation or condensa-
tion. Thermal equilibrium is the condition
when there is no longer any change in tem-
perature. See MECHANICS.
E'QUIltiri/TIPLE. See MULTIPLE.
EQUINE ANTELOPE. A book name for
cither the roan or the sable antelope (qq.v.).
See BLAUBOK, and Plate of ANTELOPES.
EQTJIN1A. See GLANDEBS.
E'QUINOC'TIAIi (Lat. ccquinoctialis, from
ccquinoctium, equinox, from ccqiius, equal + woo?,
night). The celestial equator. (See EQUATOK,
CELESTIAL.) The equinoctial points are those
in which the equinoctial and the ecliptic inter-
sect. See ECLIPTIC.

EQUINOCTIAL STORM, or GALE. For at
least 300 years past, whenever a severe storm
occurs on the Atlantic coast of North America
or Great Britain at the season of the equinox,
either autumnal or vernal, it has been spoken
of as ''the equinoctial storm" or gale, and there
has sprung up a popular belief that such a
severe storm is due at or near the date of the
equinox. The fact is, however, that the stormy
season of the year over the North Atlantic be-
gins with August and continues with increasing
severity until March or April, and there is no
special day or period inoro likely than another
to be stormy. Of course numerous severe storms
are recorded near these dates, such as those of
Sept. 20, 1070; Oct. 20, 1770; Sept. 23, 1815;
Oct. 2, 1841; Oct. 7, 1S49, and Sept. 8, 1809,
all of them along the American coast; but it
will be noticed that those dates have no close
connection with the equinoctial date — September
22 — and there are not more than a doxcu such
in the course of 200 years. The equinoctial
storm is therefore simply a name given to the
heaviest storm that happens to occur within
a few weeks of the date of the equinox. For
statistical details, consult: Quarterly Journal
Royal Meteorological Society (London, 1884) ;
United Mates Monthly Weathrr Review (Wash-
ington, 1 801-1014) ; Loomin, Treat i*e on J/<?-
teorohffj/ (New York, 1871, last ed. 1883).

E'QTJIN'OX'ES. Sometimes the equinoctial
points (see EQUINOCTIAL ) are called the equi-
noxes. More commonly, by the equinoxes are
meant the times when the sun pauses those
points, viz., March 21 and September 22, the
former being called the vernal or spring equi-
nox, and the latter the autumnal. When the
sun is in the equinoxes, the days and nights
are of equal length all over the world. At the
vernal equinox the sun is passing from south
to north, and in the Northern Hemisphere the
days are lengthening; at the autumnal, he is
passing from north to south, and the days are
shortening. As the earth moves more rapidly
when near the sun, or in winter, 'the Him'fl ap-
parent motion is not uniform, and it happens
that he takes longer to pass from the vernal to
the autumnal equinox than from the latter to
the former. The equinoctial points are not ata-
tionary, on account of procession (q.v.). See
ECLIPTIC.

E'QUIPOI/LENT (Lat. tequipollens, from
ccquusj equal + potterc, to have power). A term
which, applied to lines, signifies equal in length
and parallel in direction. There i» a special
geometry of such lines called the geometry of
equipollence. This term was used in algebra
by Ghuquet (1484) to designate equivalent ex-
pressions.

EQOTISETA'CE-ffi AND EQ'TJISETA'LES.
See EQUISETCJM.

EQUISETUM

EQ'TJISE'TTJM (Neo-Lat., from Lat. cquisa:-
tum, cquisoetis, cquiscta, from cijiius, horse -j-

of the Pteridophytes, the must conspicuous of the
other orders being the feins (Fiheales) and the
club mosses (Lycopodiales). The genus Ilqin-
sclum is represented in the living flora by about
25 species, which are the lingering remnants of
an extensive display that was a conspicuous
feature of the flora* of the Carboniferous and
Mesozoic. The living forms aie mostly small
and inconspicuous, but they aie very character-
istic in appearance. The stem is slender and
conspicuously jointed, the joints separating
easily; it is also grooved and fluted by small
longitudinal ridges, and there is such an abun-
dant deposit of silica in the epidermis that the
plants feel rough. At each joint there is a
sheath of minute leaves, the individual lenv<>s
sometimes being indicated only by minute teeth.
Since these leaves contain no chlorophyll and
evidently do not function as foliage l»»{nes, the
chlorophyll work is carried on by the yn»en
stem, which is either simple or profusely
hi anelied.

One of the distinguishing features of tin*
group is that they have distinct. spoie-lh'urimz
leaves ( sporophylls ) , and that these are- ar-
ranged so us to form u conelike cluster, or
wtiobilus. Each sporophvll in the strobile con-
sists of a stalklike portion bearing a "peltate
pxpunsioii. Beneath this shieldlike expansion
hang the upore cases (sporangia), usually rung-
ing from 5 to 10 in number. The spores pro-
duced are all alike, so that the group is not
one of those in which heterospory (q.v.) occurs
tit present, although it is suspected that some of
the ancient members of the group were heterrwpo-
rous. The spores have a very interesting struc-
ture. Jn addition to the two coats common to
spores, there is a third outer one consisting
of two intersecting spiral bands which are at-
tached to the spore only at their point of inter-
section. On drying, the spiral hands loosen and
become uncoiled, and when .moistened they close,
again around the spore. By means of the-e
movements they serve to hook together the
spores, and in this way the* close proximity of
germinating spores is secured. The signiiiciuuv
of this proximity lies in the fact that the s«*\-
ual plants (gametophytes) which the ^pores
produce are unisexual — i.e., one plant produ»'«^
the male organs (antheridia), and another pro-
duces the female organs (arehegoniu), a condi-
tion called di<iBcism (q.v.).

Possil Forms. Fossil remains of Kquisetalcs
are found abundantly throughout the I*a lot »/.<>!<»
and McBOssoic of all countries. During the Paleo-
zoic, in both the Devonian and Carboniferous, then*
occurred a great plexus of jfyifta'fmu-liki* form*,
the whole assemblage being known in general as
the Calamites. These forms are known mostly
from pith casts, and all of them »hnw tin*
peculiar habit of Rquiwtiim* with its joint*'*!
and fluted stem and whorled leaves. Among
this plexus of forma the ancestors of Rquiwtmti
occur. Au interesting feature of many of tho
Paleozoic Equiaetalos is that the IWIVPH wri»
large and functional, so that th« E<|ui<w»tum» of
to-day represent forms whose leaves have lo«t
their ordinary function. There are also numer-
ous detached cones (strohili) belonging to the
Kquisefcales, Many of the Paleoxoic forms were

EQUITABLE ASSETS

EQUITABLE EASEMENT

huge trees, sometimes reaching a height of at
least 100 feet, the Calamites thus representing
a conspicuous feature of the forest vegetation
of the Paleozoic. During the Mesozoic the
order was also well represented by forms inter-
mediate between the Paleozoic Calamites and the
modem Equisetum. For illustration, see Plate
of PTEETDOPHYTES. Consult: Solms-Laubach,
Fossil Botany (Oxford, 1891); Zittel, Schimper,
and Barrois, "Trait6 cle poleontologie," part ii,
Paleophytologie (Paris, Munich, and Leipzig,
1891); Scott, /Studies in Fossil Botany (Lon-
don, 1909).

EQTTITABLE ASSETS. Property of a
debtor or decedent which cannot be reached by
legal process, but which will be applied by
equity to the payment of debts. Originally only
property held by the debtor or his personal
representative by a legal title was applicable to
this purpose, and in the earliest period of our
legal history the rights of creditors were con-
fined to the personal property so held. Sub-
sequently a testator might, by charging his real
estate with the payment or his debts, or by
directing his executor to sell his lands for that
purpose, render such property liable in equity
to the claims of his creditors. This did not
have the effect of merging them in his general
assets and of subjecting? them to legal process ;
but it made them equitable assets, subject to
the order of the Court of Chancery. This dis-
tinction has now been swept away in England
and in the United States by statute. See DECE-
DENT.

The expression "equitable assets3' is now ap-
plied to any equitable property rights of a
debtor which can be reached by creditors only
by a proceeding in equity. Most equitable in-
terests— though there are some important excep-
tions— have been subjected by statute to the
claims of creditors; but it is manifest that such
an interest — as the rights of a beneficiary of a
trust, e.g. — cannot be reached by the ordinary
legal process of an execution or attachment.
The creditor has resort, therefore, to a proceed-
ing in equity known as a "creditor's bill." In a
few American jurisdictions a statutory process
has been devised for enforcing creditors' rights
against either or both forms of property with-
out distinction. See ASSETS; EQUITY; EQUI-
TABLE ESTATE.

EQUITABLE ASSIOKTMENT. A transfer
of the beneficial interest in property, real or
personal, or of a claim or demand, the legal title
to which remains vested in the transferor. It
is effected by any transaction, as a defective
legal assignment or even a mere agreement,
whereby the owner of such property seeks to
assign his interest therein to another, and it
may operate even to vest in another the sub-
stantial control over property which is not
assignable under the technical rules of the com-
mon law. The equitable mortgage (q.v.) is an
illustration of the former, and the transfer of
a right of action is a characteristic example of
the latter.

A formal deed is necessary to the creation or
legal transfer of an interest in land, and in the
absence of a bill of sale a delivery of a chattel
is requisite to vest the title thereto in the
transferee; but the courts of equity will pro-
tect the interests of such a grantee who has
parted with a valuable consideration in reliance
upon it, even where the strict legal formalities
have been omitted. This it does by compelling

the execution of a valid conveyance or by vest-
ing in the grantee the rights of an owner. In
the same way the attempted transfer of property
not at the time in existence, or not yet ac-
quired by the vendor or mortgagor, is regarded
in equity as a valid assignment of the trans-
ferror's future interest therein, which becomes
complete upon his subsequent acquisition of the
title. See ESTOPPEL.

Equity will also interfere to protect the as-
signee of a chose in action (q.v.) and permit
him to prosecute the action for his own benefit,
but in the name of his assignor, who at common
law was still considered the owner of the claim
and the rightful party in interest. This awk-
ward device for securing the assignabilitv of
rights of action is still employed in many o£ the
United States, though it has in others been
rendered unnecessary by statutory piovisions
rendering such rights freely assignable at law.

An equitable assignee takes the assigned prop-
erty as it is, subject to all claims, set-offs, or
liens, whether legal or equitable, to which it is
subject at the time of the transfer. See EQUITY j
EQUITABLE ESTATE.

EQUITABLE DEFENSE. A defense in an
action or legal proceeding which is cognizable by
a court of equity, as distinguished from a court
of law. Thus, in an action on a promissory note,
the defense of want of consideration is a legal
defense, as tending to relieve the maker thereof
from his liability on the contract; but the de-
fense of fraud, being an allegation of extraneous
matter, did not affect the legal liability, but was
an equitable defense and involved an appeal to
equity jurisdiction. Under the old practice, by
wliicli the limits of common-law and equity
jurisdiction wore strictly defined, equitable de-
fenses were not available in a court of common
law. As early as 1854 in England it was enacted
that such defenses might in many cases be
pleaded in a court of common law, and such
pleading did not debar the defendant from
afterward applying for appropriate relief to a
court of equity. The same permission is given
by the codes and procedure acts in most of the
American States. With very few exceptions,
what were formerly equitable defense* may
now bo put forward, both in the* United States
and in England, in the same action and simul-
taneously with strictly legal defenses. See
EQUITY: PKOCEDURE. '

EQUITABLE EASEMENT. A right to con-
trol or restrict another, by injunction or other
equitable process, in the lawful use of bin land.
This right arises under a variety of circum-
stances, but usually where the owner of a par-
cel of land enters into a restrictive covenant as
to his use thereof with a neighbor — as that he
will not build within a certain distance of the
street line; that he will not maintain a stable,
a tavern, or other objectionable occupation
thereon. Such a covenant in enforceable at law
against the maker of it; but an no burden can
be imposed upon land by covenant, and as such
a restriction cannot, however created, be recog-
nized as a legal casement, it becomes inoperative
as soon as the land is conveyed away by the
covenantor to a stranger. If, nowever, the cove-
nantor bound his heirs and assigns, as well as
himself, to the performance of the agreement,
the courts of equity will restrain a violation of
it, not only by the covenantor himself, but by
his heir, his devisee, or grantee without consider-
ation, and by any assign who takes the land

EQUITABLE ESTATE

with knowledge of the covenant. As in the
United States the recording of a deed is con-
structive notice of its contents to all subsequent
purchasers of the property, this equity jurisdic-
tion creates in this class of cases a right analo-
gous to that known as an easement at law.
The phrase "restricted land" and "restrictive
covenants/3 in common use in connection with
city and suburban property, have reference to
the existence of such equitable easements.

Though the exercise of this jurisdiction is
closely limited to agreements which are of a re-
strictive character and which impose no active
duty upon the owner of the land affected, it has
in recent years been greatly expanded so as to
include cases in which there was in fact no cove-
nant, but only a general, but perfectly clear and
definite, understanding among the various owners
of a tract of land as to the uses to which it
should be devoted. Accordingly, if land is sub-
divided and sold in parcels in accordance with a
general scheme or plan, all who buy with notice
of the restrictions contained in such plan are
Ixmnd thereby. Sec COVENANT; EASEMENT;
EQUITY; RESTBICTIVE COVENANT.

EQUITABLE ESTATE. An interest in prop-
erty of such a nature that its cnfoi cement and
protection arc within the jurisdiction of the
courts of equity and not of common law: tho
right to the beneficial use and enjoyment of
property without the legal estate. It is only
by a considerable extension of tin* technical
meaning of tho tarra "estate" and by analogy
that it can be applied to a right of tins charac-
ter. Fn the primary classification of legal rights
as rights in rem and rights in peisonam — i.e.,
rights in a definite object (in rem certam) avail-
able against the whole world, and rights avail-
able against a particular individual only —
property rights form by far the largest, if not
the most important, body of rights of the former
class. A freehold estate in lands, e.g., is not,
like a claim founded upon contract, a right
against a certain, definite person, but involves
the assertion of an exclusive title and right of
possession against any and everybody who may
choose to dispute it. Such rights as those are
fully recognized and protected by the courts of
common law, by putting the rightful claimant in
possession of the property and by defending such
possession against all comers, and they are thus
appropriately described as legal estates.

The corresponding equitable right, on the other
hand, is not, in our legal system, a right in roiu,
but only in personam. T?ho beneficiary of tho
right cannot claim the possession of tho prop-
erty to which it relates, and a trespass upon it
is not an injury to him, but to the trustee or
other person in whom the right in rem, the legal
title, is vested. The remedy of the beneficiary
is confined to the latter, in personam, whose
administration of such legal estate he is entitled
to supervise and control. Clearly such a right
as this lacks the character of property, or of an
estate, in the strict sense of those, terms. But
the expressions "equitable estate" and ''equita-
ble property*' have been found too convenient to
be dismissed on technical grounds and must now
be regarded as permanent additions to our legal
nomenclature; in addition to which, the recent
fusion of law and equity jurisdiction in England
and many of the United States has tended to
make the distinction between legal and equitable
interests less important.

The origin of equitable estates is to be found

46 EQUITABLE MORTGAGE

in the ancient practice of conveying lands to the
use of a person other than the grantee, which
prevailed in England in the fifteenth and six-
teenth centuries. By the Statute of Useb, en-
acted in tho twenty-seventh \car of Henry VIII

(1535), this practice, which had become so
general as to involve most of the lands in the
kingdom, was much curtailed, and the system of
trusts, as we know them, established. These
constitute at the present tune by far the greater
part of the class of interests known as equitable
estates. Rights of an analogous chaiactcr an-»w
under a great variety of circumstance*. Who-
ever one person lias 'the legal title to propel ty,
real or peisonal, and another is entitled by the
aid of equity to compel the conveyance of the
property to 'himself or its administration for
his benefit, the latter 1ms an equitable estate
therein.

Such a right arises in every cast* when* an
unexecuted agreement exists for the conveyance
or mortgaging of laud, or where an attempt to
make such a conveyance or mortgage fails
through the defective execution of tin1 instru-
ment of assignment. The right to the specific
performance of the contract in the one ea-e, and
to compel the due execution of the instrument *
in the other, whereby the legal title to the
property shall be transferred to the beneficiary,
constitutes his equitable* estate therein. Similar
in character is the right known as the w/tiitif *>f
redemption, whereby a mortgagor is enabled, af-
ter the forfeiture of his mortgage, to redeem tho
mortgaged land or goods from the mortgage.
The legal title having, by the forfeiture, become,
completely 'Nested in the latter, the right of
redemption preserved by equity to the mortgagor
may properly be regarded as a. form of equitable
estate. The large class of interests of this ehtir-
acter known specifically as constructive tnists
will be described under the title Tnrsr. See
also KQIUTAIUJJ; KASKMKNT; KijriTY: I'si-s.

EQUITABLE MORTGAGE. A lien created
on property, either real or personal, without
transferring the title thereto to the person in-
tended to he secured. It is of the essence of the
mortgage proper in the coimnon-hn\ system that
the legal title to tho property mortiiageil shall
pass to the creditor and remain in ti'm until
payment or foreclosure. But the equity trihu-
na'lfl have given the effect of a mortgage to a
variety of transactions in which no property i-
ac'fcually transferred, hut where it is the inten-
tion of the parties that it shall he pledged or
subjected to a lien in favor of the creditor, in
order to secure the payment of his claim.

The most striking example of the eqiiituhle
mortgages is the lien upon land created hy the
deposit of title deeds to secure a loan or "oth^r

jligation. This is in common use in Ktiglan.I
and occurs occasionally in a few of the l:nit*^l
.States. Everywhere, however, a mortgage deed
which, through defective execution, fails to take
effect in the manner intended, is treated as eretit-
ing an equitable mortgage, and the same eifi'H
is given to any written agreement for a mort-
gage intended to have a present eflFWt. An oml
agreement to subject land to a mortgage lien is
only prevented from producing a similar result
hy the Statute of Frauds, which renders void all
agreements concerning lands which are not com-
mitted to writing: hut under some oireumslitneert
elfect is given by courts of equity even to these.
Similar to mortgages arising out of mere writ-
ten agreements, as distinguished from convey-

EQTTITES

ances, is the familiar security known as the
mortgage on after-acquired property, as upon a
fluctuating stock of goods in a store, upon ma-
chinery to be added to the equipment of a mill
or factory, upon the future rolling stock of a
railroad, etc. The familiar rule that no one can
grant that which he does not have deprives such
moitgages of any common-law validity beyond
the property actually possessed at the time of
the transaction. As to the property described
in them which is afterward acquired by the
mortgagor, the description operates only as an
agreement to subject it to the lien as and when
it becomes the property of the mortgagor. There
is considerable diversity of judicial opinion as
to the effect of such a mortgage; but the pre-
vailing view, which obtains in England and in
most of the United States, is that it creates an
equitable mortgage on the after-acquired prop-
erty valid as against the mortgagor, his heirs
and creditors, and against purchasers with no-
tice or without consideration. In New York a
curious intermediate doctrine has been worked
out by tho courts, the property being protected
against purchasers with notice, and such as ac-
quire the property without consideration, but
not against the claims of attaching creditors.
Railroad mortgages on after-acquired property,
whether real or personal, are, by reason of their
exceptional character, universally held to be
valid, even in jurisdictions in which such mort-
gages, as between private individuals, are not
generally recognized.

As already indicated, in all cases of equitable
mortgage the legal title to the property remains
in the mortgagor, as well as the right of posses-
sion, the interest of the mortgagee being a mere
lien which is enforceable only in equity and
•which is not protected by any common-law proc-
ess. But as such a mortgage has, in general,
priority over the claims of creditors of the mort-
gagor, as well as over the rights of subsequent
purchasers and mortgagees, with notice, and as
the recording of such an instrument under the
recording acts in the United States gives con-
structive notice to all intending purchasers and
lienors, it furnishes adequate security to credi-
tors intended to be protected thereby. Strictly
speaking, the remedy by foreclosure, which is
the usual and proper process for the enforcement
of a legal, or ordinary, mortgage, is not appro-
priate to a mortgage of this type. It is enforced
by a bill in equity praying for the sale of the
property under the authority of tho court and
for the payment of the mortgage debt out of tho
proceeds. As this process does not differ mate-
rially from the modern statutory proceeding cm-
ployed in New York and some other States to
foreclose a legal mortgage, the term "fore-
closure" is, in such jurisdictions, also applied to
it. See EQUITABLE! ESTATE; FOBECLOSUKE;
MORTGAGE; and the authorities cited under the
last of these titles.

EQTJITES, Sk'wl-tez. See EQUESTRIAN ORDEB.

EQUITY (Lat. cequitas, fairness, equality,
from ccquus, fair, equal). In law, a term some-
times used as synonymous with natural justice,
as distinguished from the fixed and technical
rules of law. In its technical sense the term
signifies the system of jurisprudence originated
and applied by the English Court of Chancery,
and in the United States applied by various
courts exercising a similar jurisdiction.

Equity jurisprudence, as a whole, comprises
many unrelated rules and doctrines which, how-

ever, present a certain homogeneity due to three
important factors common to their development,
as follows: (1) their common source; (2) the
kind of relief afforded, the court of chancery
acting in personam, as distinguished from the
courts of common law, which act in rem; (3)
the object of, or rather the occasion for, the
system. This occasion was the necessity of
mitigating the rigor of the common-law system
by preventing the inequitable application of
rules of law and by affording a remedy when
there \vras no remedy at law, or when the legal
remedy, if any, was inadequate. The rights
recognized, and corresponding remedies pro-
vided, by the English court of common law were
early restricted to those obtainable by a limited
number of forms of action of a fixed character.
See COMMON LAW; LAW; PLEADING.

E\ren in cases where there was a remedy at
common law it was frequently inadequate, owing
to the fact that the common-law courts could
award only the recovery of a sum of money or
of specific real or personal property. They were
powerless to prevent a threatened injury or to
compel a defendant to perform a legal duty.
Another source of difficulty was the fact that
all actions at law were necessarily two-sided
controversies, in which the judgment rendered
must be either for a plaintiff or a defendant.
The law courts were without the machinery for
the settlement of a controversy in which several
parties with distinct interests were involved.
The Chancellor (Keeper of the King's Con-
science), as administrator of justice upon con-
scientious grounds, and invested with the King's
prerogative to issue orders or decrees directing
the doing of an act, possessed all the requisite
power to remedy these defects of the common
law. The Chancellor could and did command
tilings, other than the payment of money, to be
done. He could summon before him all the
parties to a controversy, however numerous, and
in a single proceeding determine and adjust the
rights of all. It is upon these simple but
fundamental distinctions that the differences
between the law and equity systems are based.
While the discretion of the Chancellor was
originally as wide as his sense of justice, the
principles of equity jurisprudence early took on
definite form, and were embodied in decisions
which have substantially the same force as
precedents as the decisions of the courts of com-
mon law. These principles are now for the
most part fixed, and can only be changed by
legislative action. For further discussion of tho
development of equity jurisdiction, see CHAN-
CERY.

From the very nature of equity jurispru-
dence it follows that the jurisdiction of courts
of equity is as extensive and as diverse as that
of the courts of law whose remedies it was the
aim of equity to supplement. It also follows
from the supplementary character of equity
that, as a prerequisite to the exercise of its
jurisdiction, there should be no adequate remedy
at law, which may result from the fact either
that the legal remedy, because of its nature,
cannot effect complete* justice or that there is a
right which courts of equity recognize and for
which they will grant relief, but for which there
is no legal remedy of any kind.

The jurisdiction of equity may be classified
with reference to the jurisdiction of courts of
law as (a) concurrent, (6) supplementary or
auxiliary, (c) exclusive. Jurisdiction is said to

EQTTWY 48

be concurrent where courts both of law and
equity have jurisdiction over the subject matter
but the exercise of jurisdiction by one court ex-
cludes the exercise of jurisdiction by tho other.
Thus, in case of breach of contract, the injured
party may seek to recover damages at law, or,
in a proper case, he may seek specific perform-
ance of the contract in equity, the choice of one
remedy excluding- resort to the other. Jurisdic-
tion is supplem&ital when it affords a remedy
in addition to, but not exclusive of, a legal
remedy. Thus, the right of the mortgagor to
redeem in equity and the jurisdiction of equity
over legal waste are examples of supplemental
jurisdiction. Jurisdiction is ewcluswe when
equity affords relief in cases where there is no
corresponding legal remedy; or, stated in dif-
ferent terms, when equity recognizes and pro-
- tects a right which is not recognized at law,
as in case of trusts, equitable easements, and
equitable waste.

A comprehensive view of equity can best be
obtained by an examination of the various forms
of relief afforded by the court of chancery. These
forms of relief may be roughly classified as (a)
preventive and (b) remedial.

Courts of equity most frequently exercise their
jurisdiction to prevent threatened injuries to
property or analogous interests by means of an
injunctive decree or order commanding the de-
fendant to refrain from committing the threat-
ened injury, or commanding him to do sonic act
which would prevent the injury. The most com-
mon forms in which preventive jurisdiction is
exercised are (1) bills to restrain the commis-
sion of tort, (2) bills of peace, (3) bills of
interpleader, and (4) bills quia timet— in all of
which the common ground for exercising juris-
diction is the prevention of threatened injury
to the plaintiff, for whom there is no adequate
legal remedy.

(1) Bill to Restrain tlie Commission of a,
Tort. — As a general rule, equity will restrain
the commission of any tort which would result
in injury to property and for which legal
damages would not be an adequate remedy. In-
adequacy may exist either because the damage
is irreparable — i.e., the property could not be
repaired or replaced by the sum received as
damages, as, e.g., injuries to growing trees, or
to a work of art, or to one's business; or tho
inadequacy may arise from the fact that the
defendant (in equity) threatens to repeat ft tort
BO frequently that the plaintiff will be- compelled
to resort repeatedly to a court of law to TCCOVCT
damages, in which case equity will restrain the
commission of the tort* Thus, equity will re-
strain the defendant from trespassing repeatedly
on the plaintiff's land, although legal damage's
for a single trespass would be adequate. Upon
the principle of preventing irreparable injury to
a property interest, equity will on join the publi-
cation of a trade secret belonging to the plain-
tiff, or of a private letter written by him.

Equity will not restrain a libel or slander, or
the commission of a crime as such, though the
mere fact that a threatened injury to property
is also a crime will not prevent the exorciflo of
equity jurisdiction. This self-limitation of
jurisdiction is somewhat arbitrary, and in Eng-
land and in most States courts of equity now
have statutory jurisdiction to restrain the publi-
cation of trade libels.

(2) BUI of Peace.— The object of bills of peace
is to relieve the plaintiff from the burden of

EOTTTST

litigating a multiplicity of suits, either in law
or equity. Thus, when one is compelled to bung
or defend numerous actions at law or in equity
in order to establish his right, a court of equity
may issue an injunction restraining all the
separate actions, and compelling the parties to
try them all in equity in a single proceeding;
or it may enjoin all the actions at law but a
single one, and upon its conclusion adjust tho
rights of all parties in accordance with the
result so obtained. The name relief may be
obtained by the several plaintiffs or defendants
in numerous actions at law or in equity who may
unite in asking it.

(3) BUI of Intel-pleader.— The object of the
bill of interpleader is to release the plaintiff
from the demands of several parties all claiming
of him payment of the same debt or performance
of the same obligation. He is iu the position
of a stakeholder who is willing to pay over a
sum of money to the proper party, but is uimlile
to determine who is the proper party. Thus,
payment is demanded of A (the maker of a
promissory note) by both B and C, who claim
to be owners of the note. Upon A's ottering to
pay the money into court ami disclaiming any
interest there'in, equity will enjoin B and C1
from proceeding against A, and compel them to
litigate the question of owner whip of the note in
equity. See INTERPLEADER.

(4) BUI Quia. TiMCt.— The object of the bill
quia timet is to compel the surrender and can-
cellation of an instrument upon which, although
invalid, the holder might at some future time
found an action at law or in equity against the
plaintiff. The relief ia granted upon the theory
that through lapse of time the plaintiff miff lit
lose the evidence of the invalidity of the instru-
inent and thus be subjected to an action after
his dcfcnHc to it is lout. This form of equity
juriHdiction is clearly related to bills to remove
cloud on title. See QUIA TI.MKT.

Jurisdiction in which the relief is remedial in
characterized by various forms of relief which
seek, not to prevent threatened injuries, but
rather to provide remedies for past wrongs
more complete1 than the legal remedy, if any, or
seek to confer upon the plaintiff* rights' not
recognized at law. Owing to the diterte char-
acter of these various forms of jurisdiction, it
is impossible to classify them in a ncicm hie
manner. They may, however, be roughly
grouped as follows:

1. Jurisdiction affecting contracts and analo-
gous rights. II. Jurisdiction affecting title or
other interests in real property. III.. J wind it-
tion in aid of actions at law.

I. Jurisdiction Affirtiny CmitrartH aatl Analn-
gowt /tight* may l>e again roughly classified us
followB: (1) specific performance of contract;
(2) reformation and rescission of contracts and
deedfl; (3) marshaling; (4) subrogation; (»)
creditor's hills; (0) bills for an account: (7»
bills to compel contribution. Of these it may
be observed that in each caae the relief granted
may, and frequently docs, affect incidentally title
or other property interests. In each caw, how-
ever, the basis of equitable action is the protec-
tion or enforcement of a contract or analogous
right.

(1) Specific Performance of Contract will lie
compelled by equity when legal damage* for
the broach of contract would be inadequate.
And, given a case when equity would comjie]
performance of a contract by one party to it, it

EQUITY 49

will — upon the so-called doctrine of mutuality —
compel performance by the other, although his
performance consists merely in the payment of
a sum of money. Equity will not, however, com-
pel performance of contract of a purely personal
nature, as a contract to marry or to form a
partnership; nor will it compel performance of
contracts which would require the active super-
vision of the court over the performance, as a
building contract.

(2) Reformation and Rescission. — Equity ex-
ercises its jurisdiction generally over contracts
and deeds to make them conform to the inten-
tion of the parties. Whenever a term of a
written contract is incorporated in or omitted
from it by mistake, equity will compel a refor-
mation, or, more properly, a reexecution of the
contract in accordance with the intention of the
parties. Where a contract is tainted with fraud,
or there is a mistake preventing a meeting of
the minds of the parties, a court of equity will
declare the contract rescinded, and compel its
cancellation by the parties to it. (See FRAUD;
CONTRACT.) Upon similar principles, equity
will sometimes compel the execution of new
documents to replace lost documents which are
necessary to support a claim of title. See
REFORMATION ; RESCISSION.

(3) Marshaling in equity is rather a general
doctrine or rule of procedure than ti specific form
of relief. Briefly stated, the doctrine is that he
who has two funds available to satisfy his de-
mand shall not by his election to resort to one
fund deprive another of his security who has
only one of the two funds to satisfy his demand.
Thus, in the case of suretyship, if one of the
two sureties holds collateral security for his
contract of suretyship, although both, on pay-
ment of the principal debt, are entitled to the
security of the creditor's obligation, equity will
compel the first to resort to his collateral
security in order not to deprive the other of the
benefit of the creditor's security. See MAES HAL-
ING; SURETYSHIP.

(4) Subrogation is also an equitable doctrine
rather than a specific form of relief, and not
one of universal application. In certain cases
equity will, for the purpose of working out
justice, treat one who has paid the debt of

• another as an assignee of the debt or claim, in
which case he is said to be subrogated to the
other's rights in such debt or claim. Thus, one
who has loaned money to a corporation under
an ultra vires contract, for the purpose of pay-
ing lawful debts of the corporation, may in
equity be subrogatcd to the claims of those
creditors whose claims ore so paid, in order to
avoid the injustice of delaying him a recovery of
the money loaned on the ground of the in-
validity of the agreement. See SUBROGATION.

(5) Creditor's Bills are available to compel
the reconveyance of property conveyed by a
judgment debtor in fraud of his creditors or to
subject to the creditors' process property— such
as the debtor's interest in a trust estate—which
is not subject to attachment or execution at
common law.

(6) Account. — Equity will, in a proper case,
compel a defendant to state an account to the
plaintiff and then compel payment of the amount
so found to be due. (See ACCOUNT.) This re-
lief may be obtained on the ground that the
defendant is a trustee or fiduciary, who is
peculiarly the subject of equity jurisdiction, or
that the account is too involved and complicated

EQUITY

to be properly dealt with by a court of law.
This form of relief is to be distinguished from
the now obsolete action of account at common
law.

(7) Contribution. — Equity will, in a proper
case, when one of several parties having a joint
obligation has paid the obligation, compel the
others to contribute pro rata to the payment.
This doctrine is most frequently applied among
cosureties, but has a more extensive application ;
and in some cases is applied among parties who
at law have not incurred a joint obligation, but
who on equitable principles are treated a.s though
their undertaking were joint.

II. Jurisdiction Affecting Titles or other In-
terests in Property may be classified as follows:
(1) bills to remove cloud on title; (2) parti-
tion; (3) bills to foreclose or redeem a mort-
gage; (4) bills to enforce liens; (5) jurisdiction
over uses and trusts.

(1) Sill to Remove Cloud on Title. — Equity
exercises its jurisdiction to compel the cancella-
tion of any invalid document or record which,
because of its apparent validity, creates a cloud,
or apparent defect, in the title of the plaintiff.
This form of relief is analogous to that granted
upon hills quia timet. vStrictly, however, the
relief granted is not for the purpose of prevent-
ing a future attack upon the plaintiff's title, but
for the purpose of aiding the plaintiff to secure
a present marketable title to his mil estate.

(2) Partition. — Equity early took jurisdiction
to compel a partition of real estate held by joint
tenants or tenants in common on the petition
of any of them. It might accomplish thin result
by a division of the land among the several
tenants by means of mutual conveyances, or by
directing a sale of the land and a division of
the proceeds.

(3) Bill to Foreclose or Redeem a Mortgage.
— This was one of the early forms of supple-
mentary jiirisdiction and is a typical example of
the growth and development of the equity sys-
tem. See EQUITY OP "REDEMPTION.

(4) Bill to Enforce a Lien. — At common law
the various forms of lien gave the lien holder the
right only to retain possession of the property
which was subject to the lien. He could make
no use of it» nor could he dispose of it in order
to satisfy his claim. Equity exercised its juris-
diction to enforce such liens by judicial sale of
the property, unless the defendant before the
decree paid the amount due upon the lien.
Equity also recognizes and enforces as lions mere
agreements for a lien or mortgage which fall
short of creating a common-law lion. See
EQUITABLE MORTGAGE.

(5) Jurisdiction over Uses and Trusts. — Al-
though this form of jurisdiction is in many ways
analogous to the jurisdiction of equity over con-
tract rights, its basis is the obligation which
equity imposes on tho trustee to hold the legal
title of property for the benefit of another. For
the purpose of effecting this result, equity com-
pels the trustee to do any requisite act. It may
compel him to convey the trust property or to
account for its proceeds. It regards the interest
of the beneficiary as analogous to a property
interest at law and as subject to analogous rules
of devolution. See EQUITABLE ESTATE; TRUST.

TTI. Jurisdiction in Aid of Actions at Law. —
Tn two classes of cases equity came to the assist-
ance of parties to actions at law. The assistance
was rendered by means of (1) bills of discovery
and (2) bills to perpetuate testimony.

EQUITY

( 1 ) Bill of Discovery.— -It often happened that
a party to an action at law was unable (either
because of the rules of evidence or because of
his inability to secure evidence in advance of a
trial) properly to prepare his case for trial or
to prove his case at the trial. Equity came to
his aid by compelling the defendant, in a proper
case, to "make discovery" of the matter relevant
to the trial at law. The effect was to compel
the defendant to give to the plaintiff (in equity)
the information which lie sought, and to supply
him with "admissions" made by the defendant,
which could be used as evidence in the trial at
law. See EVIDENCE.

(2) Bill to Perpetuate Testimony. — Equity
early exercised its jurisdiction to take the testi-
mony of witnesses to be used on the trial of an
action at law. It might do this either on the
ground that the witness was aged or infirm, and
that his testimony might not be obtainable when
it should be required for the trial at law, or be-
cause the plaintiff in equity, being a prospective
defendant at law, feared that the plaintiff would
postpone the action at law until the evidence
was lost. This form of relief is analogous to
bills quia timet, but is remedial rather than
preventive.

Owing to the changes in rules of evidence
and the various statutory forms of commission
to take testimony, both bills of discovery and
bills to perpetuate testimony are now generally
obsolete, though they aro still occasionally em-
ployed.

In the development of equity jurisprudence,
certain maxims adopted by courts of chancery
have played a considerable part. Frequent ref-
erence to these in the opinions of equity judges,
as apparent rules of decision, has perhaps given
them undue importance. Properly they arc not
fixed rules of general application, but rather apt
phrases which are indicative merely of general
guiding principles having many special applica-
tions and exceptions. The scope of this article
will not permit their extended examination, and
it will be sufficient to enumerate some of the
more familiar maxims. Thus:

He who seeks equity must do equity.

He who conies into equity must come with
clean hands.

Equity aids the diligent, not the slothful.

Equity follows the law (indicating that when-
ever legal rules arc applicable equity will follow
them — e.g., the Statute of Limitations).

Where equities are equal the legal title will
prevail,

A proceeding in equity is not begun by writ
as in a common-law action, but by petition, or
bill, praying that a subpoena issue to the defend-
ant compelling him to answer. The final relief
granted by the court is embodied in an order or
decree. The court of equity may grant any
appropriate interlocutory, relief. Consult: the
commentaries of Blackstone and Kent; the au-
thorities referred to under JURISPBUDBNOE; and
such special treatises as Pomeroy, Treatise on
Equity Jurisprudence as Administered in the
United States (3d ed., San Francisco, 1905) ;
Bispham, Principles of Equity (7th ed., New
York, 1905) ; Bigelow, Elements of Equity (Bos-
ton, 1899) ; White and Tudor, Leading Gases in
Equity (7th ed., London, 1897); Kelke, An
Epitome of Lead/ing Cases in Equity (London,
1901).

EQUITY, COURTS OF. See CHANCHBY.
EQUITY OF REDEMPTION. The estate

10 EQUITY OF B-EDEMPTIOKT

or interest which the mortgagor retains in mort-
gaged property. In strict legal theory, the ex-
pression has reference only to the right of the
mortgagor to compel the redemption of the mort-
gaged property after forfeiture and after the
title of the mortgagee has become absolute at
law; but in practice the term is employed by
lawyers as well as in popular speech to denote
the residuum of interest left in the mortgagor
after the making of the mortgage. %

The legal effect of mortgaging property,
whether real or personal, is to vest a defeasible
title in the mortgagee, which, upon default of
payment, becomes an absolute title at law. The
common-law tribunals maintained the legal effect
of the transaction with rigorous consistency, re-
quiring the mortgagor to perform the condition
of payment, upon which the conveyance had been
made, to the letter. Tf lie made his payment at
the time and place specified, his title revived and
the property became his again without a recon-
veyance, if he made default in payment on the
"law day," the forfeiture was absolute and he
was still liable to pay the debt in addition to
losing the property. It was one of the earliest
and greatest triumphs of the equity system to
preserve to the unfortunate debtor the right to
redeem his property, notwithstanding his de-
fault, by the subsequent payment of the debt
with interest.

This innovation, which destroyed the legal ef-
fect of the forfeiture which had been incurred,
was stoutly resisted by the common lawyers of
the time, Sir Matthew Hale, when Chief Justice,
declaring from the bench that by the growth of
such equities the heart of the common law wa«
eaten out. But the justice and humanity of the
relief thus extended to the debtor were loo ob-
vious to permit a return to the system of for-
feitures, and it soon became a recognized head
of equity jurisdiction. Under this salutary s.\s-
tem the mortgage has, both in law and equity,
come to be considered merely a superior sort of
lien, the mortgagor's equity of redemption rep-
resenting for most purposes the real and sub-
stantial ownership of the mortgaged property.
As such it may be conveyed, encumbered, or de-
vised by the mortgagor- or it may be trans-
mitted by descent to Ms heirs. Jt is liable for
the debts of the mortgagor, like the rest of his
property, and is, in the United States, subject
to dower and curtesy.

Being thus an alienable estate, an interest in
it may be acquired by any one to whom any
estate or interest therein is granted, as a tenant
for years, a subsequent mortgagee or other in-
cumbranccr, the grantee of an easement, etc., as
well as the. heirs, devisees, and assignees of the
mortgagor. Any person having such au interest
has an equal right to redeem with the mort-
gagor himself. The mortgagee is not precluded
from becoming the owner of the equity of re-
demption or of any interest therein by a pur-
chase in good faith from any person having the
right. The usual effect of 'such a conveyance
to the mortgagee is to extinguish the equity and
convert his defeasible title into an absolute
title, though this result may be avoided if the
intention of the parties or the interest* of jus-
tice require that the equity be kept alive.

Originally the equitable right of redemption
was unlimited in point of time, and this is still
the case so long as the relation of mortgagor and
mortgagee continues, unless it be cut oil* by the
process known at* foreclosure (q.v.), instituted

EQUITY PLEADING 5

by a bill in equity. This process (known in
some States as a "strict foreclosure," to distin-
guish it from the statutory proceeding for the
sale of the mortgaged premises, to which the
name of foreclosure has also come to be applied)
has the effect of extinguishing the right or equity
of redemption and of converting the mortgagee's
conditional estate into an absolute one. Other
than some process of foreclosure, there is, as
is said above, no way in which the right of
redemption can be abridged so long as the rela-
tion of mortgagor and mortgagee continues. But
if this relation is terminated by the mortgagee's
adverse occupation of the land, without any
recognition of the mortgage, for the statutory
period of limitation, the equity of redemption
may also be cut off by lapse of time. This
period is usually 20 years, but in some jurisdic-
tions a shorter period of limitation of 10 or 12
years is provided by statute for extinguishing
an equity of redemption by the adverse posses-
sion of the mortgagee. In the absence of statutes
of limitation the equity tribunals have in some
cases refused to recognize the right to redeem
where the mortgagor or other party claiming
the right had neglected for an unreasonable time
to exercise it.

Popularly the expression "equity of redemp-
tion" is often employed to denote the value of
mortgaged property over and above the amount
of the mortgage debt with the interest that may
be due thereon. See CHANCERY; EQUITY; FOR-
FEITURE; MORTGAGE; REDEMPTION; and consult
the authorities referred to under the article on
MORTGAGE.

EQUITY PLEADING. That part of the
procedure of courts of equity, or chancery,
wherein the claims of the several parties to a
controversy entertained by such a court are set
forth and defined. The equity system of plead-
ing is derived in part from that of the courts
of common law but in much greater measure
from that of the ecclesiastical courts, which, in
their turn, derived it from the civil law system
of Western Europe. This was due in part to
the fact that the early chancellors in England
were ecclesiastics trained in the canon law,
which was itself based on the civil law, and
were ignorant of the common law and its pro-
cedure, but more to the nature of the remedies
afforded in the equity courts and to the prin-
ciples on which it exercised its peculiar juris-
diction. Thus as the appeal to chancery was
based on the inadequacy of the justice afforded
by the ordinary (common law) tribunals, it
naturally took on the form of a humble peti-
tion addressed to the king, praying for the re-
lief elsewhere denied. In the common law
courts, on the other hand, the pleading by which
the suit was instituted was a simple declaration,
setting forth the grievances which the plaintiff
alleged against the defendant and a demand of
the particular redress which the ordinary juris-
diction afforded. In the course of time, how-
ever, the pleading in the equity courts has be-
come even more closely assimilated to that of
the common law and has, accordingly, departed
more and more from that of the ecclesiastical
law. Moreover in modern times the equity sys-
tem of pleading, like that of common law plead-
ing, has been greatly simplified, so that it con-
sists at present of three "regular" pleadings, —
the petition of the complainant, known as the
bill, the answer of the defendant, and the repli-
cation of the complainant. The earlier formal

pleadings subsequent to the replication, as the
rejoinder of the defendant, etc., have been merged
in the three regular pleadings. Besides the regu-
lar pleadings, demurrers and pleas are also ad-
mitted in equity pleading. These were borrowed
from the common law and retain essentially
their common law functions. (See DEMURRER;
PLEA.) The scope and flexibility of equity juris-
diction has given rise to a form of defense in
chancery which is not possible in common law
procedure, namely a counterattack by the de-
fendant against the complainant, instituted by
a cross bill. A familiar instance of this pro-
cedure is where a wife sues for a restitution of
conjugal rights. The husband may set up, by
way of defense, that she has been guilty of
adultery, but he may also avail himself of the
same fact as the ground of a cross action for
divorce. In this way the whole issue can be
tried in one and the same proceeding and the
rights of the parties completely determined. See
BILL; CROSS BILL; PLEADING; PROCEDURE.

E'QTriV'ALEira (from Lat. cequivalere, to
have equal value, from cequus, equal + valere, to
have p ower ) . A term used in geometry, to signify
equality of area or volume. Thus, two triangles
are said to be equivalent, or equal in area, or
simply equal, if they have equal bases and equal
altitudes. But if they are also similar in shape,
they are said to be congruent, or identically
equal. In algebra, two equations are said to be
equivalent when the roots of each equation com-
pletely satisfy the other oquation; e.g., if the same
quantity is added to or subtracted from the
two members of an equation, the result is an
equivalent equation, since any root of A = B is
also a root of A =fa C = B d± C, and any root of
A=*=C = B=fcCis also a root of A = B. But,
while tf = 2ao and oo = 2 are equations each of
which is directly derivable from the other, they
arc not equivalent equations, for so = 0 is a root
of the first equation, but not of the second.

EQTTULETTS, e'-kwoo^le'-us (Lat. a colt). A
small northern constellation, lying almost on
the equator, and surrounded by Pegasus, Aqua-
rius, and Dclphinus. Its chief objects of interest
are the remarkable double star, 5 Equulei, anrl
the triple system, e Equulei. The former has
a parallax of 0.07", corresponding to a distance
of 40 light years, and is one of the most rapid
binaries known, its period being 5.7 years.

E'RA. See CHRONOLOGY.

EBrAN', EBAITIAIT. See IRAN, IRANIAN.

ERA OF GOOD PEELING. A term ap-
plied in American political history to the period
1817 to 1824, during which there was virtually
only one party — the Democratic-Republican — in
the United States. That party, however, was
broken up into personal factions. At the close
of the War of 1812 the Federalist party had
passed almost entirely out of existence, and in
1821 President Monroe was reflected by an
electoral vote of 231 out of 232. The discussions
over the tariff and internal improvements, how-
ever, soon caused new political alignments, and
brought the "Era of Good Feeling" to a close.
Different dates are given for the period by
different writers on American history, some of
whom restrict it to the second administration
of Monroe.

feBABP, ft'rEif, S&JASTIEN (1752-1831). A
famous French piano and harp maker, born at
Strassburg. He went to Paris, where the Duchess
of Villeroy became Ms patron, and in her house

ERAS

he made the first piano ever manufactured in
France. He became famous and with his brother
established a large factory in Paris and a branch
in London. Thenceforward devoting his life to
the development of his favorite instrument, the
pianoforte, he brought it to a perfection before
unknown, his most famous invention being the
repetition action, first applied in 1821. For the
harp he invented the double-action mechanism.
He died near Paris.

ERAS, a'ra-s, WOLFGANG (1843-92). A Ger-
man economist, born at Schonfeld and educated
at Leipzig, Jena, and Berlin. He was general
secretary to the Rhenish- Westplialian Industrial
Association from 1860 to 1870, in 1871 was ap-
pointed recorder of the Chamber of Commerce
in Breslau, and in 1886 held the same position
in the Textile Manufacturers' Association of
Silesia. He was editor of the Jahrluch fikr
VoUcswirtschaft in 1868-09. The following is
a list of his more important publications: Der
IVahrungsfttreit (1883); Einrichtungen, filr die
BinncnschiffaUrt an deutschen und hollandischen
Handelspliitsen (1885); Unser Handel mil den
BalLanlandem (1891).

ERASED (from Lat. erasus, p.p. of eradere,
to erase, from c, out + radere, w scrape) and
ERADICATED. Terms in heraldry denoting that
an object is plucked or torn off and showing a
ragged edge; as opposed to coup6 or coupy, cut,
which shows a smooth edge. A tree plucked up
by the roots is said to be eradicated. See HEB-
ALDBY.

ER'ASISTRATirS (Lat., from Gk. >Epa<rt-
<rrparos). One of the most famous physicians
and anatomists of ancient times. Ho was born
at lulis in the island of Coos, the son of
Cleombrotus and Cretoxene. He became the
pupil of Metrodorus and Theophrastus and
througli Metrodorus was influenced by the views
of Chrysippus. He traveled much and about
294 B.C. was body physician at tho court of
Seloucus Nicator, King of Syria. At a later
time he resided at Saiuos, but, giving up prac-
tice, devoted himself to the study of the theory
of anatomy at Alexandria. Ho was the rival of
Herophilus. Erasistratus was the first to dis-
tinguish between the sensory nerves and the
motor nerves and to trace both sets of nerves
back to the substance of the brain. Ho also ap-
proached to the right view of the circulation of
the blood in tliat he explained the origin of both
the veins and the arteries as being in the heart.
He held the strange view, however, that normally
the arteries held only air, and that, when they
were filled with blood, disease followed. He
wrote many works on medicine and anatomy,
of which we have a, few fragments, preserved
especially by Galen, and the titles of some 14
or 15. There was a sect of physicians who called
themselves, from tho name of their master,
Krasistratcans. Consult: Hicronynms, HJrasis-
trati et Erasistratc'brum Historic, (Jena, 1790) ;
Susemibl, Gesohichte dcr grieclmclien Litteratur,
vol. i (Leipzig, 1892); Fuchs, 'Do Erasistrato
Capita Selecta," in JTerwes, vol. xxix (Berlin,
1894), and in KJwiniaches Museum, vol. lit
(Frankfurt a. WL, 1897), Sec MEDICINE.

EBASKTTS, S-raVmus, DBSTDERIUS (c.1406-
1686). One of the greatest scholar** of the Re-
naissance and Reformation period. He was born
at Rotterdam, October 28, probably in the year
1466. The materials for the history of his life
are scanty and doubtful, being taken almost en-
tirely from his own writings. In spite of the

52 ERASMUS

obvious purpose of most of these materials to
explain or to conceal matters of personal
experience, they have been generally accepted by
biographers as historical, and thus a kind of
Erasmian legend has taken form, only partially
cleared up by the labors of recent critical
scholarship.

The fame of .Erasmus rests upon his work as
the chief interpreter to the peoples of northern
Europe of the great intellectual movement of
the fifteenth century. The circumstances of his
uneventful life are of interest only as they illus-
trate this great beivice. He was, on hit* own
statement, an illegitimate child, but was ten-
derly cared for by his parents until their death,
when he was about 14 years old. They gave him
the best attainable education at the famous
school of Deventer and left him a little property
— sufficient, he says, if it had been husbanded,
to pay his way at a university. His guardian**,
however, took the more natural and safe course
of placing him iirst at a school of the Brothers
of the Common Life at Bois-le-Duc, whore he
spent, "or rather wasted," about three yours,
and then in the Augustiniun monastery of
Canons Regular at Steyn, near (jouda Hero ho
spent 10 years. He took priest's orders in 14!»i!,
but left the monastery, never to return, in Hl>-
or 1493. For a short time, in 1403 or 14WJ, In*
was at Paris. Then he began his career a*, an
independent Heholar, living by his pen and tin*
favors it brought him, and continued this lift*
till his death. With frequent intervals of wan-
dering, he resided at Paris, 1-ouvain, in England,
at Basel, and Freiburg im Breisguxt; for three
years he was in Italy (1500-09). His chief
attachments were in England and Basel. He
was on terms of a certain intimacy with John
Colet, founder of St. Paul's School; Thomas
Linucre, founder of the London College of Physi-
cians; William Grocyn, teacher of (*m»k* at
Oxford; and Thomas More*, the great (,'lmni*el-
lor. For a time he hold a readership in (Jreek
at Cambridge. His serious purpose to «lovot*»
himself to tlie revival of ''Theology, the Queen of
ScicnccM," dates from his first acquuiritiincc with
those men in tho last years of the century.
Archbishop Warham, of 'Canterbury, gave him
a substantial and permanent income. In KMM*!
he was the intimate of a circle of reforming
scholars who gathered about the famous pub-
lisher John Frobcu. In Italy he was for a tirmt
a member of the "familia" of the Venetian pub-
lisher Aldus Manuttus. ITis correspondence* in-
cluding more than 1500 letters, shows him in
relations with over 500 person**, many of them
of the highest station.

JDown to the year If>17, when the Lutheran
revolt began, the work of Erasmus was largely
in criticism of the existing Uoximn Catholic
church system and of the scholastic method in
philosophy by which it was defended. In his
Enchiridion Militto riirtotiuni (The Manual or
Dagger of the. Christian Soldier, ltV2IJ) he lay*
do\vn in didactic form the uselessncss of forum
in religion, as compared to the spirit of sincere
apostolic piety. In his Adagio, (1508), a col-
lection of passages from classic authors, lie add*
to purely philological interpretation a running
commentary <>f moral reflection which gave to
this work an immediate and permanent success.
Tn the OoUoquia (1524), a series of dialogue*
on a variety of topics, there* runs all through
thft same vein of serious comment on the vices
and follies of priests, monks, philosophers.

ERASMUS

miracle and relic mongers, and all the other
formal shams of the time. Even in the En-
comium HorioB (The Praise of Folly, 1509), per-
haps the most biting, as it was doubtless the
most popular, of his satirical writings, a fair
examination detects throughout a serious under-
tone of protest. Still more important was
Erasmus' great contribution to critical scholar-
ship in his edition of the Greek New Testament,
with a Latin translation, in 1516. Though not
the first to conceive the plan of such an under-
taking, Erasmus was first in the field, and might
well reply to criticism of certain defects, that
while others were carping he had done the work,
and was quite content if only his service might
point the way to other scholars.

With 1517 begins a distinctly new period in
Erasmus' life. The Reformation, under Luther's
vehement leadership, seemed at first to be only
the practical application of ideas which he had
always proclaimed. Hitherto he had been the
critic, admired and dreaded; henceforth he was
to be rather an apologist, not really trusted by
either side, yet throwing his weight, unwillingly,
now into one, now into the other scale. Person-
ally he always refused to take sides. He re-
mained a Catholic and always so declared
himself, though he associated much with the Re-
formers, among whom he counted many of his
friends. He continued his assaults on the evils
and errors of the clerical powers, as in the
Cplloguia, but to be called a Lutheran drove
him to fury. In the course of the Lutheran
controversy Erasmus was drawn out especially
by Ulrich von Hutten, once his most ardent ad-
mirer and follower, but now so disappointed and
irritated by his hesitancy that he could not re-
strain himself. In his Expostulate he charged
Erasmus openly with concealing his real opin-
ions for fear of consequences, and Erasmus re-
plied in his Spongia Adyersus Aspcrgines Hut-
tern (1523), declaring his respect for the Holy
See, while at the same time he admits that he
had opposed many of its extravagances. Urged
on both sides to write something that would be
decisive as to his theological position, he replied
with the treatise De Libero Arlitrio (1524). In
this he inveighs against Luther, who replied
with the polemical treatise De Servo Arbitrio
contra Servum Des. Erasmum. Stung by Luther's
invective, JJrasmus answered in his Hyperaa-
pistes Diatribe contra- 8ervum Arbitrium Luthwi,
in which he complains of the violence and bitter-
ness of Luther's attack in a manner no less
violent and bitter.

Erasmus is often thought of as chiefly a pre-
cursor of the Reformation. And yet, in the
sense in which the term is used of men like
Luther and Calvin, he never was a reformer at
all. Upon ignorance and superstition lie waged
unrelenting war 3 but it was in the spirit of the
humanist, not of the theologian, and the witty
mockery of a Lucian was far more to his taste
than the religious fervor of a St. Augustine.
He was the incarnation of cool, critical common
sense, with an -unshaken faith in the necessity
and efficacy, alike in the secular and ecclesiasti-
cal sphere, of liberal studies and freedom of
thouglit. It seemed to him inevitable that in-
crease of knowledge would of itself bring about
a peaceful reform of abuses in the church. He
had, too, the scholar's dislike of extreme views,
which made it difficult for him to side definitely
with either party, and the scholar's conserva-
tism, which, with all its openness to new ideas,

ERASMUS

is yet loath to give up forms consecrated by the
life of the past, if in any way new vigor can be
breathed into them. In fact, he never really
understood the forces that were at work in the
religious struggle; and in his letters, speaking
of his own participation in it, deplores the
metamorphosis of the worshiper of the Muses
into a gladiator. But in the fields of Human-
ism he was easily the foremost man of his age.
The range of his reading in the classics, both
Latin and Greek, was extraordinarily wide, and
he was scarcely less familiar with the most
prominent of the Latin and Greek fathers. He
loved travel, and, being by nature a keon and
thoughtful observer, of social temper and viva-
cious conversation, had acquired a varied knowl-
edge of men and manners in the frequent changes
of residence, made for the sake of more favorable
opportunities of work and study. A mind so
well stored and possessed of so gay and nimble
a fancy might be expected to show remarkable
powers of productivity, and in fact Erasmus did
compose some of his happiest and most charac-
teristic things in an exceedingly short space of
time. The Encomium Mori^ e.g., was sketched
during his journey from Italy, and written out
from his notes in seven days during his stay in
Sir Thomas More's house in London. Still,
splendid as was his equipment, the amount and
range of his intellectual activity arc little short
of the marvelous. For he was by no means a
genius, and his scholarly labors were accom-
plished only by unremitting industry. No one
did more than he to restore ancient letters. He
published editions of the works of Aristotle and
Demosthenes, and translations of several of the
plays of Euripides, of tho greater part of Lucian,
and of the Moralia of Plutarch. He edited,
either in whole or in part, among other Latin
authors, Terence, Cicero, and Livy, and, in ad-
dition, a long series of patristic writers. In
1505, in the preface to an edition of Lorenzo
Valla's Annotations to the New Testament, he
maintained that a correct translation of the
Bible could be made only by a trained philolo-
gist, and that there was need of a critical
revision of the original Greek text and of a new
translation. Subsequently he decided to under-
take this work himself; and in a letter to Colot,
dated Hay, 1512, he says that he has already
collated the New Testament with the ancient
Greek manuscripts and annotated it in moro
than 1000 places. At the same time lie was
actively engaged upon a new edition, in nine
folio volumes, of St. Jerome. Froben, whose
press at Basel became for a while, through- the
editorial cooperation of Erasmus, the most im-
portant in Europe, has left us a vivid account
of his incessant work, study, and writing, in
and about the printing house, when these two
works were approaching completion. "In the
midst of all, visitors of rank would make no
scruple of calling on him and interrupting him
about some trifle or other; one* would try to
wheedle him out of an epigram, another to gain
immortality by a letter. And how did he, the
most easy, good-natxired man in tho world, act
on these occasions? Did he refuse? Did he
manifest impatience? He was fully occupied in
writing — break off his employments he could
not. Yet write he did, at odd moments, as ho
went to and from mass, anything to oblige."
The medium of all his work was Latin. He
refused the position of public reader at Lou vain
because of his imperfect mastery of Dutch,

EBASMTJS 54

though it was his native tongue. Of French he
had some slight command, of English and Italian
none. But Latin was still the colloquial lan-
guage of scholars and the regular medium of
formal communication. In the hands of Eras-
mus it has all the vitality of a living language,
though far from classical in its standards, with
a vocabulary drawn from many different
souices, and a style wholly modern and indi-
vidual, the charm of which is the expression of
the man's own character.

The best guide to the writings of Erasmus is
the Bibliolhcca Erasmiana, edited by the Uni-
versity Library of Ghent (1893). Under the
same editorship a still more complete Bibliotlieca,
tirasmiana, in IGmo form, has been appearing in
parts since 1897. There are editions of the
complete works by Beatus Rhenanus (9 vols.,
Basel, 1540) and J. Le Clerc (10 vols., fol.,
.Amsterdam, 1703-06). Erasmus himself col-
lected many of his letters for publication, and in
the years following his death several incomplete
editions appeared. The more important later
editions arc those of Mcrula (Leyden, 1C07), the
"London Edition1' of 1642 (in 2 vols., fol.), and
vol. iii of Le Clerc. Consult the text of his let-
ters (Oxford, vol. i, 1906; vol. 2, 1910). Epistles
from his Earliest Letters to his J7s£ Tear have
been published in an English translation by F.
M. Nichols (2 vols., London, 1901-04). At-
tempts to fix the very uncertain chronology of
Erasmus' life have been made by Richter, Eras-
mus-Studicn (Dresden, 1891); Reich, Untersu-
chungen, etc. (Treves, 1890) ; and Nichols, as
above. For the life of Erasmus, consult: Knight
( Cambridge, 1720) ; Durand de Laur (Paris,
1872); Drummond (London, 1873); Frouclo,
Lectures (ib., 1894) and Life and Letters (New
York, 1912); Emerton (New York, 1899); Pen-
nington (London, 1901); Capoy (ib., 1902);
Allen, Age of Erasmus (Oxford, 1914).

EBAS'MUS, SAINT. A Syrian bishop of the
third century, who is said to have suffered mar-
tyrdom at For mi ic (ancient form of Mola di
GaSta) in Campania, during the reign of Dio-
cletian. In 842, when the RaraceiiH took this
city, his body was transferred to Cajota. June 2
is dedicated to him by the Homan Catholic
church.

ERAS'TIANS. Properly, the adherents of
the doctrines laid down by Erastuti (q.v.) in his
book on excommunication. As commonly used,
however, particularly in England, the torrn is
applied to those who would entirely subordinate
church government to the authority of the state,
or maintain the authority of the civil magis-
trate over the conscience, and subject all ec-
clesiastical bodies to his control, both in doctrine
and discipline. In the Westminster Assembly
(1643-49) views similar to those of Erastus
were advocated by the lawyers Selden, Saint-
John, and Whitclocke, and the clergymen Light-
foot and Coleman. During the conflict in the
Church of Scotland which resulted in the seces-
sion of the Free church (1833-34) the term
"Erastian" was applied as a reproach to all who
held that the church had no power to nullify
by law the operation of lay patronage, but was
indignantly rejected by them. Consult Cunning-
ham, Historical Theology, vol. ii (Edinburgh,
1862), and Henson, English Religion m the
Seventeenth Century (London, 1903).

EBASPTirS (I/at., from Gk. epa<rr6s, lovely; a
translation of his German name, Liebcr or Lieb-

ERATOSTHENES

ler), THOMAS (1524-83). A Swiss physician
and theologian. He was born in the Canton of
Aargau, Sept. 7, 1524. He studied theology at
Basel (1640-44) and adopted the doctrines of
Zwmgli. In 1544 he went to Italy and studied
medicine at Padua and Bologna. After nine
years he returned to his own country and became
physician to the Count of Henneberg. He ac-
quired a great reputation as a physician In
1558 he went, by invitation, to the court of the
Elector Palatine and became first physician
and Privy Councilor and professor of medicine
at the University of Heidelberg. In 1580 ho
accepted a similar appointment at Basel and in
1583 undertook also the professorship of ethics.
He died at Basel, Dec*. 31, 1583. Before his
death he established a foundation for the edu-
cation of poor students in medicine, which was
long known as the "Krastinn Foundation. A« a
physician Erastus opposed the astrology and
magic of Paracelsus and his school and held that
experimental investigation is the true road to
knowledge. He approved of prosecutions for
witchcraft. A collected edition of his medical
works appeared at Zurich in 1595. TTe is now
remembered, however, chiefly for his theological
writings. In 1504 he had taken part in the
conference at Maulbronn between theologians
from the Palatinate and Wittenberg and had
contended for the Zwingliun doctrine of the
Lord's flupper. In defense of this view he pub-
lished his Tom Tcrsland tier Wort Christ i, "/></,<?
ist mcin LcW in 1565. His great work is the
fiasplicatio Grarissima? Quvstionis it t rum /*>-
commitnicatio Manila to \itatur Dirino an />-
cofjnitata- Sjt ab Ilominibus. In this hook
Ifrastus maintains that, while the church may
decide who are its members, it should do so
upon doctrinal grounds alone, and not exclude
for vice or immorality; and that in no case
should the church inflict punishment, to do
which properly belongs to the civil magistrate,
alone. TTe denies the right of excommunication
altogether and compares n pastor to n profes-
sor of any science, \\lio can merely instruct his
students. The theory known in England as
KraHtian is not directly expressed in this book.
The work was written in lf><>8, but not published
until six years after Krastus' death. He hud ex-
pressed similar views, however, during his life-
time in a controversy at TToidclberg with cert n in
refugees from the Netherlands, and particularly
one Caspar Olevianus, of Trevea, who were
zealous for censures and excommunications and
stirred up in the Palatinate what Krastus called
a fchris (wcomminiiuatoria. Tie was opposed at
that time by Dathenus and Besca. Consult Lee,
The Theses of Krastm Touching Kftwrnmnniitt-
tion (Edinburgh, 1844), and Boimard, Th<tmatt
firastc ct la, discipline twlMafititiue (Lausanne,
1804).

ElfATO CUt., from Gk. 'Ep<m&). One of the
nine Muses, daughters of XOUH and Mnemosyne.
She presided over amatory and nuptial poetrv.
See MUHKW.

ER'ATOS'THENES (Lat., from Gk. 'Kpuro-
<r6tnris) (C.275--10/5 B.C.). An eminent Giwk as-
tronomer and geometer. Eratosthenes was born
at CJyrcne; for a time he enjoyed th«» t<*adiin^
of Lysanias and Callhnaclms and then went to
Athens, where he heard the Stoic Ariston of
Chios and the Academic Areesilaua. Ptolemy
III Euorgotes recalled him to Alexandria and
about 240 B.C. installed him as Callimaehus' suc-
cessor in the office of librarian. At the age of

EBATOSTHEtfES 55

80 or upward, having become totally blind, he
died of voluntary starvation. Eratosthenes' in-
terests covered an enormous range. He wrote a
commentary to Plato's Timceus and also com-
posed popular philosophical dialogues; in liter-
ary history he produced a great work, On the
Old Comedy, in at least 12 books. This dealt
with the theatre on its physical side and treated
the works of the chief comic poets, discussing
the authorship and date of plays, matters of
text, language, and subject matter. His chron-
ological researches also were important; he
tried to fix the dates of the main events, in
literature as iu politics, from the time of the
fall of Troy. In the field of pure mathematics
he wrote on the doubling of the sphere and on
a method of distinguishing prime and composite
numbers. His astronomical views he set forth in
part in the poems Hermes, Erigone, and prob-
ably Anterinys. The extant work Katasterismoi
(Ka.TaffTepifffj.ol), in which an account is given of
the constellations in their relations to the popu-
lar mythology, is only a summary of a work by
Eratosthenes which was apparently entitled The
Catalogues, and in its present form has been
worked over to follow the order of the Phceno-
mena of Aratus.

It was, however, by his attempt to measure the
size of the earth and by his geographical studies
that Eratosthenes won most renown. He en-
deavored to determine the obliquity of the ecliptic
by measuring the distance between the tropics;
this he found to be 47° 42' 39", which gave 23°
61' 19.5" for the obliquity of the ecliptic. Con-
sidering the means of observation available and
the state of knowledge at the time, the degree of
error in his result — a trifle more than 23' — is re-
markably small. To measure the circumference
of the earth he adopted the means employed
at the present day. He found that the distance
between Syene and Alexandria was one-fiftieth,
of a great circle, about 7° 13', and on this basis
computed the circumference of the earth to bo
250,000 stadia; but, since we do not know the
length of tlie stadium Eratosthenes used as his
unit, we cannot determine the degree of error
in his result. His greatest scientific publication
was probably his Geography (Tetaypa<pLKd) , in
three books, the first scientific treatise on the
subject; it gave the history of the science and
embodied the results of his own investigations.
He knew, e.g., that the earth was round. In his
researches Eratosthenes was greatly assisted by
his patron, Ptolemy Eucrgetes, ana he had the
resources of the Alexandrian Library at his com-
mand. He was undoubtedly first among the
Alexandrians for great and wide learning,
although in the special fields of poetry and
philosophy others surpassed him. The extant
fragments of his writings are collected and dis-
cussed in the following works: Bernhardy, Era-
tosthenica (Berlin, 1822) ; Stiehle, "Zu den
fragment en des Eratosthenes," in Philologus,
supplementary vol. ii (Gottingen, 1803); Bcr-
ger, Die geographisohen Fragmente des Era-
tosthenes (Leipzig, 1880) ; Hiller, flratosthenis
Carminum Reliquiae (ib., 1872); Haass, "Era-
tosthenica," in Philologische Untersuchung&n,
vol. vi, ed. by Kiessling and Wilamowitz-
Mollcndorff (Berlin, 1883); Robert, Eratosthe-
nis Oatasterismorum Reliqui<s (ib,, 1878) ; Oli-
vieri, "Pseudo-Eratosthenis Catasterismi," in
Mythographi Graci, iii (Leipzig, 1897) ; Su-
scmihl, Geschiohte der grieohischen Litteratur m
der Aleaandrinerfseit, vol. i (ib,, 1892); Ohrist-

ERBITTM

Schmid, Geschichte der griechisohen Litteratur,
vol. ii (5th ed., Munich, 1911). See ASTRONOMY;
CnnoNOLOGY; GEOGRAPHY, History of G-eography.

EBB, 6rp, WILHELM HEINRICH (1840- ).
A German neuropathologist. He was born at
Winnweiler, Bavaria, and was educated at
Heidelberg, Erlangen, and Munich. After oc-
cupying the chair of special pathology and
therapy at Leipzig, from 1880 to 1883, he was
appointed to the same department at Heidel-
berg, where he also was made clinical director.
He was well known as a specialist on electro-
therapy and ncuropathology. He published tho
following works: Handbuch der Krankheiten der
peripheren cerelro-spinalen Nerven (2d ed.,
187C); Handbuch der Krankheiten des Riicken-
marks und des vcrlangerten Marks (2d ed.,
1878); Handbuch der Elektr other apie (2d ed.,
1886; Eng. trans, by L. Putzel, 1883); Ueber
die neuere Entwiclclung der NervenpatJwlogie
1880) ; Dystrophia Muscularis Progressiva
(1891); Gesammelte Abhandlungen (1910).

EB/BEN", HENRY (1832-1909). An American
naval officer, born in New York City. He grad-
uated at the United States Naval Academy in
1854, was employed in deep-sea sounding in the
Atlantic in 1855, and in 1850-59 served in the
China station as a lieutenant on board the
frigate Mississippi. During- the Civil War he
was with Farragut in tlie Gulf squadron, with
Foote on the Mississippi Hiver, and with Du-
pont in the attack on Charleston, and the
blockade of the Mexican coast. He was com-
mander of the New York Navy Yard in 1891-92
and of the European squadron in 1893-94. In
1894 he attained the rank of rear admiral and
in the same year was retired from the service,
but voluntarily returned to service in the Span-
ish-American War.

EBBEN, eVben, KABL jABOMfB ( 1811-70) . A
Czech scholar and poet. He was born at Mile-
tin and was educated at Prague. He took a
prominent part in the Czech movement of 1848,
in 1850 became secretary of the Prague Mu-
seum, and town archivist in the following year.
His chief historical publication is entitled Re-
gesta Diplomatics nee non Epistylar ia> Bohemia
et AforavicB (1865). It was continued by Emler
(1882-92). He was a gifted lyric poet, among
his original verses being the collection of bal-
lads entitled Kytice (A Bouquet; latest ed.,
1890). His collection of Czech folk songs
(3 vols., 1842-45, subsequently enlarged) was
followed by another of popular melodies (1844-
47 and 1860) and the publication of 100 Slavic'
folk tales (1803-65), which brought him a
reputation comparable to that of the brothers
Grimm. He also compiled a judicial termi-
nology in Czech and published editions of sev-
eral Czech authors, including the vernacular
works of John Huss. Consult Noy:lk, Oechische
JAtteratur der Gegenwart (Leipzig, 1907).

EB'BnJM: (Neo-Lat., from Ytterby in Swe-
den). A metallic element discovered by Mo-
sander in 1843. It is ono of the constituents
of the mineral gadolinite, which is found in
Ytfcerby, Sweden. Erbium (symbol Er, atomic
weight 167.7) is similar to the elements yttrium
and ytterbium, with which it is found, and
forms a series of rose-colored salts that give an
acid reaction with litmus, but have a sweet
astringent taste. Among the inorganic salts
of erbium may be mentioned the sulphate,
Er^SOJs + SHaO; the wtratc, ErfNOahH-
SHflO; and the very soluble double sulphates of

EBBT 56

erbium with potassium, Er2(S04)3.1KaS04 +
4H30, and with ammonium, JBfrafSCMs . (NEiJJSOi
+ 4H20. The oaide of erbium, EraOs, is obtained
in the fonn of a pink powder.

ERBT, Srpt, WILHELM (1876- ). A. Ger-
man biblical scholar, born in Berlin and edu-
cated at the universities of Halle, Greifswald,
and Leipzig, and at the preachers' seminary in
Wittenberg. He taught in several girls' schools
and held pastorates, but is better known for his
excellent works on Hebrew religion and related
subjects. He wrote: Die J'urimsage in dcr
Bibel (1900); Jcrcmia und seine Zett (1902);
Sicherstell ung des Monotheismus (1903); Is-
rael und Juda (1003); Die Urgeschichte der
JBilel (1004); Die Hebrder (1006); fllia,, JVIisa,
Jona (1907); Handbuch ssum Aten Testament
(1009); KirchengescMchte (5th ed., 1913);
Das Marktiserangclium (1911); Von Jerusalem
nach Rom (1912); tiesohiclite der Religion in
der Alien Welt (1913).

EB'CELDOTT3STE, THOMAS OF. Sec THOMAS

THE RlIYMEB.

EECILLA Y ZtfffaaA, ar-thelya e thoTA
ny6-ga, ALONSO DE (1533-94). A Spanish epic
poet, who enjoys the distinction of having writ-
ten the first work of literary merit known to
have been composed upon cither American con-
tinent. Ho was born in Madrid, became page
to Philip II, and accompanied tho latter to Eng-
land on the occasion of his nuptials with Queen
Mary. Thence Ercilla, sailed for America with
the army dispatched to quell the insurrection of
the Araucanians in Chile. Here the brave re-
sistance of the natives in the unequal struggle
inspired Ercilla witli the idea of using the sub-
ject for an epic poem. An unfounded suspicion
of his having plotted an insurrection ruined
his career, und he was tried, condemned, and
had actually ascended the scaffold, when hia
sentence was commuted to exile at Callao. He
returned to Europe in 1502, and, after giving
to Philip an account of his services, he set out
for Austria to find his sister, who was dame
d'howneur to the Empress, and whose hand was
being sought in marriage. He wandered through
France, Italy, Germany, Bohemia, and Hun-
gary, and returned in 1504 via Switzerland and
the Languedoc. In 1571 the King gave him the
habit of the Order of Santiago, and he was
dubbed Knight on November 30, the anniversary
of the bloody battle of Millarapuc, which his
valor had been largely instrumental in winning.

, For a while he held the oflice of chamberlain to
the Emperor Iludolph U, but in 1577 he re-
turned to Madrid, where, after a period of royal
favor lasting until 1588, lie fell into disfavor
and died in poverty and obscurity. The first
15 cantos of his epic, La Araucana, written in
the ottava rima, appeared in 1569; the con-
tinuations, 37 cantos in all, were published in
1578 and 1589. In 1590 appeared a new edi-
tion augmented by two cantos. A convenient
edition is in the Bibliotcca de airfares cupaftolett,
vol. xvii. A continuation, of little value, was
written by Diego de Santisteban y Osorio (Sala-
manca, 1597). Consult A. ftoyer, jfltudc lit-
terawe &ur V Araucana d'Ercilla (Dijon, 1879),

and A. Bello, Olras completas (vol. vi, Santiago
de Chile, 1883). Consult also the facsimile of

the princeps edition (parts i, ii), made by

Archer M. Huntington (New York, 1902-03).

Brk'ma.n-sha/-

EBDMANN

tr£'H,N'. The name employed to indicate the

joint authorship of EMILE KRCKMANN (1S22-
99) and ALEXANDRE CHATKIAN ( ISSti-JH) i ,
wliose combined work affords one of the most
remarkable instances of modern collaboration.
Erckmaun was born in Pfalzburg (in Ljorraine),
Chatrian at Soldatenthal (in the same dis-
trict). Both were, therefore, of that border
territory annexed to Germany in 1871. in which
is laid the scene of most of their works. Krck-
mann had successfully studied law in Paris,
and Chatrian for a time had been an instructor
in the college at Pfalzlmrg, when they hey an
the publication, in the Dt'mocratc Jit tthin* of
a scries of fouilletons. The story "I/Ilhistrc
docteur Hatheus" (1850), originally published
in the Rcmie jVoMrt'//r% wan their lir.st success.
This they followed up with n loni» and w*nM\
read aeries, of which the Ilitttoirr I/'HH vtuwmt
dc 1SJ3 (1804; 20th ed., 1800: Knj>. trim*.,
1909) is the best-known MI! nine L'Ami
Frits (1864) and Waterloo (ir>th ed., ISti.V,
JOng. trans., 1905), a sequel to the Vniwrit*
sliould also be mentioned. As dramai'tat*,
]i!rckinanii mid Chatrian appeared in two
productions of much merit, Lc jiuf iHtlonaix
(18C9) und L'Ami Frits (1870), the latter de-
rived from their book of that name. The foim^r
is familiar in England and America through its
adaptation (1871) by Leopold Lewis as Tfir
Belts, the Mathias of which wa^ one of the most
wkillful impersonations in the repertoire of Sir
Henry Irving. Tho st«>rios «rt» niiirked !>y
humor, clever charueterisuition, and con\ incinir
details of local color, and also by their democ-
racy, patriotism, and antimilitafism. The lit-
erary partnership was finally dissolved. Krck-
nmnn's independ(»nt work is of less importance.
An edition by Pfau, of German translations of
the chief joint works, appeared at Stuttgart in
1882 (9 vola.). Their joint work also inclinles:
Jfistoirus ct contPH fantantiqncft i 1S-19) : J/«//<;;/^-
1'hfrtea (1803: 13th ed., 1801); Kng. trans..
]J)10); Lc Wonts (1807); Hitttuirr d'un /wiv-
,s«^ (4 vols., 1808-70); /,V//«foiYr tin ;*/r/i/-
wile, (187^); Lc (iwnttiifrr Lfbiffitr (ISSOi.

EBDfiLYI, er'dfil-ye, rlAxos (1814 «S». An
Hungarian poet and folklorist. born at KUJH-S.
JI(k jJiibliHliecl a number of work*» fairly \v»-il
known in liiw native* country, in 1818 un.- ap-
pointe<l director of the national theatre at IV.-t,
and in 184J) became profes-sor of plulo,sc»pliy at
Hfiroftpatak. ITo is remi'inberwl ft»r u collect ii*n
of the po])Ulur ROII^H and l(»^eiulw of Hun&jary.
Ncpdalok 6s niondtik (J> vols., 1840-ISi, which
JH mi ini]K)riaiii addition to the folklore of
Europe. ITis collection of Hun^jiriun {tmvcrlM
(l'e«t, 1851) is note\vortl»y, conttiininjf over
7000 hitherto unknown example*. Soiw of hi*
smaller works were tranrtlatcnl into (iermun
under the titles Bahncn und JWmnt (IKSii) an<i
/^irc/it-w (1800).

EBDMANIST, Srt/man, BBXNO (1851- ).
A Gorman pliilosophcr, born at Guhran, PruM-
sian Silesia, the son of Johaun Kduard Hrd-
niann. Tie was madt* ])rofessor successively at
Kiel (1877), at Kmilau (1S84). at Halle
(1800), at Bonn (1808), and at Berlin (!«W|,
IliH works, devoted principally to tin* Kantian
philosophy, include the following: Ktnittt /vn-
fiztewtf* (1878); yachtrilffc ztt Kanttt Kritifc
thrrcinen Vemiwft (1881); Kcflcjwnrn Kauttt
sur Ivritiaclien Philwtophie (1 882-84 i; Lagik
(1802 ff.); l*s}tchologi*chc Unt<*r*urhitnycn Rhr.r
das hcticn auf nrperimcntohr (Irundlayv ( i8I»8) ;

ERECH

Imrnaiuicl Kant (11)04): WissenschaftUehe
II y pot hewn ul.fr Lcib und ticele (1008).

ERDMAIOT, DAVID (1821-1905). A German
Protestant theologian. Ho was born at Giiste-
bicse, Province of Brandenburg, and was edu-
cated at Berlin, whore in 1850 he became as-
sistant preacher in the cathedral. Tn 1856
ho became professor of theology at Ktfnigsbcrg,
and in 1804 was appointed Superintendent-
General of Silesia at Breslau. His appoint-
ment as Superior Consistorial Counselor fol-
lowed in 1889. He retired in 1900. Erdmann
wrote: Lieben und Leiden der ersten Christen
(1854) ; Die Reformation und Hire Martyrer
in Jtalien (1855) ; a commentary on the Epistle
of James ( 1881 ) ; Luther und die Hohemsollern
(2d ed., 1884)5 "Samuel," in Lange's Bibel-
werk (1873). Consult Eberlein, A us einem
reichen Leben: BUtier der Erinnemng an David
Erdmann (Berlin, 1907).

ERD3&ANCT, JOHANN EDUARD (1805-92). A
German philosopher, born at Wolmar, Livonia.
He studied theology at Dorpat, attended the lec-
tures of Schleiermacher and Hegel at Berlin,
and was then pastor in Ms native town (1829-
32). In 1834 he became privatdocent in phi-
losophy at Berlin, and in 1836 he was appointed
professor of philosophy at Halle. His many
writings on philosophical subjects show his sym-
pathy with Hegel's ideas, and he was one of his
prominent disciples. As a teacher and lec-
turer, he was extremely popular. His most im-
portant work is his Qrundriss der Qeschichte
der Philosophic (1866; Eng. trans., 1892),
which is still in the later editions a most use-
ful book. Among his other numerous works
may be mentioned: Grttndriss der PsychoJogie
(1840; Orundriss der Logtk und Metaphysik
(1841); Psychologische Briefe (1851).

ERDMAlTOSr, OTTO LiNNfi (1804-09). A Ger-
man chemist, born in Dresden. He studied at
the Academy of Medicine and Surgery in Dres-
den, then devoted himself to chemistry, and,
after several years of theoretical study and in-
dustrial work, became in 1827 professor of in-
dustrial chemistry at the University of Leipzig,
from which he had graduated with the degree
of Ph.D. in 1824. Among his valuable contri-
butions to chemistry, his atomic-weight deter-
minations, his investigations of the properties of
nickel, and his researches on illuminating gas
and a number of dyestuffs deserve mention.
He wrote: Qrundriss der WarenJcimde (1833;
12th ed., 1895) ; Ueber das Sludium der Chemie
(1861), which has been translated into several
European languages; etc. He was the founder,
and for several years editor, of the Journal f&r
technischc und tikonomisohe Chemie and later
edited the Journal fur praktische Chemie.

EBDMANMTSDiilEUFEB, Srt'mans-der'f 5r, MAX
(1848-1905). A German musician. He was
born at ^Nuremberg, and from 1863 to 1869
studied at the conservatories of Leipzig and
Dresden. After conducting the court orchestra
at Sondershausen from 1871 to 1880, lie was in
1882 appointed director of the Imperial Musi-
cal Society at Moscow and professor in the
Conservatory there. As the founder of the
Students' Orchestral Society at the latter in-
stitution (1885), he contributed greatly to the
development of a genuine musical spirit among
its pupils. He was leader of the Philharmonic
Society at Bremen from 1889 to 1895. He sub-
sequently became conductor of the Symphony

Concerts at St. Petersburg for a short time and
was in 1896 appointed leader of the court or-
chestra at Munich. His works include: Prin-
sessin Use (1870); Sclmeeicittchen (1873);
TraumJconig und sein Lieb, forest legends for
soli, chorus, and orchestra.

ERDIIANHTSDORFFER, BEBNUARD (1833-
1001). A German historian. He was born at
Altenburg and, after studying at Jena and
Berlin, went to Italy for the purpose of carry-
ing on philological and historical investigations.
He was appointed assistant professor of history
at the University of Berlin in 1869 and subse-
quently held full professorships at Grcifsxvald,
Breslau, and Heidelberg, where he succeeded
Treitschke. Among his principal works may be
mentioned: De Oommeroio quod inter Venetott
et Germanics Civitates JEvo Medio Intei ccftsit
(1858); Deutsche Qeschichte vom westfaliscJien
Frieden "bis mum Hegierungsantritt Friedrichs
des Grossen (1888 et scq.)- He edited the
"Politischen Verhandlungen" (5 vols., 1864-
83), in the UrJcunden und AktenstdcJce sur
Qesohiohte des Kurfiirsten Friedrioh Wilhelm
von Brandenburg.

EB/EBUS (Lat., from Gk. IpejSos, erebos, dark-
ness). A term used by the ancient Greeks and
llomans specially to denote the darkness of the
lower world, and hence employed to denote the
lower world itself. From Erebus Hercules
brought Cerberus; to it the souls of the de-
parted went. In the mythographers Erebus
is called a son of Chaos, and father of ./Ether
and Hemora (Day).

EREBUS AND TERROR. Two volcanoes
in South Victoria Land (q.v.). Mount Erebus
is 12,370 feet high, and was active when the
two were discovered by Sir J, C, Ross in 1841.
A party from Shackleton's expedition ascended
the volcano during March, 1908, and found
proofs sufficient to show that Erebus possesses
still considerable volcanic activity. Mount
Terror, situated about 30 miles farther east and
nearer the coast, is about 10,900 feet high and
is probably extinct. The volcanoes received their
names from the two vessels used by Ross in his
expedition.

EO&EC AND EinD. A metrical romance by
Chrestien do Troyes, recounting the fortunes of
an Arthurian knight who marries the niece of
a vanquished enemy, sinks into the slothful
enjoyment of the pleasures of love, is quickened
to renewed action, by the reproaches of his vas-
sals, and, with his wife, goes forth to seek
knightly adventures.

ERECH, s'reTc (Assyrian Uruk, Gk. "Qpxay,
Orchog, Heb. Erek). A city in ancient Baby-
lonia. Its site is at the modern village of
Warka, where large mounds and numerous ruina
testify to its extent in forrmjr times. Excava-
tions on the spot have furnished a few docu-
ments from the time of Gudea of Lagash, and
Ur Engur and Dungi of Ur; of Singashid, when
Erech was the capital of the State of Amnann ;
and of Mardukapaliddin (721-710 B.C.). The
German excavations in 1913 threw light upon
the Selcucid and Arsacid periods, but less at-
tention seems to have been paid to the lower
strata. The city is frequently referred to in
Assyrian and Babylonian literature. Its foun-
dation is ascribed to Marduk, but its most
famous shrine was the Temple of Nana. This
goddess was carried into Elamitish captivity
for 1635 years but brought back by Asurbanipal

EBECHTHETIM 58

c.640 B.C. Ercch is the scene of many impor-
tant myths. Recent discoveries showed that
there were at least two important dynasties
reigning there. (See BABYLONIA.) Its situa-
tion rendered it comparatively secure against
invasions, and its commercial prosperity is in-
dicated in many contract tablets. It sterns to
have flourished into the Parthian period. Con-
pult Loftus, Travels and Researches in Chaldea,
ind Susiana, with an Account of Excavations
i t Warka (London, 1857), and Ed. Meyer, Oe-
scfachte des AUertums (3d ed., Berlin, 1913).

EB'ECHTHETTM: (Lat., from Gk. 'Ep^"0"*
Ercchtheion, (temple) belonging to Erechthcus).
A temple on the Acropolis of Athens, northwest
of the Parthenon, in which were combined the
sanctuaries of Athena Polias and Erechtheus
(q.v.). It also contained several other wonders,
such as the "salt sea" of Poseidon and the
mark of his trident, made by Poseidon when
he created the horse in his contest with Athena
for the possession of Attica, while near by was
the sacred olive of Athena, and apparently the
tomb of Cecrops. To make surer the preserva-
tion of those sacred tokens, the building, though
of great beauty, departs widely from the ordi-
nary typo of Greek temple. It consists of a
quadrangular main building, 74 feet by 37, with
porticoes on three sides. The level of the
cast and south sides is about 9 feet higher than
that of the west and north sides. At the east
the portico extends across the entire front of
the temple, and its roof is supported by six
Ionic columns. The north and south porticos
are at the west end of the building. That on
the south is the Porch of the Maidens, KO called
from the six female statues, somewhat larger
than life, which support the roof. (Sec CARYA-
TIDES.) The north porch is on a lower level
than the east or south and also contains Tonic
columns, arranged like the statues, four in
front and one on each side. There seem to havo
been no pediment sculptures, but above the
architrave was a frieze of dark marble, deco-
rated with reliefs of white marble. Of these
figures only fragments have boon preserved.
The west front had a gable supported by four
columns, resting' on a somewhat high wall, in
which is a low door. During the Roman period
these columns wore replaced by engaged col-
umns between which were windows. The in-
terior arrangements are still a matter of much
dispute, due partly to the differences in level,
and partly to alterations made when the build-
ing was transformed into a Byssuntino church.
It seems clear that the shrine of Athena Polius,
with the sacred wooden image, was in the cant
end, and the Erechthemn proper in the west.
The building was begun, probably, about 421
B.C. (some say 437 B.C.) ; inscriptions show
that it was nearly complete in 400 B.C. It
seems to have suffered from fire in 400 B.C.,
and was probably still unfinished in 395 B.C.
The Greeks have lately restored the building,
as far as was possible, from the pieces lying
around; for a photograph of the restored struc-
ture, consult the work by Bates cited below,
page 318. From a careful study recently de-
voted to the temple it has been demonstrated
that the eastern part of the cella was lighted
by two windows, one on each side of the door.
Consult Fowler, Papers of the American School
at Athens, vol. i (Boston, 1885), for a descrip-
tion of the building in 1883, with bibliography;
also Baumeistor, Donkm tiler des klassischen Al-

EBETBIA

tertums, s.v. Ercchtheion (Munich, 1S85); Fra-
zer, Pausanius, vol. ii (2d ed., London, 1913)-
Stevens, American Journal of A.rch<ro1otty, vol. x
(1906); Harrison and Yen-all, Mythology and
Monuments of Ancient Athens (London, 1S90) ;
E. A. Gardner, Ancient Athens (Xew York,
1902); D'Ooge, The Aciopohs of Athens (ih.,
1908) ; Baedeker, Greece (4th Eng. ed.. Leip-
zig, 1909); Weller, Athens and its Monuments
(New York, 1913). For an original treatment
of the Erechtheum, consult Elderkin, I'rohlcmtt
in Periclcan Buildings (Piinceton, 1912).

ERECE/THETJS, or EB'ICHTHO'NTTJS
(Lat., from Gk. 'Ep^x^vs, 'E/oixfloj'tos. Krifhlhu-
nios). A character in Greek imtholo<jy. Krrch-
theus is called, in the Iliad, son of tlit> earth
and was reared by Athena in her temple on
the Acropolis, where the Athenians worshiped
him. Later writers told a similar story of
Erichthonius. He was son of Hopha^tu-* and
Gnea (the earth), and was placed by Athena in
a chest with a serpent (perhaps rather the child
was in whole or in part in the form of a
serpent). The daughters of Ocrops, to whom
the chest was given, disobeyed the command
of the goddess and raised the lid, when they
were either destroyed by the serpent or in
sudden madness at sight of it threw tlu'in-vhvs
from the rocks of the Acropolis. This form of
the legend made Erechllieus son or jrrand^on of
Erichthonius and told of his twcritice of his
daughter to save Athena from the attack of
Eumolpus (q.v.). It is to be noted that \\ \\llv
the later poets and inythologist*» dUtin^uKh
Erichthonius and Erechthcus, the early epic
and the cult know only the latter, who i* clearly
an Athenian god of agriculture, who wu* wor-
shiped with the goddess Athomi in a joint
temple, called the Krechtheum (q.v.), on the
Acropolis. Later legend reduced him to a hero
and connected him with Poseidon, or told of
him as the promoter of the worship of Athena.
Powell, "Krichthonius and flu* Three Daugh-
ters of Cecrops," in Cornell XtttfJirx itt rtumtii'nl
Philology (lOO(J), regarded Krcchtheus Much-
thoniua, Poseidon, tind Cecrops as all alike
representatives of the sacred serpent of Athciui;
with the cult represented by them Atkfmi at
first had to struggle*, but later sin* ci»ni|Ui»rctl
it and fused it with her own. CoiiMilf also
Farnell, (*ultn of the (trtvk tftrttM, vol. i M>.V-
ford, 1890), and Fraxer, /'a tm/ /*<«#, vol. ii t:M
ed., London, 11)13).

EBEGLI, A-rfi'#l$ (ancient Hcrarlnti I'on-
tica). A seaport town of Asiatic Turkey, in
the Vilayet of Kastamuni, situated on the Hlack
Sea about 128 miles cast of Constantinople
(Map: Turkey in Asia, B 2). fts harbor, which
is known by this name of Zoimjruiulaik, is tlw
outlet for tin* coal mined in the ueUiMiorlwod.
The. coal iields of this region arc the only one*
developed in Turkey. About 750,000 ton* art*
extracted annually. The mines arc owmtl
chiefly by French capitalists. Tho population
is estimated at about (>300.
EEEM1TA, .TOHAXNKS. See CASSIA: NTS.
EBEMIT V03ST GAtTTINa, A'rr-mM' fon
gou'tliig. Roe HALMBRG-KKOICH, TUMHXHI M. H.
EBETBIA (Lat., from Gk. 'EptVpta). A city
on the went coast of Kubanu south of Olwlcirt,
of which it was in early times a powerful rival.
It helped the Asiatic Greeks of Ionia in their
revolt against the Persians (498 iu%) : hence it
was destroyed by the Persians in 4JJO. It was,
however, soon rebuilt, though it WUK not prom-

BKFOBBIA 59

inent in later history, except for a short time
during the struggle between Athens and Philip
of Macedon. It was the seat of the school of
philosophy established by Menedemus, a disciple
of Plato. The American School at Athens con-
ducted excavations on this site (1890-95), re-
sulting in the discovery of the theatre and
some neighboring buildings, and further in-
vestigations are being carried on by the Greek
Archaeological Society, which have brought to
light an early temple and many lesser remains
of the pre-Persian time. The site is occupied by
a village called Nea Parsa. Consult Papers of
the American School at Athens, vol. vi. See
GUEKOE, History, Ancient History.

ERFORDIA. See EBFUBT.

EBEUBT, eVfvirb (OHG. Erpisford, Erpes-
furt, Lat. Erfordia, ford of Erpe, its legendary
founder). A tpwn of the Prussian Province of
Saxon}-, 14 miles west of Weimar (Map: Prussia,
D 3). It is the capital of the government dis-
trict of Erfurt (area, 13G4 square miles; pop.,
1910, 530,775. Erfurt is situated on the Gera,
which traverses the town in three arms. An im-
portant fortress until 1873, Erfurt retains only
portions of the citadels of Petersberg and Cy-
riaxburg. The town, which has an ancient
aspect, is irregularly built, and many of its
streets are narrow and bordered with old-fash-
ioned houses. The most noteworthy church of
Erfurt is the cathedral (Bcatce Marias Virginia),
occupying the site of an old edifice dating from
the twelfth century and constructed mainly dur-
ing the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth cen-
turies. It is one of the finest churches in Ger-
many. Its foundation is of enormous propor-
tions, and its interior is ornamented with fine
reliefs, paintings, stained glass, and carved choir
stalls. The nave was rebuilt in the thirteenth
century in the Gothic style. The chancel dates
from 1349 to 1372. The twin towers date from
the thirteenth century and contain 10 bells, in-
cluding the Maria Gloriosa, which bears the
date 1497 and weighs over 13 tons. Adjoining
the cathedral is the great fourteenth-century
church of St. Severus, with three pointed towers,
altar reliefs, and statues. The cathedral and
St. Severus occupy an eminence known as the
Domberg and form an impressive mass, ap-
proached by a flight of 48 stone steps. The
two churches are Roman Catholic. There are
several other mediaeval churches, now Evangel-
ical; among them are the Reglerkirche, in
Romanesque style, which has a twelfth-century
tower and was restored in 1859; the twelfth-
century Predigerkirche; and the Gothic Bar-
fusserkirche, which has interesting fourteenth-
century monuments. Of the numerous monas-
teries of Erfurt only two have survived, of
which that of St. Augustine, famous as the
residence of Luther, now serves as an orphanage,
while the other is used as a school for girls.
Among the secular buildings the most promi-
nent are the Rathaus, erected in 1869-75 and
adorned with, frescoes; the courthouse, the cen-
tral railway station, and the government build-
ings occupied in 1808 by Napoleon during his
famous sojourn here.

The city is administered by a chief burgo-
master, a burgomaster, a board of magistrates
of 15 members, and a municipal council of 48
members. It owns its water works, a pawn-
shop, and an abattoir. The street railways are
run by electricity. There was formerly a uni-
versity, established in 1378, but discontinued in
VOL. VIIT--

EU&OT

1816. The most prominent educational insti-
tutions now are the gymnasium originally
founded in 1561, a real gymnasium, a roal-
schule, a teachers' seminary, and several art
and technical schools. There should alao be
mentioned the royal library, with over 60,000
volumes and 7700 manuscripts, the municipal
theatre, and the museum of Thuringian antiq-
uities and costumes. The chief industries of
Erfurt are the manufacture of ladies' cloaks,
shoes, iron products, woolen, cotton, and linen
goods, machines, arms, and cigars. Another
important industry is the culture of flowers
and vegetables, of which Erfurt exports large
quantities. The commerce is of some magni-
tude, and there are several important financial
institutions. Pop., 1875, 48,025; 1890, 72,300;
1900, 85,202; 1910, 111,463, of whom about
seven-eighths are Protestants. The commune has
an area of about 17 square miles.

Erfurt traces its origin to a mythical founder,
Erpe, of the sixth century. St. Boniface es-
tablished a bishopric at Erfurt in 741, but it
reverted to Mainz in 755. Charlemagne made
it a staple town in 805. Though ruled by gov-
ernors appointed by the archbishops of Mainz:,
who claimed sovereignty because of royal charter
rights, Erfurt possessed extensive " municipal
rights till 1604, and in the fifteenth century,
when it belonged to the Hanseatic League, was
exceedingly prosperous, enjoying freedom of
trade throughout the Empire and ruling over
a considerable district, acquired either by force
or purchase. From 14S3 to 1048 Erfurt belonged
to Sfixony. After Westphalia it was given back
to Mainz and remained in her possession until
1802. In 1802 it came to Prussia and in 1806
passed to France. At Erfurt, in 1808, Napoleon
played the conqueror for several months, there
being present Alexander of Russia and a host
of German princes. In 1814 the town was re-
covered by Prussia. In 1850 Erfurt was the
seat of the Union Parliament. (See GERMANY.)
In 1902 the hundredth anniversary of Erfurt's
incorporation with Prussia was celebrated. Con-
sult: Tettau, Erfurt in seiner VerffanflcnJieit
und Qegenwart (Erfurt, 1880) ; Roll,' "Erfurt,"
in Europ&ische WanderWder (Zurich, 1888);
Beyer, Geschichte der Stadt Erfurt (Erfurt,
1900).

ERG-, erg (abbreviated from the Gk. fyyov,
ergon, work; connected with Av. varas, to do,
Goth, wa&rkjan, AS. wyroean, OHG. wirkan,
Ger. wirken, Eng. work). The unit of work or
energy on the C. G. S. system (q.v.). It is the
work done when a force of one dyne acts through,
or is overcome through, a distance of one centi-
meter. It is also tlie energy of two grams mov-
ing with a unit speed. (See ENERGETICS.)
Since it is so small a unit, a multiple of it,
viz., 10T ergs, the so-called "joule," is used more
generally. See MECHANICAL UNITS; MECHAN-
ICS; CALOHIMETBY.

EB'GASTEIIIA. See

ERGOT, Gr'got (Fr. ergot, argot, spur, ex-
tremity of a dead branch). A name given to
the peculiar, hard, purplish-black bodies that
sometimes replace the grain in the head of rye
or other grasses. These ergots are the result
of the development of the fungus Claviccps pur-
purea an# other species within the ovaries of
the grasses. The sclerotia, as the hard bodies
are called, are usually solid, are white within,
and when fresh have a peculiar waxy or
oily appearance and a heavy characteristic

ERGOT 60

odor. Those produced on rye and some other
grasses may be many times larger than the
seed which they replace, attaining a length
of an inch or more; but in wheat and in
some of the smaller grasses they are smaller
than the seed and may not be noticed until
crushed, when they are recognized by their odor.
The fungus origin of ergot has been more or
loss understood since 1838, but its true cause
and the life history of the organism were un-
known until Tulasne published the results of
his investigations in 1853. If a grain of ergot
be placed in suitable conditions of moisture
and temperature, it will soon send out a num-
ber of small stalks, each surmounted by small
globular heads which contain a multitude of
spores. In nature these are produced from ergot
sown with the grain, or from that which has
fallen to the ground where it wintered^ the
spores maturing about the time the grass is in
flower. The ripened spores are blown about by
the wind, and some find lodgment upon the
styles of the grass. Here they germinate and
find their way into the ovary of the flower,
where they develop an abundant mycelium and
put out many short branches, each of which
produces a single conidium. At the same time
a sweet, milky juice is secreted, called honey-
dew, in which the conidia float about until
carried away by insects
visiting the flower for this
sweet substance. When
taken to another flower,
the conidia germinate and
set up a new infection sim-
ilar to that already de-
scribed. During all this
time the fungus within the
flowers continues to grow
and forms a dense mass
of hyphaj, completely ob-
literating the seed whose
place it occupies. Later,
the formation of conidia
ceases, and the fully grown
mycelium is transformed
into a sclerotium, the
dark-colored ergot, which,
when mature, falls to the
ground or is harvested
with the grain.

Ergot is a powerful em-
menagogue, ecbolic, and
haemostatic, and is poison-
ous to human beings and
higher animals, and occu-
pies an important place in
medicine. For this pur-
pose the ergot of rye is
preferred, the principal
supplies coming from Ger-
many, Russia, and Spain.

Represented by the two In gome regions where er-
black masses. ^ • •, ° -, ± -x

^^ got is abundant its pres-

ence in grain often makes flour injurious unless
the grain be thoroughly screened before grind-
ing. The most conspicuous constituent of er-
got is a heavy, nondrying, inflammable fixed
oil, soluble in ether, which is present to the
extent of 30 per cent or more. This is now con-
sidered as inert. There is also about 7 per cent
of resin, which is of no medicinal value. It
is claimed that two alkaloids have been isolated
— ecbolin or cornutin 0.16 per cent, and ergotin
0.12 per cent — and that the active principles

ERIC

are contained in these compounds, the former
being much the more powerful. Dragendorff
and Podwissotzky discredit the active proper-
ties of ecbolin and ergotin, believing thorn to be
formed by chemical action and heat and not
occurring in the ergot normally. They have
found 4.5 per cent of sclerotic acid and 2 to
3 per cent of scleromucin in ergot, which they
claim to be the principal active constituents.
Sclerotic acid is an amorphous, yellowish-brown,
inodorous, and tasteless substance, soluble in
water, while scleromucin is darker and insoluble
in water after once being dried. Another active
principle is sclererythrin, which is piesent in
small quantities. According to Robert (Lefir-
buch der Tossikologie ftir Tlncrarvtc, 1800), the
active constituents of ergot are cornutin (an
alkaloid), sphacelic acid, and ergotic acid. The
uterine contraction is due to the cornutin, while
the poisonous properties of ergot, which often
result in gangrene, are due to the spbacelic
acid. The evgotic acid is a glucoside txhich
has narcotic properties and diminishes and
finally stops reflex excitability. Ergot is usually
administered as a fluid extract of ergotin,
which is made in various ways, as a wine
of ergot, etc., and, as already stated, when used
in considerable quantities is poisonous, yee

A8COMYCETES.

ERGOT PUNG-TJS. See EBOOT.

EK/GOTISIL A disease of cattle, horses, and
sheep caused by eating toxic quantities of er-
got on grasses (q.v.). The eil'ects are .impaired
general vitality and chvulalum of the blood,
which latter, usually in the legs, may stop en-
tirely and be followed by swelling " below the
knee or hock, with perhaps subsequent death of,
or gangrene in, the part. Less topical symptoms
of a constitutional nature are 'indigestion, ner-
vousness, dementia, stupor, coma, or twitching?
and paralysis of the voluntary muscles, begin-
ning with the tongue and extending to olln'r
parts. Epidemics of ergotism have occurred in
Europe, following cold, damp Beacons, in which
meteorological conditions favor the propagation
of ergot. In siich outbreaks not alone are do-
mestic animals affected, bul the ill-fed ]*<ii»r of
cities have also suffered severely from outing
bread made from infected grain/ It hiih to be
differentiated from mycotic stomatitis.

Treatment consists in a change of food, local
antiseptics, tannin internally to neutralixe the
unabsorbed alkaloids of the er^ot, and castor
oil. Chloral hydrate may be given internally
and hot water applied locally to dilate the blood
vessels.

ERIC. The name of several kings of Sweden
and Denmark, before and after the 'union of the
two kingdoms in 1397. — Several Erica, mainly
of legendary fame, arc said to have rtilod in
Sweden before St. Eric, who is accordingly
styled the ninth. Eric the Victorious, who died
about 995, was the last heathen king and is
styled the seventh Eric. — ST. ERIC (c.T150~GO)
Christianized upper Sweden and built a number
of chtirches and monasteries. Ho undertook a
crusade against the Finns, which re.su! tod in the
long and intimate connection between the two
countries. Eric also compiled an excellent code
of laws known as St. Eric's Lag, which granted
to women the right of inheritance of one-third
and certttin privileges within their households.
— ERIO X (1210-1C), grandson of St. Eric, is
the first King mentioned as being crowned. For
a time he had been an exile in Denmark. —

ERIC 61

The most important events in the reign of ERIC
XI (1222-50) were his enforced exile for five
years; the successes achieved against the Finns;
the imposition of celibacy on the clergy at the
Synod of Skenninge in 1248, and the invasion
of Russia, which was checked hy Alexander
Nevski. Under this King Birger Jarl, of the
family of Folkungar, rose to he the virtual ruler
in the state, and after the death of Eric the
royal crown was placed upon Birger's son
Waldemar.

In Denmark EBIC I (1095-1163) won the name
of the "always good" by his excellent rule and
character. — In the twelfth century ERIC EMUN
(1134-37) waged continual war against his
piratical neighbors, whom he sought to Chris-
tianize.— Eiiic THE LAMB, a King of mild and
gentle character, crippled the power and resources
of the crown hy his easy-going policy. He abdi-
cated and retired to a cloister, where he died
in 1147.— The three Erics (Euic VI, VII, and
VIII) who occupied the throne with only the
intermission of a few years, from 1241 to 1319,
are associated with one of the most disastrous
periods of Danish history. Long minorities, the
practice of dismembering the crown lands in
favor of younger branches of the royal house,
and a futile struggle between the ecclesiastical
power and the state, weakened the crown to
the last degree. Eric VI Plogpennig (1241-
50), and Eric VII Glipping (1259-86), were
both assassinated, the former at the instigation
of a brother, and the latter in revenge for a
private injury. Eric VIII (128G-1319), the
last of the name before the union of Kalmar,
died childless, and was succeeded by his am-
bitious brother Christopher, who lost his powers
and prerogatives one by one, and was finally
forced to llee from Denmark. Margaret, daugh-
ter of YValdemar IV of Denmark, by marriage
with Tiiiko, King of Norway, united the coun-
tries, and through her wise rule in those coun-
tries was enabled to secure the crown of Sweden
also. By the union of Kalmar, in 1397, her
nephew, ERIC of Pomerania, was recognized as
her successor. On the death of Margaret, in
1412, Eric therefore became King of the triple
kingdom of Scandinavia. His reckless disre-
gard of treaties and paths, his neglect of his
duties, and his misdirected ambition, led to
dissensions and maladministration. In conse-
quence, in 1439, the Danes renounced their alle-
giance, and in the next year Sweden did the
same. Denmark chose Christopher of Bavaria
in Ins stead; but Scandinavia, for many years
afterward, was a scene of intestine wars and
dissensions, as a result of Eric's misrulo. Eric
fled to Gothland and for 10 years led the life
of a pirate. He had married Philippa, daughter
of Henry IV of England, a noble-spirited woman,
whom it is said he treated cruelly. Ho died in
1459.

ERTO XIV, the last of the name who ruled in
Sweden, was one of the weakest and most un-
fortunate of the Erics. He succeeded his father,
Gustavus Vasa, in 1560. The kingdom was in
an excellent condition as the result of the wise
rule of his father. Eric was well educated, and
a number of useful reforms were introduced in
his reign. He made the first attempt to es-
tablish a supreme court and invited the op-
pressed Protestants to his land, many Hugue-
nots accepting his offer. On the other hand, his
fickleness and constant suspicion of others not
only alienated the affections of his subjects, but

prevented the growth of a strong government.
Elizabeth of England and Mary of Scotland
were more than once the objects of his matri-
monial schemes. Finally, he married his mis-
tress, a Swedish peasant girl, who exercised
great influence over him, especially during his
attacks of insanity. The nobility at last re-
belled, and the estates in 1568 deposed Eric and
chose his brother John as King. Eric suffered
the most rigorous confinement, and the frequent
conspiracies to free him only made his lot the
harder. To remove all danger, John caused his
brother to be poisoned in 1577. See DENMABK;
SWEDEN.

ERTCA'CE-ffi (Nco-Lat., from Gk. epeix^
ereiltc, fylmjt crikd, heath ) . A family of dicotyle-
donous plants, the heath family, which con-
sists chiefly of small shrubs, but which contains
some trees. The leaves are alternate, opposite,
or in whorls, entire, destitute of stipules, often
small, in some genera mostly evergreen and
rigid. The flowers are sometimes solitary in
the axils of the leaves, sometimes grouped in
different kinds of inflorescence, and are often
of great beauty. The calyx is four or five parted,
and the corolla, which is often bell-shaped, has
four or five lobes. The stamens are as many
or twice as many as the corolla lobes, and th'J
anthers in most genera open by small pores at
the summit. The ovary is four to five celled,
and one to many seeded. The fruit is a cap-
sule or a berry. About 50 genera and 1400
species are known, of which the greater number
are natives of South Africa, which particularly
abounds in species of the genus Erica and itn
allies, the true heaths. Some of them are also
found at the utmost limits of northern vegeta-
tion. They are rare within the tropics and occur
only at considerable elevations. Few species arc
found in Australia. Many of the Ericacere are
social plants, and a single species sometimes
covers a great tract, in which it constitutes the
principal vegetation. This is most strikingly
exemplified in the heaths of Europe and the
north of Asia.

The family contains many well-known forms
in North America, as the •wintergreens (Pyrola,
and QaultJicria) , the curious Indian pipe (Mon-
otropa), trailing arbutus (Epigcea), bearberry
( A rctostaphylos) , huckleberries ( Qaylussaoia ) ,
blueberries and cranberries (V actinium), rhodo-
dendrons and azaleas (Rhododendron), moun-
tain Inurel (Katmw), etc. See AZALEA.

ERICHSEN, eVIk-scn, SIR JOHN ERIC (1818-
96). An English surgeon, born in Copenhagen.
He received his medical education at the Uni-
versity College, London, and in Paris, and in
1844 became lecturer on anatomy and physiology
at Westminster Hospital. In 1848 he became
assistant surgeon, and in 1850 surgeon in charge
of the University College Hospital, serving also
as professor of surgery from 1850 to 1866, and
Holme profesflor of clinical surgery from 1866
to 1875. He was president of the Royal College
of Surgeons in 1880, was eleeted a fellow of the
Royal Society in 1876, and was created a baronet
in 1805. He IR best known for his textbook 071
the Science and Art of 8ur<jery (1st ed., 1853),
which was translated into German, Italian, and
Spanish, and is still considered one of the stan
dard textbooks of surgery in the greater part
of the world.

BRIGHT (er^Kt), LOCH. A lake in the
northwestern part of Perthshire and south of
Inverness-shire, Scotland, in a wild, uninhabited

ERICHTHONT0S 62

dihtricl, amid the Grampian Mountains (Map:
Scotland, D 3). It is 14 miles long by 1% to
1% miles broad and its surface is 1153 feet
above sea level. Its banks rise steeply from
the water's edge. It empties into Loch Rannoch,
and its waters ultimately reach the Tay. The
lake is noted for salmon and trout. In a cave
iit the south end. Prince Charles found safe con-
cealment in 1746, after the battle of Culloden.

ER'ICHTHO'mUS (Lat., from Gk. 'Epi%<96-
vios). 1. The son of Dardanus and Batea, father
of Tros, and ancestor of ^neas. 2. The son
of Hephiestus, identified with Erechtheus (q.v.).

ER'ICSON, LEIF. A probably historic person-
age whose adventures are described in the Ice-
landic sagas. He was the son of the Norseman
Eric the Red and about 1000 A.D. discovered
a land to the west, which he called Vinland
(Vineland). The site of the early settlement
has been variously placed along the Atlantic
seaboard — on Labrador, on Newfoundland, and
on the mainland farther south. Consult The
English Rediscovery and Colonisation of Amer-
ica (London, 1891).

ERICSSON, JOHN (1803-89). A distin-
guished engineer. He was born in the Parish
of Fernebo, Vermland, Sweden, July 31, 1803.
After serving for some time as an officer of
engineers in the Swedish army, he removed in
1826 to England and continued to occupy him-
self with inventions, chiefly improvements in
steam machinery. While in England Ericsson
patented a new form of screw propeller, and it
was largely through his efforts that the screw
came to be generally adopted for navigation.
The Admiralty and British naval engineers did
not become interested in Ericsson's work; but
his ideas were appreciated by F. B. Ogden,
United States Consul at Liverpool, who placed
at his disposal funds to construct a small ocean
steamer, which was subsequently sent across the
Atlantic. Mr. Ogden and Capt. Robert F. Stock-
ton, U. S. N., induced the engineer to come to
the United States, and he received the orders
for the construction of two steamships. He
arrived at New York in 1839, and two years
afterward was employed in constructing the
U. S. S. Princeton, which was the first war
steamship to have its propelling machinery
below the water lino and to use the screw pro-
peller. Ericsson soon became known for the
great number and novelty of his inventions,
among which, in addition, to the screw pro-
peller, were a steam boiler with artificial drafts
which did away with smokestacks and effected
an important saving in fuel; a steam, fire en-
gine; the caloric engine; a sliding telescopic
chimney; machinery to check the recoil of heavy
guns; an instrument for measuring distance
at sea; the hydrostatic gauge for measuring
the volume of fluids under pressure; a meter to
measure the amount of water passing through
pipes; an alarm barometer; a pyrometer to
measure temperature, from the freezing of water
to the melting of iron; a lead to take soundings
without rounding the vessel to the wind; and
various modifications of the caloric engine in
which the expansive force of hot air was used
as a source of power* In the Civil War he
designed and built the monitors for the United
States Navy. The first one was built in a little
more than three months and (March 9, 1862)
defeated and disabled the Confederate ironclad
Merrimac. In his later years he attempted to
perfect the solar engine, for which heat is ob-

EB1E

tained from the iaya ol the sun collected by a
huge funnel lined with a reflecting smface. He
died in New York, March 8, 1889. Tn 1890 the
body of Ericsson was removed to Sweden, being
conveyed by the United States cruiser Baltinwte,
and in 1893 the State of New York erected a
monument to him on the Battery, New York
City. This was replaced by another in 1901.
Consult Church's Life of Ericsson (New York,
1890).

ERICSSON1, NILS (1802-70). A Swedish en-
gineer. He was born in Stockholm and was the
eldest brother of John Hricsson, who built the
Monitor, the first successful ironclad in the
United States mivy. In 1850 he was appointed
colonel of the Naval .Engineering Corps, and
in 1858 became director of government rail-
road construction, in which capacity he piobably
contributed more than any other man to the
development of the present railroad system of
Sweden. As a hydraulic engineer, lie constructed
the docks at Stockholm, the great canal unit-
ing Lake Saima with the Gulf of Finland, and
the new sluices of the Trollhiittan Canal.

ERIC THE HED (c.950-1000). The colo-
nizer of Greenland. He was a native of Nor-
way and fled from the country uiuhr a charge
of homicide, settling on the west coast of Tce-
land. Another murder forced him (c.980) to
flee to an island in the west which ]md boon
discovered more than a century before, but nob
settled. In 985 Eric returned to Norway and
secured colonists for the new land, which he
called Greenland. He became the leading man
of the colony and called his chief town Gimlar.
His son, Lcif Ericson (q.v.), introduced Chris-
tianity and is supposed to have landed on the
New England coast about the year 1000. Eric
has by some been credited with the discovery of
America. In the eleventh century Greenland,
became tributary to Norway. After flourishing
for about four centuries the settlement sud-
denly disappeared from history, all communica-
tions, commercial and otherwise, being myste-
riously broken off. It iw sometimes supposed
that all of the people were carried oil' l>y tho
black death in the fourteenth century. Consult
Nansen, In Northern Afists (2 vols., Xew York.
1911).

ERIDAmrS, 6-rid'a-nus (Gk. Eptfas'os, Erida-
nus, a river god, son of Oceanus and Tethys).
An ancient southern constellation, mentioned
by Eudoxus in the fourth century B.C. It lies
immediately south of Taurus and extends more
than halfway to the south pole. Its principal
star, o Eridani, or Achernar, in of the fir«t
magnitude. o2 flridani, a star of magnitude
4.5, has a faint and distant double satellite,
and was first recognized as a triple system by
Hcrschel in 1783; it is remarkable also for its
large proper motion.

ERIDANTTS. Roe ELECTBIDES; Po.

E1&IE. A city and the county seat of Neosiio
Co., Kans., 120 miles south-southwest of Kan-
sas City, on the Missouri, Kansas, and Texas,
and the Atchlson, Topeka, and Santa Fe rail-
roads (Map: Kansas, G 7). Tt is in the valley
of the Neosho, the centre of a fertile agricul-
tural region, and has a large oil refinery, an ice
factory, a mineral-water plant, grain elevators,
and feed mills. There are natural-gat* and oil
wells in the vicinity. The water works and elec-
tric-light plant are owned by tho city. Pop.,
1900, 1111; 1910, 1300,

EBIE. A manufacturing city, port of entry,

ERIE 63

and the county scat of Erie Co., Pa., on Lake
Erie, 88 miles by rail southwest of Buffalo, N.
Y., and 95 miles northeast of Cleveland, Ohio
(Map: Pennsylvania, A 1). The city's sup-
plies of natural gas and its proximity to the
bituminous coal and coke districts of the State
greatly enhance its commercial and industrial
importance. The only lake port in Pennsyl-
vania, Erie has an excellent harbor, protected
by a peninsula 6 miles long and 1 mile wide,
called Presque Isle. It receives a large part of
the shipping of the Great Lakes «md is also
important as a railroad centre, being .on the
Bessemer and Lake Erie, the Lake Shore and
Michigan Southern, the New York, Chicago,
and St. Louis, the Pennsylvania, and other rail-
roads* Its lake freight commerce carries prod-
ucts valued at more than $150,000,000, in 3000
American and foreign vessels annually, while
its railroad freight tonnage is equivalent to
200,000 loaded cars. Besides the trade in coal
and iron ores, there are extensive fisheries and
a heavy commerce in grain, package freight,
and agricultural products.

Erie's manufactures are considerable and
varied. They give employment to about 15,000
men and represent an invested capital of $36,-
004,500. The annual output is valued at more
than $30,000,000. The principal industrial es-
tablishments include engine and boiler works,
blast furnaces, electrical-cars and machinery
factories, iron, brass, and aluminium foundries,
machine and tool shops, malleable-iron works,
refineries, chemical works, tanneries, horseshoe
and hardware plants, paper, flour, silk, and
woolen mills, and manufactories of bicycles and
automobiles, pianos and organs, beer, cigars,
tobacco, medicines, etc. The city has many
beautiful parks, a public library, three general
hospitals, a sanitarium, eight homes for chil-
dren and aged persons, a Federal building, a
courthouse, a city hall, St. Benedict and Villa
Maria academies, two cathedrals, St. John
Kanty College, and a State soldiers' and sailors'
home, whose park near the harbor entrance is
the site of the old French and Indian War
frontier blockhouse fort, where Gen. Anthony
Wayne died in 1796. Erie, under a charter of
1913, is governed by a municipal commission of
the mayor and four commissioners. These, with
the city controller, are elected by popular vote
on a nonpartisan ticket. Other officials arc
chosen by the commission, excepting the board
of municipal waterworks, which is appointed by
the judges of the county court of common picas.
Legislative initiative by 100 qualified voters
and referendum by petition of 20 per cent of
the electors are provided. The school affairs
are managed by a board of nine directors, elected
by popular vote. The city's receipts in 1014
wore $1,100,000, while its payments amounted
to about $1,337,000, the principal items of ex-
pense being $490,000 for schools, $115,000 for
the fire department, and $100,000 for the police.
The water works, valued at $3,520,000, and hav-
ing a pumping capacity of 44,000,000 gallons
daily, are owned by the municipality and oper-
ated at a yearly expense of $120,000. The as-
sessed property valuation of the city in 1913
was $48,513,000.

On the site of Erie stood the old French fort,
Presque Tsle, built in 1753. In 1760 the Kng-
lifih took possession of it, and on June 22, 1763,
during Pontiac's War, a large force of Indians
compelled the garrison to surrender. Erie was

ERIE

the headquarters of Commodore Perry in the
War of 1812, and the two flagships, the Law-
rence and the Niagara, with which he defeated
the British in the naval battle of Lake Erie,
off Put-in-Bay, were built and equipped hero.
The town was laid out and settled hi 1795 by
families from New England and was chartered
as a city in 1851. Pop., 1000, 52,733; 1910,
66,525, including 14,943 of foreign birth and 'MO
negroes; 1914 (U. S. est.), 72,401 j 1920, 93,372.

ERIE. An Iroquoian tribe, formerly holding
the east and southeast shores of tlie lake of
that name, in the present States of New York,
Pennsylvania, and Ohio. They wen- nearly de-
stroyed by the Iroquois about 1650, in a short
but fierce war of conquest, those who survived
being incorporated with the Senecas. The name
is said to signify a wildcat.

ERIE, BATTLE OF LAKE. A famous naval en-
gagement in the War of 1812, between Great
Britain and the United States, fought in Put-
in-Bay, near the western end of Lake Erie, on
Sept. 10, 1813. The American fleet, which had
been hastily built at Presque Tsle (now Erie),
Pa., consisted of 3 brigs, 5 schooners, and a
sloop, with a total of 54 gun**, throwing a broad-
side of 936 pounds, and 490 officers and men.
The British had 2 ships of war, 2 brigs, a
schooner, and a sloop, mounting 63 guns, throw-
ing a broadyide of 459 pounds, and carrying
about 460 officers and men, The American guns,
though of heavier calibre, were of shorter range
than those of the British. The American com-
mander was Oliver Hazard Perry, then rank-
ing as master commandant; the British com-
mander was Robert H. Barclay, who had served
tinder Nelson at Trafalgar. During the first
part of the battle the English concent™. ted their
fire on Perry's flagship, the Lawrence, which was
soon so completely disabled that Perry left her
in command of Lieutenant Yarnall and shifted
his flag to the Niagara, under a heavy fire. The
action now became general, and after a stub-
born contest Perry forced Barclay's flagship, the
Detroit, and three other vessels to surrender. The
remaining two attempted to escape, but were soon
overtaken and captured. Perry at once sent his
famous dispatch to General Harrison: "We have
met the enemy, and they are ours — two ships,
two brigs, one schooner, and one sloop." The
battle lasted three hours and fifteen minutes,
and during this time the Americana lost 123 in
killed and wounded; the British, 135. This vic-
tory gave the Americans almost undisputed con-
trol of the upper lakes, and not only removed
all danger of invasion in that quarter, but vir-
tually insured the recapture of Detroit and the
conquest of Upper Canada by the American army
under General Harrison. Gold medals were con-
ferred by Congress upon Perry and Castor Com-
mandant Elliott, and minor rewards upon the
other officers and men. In 1858 the remains of
the officers killed were buried on Put-in-Bay
Island. There has been much discussion among
naval historians in regard to the relative
strength of the two fleets and the precise amount
of credit to be awarded to Perry. Hoe PAGEANTS
AXD CKLKBVATIONS for account of ( 'untcnmal
Celebration. Consult: Roosevelt's Naval War of
J812 (New York, 1RS3) ; Spears, The History of
Our Navy (ib., 1899) ; Maclay, History of tlie
Navy (ib., 1894-1901); Mills, Oliver Hazard
Perry and the Battle of Lake Eric (Detroit,
1913).

EBIB, LAKE, The moat aovthern of the chain

BBIB CANAL <

of five great lakes drained by the St. Lawrence
River (Map: United States, Eastern Part, K 2).
It lies between Lakes Huron and Ontario, re-
ceiving waters from the former through the St.
Clair River, Lake St. Glair, and the Detroit River
on the west, and discharging its waters into
the latter through the Niagara River on the
east, at the rate of 215,000 cubic feet per second.
Lake Erie has a length of about 250 miles, in
a northeast and southwest direction, and a
maximum breadth of 57 miles. Its surface,
which has an area of 9600 square miles, is 573
feet above the level of the sea and 326 feet above
Lake Ontario; ita mean depth is about 100 feet,
and the greatest depth recorded is 210 feet. It
is the shallowest of the Great Lakes. Lake
Erie is bounded on the north by the Canadian
Province of Ontario, on the east and south by
New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio, and on the
northwest by Michigan, the boundary between
the United States and Canada traversing it.
Besides receiving the drainage from Lakes Su-
perior, Michigan, and Huron, it has a limited
river system of its own, receiving among others
the Grand from the north, the Maumee from
the west, and the Sandusky and Cuyahoga from
the south. The chief islands belonging to the
United States are West Sister, Rattlesnake,
Green, Put-in-Bay, Bass, and Kelly. Those be-
longing to Canada are Middle Sister, East Sis-
ter, The Chickens, Middle, and Pellce.

Navigation on Lake Erie is rendered some-
what difficult, its comparative flhallowness mak-
ing it liable to a heavy ground swell. Naviga-
tion is suspended wholly or in part during the
winter season on account of the ice. Lake Erie
is connected with Lake Ontario by the Welland
Canal, around Niagara Falls, with the Hudson
River by the Erie Canal, and with the Ohio
River by the Miami and Erie and Ohio and
Erie canals. Several large cities and important
ports are situated on Lake Erie, chief of which
are Buffalo, Erie, Cleveland, Sandusky, and
Toledo; and Detroit, on the Detroit River, may
be added to this list. The growth of these cities
— of Cleveland, Detroit, and Buffalo— has been
remarkable. The commercial importance of
Lake Erie has had rapid increase, as it forms
a link in the waterway from the West to the
East, over which a great grain and iron move-
ment takes place. Numerous large freight
steamers and magnificently equipped passenger
steamers ply upon its waters. Lake Erie was
an important theatre of naval warfare in the
War of 1812. See EEBB, BATTLE OF LAKE;
GREAT LAKES.

ERIE CANAL. An artificial waterway
across the State of New York, extending from
Buffalo to Albany, connecting the Great Lakes
with the Hudson River. This canal, second in
length only to the great canal of China among
the artificial waterways of the world, played a
most important part in the commercial develop-
ment of the State of New York, and probably
more than any other influence contributed to the
establishment of New York City as the great
port and commercial centre of the eastern coast
of the United States. In 1784 Christopher Coles
made a survey of the Mohawk valley and sub-
mitted plans to the New York Legislature for
the connection of the Hudson River and Lake
Ontario by an artificial waterway. Another
survey was made in 1791 by the direction of the
Legislature through the efforts of Governor
George Clinton, ana in 1792 the Western Inland

4 ERIE CANAL

Canal Company was chartered. By the end of
1796 this corporation had built 6 miles of canal
at Little Falls to facilitate the use of the upper
Mohawk River, and this waterway was navigable
by vessels of 16 tons. In 1816 Governor Tomp-
kins urged that the canal be built by the State,
and a canal commission, with De Witt Clinton
at the head, was appointed. On April 15 the
Legislature authorized the construction of a
canal, and on July 4 ground was broken at
Rome. In October, 1819, a section of the canal
from Rome to Utica was open for navigation,
and in the following year Seneca Lake was
reached. On Oct. 26, 1825, the first canal boat,
Seneca Chief, left Buffalo for New York, and
navigation from the Great Lakes to tidewater
was established. The actual cost of the en mil
was $7,143,789, but by 1836 it had turned into
the State treasury more than its cost.

The Erie Canal, as built, was 352 miles in
length, with 9 miles of adjuncts, and, considering
the time of its construction, \yas marked by
excellent and efficient engineering. It imme-
diately became a source of direct profit to the
State, as well as an economic asset of high im-
portance. From 1817 to 1882, when tolls were
abolished, the gross revenues of the Eric Canal
were $121,461,871, while the cost of operation
and maintenance amounted to $29,270,301, show-
ing a profit of $92,191,570. The cost of con-
struction and enlargement in the same period
aggregated $49,591,853; so a profit of $42,599,
718 was shown. The ratio of operation and
maintenance to revenues was 24 per cent. In
1825 the tolls amounted to $566,112, and from
the time of its completion the tonnage of freight
carried annually soon increased to over 1,000,000
tons, and by 1836 1,301,000 tons were carried.
The charge for transportation from Buffalo to
Albany, which had been $22 in 1824, fell to $4
per ton in 1835. The original Eric Canal
floated .boats of 80 feet in length, lf> feet in
width, and 3% -foot draft, with a maximum bur-
den of 75 tons; but soon increased capacity wa»
demanded, and in 1835 the enlargement of the
canal was authorized. From this time on, poli-
tics played an even greater part in the opera-
tion and maintenance of the canal. The canal
ring was born (see NEW YORK, History) and the
vast expenditures for maintenance and enlarge-
ment led to great corruption and \vanto. In
1831 the Mohawk and Hudson Railroad opened
its line, the era of steam transportation was
inaugurated, and 10 years later Albany and
Buffalo were connected by rail; but no" effect
on the business of the canal was felt between
1838 and 1847. In 1848 the State constitution
was revised, and frorii that time on in numerous
amendments the question of the canal was
more or less before the people. Canal enlarge-
ment by 1849 had made passage for vessel* of
100 tons burden, and by 1853 vessels of 200 tons
could be accommodated. At this period con-
stant efforts were in progress to effect further
enlargement of the canal, which by 1862 was
virtually completed. The canal was 70 feet wide
at the surface, 52 feet wide at the bottom, 7
feet in depth, and accommodated vessels of
6-foot draft and 240 tons, capable of a load of
8000 bushels of wheat, as compared with 1000
bushels at the primitive stage and 2500 hutihols
from 1830 to 1850. Naturally the coat of
maintenance and operation increased with the
enlargement and with the inefficiencv resulting
from political control. In 1867 the land trans-

ERIE SHALE 65

portation lines began to benefit from increased
commercial activity in much greater ratio than
the canal, and after the consolidation of the
New York Central and Hudson River railroads,
in 1869, the advantages of the canal for long
hauls were beginning to be lost. The railroads
assumed an attitude of opposition to the canal
and political influence was wielded against im-
provements and enlargement, with the result that
the Erie Canal began to be neglected, and a
lamentable lack of foresight was shown. The
canal ring, by this time, had become a public
scandal of serious dimensions, and in 1875 it
was broken up through the efforts of Gov. Sam-
uel J. Tilden (q.v.). Although the tolls were
lowered after the financial crisis of 1873 and
were abolished in 1882, the decline of the canal
business set in and from about 1880 became phe-
nomenal. With the abolition of tolls came in-
creased neglect, and in no way was the Erie
Canal kept abreast of the times, or received the
intelligent care and interest such as at this time
were given to European canals. Little or noth-
ing was done in the way of improvement until
1895, when an expenditure of $9,000,000 was au-
thorized providing for the deepening of the
canal to 9 feet. This amount was entirely in-
adequate, and the improvement effected was
slight, so that after considerable agitation, in
1903, the enlargement of the canal was sub-
mitted to the people and its increase in size to
accommodate 1000-ton barges was duly voted.
This opened a new chapter, both in the engi-
neering and economics of the matter, which will
be found discussed under NEW YORK STATE
BAEGE CANAL. Consult: Hepburn, Artificial
Waterways and Commercial Development, with
history of the Erie Canal (New York, 1909);
annual reports of the Superintendent of Public
Works of the State of Now York; and various
reports of canal commissions and committees.

ERIE SHALE. A name given to the wes-
terly extension into Ohio of the Upper Portage
and Chemung rocks of New York. It overlies
the Huron shalo, the latter being the storehouse
of petroleum. Sec DEVONIAN SYSTEM.

EUIGENA, o-r!j'&-nft, JOHANNES SOOTTTS. A
famous mediaeval philosopher, who was born
pvohiihlv of Scot parentage in Ireland (whence
Ncotus, iScot, and Erigcna, Irish -born) within the
first two decades of the ninth century. Very
little is known regarding his history. He was
called to France by Charles the Bald, who in-
trusted to him the translation of the writings
ascribed to Dionyaius the Arcopagite (q.v.), his
publication of which, without prior submission
to the censorship of Rome, brought him into
conflict with Pope Nicholas I; but evidently
Charles stood by him, since he remained at the
French court till the death of the King in 877.
Nothing is known of Erigena's history after
tliat date. His philosophic opinions were those
of a Neoplatonist rather than of a scholastic.
Ho held that God is the essential ground of all
things, from whom all things emanate, and into
whom they return again. Nature he regarded as
of four distinct sorts: first, the creative and un-
created; second, the creative and created; third,
the noncrcative and created; fourth, the non-
creative and noncreated. The first is God the
Creator ; the second is the world of ideas exist-
ing in God's mind and giving rise to the world
of space and time, which is the third; while the
fourth is God again as the final goal and consum-
mation of all development. The church doctrine

EBINNA

of creation out of nothing he completely changes
by making "nothing" mean reality in so far as
unknown. God eternally creates the world out
of Himself, the Unknown. In logic he was a
realist; creation of individual things seems to
be nothing but logical subordination of the par-
ticular to the universal. As can be seen from
this short account of his views, he was not an
authoritarian, but insisted that "authority orig-
inates in reason, not reason in authority. All
authority which is not confirmed by true reason
seems to be weak," whereas reason "does not
need to be corroborated by the seal of any au-
thority." Erigena took active part in the the-
ological polemic of his day, maintaining the
spiritual presence in the Eucharist, and denying
Gottschalk's twofold predestination, i.e., both
to salvation and to damnation, and admitting
only the former. Erigena's main work, his De
Divisione Naturce, was condemned by the Pro-
vincial Council of Paris in 1210 and ordered
by Honorius III in 1225 to be burned. It was
first printed in Oxford, 1681. De Divina Prce-
destinatione was printed first in Paris, 1650.
His complete extant works were edited by Floss
and published in Migne's PatroJogice Cursus
Oompletus (Paris, 1853). Consult: the histories
of mediseval philosophy by Haureau, Stockl,
Kaulich, Picavet; Christlieb, Leben und Lehre
des Johannes 8cotus Erigena (Gotha, 1860);
Huber, Johannes Scotus Erigena ( Munich, 1801) ;
Buchwald, Der Logosbegriff des Johannes Scotus
Erigena (Leipzig, 1884); Wotschke, Pichle und
Erigena (Halle, 1896); Kaulich, Qeschichte der
scholastischen Philosophic (Prague, 1863);
Poole, Mediaeval Thought (London, 1884) and
Erigena (ib., 1806) ; Gardner, Studies in John
the Scot (ib., 1000) ; Rand, "Johannes Scotus,"
in Quellen und Untersuchungen &ur lateinischen
Philologie des Afittelaltcrs (Mllnchen, 1906) ;
Whittaker, Apollonius of Tyana and Other
Essays (London, 1906).

EBIGKERON, e-rfj'e-r6n (Lat., from Gk.
Jtptyepuv, erigero'n, the plant groundsel, from ypi,
eri, early, + ytyav, geron, old) . A genus of plants
of the family Composites. It has a powerful
odor, which is said to keep away fleas, and the
name "fleabane" is sometimes given to the plant.
Erigeron philadelphious, with pale-purple ray
and a fetid smell, and Erigeron oanadensis, with
inconspicuous rays, are valued in the United
States as diuretics. The latter species is now
widely diffused throughout the world. The prin-
cipal constituent of the oil which is distilled
from these species is terpene. The oil is a strong
haemostatic, irritant, and stimulant, and is valu-
able in cases of uterine hemorrhage, diarrhoea,
and dysentery.

E'RIN (Olr. H6riu, Eriu, gon. sg. flrenn,
dat. sg. Erinn, appearing in Gk. as 'lovepvtd,
Ivemia, and in Lat. as Hilerio or Hibernia; cf.
Welsh Ywerddon, MBret. Tucrdon; perhaps ul-
timately connected with Skt. pfvan, fat, rich,
Gk. Ht(F)€pla, Pi(v)eria, name of a district in
Greece). The ancient name now employed po-
etically for Ireland (q.v.)-

EBIJST 00 BBAG-H, bran (Olr., Ireland for-
ever). The old war cry of the Irish.

EBEKraA (Lat., from Gk. "Hpiwa). A Greek
poetess of uncertain date. On the basis of a
statement in Suidas she has generally been re-
garded as a contemporary and friend of Sappho,
but Reitzenstein in Epigramm und Skolion
(Giessen, 1893) has shown it to be probable that
Suidas's statement is due to the fact that

EBI1TYES 66

Erinna wrote songs which, were imitations of
those of Sappho. Her most probable date is
the early Alexandrian period. Among her poems
the most famous was "The Distaff" ( 'llhaKdrrj,
Elal-atv) , in 300 hexameters. The fragments
of her works are edited by Bergk, Poetce Lyrici
(jraci, iii (Leipzig, 1900 et seq.). Consult
Christ-Schmid, Geschichte der gricchischen Lit-
teraturi_voL i (5th ed., Munich, 1908).
ERI1TYES, e-rml-ez. See EUMENIDES.
E'RIOBOTIIYA. See LOQUAT.
E'RIODEETDRON- (Neo-Lat., from Gk. fyw,
enon, wool + 8ev8pov, dendron, tree). A genus
of trees of the family Malvaceae, or Boinbacacese
according to Engler, natives of tropical coun-
tries. The thick, woody seed capsules contain a
kind of fibre which resembles cotton, from which
the trees are called silk cotton. Eriodcndron
anfractuosum, found in the East Indies, Africa,
and also South America, is a tree which reaches
a height of 130 feet or more. The African
variety or species is called rimi and bentang.
Park mentions it by the latter name. Earth
says it is generally to be seen growing near the
principal gate of large towns in Haussa. Its
wood, soft and spongy, is chiefly used for mak-
ing canoes. The roundish seeds, of the size of
peas, are eaten in Celebes. The trees of this
genus have palmate leaves and large, beautiful
flowers. On account of its shortness, elasticity,
and brittleness, the fibre cannot be spun like
cotton. It is, however, valuable in various ways
in upholstery and is used for making floss. The
principal supplies come from Java, although the
tree is common throughout nearly all tropical
regions. In Java it is known as kapok. The
silky and lustrous fibre of Eriodendron aa,mauma
is used in Brazil for stuffing pillows and has
been made into many articles. It is said to be
a good substitute for beaver in the manufacture
of felt hats. Very similar to Eriodendron are
the species of Bomlato, a related genus. Bom-
"baas ceiba, or Ceiba pentandra, ana Ociba mwi-
guba, are Brazilian trees of large size. Cciba
maldbarica is an East Indian species, the fibre
of which is reddish; hence the tree is called the
red silk-cotton tree. The fibre of these three
species is used only for stuffing pillows. It is
said that all of them would make good paper.
Valuable bast fibres used in making ropes are
found in the bark of all species.
E'RIOPH'ORTJM. See COTTON GBASS.
ERIPHY'LE (Lat,, from Gk. 'Bp^X?j). In
Greek mythology, sister of Adrastus, wife of
Amphiaraus, and mother of Alcmseon. When
Polynices, son of OEdipus, resolved to wage war
against his brother Eteocles and so to gam con-
trol of Thebes, he bribed Eriphyle with the neck-
lace of Harmonia to persuade Amphiaraus to
take part in the expedition. Amphiaraus, who
knew that he would die on the expedition, en-
joined his sons to kill their mother Eriphyle as
soon as they heard of his death. For the execu-
tion of this command see ALOMJBON.

E'RIS (Lat., from Gk. "Epts). In Greek
mythology, the sister of Ares, in the Iliad, and
daughter of Nyx (night), in Hesiod. Eris, or
"strife," is represented by Homer as at first
insignificant, but growing until. her head touches
the heavens. According to the late poets it
was Eris who at the marriage festival of Peleus
and Thetis flung on the table the golden apple
inscribed "To the fairest," for which Hera,
Athena, and Aphrodite contended, and which
thus brought about the Trojan War. (See

ERITBEA

PARIS.) The Latin writers give Eris the name
of Discordia (q.v.). Hesiod knew another and
very different Eris, who spurred men on to
honorable rivalry.

EB/ITH (AS. JSire-Hylpe, Old Haven). A
town of Kent, England, on the south biink of the
Thames, 14 miles east by south of London
(Map: London, E 11). It is a favorite subur-
ban residence and a popular staiting point for
yacht races. In the neighboring marshes arc
large powder factories. The town owns its
electric-light and tramway system and operates
them at a profit ; it also owns its sewage-disposal
plant, a steadily growing group of woikmcn's
dwellings, and in 1909 opened a contra,! store.
Pop., 1901, 25,300; 1911, 27,755.

ERITREA, It. pron. a're-tra'a, or ERYTH-
R.JEA. An Italian colony in northeast Africa,
lying between the Red Sea on the northeast and
Abyssinia on the southwest, and between Anglo-
Egyptian Sudan on the northwest and French
Somaliland on the southeast, and embracing the
northern part of the Abyssinian highlands
(Map: Africa, H 3). The coast is about 6r>0
miles long and occupies about one-fourth of the
west coast of the Red Sea. The southern por-
tion is a comparatively narrow strip of territory
extending inland about 50 miles. The northern
section, north of Annesley Bay, extends inland
about 200 miles at its greatest width. The
colonial territory includes the islands Massawa,
Dahlak, and Hauakil in the Red Sea. The total
area is approximately 60,000 square miles.
Generally speaking, Eritrea consists, first, of
the narrow coast* territory, which is of coral
formation; next, a "subalpine" region with an
average elevation of about 2300 feet; and then
of a plateau 7000 feet high, broken by arid
valleys. These highlands are the most healthful
and habitable section of the country and the
most susceptible of cultivation, while the sea
region is altogether arid and ill capable of sup-
porting life, whether fauna or flora. In this
latter district the only rains are in winter. The
climate of Eritrea is equatorial, the temperature
at Massawa on the Red Sea having an. annual
average of nearly 90° F. and often riHin^ to
120° F. in the shade. The exports embrace pre-
cious metals, animal products, especially hides,
mother-of-pearl, pearls, coffee, and ivory. The
imports include cotton goods, durra," cattle,
wood, wine, and flour. The total value of the
imports in 1912 was $3,637,000, for UPC in the
colony, and about $1,000,000 of transit trade;
exports, $1,750,000. The imports and exports
are almost exclusively at Mansawa. There is a
considerable transit trade with Abyssinia and
Sudan. There, entered and cleared, in 1912, 1408
vessels registering 204,400 tons. The only rail-
road is 75 miles long, connecting Massawa with
Asmara, an interior town, the seat of govern-
ment. This railway was constructed chiefly for
military purposes. Additional lines of about 75
miles are under construction, connecting Asmara
with other points in the interior. There are
about 900 miles of telegraph lines. The scat of
colonial government is at Asmara. Tlie chief
town is Massawa (q.v.), with a population of
7800 in 1912, the real business centre of the
colony and the natural port for Abyssinia. The
colony demands annually about $1,250,000 from
the national budget. A special army corps of
about 4500 men, mostly natives, is stationed
here. The population numbers 275.000 natives
and 4000 Europeans. The natives arc of the

BBIVAtf

Arab race and chiefly nomadic. The Afar or
Danakil tribes inhabit the southern part. The
Eritrean frontier was determined by treaties in
1900 and 1902, involving Italy, Abyssinia, and
Great Britain. The foundation of this Italian
colony began with the purchase in 1870 by an
Italian steamship company of Assab as a coal-
ing station, and it was later made an Italian
colony. Subsequently treaties were made with
the native rulers of other adjacent areas, and
they were in 1890 united by royal decree under
the title of Colony of Eritrea.

History. Italy, with the consent of Great
Britain, obtained a footing in the district of
Assab Buy in 1881 and in the next year formed
a colony there. In 18S5 it occupied the ports of
Bailul and Massawa and their contiguous dis-
tricts, and declared its protectorate over the
coast from Ras Kasar to Belieta Bay. A con-
test with Abyssinia arose in consequence, and
the Italian troops were finally forced back upon
Massawa in 1887. In 1888 and 1889, however,
the Italians regained their position and extended
their dominion. After the Italians had with
difficulty become possessed of Tigre" and other
sections, their army was disastrously defeated
cast of Adowa, on March 1, 1896, by the Abys-
sinians, to whom was surrendered as a result,
under the Treaty of Oct. 26, 1896, all the region
south of the Mareb, Belesa, and Muna rivers.
In 1897 Kassala was given up to the Anglo-
Egyptians. Up to 1898 Eritrea was a purely
military department. The Abyssinian success in
the war with Italy led her to set up a civil gov-
ernment. By three boundary conventions in
1900, 3902, and 1908 the boundary was finally
fixed at approximately 60 kilometers inland.
Signer F. Martini (18*98-1906) put Eritrea on
a sound commercial and financial basis, which
continues to exist to-day. Consult Ostini, La
nostra espansione coloniale e VEritrea (Rome,
1913).

EKIVAN", eyi-yan' (Pers. Revan). A forti-
fied city of Russian Armenia, capital of the
Transctiucasian government of Erivan (q.v.),
situated at an elevation of over 3000 feet on the
Zanga, an affluent of the Arars, 172 miles south-
southwest of Tifiis. It is divided into several
parts and is commanded by a fortress situated
on a hill (Map: Russia, F 6). The surrounding
country has numerous gardens, but it is ex-
tremely unhealthful in the summer. Erivan
contains five mosques and an Armenian theolog-
ical seminary. Of interest is the palace of the
former Persian viceroys. Leather, pottery, and
cotton goods are the chief manufactures. The
neighborhood of the city is rich in minerals.
The town is an important military station on
account of its position near the frontier. Under
the rule of the Persians and tho Turks, to whom
the city belonged alternately, Erivan was of
groat military importance and was strongly for-
tified. It was attacked during the Russo-Persian
War by the Russians under General Paskcvitch
(hence his surname Erivanski), and by the
Peace of Turkraantchai (Feb. 22, 1828) was for-
mally ceded to Russia. Pop., 1911, 32,505.

ERIVAN. A government in the southern
part of Transcaucasia, Russia, bordering on Per-
sia and Asiatic Turkey on the south and covering
an area of 10,725 square miles (Map: Russia,
F 6). It is a mountainous country, traversed
by chains belonging to the Little Caucasus sys-
tem. There are also isolated peaks2 among which
Alaghez and Ararat (on the border) are the

highest. The government belongs chiefly to fre
basin of the Aras, which forms the boundary line
between Russia and Persia. The largest luko
of Caucasia, Goktcha, is situated in the Govern-
ment of Erivan. The climate varies with tho
elevation of the surface, but is, on the whole,
unpleasant. The forest area is very limited, and
salt is practically the only mineral exploited.
The lower portions of the country and espe-
cially the river valleys are devoted to agricul-
ture, while in the mountainous regions live-
stock breeding is the chief pursuit. Besides
cereals there are raised large quantities of south*
ern fruit and some cotton. Some leather und
cotton goods are manufactured. Lake Goktcha
has extensive fisheries. The trade is important
and carried on mostly by Armenians and Tatars.
Pop., 1912, 971,290, consisting principally of Ar-
menians and Tatars, but including also Kurds,
Russians, Greeks, and Jews. Capital, Erivan
(q.v.).

EBJISH DAGH, er'jish' oW (anciently,
Lat. Argceus). An extinct volcano in Asia
Minor, situated in the Vilayet of Angora, south
of Kaisarieh. It has an altitude of over 13,000
feet, and its latest eruption took place in the
fourth century.

ERE, Srk, LUDWIG CHBISTIAN (1807-83). A
German musician. He was born at Wetzlar and
was a pupil of A. Andre" at Offenbach. He was
appointed conductor of liturgical singing in the
Domkirche at Berlin and founded the Erk Miln-
nergesangverein in 1843 and the Erk Gesang-
verein in 1852. As a teacher he trainod many
excellent singers, and as a conductor he greatly
increased the appreciation of good music among
the masses. His popular song books for schools
include the following: Rmgvogelcin (1896) ;
LiederJcranfs (1839 et seq.) ; Deutsclier fAeder-
scJiata (5th ed., 1893); and Turnerliederbuch.
His valuable library and many of his unpub-
lished manuscripts were acquired by the Ko'nig-
liche Hochschule fur Musik at Berlin. A large
number of these manuscripts, containing hun-
dreds of liturgical and folk songs, consisting of
original compositions and historical collections,
were subsequently published by Magnus Bohme.
ERLACH, ar^ak', Qer. pron. gi/lilG. A well-
known Swiss family, distinguished in the history
of Bern. — WALTEB VON EBLAOH took his name
from the village of Erlach near tho lake of
Brienz. He lived in the twelfth century. — RU-
DOLPH VON EBLACH ( ?-1360) fought in the bat-
tle of Laupen (1339). An equestrian statue of
him stands in the city of Bern. His descendant,

JOHANN LUDWIG VON EKLACH -(1595-1650),

played a distinguished part in the Thirty Years'
War as a commander on the Protestant side,
Bcrnhard of Weimar appointed him, in 1638,
commandant at Breisach. On the death ojf
Bernhard, in 1639, he entered the French serv.
ice. He took a prominent part in the battle oi
Lens under CondS and died a marshal of Franco,
— JEAN Louis (1595-1650) was a descendant oi
another branch of the family. He fought against
Germany (1648) and was made a marahnl oi
France in 1650. Several other members of this
family afterward achieved distinction as soldiers,
Those best known arc: HJERONYMUS VON EKLACH
(1667-1748), in the French and then in the
Austrian service, and KABL LUDWIG VON EB-
I.ACII (1746-98), who served in the French
army and then in the Swiss.

EBLANGBN", Sr'lang-en. A Bavarian town
on the Regnitz, about 15 miles north-northwest

EBMAN

of Nuremberg (Map: Germany, D 4). It con-
sists of the irregularly built old town and the
modern handsome new town. The latter was
founded in 1686, and assigned by the Margrave
Christian ISrnet of Brandenburg-Bayreuth to the
Protestant refugees who were compelled to flee
from France on the revocation of the Edict of
Nantes. From that time many new branches of
industry have been introduced into the town. It
lias a modern sewerage system and owns water
and gas works and a slaughterhouse. Chief
among its educational institutions are a nurses'
school, the university, built on the site of an
old castle (see EBLANGEN, UNIVERSITY OP), and
the gymnasium, founded in 1745. The prin-
cipal * manufactures are cotton and woolen
goods, wood, glass, tin foil, writing paper, paper
boxes, electrical instruments, brushes, metal
ware, flour and meal, horn and ivory ware, and
gloves. Its breweries are also of importance.
Pop., 1900, 22,053; 1910, 24,874. For a period
of two centuries and a half after the Reforma-
tion Erlangen belonged to the marunives of
Bayrcuth. In 1791 it became Prussian and in
1810 Bavarian

EBLANGEU, UNIVEBSITY OF. A German uni-
versity founded in 1742 at Bayrcuth, whence
it was moved to Erlangen in the following year,
and replaced a Ritterakadcmie established in
1699. The patronage of the margraves of Bay-
reuth, particularly that of Alexander (1769-
9- ) , resulted in the ref ounding of the institution
on a much broader basis, under the title it now
bears, the Fricdrich-Alexander University, It
shared the fortunes of the margraviate in the
revolutionary and Napoleonic wars and passed
successively into the hands of Prussia, France,
and finally Bavaria, between 1791 and 1810.
About the time of the last transfer the University
of Altdorf was united with it, and from that
time till about the year 18SO it passed through
the usual history of small German universi-
ties, distinguished for its strongly Lutheran ten-
dencies. Since that time, however, it has en-
joyed great prosperity. New buildings have been
added, and the number of its students has more
than doubled, there being in 1913 an enrollment
of 1360. The library contains 254,000 bound vol-
umes, some 300,000 pamphlets and dissertations,
and 2400 manuscripts. Consult: Engelhardt,
Die Univerritdt Erlangen, 1748-1843', Kolde, Die
rniversitat Erlangen unter dem Eause 'Wittels-
bach, 1810-1910 (Erlangen, 1910) ; Minerva
(Strassburg, 1890 et seq.).

EBLANGEB,, Si/lang-eY, ABRAHAM LIN-
COLN (1860- ). An American theatrical
manager, born at Buffalo, N. Y,, and educated
in the Cleveland (Ohio) public schools. He be-
came a member of a number of theatrical firms
and possessed interests in various other amuse-
ment companies and corporations. His firms, as
part of the so-called "Theatre Trust," gained
control of leading theatres in the United States.
The Shubert Brothers' interests were incorpo-
rated with his in 1907, but wore subsequently
withdrawn.

EBLATTOER, er'laN-zha', CAMILLE (1803-
). A French composer, born in Paris. lu
1880 he entered the Paris Conservatory, where
his teachers were Mathias (piano), Bazille and
Delibes (composition) He won the Prix de
Rome in 1888 with the cantata 'VelUda. This
was followed by a number of orchestral works,
and in 1894 his dramatic legend Saint Julien
I'Hospitalier attracted considerable attention.

His first opera was Kwmaria (1897), the suc-
cess of which was completely eclipsed by Le
juif polonais (1900). After that he wrote lie
fils de I'etoile (1904), Aphrodite (1906), Kan-
nele (1908), Noel (1911; produced at Chicago
in 1913), La Sorciere (1912), and Oioconda
(1914). He also wrote an impressive Boquiem
and a symphonic poem, Maitrc et serviteiir.

EBXANG-EB,, JOSEPH (1874- ). An
American physiologist. He was born at San
Francisco, Cal., and was educated at the Uni-
versity of California (B.S., 1895) and at Johns
Hopkins University (M.D., 1899). Subse-
quently he was resident house oflicer in Johns
Hopkins Hospital, and fellow in pathology, as-
sistant instructor, associate, and associate pro-
fessor in physiology (1899-1906) at the uni-
versity. He tilled a professorship in physiology
at the University of Wisconsin from 1900 to
1910, when he took up the same duties at Wash-
ington University.

ERLATT, Srlou, or EGEB. The capital and an
episcopal city of the County of Heves, Hungary,
about 80 miles northeast of Budapest (Map:
Hungary, G 3). The streets are narrow and ill
kept, but some of ita public buildings are very
beautiful. Among these are the large cathedral
(1831-37) in the Italian style; the archbishop's
palace, with a valuable library; a lyceum built
by Count Eszterhazy in 1 763-85, with a lofty
observatory, a library, a town hall, and theatre.
There is also a beautiful minaret, the remains
of a mosque. It has seven monasteries, the chief
being that of the Cistercians. It has two Cath-
olic theological institutions, a library of 50.000
volumes, an English girls' school, a gymnasium,
and a teachers' seminary. The "industries
and commerce of Erlau are important. Pro-
duction of the red Erlauer wine, which is fa-
mous as the best in Hungary, is the main in-
dustry. Near Erlau, on a spur of the Alma^y
Mountains, are the ruins of a castle. In the
grounds is the tomb of DobO, who defended the
town against the Turks in l.r>»2. A bishopric
was founded here in the eleventh century by St.
Stephen. In 1241 the place was destroyed by
the Tatars, but was soon rebuilt. It was held
by the Turks from 1596 to 1687. Pop., 1000,
25,893; 1910, 28,052.

ERLKONIG, Grllce-uiK (Ger., from Dan,
ellerkonge, elver-konge, elf -king). The name
given in popular German mythology to a mis-
chievous spirit that deludes men iind children
by weird rather than playful seduction. The
word is properly Elfcnkoniy; its present form
is due to Herder's confusing of Elver- or EUert
the plural of the Danish word e1vt with ellc,
meaning in German Erie, the alder tree. The
myth came from Scandinavia through Herder's
(q.v.) Voices of the Peoples, which gives a
translation of the Danish Erlkiny's Daughter.
It passed into universal (literature through
Goethe's ballad Der Erllconig.

EBLO3ST, JEAN BAPTISTS DBOUET, COUNT D'.
See DROUET.

EB3SIA1T, Sr'man, (JOHANN PETER) ADOLF
(1854- ). A German Egyptologist, born in
Berlin, Oct. 31, 1854. His father, Georg Adolf
Erman, and his grandfather, Paul Erman, were
both professors of physics in the University of
Berlin. Adolf Erman was educated at Leipzig
and Berlin, and in 1883 was appointed associate,
professor of Egyptology in the latter university.
In 1885 ho became director of the Egyptian de-

ERMAN 69

partment of the Royal Museum at Berlin and
in 1892 was advanced to the full professorship.
Erman's most valuable services to Egyptology
lie in the department of Egyptian grammar, and
it is due to his labors that this study has been
placed upon a truly scientific basis. Among his
works which have had a most important influ-
ence upon the development of modern Egyptology
are: Die Pluralbildung des Aegyptischen ( 1878) ;
Neuitgyptische QrammatiJc (1880); Die Sprache
des Papyrus Weslcar (1889) ; Die Marclien des
Papyrus Westcar (1890) ; Altagyptische Gram-
matik (1894; Eng. trans, by Breasted, London,
1894) ; Oespruch eines Lelensmuden mit seiner
Seele (1896) ; Die Flection des dgyptiscJien Ver-
lums (1900); Zauberspruche fiir Mutter und
Kind (1901); Aegyplische Religion (1909);
Aegyptisclie QrammatiL (1911). Erman's Aegyp-
ten und aegyptisclies Lelen im Altertum (1885),
translated into English by Tirard under the title
Life in Ancient Egypt (London and New York,
1894), is the best popular work upon the subject
in existence.

ERMAN, GEORQ ADOLF (1806-77). A Ger-
man physicist, the son of Paul Erman. He was
for a number of years professor of physical sci-
ence in the University of Berlin. In 1828-30 he
toured the world for the purpose of making mag-
netic determinations at different points of the
globe. Upon the facts thus ascertained by Er-
man as a foundation, Gauss built his theory of
terrestrial magnetism. Erman published Reise
um die Erde durch Nordasien und die leiden
Oceane (1833-48) and other important works.

ERMAN, PAUL (1764-1851). A German
physicist, born in Berlin. When the University
of Berlin was founded (1810), he was chosen
professor of physics and held the office until his
death. He made important discoveries in elec-
tricity, magnetism, optics, and physiology, and
wrote valuable works on these subjects. From
1810 to 1814 he was secretary of the class of
physics and mathematics in 'the Academy of
Berlin.

ERMELAND. See EBMLAND.

ERMENONVILLE, ar'm'-noN'vel'. A vil-
lage in the Department of Oisc, France, 34 miles
northeast of Paris. Pop. (commune), 190],
498; 1911, 520. It is the site of the chateau
and beautiful grounds of the Girardin estate,
the property of Prince Radziwill, and celebrated
as the residence and burial place of Rousseau in
1778. The remains of the philosopher were
transferred to the Pantheon in 1794, whence they
were secretly removed after the Restoration, and
are said now to rest in their original tomb on
an island in the park. Ermenonville was also
the residence of G-abriclle d'Estre"es, mistress of
ITenry IV.

ERMENT. Sec HEBMONTHIS.

ERMINE, eVmln (OF. ermine, hermine,
MHG., Ger. Hermelin, dim. of OHG. harmo, AS.
hcarmo, weasel, Lith. ssermu, weasel; explained
by popular etymology as mus Armcnius, Ar-
menian mouse ) . The name, in Europe, of the
greater weasel, or stoat, in its white winter
dress, when the fur is most highly prized. The
term has no popular use in America as a name
for the animal, but is applied wholly to the
fur. The pelts come to market from British
America, Lapland, northern Russia, and Siberia,
and are used not only for ladies' winter gar-
ments, but for the robes of kings and nobles,
and for their crowns and coronets. Ermine has
thus obtained a distinct recognition in heraldry,

ERNE

where the arrangement of black points repre-
sents the ornamental disposition of the black-
tipped tails, which, in making up ermine fur,
are inserted in a regular manner, so that their
rich black shall contrast with the pure white of
the rest of the fur. This came to be a matter
for royal regulation in England from the time
of Edward III, various ranks of officers being
designated by the way the ermine tails were
arranged. See WEASEL, and Plate of FUB-
BBARING ANIMALS.

ERMINE and ERMINOIS. Terms for furs
used in heraldry (q.v.).

ERMINE MOTH (so called from its mark-
ings). An English collector's name for sundry
white moths marked with black spots, mostly
tineids.

ERMINE STREET. One of the four great
Roman roads of England, leading north from
London to Lincoln, where it was met by the
Fosse, and York, with an extension to Scotland.
The lower portion of the road, through Epping
and Hainault forests, did not exist until after
Roman times.

ERMLAND, grmlant, or ERMELAND,
Sr'me-liint. A diocese in East Prussia, now in
the District of Konigsberg. After Prussia had
been occupied for Christianity by the Teutonic
Order (after 1230), the papal legates divided
it into four bishoprics, of which Ermland was
one. When Riga was confirmed by Alexander IV
in 1255 as the metropolitan see of those regions,
Ermland was virtually self-governing by virtue
of its political independence and was finally
acknowledged to be exempt from its jurisdiction;
nor could the later archbishops of Gnesen suc-
ceed in bringing it under their power. Even
the pallium and the archbishop's cross were
conceded to its prelates by Benedict XIV in
1742. The earlv bishops of Ermland were
sovereigns in their own districts and, as such,
princes of the Empire from 1354, under a certain
feudal relation to the grand master of the Teu-
tonic Knights, and from the Peace of Thorn
(1466) to the King of Poland. When the latter,
however, wished to nominate to the bishopric, as
in the rest of his dominions, the chapter vindi-
cated its rights under the earlier concordat of
a free election. The most distinguished bishops
were ^3neas Sylvius Piccolomini, afterward Pope
Pius II (1457-58), and Stanislaus Hosias (1551-
79), who held his subjects to their allegiance to
the Catholic church when the Reformation spread
through all the surrounding territory. From
1525 to 1772 the diocese shared tho" political
fortunes of Poland and in the partition of the
latter year was assigned to Prussia. The bish-
opric of Ermland still remains in Prussia, with
its seat at Braunsberg. Consult Zeitschrift
fur Qesdhichte iind Alterthumslcunde Hrmlands
(7 vola., Braunsberg, 1858 et seq.), and Hipler,
Analecta warmiensia (ib., 1872).

ERN, or ERNE (AS. corn, ONorthum.,
OHG. arn, eagle j connected with Gk. fyvu, omis,
bird). The sea eagle. The word is rarely heard
now except in poetry, though occasionally used
in ornithology as a designation of a group dif-
fering from true eagles in having naked tarsi
and in other minor features. See EAGLE.

ERNANI, Sr-na'ne;. An opera by Verdi
(q.v.), first produced in Venice, March 9, 1844;
in the United States, November, 1847 (New
York).

ERNE, grn. A river and lake in the south-
west of Ulster Province, Ireland (Map: Ire-

land, D 2). The river rises in Lough Gowna,
runs north, merging in Lough. Oughtor, in Cavan
County, and after a reach of 10 miles in Upper
Lough Erne in Fermanagh County then passes
Enmskillen on another reach, whence it is navi-
gable for vessels of 12 feet draft to its outlet,
and after flowing through Lower Lough Erne
finally empties into Donegal Bay near Bally-
shannon. It has a total course of 60 miles.
Lough Erne, one of the finest in the kingdom,
is the most attractive feature of Fermanagh
County, which it bisects. It extends 40 miles
from southeast to northwest and conbists of
two lakes, the upper and lower, joined by a
narrower part 10 miles long, with Enniskillon
midway between the two lakes. The upper lough
is 12 by 4 miles in extent, 10 to 75 feet deep,
151 feet above sea level, and has 90 green
hilly islets. The lower lough is 20 by 7% miles
in extent, 100 to 266 feet deep, 148 feet above
the sea, and has 109 similar islets. Salmon,
trout, pike, bream, and eels abound. The scenery
is singularly varied and beautiful, with the
added attractions of interesting archoeological
features. Devenish, one of the largest of the
islands, contains the ruins of an abbey and a
round tower, one of the most perfect specimens
in Ireland. Consult Devenish, Lough Erne: Its
Histories, Antiquities, and Traditions (Dublin,
1897).

ERNESTI, Sr-nSs'tS, JOHANN AUGUST (1707-
81). A German classical scholar. He was born
at Tennstiidt in Thuringia and studied at
Schulpforta, Wittenberg, and Leipzig. After
having been appointed rector of the Thomas
school in Leipzig in 1734, he turned his atten-
tion chiefly to classical literature. In 1742 he
became professor extraordinariua in the Univer-
sity of Leipzig, in 1756 professor of rhetoric,
and in 1759 professor of theology. Ernesti Js
wide training in philology enabled him to in-
augurate a new era in biblical interpretation,
and he established a school of New Testament
exegesis, based on sounder principles of gram-
matical and historical interpretation than had
prevailed, through his work Institutio Interpre-
tis Novi Testamenti (1761; 5th ed. by C. F.
Ammon, 1809), translated by Moses Stuart un-
der the title Elements of Interpretation (An-
dover, 1822; 4th ed., 1842). Other theological
works are his Anti-Muratorius (1755) and Opus-
cula Theologica (1792). As classical philologist,
he edited Xenophon's Memorabilia, Aristophanes'
Clouds, Homer, Callimachus, Polybius, Tacitus,
and Suetonius, but his greatest classical work
was his edition of Cicero (6 vols., Leipzig, 1737-
39) ; this contained the Claws Ciceroniana, an
excellent dictionary of Cicero's phraseology,
with a conspectus of the Roman laws mentioned
by Cicero. Consult: Ernesti, Memoria J. A.
Emesti (1781); Van Voorst, Oratio de J. A.
Ernesti (1804) ; Allgemeine deutsohe Biographie,
vol. vi (Leipzig, 1878) ; Sandys, A History of
Classical Scholarship, vol. iii (Cambridge, 1908).

ERNST, grnst (1441-86). Elector of Saxony
from 1464 to 1486. He was the eldest son of the
Elector Frederick the Mild. At the age of 14
he and his brother Albert were kidnapped (the
famous Prinzenraub ) by a revengeful knight,
but were speedily recovered. In 1464 he suc-
ceeded his father as Elector, but ruled jointly
with his brother Albert till 1485. In that year
they divided their paternal possessions, each
assuming full sovereignty over his part. Ernst
ruled his territory well and increased it by pur-

chaae and conquest. The electoral dynasty re-
mained with the Ernestine or elder branch till
1547, when it was transf cried, to the younger or
Albertine line. Ernst died at Colditz in I486.
Descended from Ernst are the present houses of
Saxe-Wcimar, Saxc-Altenburg, Saxe-Meimngen,
and Saxc-Coburg-Gotha.

ERNST (1554-1612). Duke of Bavaria and
Elector of Cologne, a son of Albert V of Bavaria.
Educated by the Jesuits, his entire life was de-
voted to extending the counter-reformation m
the five bishoprics, in each of which he became
Bishop — Freising (156G), Hildesheim (157:3),
Cologne (1583, after his defeat of Gobhard),
Liege (1581), and Mttnster (15S4). He took
an active part in the religious and political con-
tests of the period and vigorously opposed the
Protestant Leagues.

ERNST I, called the Pious (1601-75). Duke
of Saxe-Gotha and Altenburg and founder of the
house of Gotha. He was the son of John Duke
of Weimar, a member of the Ernestine line. He
fought in the Thirty Years' War under Gustavus
Adolphus and his own younger brother, the
famous Bernhard of Weimar, and distinguished
himself in the battles of Nuremberg, Lutzen,
and N(5rdlingen. He signed the Peace of Prague
in 1635 and thenceforth devoted himself to the
administration of his possessions. By his wise
and frugal management he raised his country
from the economic and moral degradation into
which it had sunk during the long war. He fos-
tered industry and commerce, founded many
schools and academies, and furthered' the spread
of religious instruction. He was one of the
most enlightened princes of Gennany, and his
fame spread to Egypt and Abyssinia. Of his
sons, Frederick, the eldest, continued the line of
Gotha, while Bernhard founded the house of
Meiningen, Ernst that of Hildburghausen, and
Johann Ernst that of Saalfeld. The line of
Frederick of Gotha became extinct in 1825 with
the death of Frederick IV; in 1826 the heirs of
Ernst of Hildburghausen received Saxe-Altcn-
burg, and those of Johann Ernst of flaalfeld,
Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Consult Philipp, Er-
nestine the Pious (London, 1740), and Beck,
Ernst der Fromme (Weimar, 1865).

ERNST II (1745-1804). Duke of Saxe-
Gotha and Altenburg. He was the second son of
Duke Frederick III and of Luise Dorothea of
Meiningen. Upon the death of his father (1772)
he at once entered upon a thorough reform of
the government. Of a noble and charitable dis-
position, he gave large sums to charity. He
refused tho considerable suma offered bv his
kinsman King George III of England for levies
to be employed against the American Colonies.
He was a liberal patron of all the sciences and
was the first to institute a measurement of an
arc of the meridian in Germany. He established
the astronomical observatory near Gotha and
wrote anonymously astronomical works, includ-
ing Astronomische Tafeln (1799). Consult the
biography by Beck (Gotha, 1854).

ERNST I (1784-1844). Duke of Saxe-Co-
burg and Gotha, He succeeded his father in
1806. He fought against Napoleon in the War
of 1806 and lost his dominions in consequence,
but recovered them by the Peace of Tilsit ( 1807 ) .
He was forced to join the Confederation of the
Rhine, but after the battle of Leipzig ranged
himself on the side of the Allies, and was re-
warded at the Congress of Vienna with the
Principality of Lichtenberg, which he sold to

ERNST H 71

Prussia for 2,000,000 thalera in 1834. In 1826
Gotha came into his hands through failure of
the reigning line. He left two sons — his succes-
sor Ernst II (q.v.) and Albert, Prince Consort
of England. Consult Beck, Qeschichte des go*
thaischen Landes (Gotha, 1868).

ERNST II, AUGUSTUS CHABLES JOHN LEO-
POLD ALEXANDER EDWARD (1818-93). Duke of
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, son of Ernst I, and brother
of Albert, Prince Consort of England. He was
born at Coburg. After studying at Bonn and
traveling extensively in Europe he entered the
Saxon army. In 1844 he succeeded his father
as Duke. Ernst enjoyed immense popularity
owing to his habit of mingling with the people
in their pleasures, and this, together with timely
concessions, saved his territory from revolution
in 1S48 and 1849. In the war against Denmark
he won, as commander of a German corps, the
battle of Eckernfb'rde. He favored a united Ger-
many, but looked to Austria as the leader in the
movement and bitterly opposed Bismarck. Dur-
ing the1 years of {reaction (1849-52) he was almost
the only German prince to remain liberal. In
the war between Austria and Prussia in 1866
he, however, sided with the latter, and he took
part in the Franco-Prussian War. At his death,
without heirs, in 1893, the duchy passed to
Prince Alfred, son of Queen Victoria. Ernst was
an excellent musician, find some of his operas,
among them Santa, GMara (1854), Casilda
(1855), and Diana, von Solanges (1858), wore
notably successful in Germany. Under the title
of Aits meinem Leben und aus meiner Zeit ( 1887-
89) he published memoirs of intense interest;
Eng. trans., Memoirs of Ernst 27, Duke of Saxe-
Coburff-Gotha (London, 1888-90). Consult:
Ohorn, Bersog Ernst II (Leipzig, 1894) ; Tem-
plctey, G. Prcytag und Herzog Ernst von Colitrg
im Brief ivcchsel 1858 bis 1893 (ib., 1904) ; Beck,
Ernst II als Pfleger und Beschutser der Wisscn-
scJwft und Kunsl (Gotha, 1854).

ERNST, ADOLF. See STERN, ADOLF.

EBKTST, HAROLD CLARENCE (1856-1922).
An American bacteriologist, born at Cincinnati,
Ohio. He graduated from Harvard in 1876 and
from1 the Harvard Medical School four years
later. There he served as demonstrator, in-
structor, and assistant professor between 1885
and 1895, and in 1895 he became professor of
bacteriology. He was president of the Boston
Society of Medical Sciences from 1898 to 1908
and of the Association of American Pathologists
and Bacteriologists in 1908-09. Besides editing
the Journal of Medical Research after 1896 and
contributing scientific and medical articles to
other periodicals, he is author of Infcctiousness
of Milk (1890) ; Infection and Immunity
(1898); Animal Experimentation (1902); Mod-
ern Theories of Bacterial Immunity (1902).

ERNST, HEINBIOH WIXHELM: (1814r-65). An
eminent Austrian violinist, born in Brtinn, Mo-
ravia. In the Vienna Conservatory ho studied
under Bohm, Seyfricd, and Mayseder. He
aroused great enthusiasm at his first appearance
in 1830 and from 1832 until 1850 spent most of
his time in concert tours in Europe and Eng-
land. His performances were characterized by
brilliancy, vigor, and beauty of tone. Ernst's
compositions nave generally a bravura character
and include works for the violin and orchestra,
quartets, etc. His Ettgie is still a favorite
work with violinists. Consult A. Heller, #etn-
rioh Wilhelm, Ernst im Urteile semer Zeitgenos-
sen (Brtan, 1904).

EROS

ERNST, OSWALD HERBERT (1842- ). An
American soldier. He was born near Cincinnati,
Ohio, studied for two years at Harvard, and
then entered West Point, where he graduated
in 1864. He served as assistant engineer of the
Army of the Tennessee during the Atlanta cam-
paign; was astronomer on the United Stales
commission to observe the solar eclipse of De-
cember, 1870, in Spain; was instructor in mili-
tary engineering, signaling, and telegraphing at
West Point from 1871 to 1878, and had charge
(1878-86) of the improvements of Western riv-
ers and (1886-89) of harbor improvements in
Texas. He was superintendent of public build-
ings and grounds in Washington, D. C., from
1889 to 1893, was superintendent of the United
States Military Academy from 1893 to 1898, be-
came lieutenant colonel of engineers in 1895 and
brigadier general of volunteers in 1898, and dur-
ing the Spanish War went to Porto Rico and
commanded the troops in the affair of Coamo
(Aug. 9, 1898), receiving the brevet of colonel.
He was inspector general of Cuba in 1899, a
member of the original Isthmian Canal Com-
mission in 1899, 1901, and 1905, and a director
of the Panama Railroad. He retired in 1900,
but remained a member of the International
Commission on waters adjacent to boundary
linos between Canada and the United States.
He wrote a Manual of Practical Military Enyi-.
neering (1873) and a Report (1904) on the
tunnels under the Chicago River.

EE3STST ATTGKTST (1771-1851). King of
Hanover. He was born at Kew, the fifth son of
George III. He pursued his studios at Got-
tingen from 1786 to 1701 and, entering the Han-
overian army, f ought against France (1793-95).
In 1799 he was created Duke of Cumberland in
England and became a leader of tlie High Tories.
In 1807 he became grand master of the Orange
lodges. On tho death of William IV, in 1837,
Ernst August as the next male heir suceeeded
to the throne of Hanover. His reactionary prin-
ciples made him hated in England, but he was
very popular among his Hanoverian subjects.
Consult Wilkinson, Reminiscences of King Ernst
of Hanover (London, 1886), and Morse Stephens,
in the Dictionary of National Biography

EE3STST KASIMXB, kii's$-mer (1573-1032).
Count of Nasaau-Dietz, a nephew of William
of Orange, born in Dillenburg. He entered the
Dutch army in 1594 and after fighting in nearly
all the campaigns of Maurice of Orange (whom
he succeeded as stadholder of Groningen and
Drenthe in. 1625) was made a field marshal.
In 1620 he became Governor-General of Fries-
land and in 1025 of Grtfningen and Drenthe. In
1621 he fought anew against the Spaniards, con-
quered Bergen op Zoom and Steenbergen (1622),
and fell at Roermondc, Juno 5, 1632.

EBNST LTTDWIG, loufviK (3868- ).
Grand Duke of Hesse, born at Darmstadt, a son
of the Grand Duke Ludwig IV (1837-92), whom
he succeeded in 1892. In 1896 he was made
lieutenant general. In 1894 he married Prin-
cess Victoria Melita of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. He
divorced her in 1901 — she married Prince Cyril
of Russia in 1905 — and in 1905 the Duke mar-
ried Princess iCleonore of SolmB-T Cohen aolms-
Licit, who bore him two sons, George in 1906
and Ludwig in 1908. In 1909 tho Duke's play
Bonifatius was produced at Darmstadt in the
Court Theatre.

E'ROS. See CUPID.

EROS (Lat., from Gk, *Ep«y, Cupid), A

EROSION 72

planetoid (q.v.) discovered by Witt, of Berlin,
in 1898. It is remarkable on account of the fact
that it approaches the earth much nearer than
any other known bodv in the heavens except our
own moon and possibly certain comets, its dis-
tance at opposition being less than 15,000,000
miles. On account of its proximity to the earth,
Eros is favorably situated for the determination
of the solar parallax (q.v.). During the opposi-
tion of 1900 an international campaign of ob-
servation was undertaken for the purpose of de-
termining this important constant. Nearly 300
photographs of Eros were secured, which were
reduced by Hinks, and the value 8.7906" was
obtained. *Eros has been found to vary in bright-
ness. In explanation it has been suggested that
the planetoid is really double, consisting of two
bodies revolving almost in contact with a period
of between five and six hours.

ERO'SIOW (Lat. erosio, from erodere, to
gnaw, from e, out + rodere, to gnaw), or
DENUDATION. The process by which the surface
forms of the earth are sculptured and worn
down. The present features of the earth's sur-
face, while they have the appearance of great
stability, in reality represent a single stage of
development that has been determined by the
cooperation of various geological agencies work-
ing through long periods of time. Some of these
' agencies contribute to the erosion or denudation
of the land, carving out valleys in plateaus,
wearing down mountains, dissecting plains, and
generally lowering the level to that of the sea.
Rivers are most active in this process. The
surface waters supplied by rain and by melting
of snow wash the soil and disintegrated rock
materials down the slopes of the land into the
valleys, where the detritus is carried along by
the streams and deposited in their channels or
borne to the sea. The solid particles suspended
in water exert an abrasive action on the sides
and floor of river channels, thus tending to widen
and deepen them. A large amount of material
is also held in solution and transported in this
manner to the sea. The rate at which rivers
carry on the destructive work varies in particu-
lar regions with the climate, slope of land, and
character of rocks. Rainfall, sunshine, and frost,
and the chemical action of the atmosphere by
means of its carbonic-acid gas, ammonia, and
nitrous gases, greatly facilitate the breaking
down of rocks, which is a preliminary step to
their erosion and transport. The burden carried
by the streams of the United States has been
estimated by Dole and Stabler to be equivalent
to 350,000,000 cubic yards of rock a year, suffi-
cient to lower the whole area one inch in 760
years. The Po is said to remove one foot of
rock from its basin in 730 years. This wasting
or destruction work of rivers, when continued
through long periods of time, must produce great
changes. Glaciers, like rivers, are denuding and
transporting ageiits. The weight of the thick
masses of ice gives them great erosive power,
which is further increased by the rocks carried
along the bottom of their beds. At present the
occurrence of glaciers in the wanner zones is
limited to regions of high elevation, but in past
ages it is known that they occupied great con-
tinental areas. The Rocky Mountains, the Sierra
Nevadas, a large part of the northern United
States, and nearly the whole of Canada were
once the seat of ice sheets which have pro-
foundly modified the surface features. Another
important denuding force is the sea, particu-

EBFENITJS

larly in the upper portion, where the water is
kept in motion by waves, tides, and currents.
Wave action breaks down cliffs and gives to the
coast lines of continents a constantly changing
form. Tides carry seaward the sediment brought
down by rivers to their mouths.

The immediate effect of erosion is to produce
a variety of contour on land surfaces. The
forms or types of scenery exhibited in any 0110
locality depend upon the combination of factors
at work and the material exposed to their action.
A level land area composed of rocks unequally
resistant to abrasion must in time be carved
into a series of hills and valleys, the position
of which will depend upon the relative disposi-
tion of the harder and softer materials. In the
process of land sculpturing it is also necessary
to consider the predominant erosive agencies,
which will vary in different regions and in dif-
ferent climates. Arid districts, like the Bad
Lands of South Dakota and the plateaus of
.Arizona, have peculiar types of scenery that can-
not be found in countries having a heavier rain-
fall. The general tendency of erosion is to re-
duce the level of continents to that of the sea
(base level). This destructive process is off-
set in a measure by movements of the earth's
crust which repair what has been lost by super-
ficial waste. The amount of material removed
from the land is represented by an equivalent
accumulation beneath the sea, and by upheaval
this accumulation may be raised above water level.
The activity of the two processes, antagonistic
in their effect, is illustrated by the areas of
stratified rocks, such as sandstones, shales, lime-
stones, which form by far the larger portion of
the surface of continents. Consult: Geikie, Text-
Book of Geology (London, 1903) ; Davis, Physi-
cal Geography (Boston, 1900) ; Gilbert, "Geol-
ogy of the Henry Mountains," United Rtates
Geological Survey Reports (Washington, 1877) ;
Chamberlin and Salisbury, Geology, vol. i (New
York, 1909). See PIIYSIOGKAPIIY j GEOLOGY;
MOUNTAIN; SHORE; CONTINENT ; ETC.

EROS'TRATTTS. See HEKOSTBATUS.

EROT'OM^STIA (Neo-Lat., from Gk. epwro-
pavla, love-mania, from Spws, eras, love + /ucm'a,
mania, madness). An unfortunate term applied
to a class of patients suffering- from paranoia
(q.v.), in whom the morbid ideation centres
around some real or imaginary object of platonic
love. These patients are generally hypochondri-
acal and religious as well as erotic and have
various expansive ideas.

ERPEimrS (1584-1624). The Latin form
of the name of Thomas van Erpe, one of the
earliest and most eminent of European Oriental-
ists. He was born at Gorkum, in Holland, Sept.
11, 1584. At an early age he was sent to Ley-
den, where he directed his attention to theology
and to the study of Oriental languages. Having
completed his course, he traveled through Eng-
land, France, Italy, and Germany, and returned
to Holland in 1612. In 1613 he became professor
of Oriental languages at Leyden. The professor-
ship of Hebrew not being vacant at this time, a
second Hebrew chair was founded expressly for
him in 1619. Soon after this he was appointed
Oriental interpreter to the government. Towards
the close of his life tempting offers of honors
and distinction came pouring in upon him from
all parts of Europe; but he was never pre-
vailed upon to leave his native country, where
he died Nov. 13, 1624. His works are: Gram-
matica Ara'bioa Qumque Libris Methodioe 18&

> ^.3: •..',;}

'I- T-

si
gs

O
UI

EBBAWTIA

plicata (1613); Rudimenta Linguce Arabics

(1620); Eistoria Saracenica Auctore Georgio
Elmacino (1625); Proverbiorum Arabicoruin
Centuries Duce (1614); Locmani Sapientis Fa-
bute (1615).

EBBART'TIA (Lat., wandering, from errare,
to wander). A group of polychaetous annelids,
characterized by their active manner of life.
See ANNULATA.

EBBABD, ar'rar', CHAKLES (1606-89). A
French painter and architect, born at Nantes.
He studied under his father, Charles Errard the
Elder (1570-C.1C35), an historical and portrait
painter, and in Rome, where many of the early
years of his life were spent. Upon his return
to France ( 1 G43 ) he was employed by Louis XIV
to decorate the Louvre, Tuilerics, and other pal-
r.ces. The paintings of Errard have all been
destroyed, excepting an allegorical painting in
I Me Muficum of Reims. The best-known exam-
ple of his architecture is the church of the
Assumption in Paris (1676). He also illus-
trated the Parallels de V architect™ e ancienne et
inoderne (1606), written in collaboration with
M. de Chambray, and designed numerous antique
ornaments and vases. But, as painter, archi-
tect, and draftsman, his style was heavy and
lacking in character, his chief claim to remem-
brance being that he was one of the 12 original
members of the Academic de Peinture et de
Sculpture, in 1648, and was prominently instru-
mental in the establishment of the French
Academy at Rome, of which he was the first
director (1666).

EBBAT'ICS. See BOULDER, ERRATIC.

EBBEBA, er-ra'ra, ALBERTO (1842- ).
An Italian political economist, born in Venice
and educated at Padua. He held professorships
of political economy and statistics at the tech-
nical schools of Venice, Milan, and Naples, and
afc the University of Naples. Among his pub-
lished works, several of which are of permanent
value, are: Storia e statistica delle industne
fcnclc (1870) ; Storio dell' euonomia politica nci
scctili XV J I G XVI II nc.gli stati dclla rcpiiblica
Vcncta (1877); Demoflrafia (1892); Lezionidi
cvon win ia polit'ica ( 1892 ) .

EB'BETT, ISAAC (1820-88). A clergyman
of the Disciples of Christ, born in New York
City. He began to preach in 1840 and for many
years was secretary or president of several of
the missionary societies of his church. From
18(10 he was editor of the Christian Standard
(Cincinnati). He died in Cincinnati, Dec. 19,
18K8 His books include: Walks alout Jerusalem
(1872); Talks to Bereans (1875); Evenings
icitli the Bible (1884-87). For his life, consult
Laniar (Cincinnati, 1894).

EBBHINES, ei/rinz (Gk. fypwov, errhinon,
er rhino, from tv, en, in + fa, rhist nose), or
&TKRNUTATORIES. Medicines fornierlv adminis-
tered locally to produce sneezing and discharge
from the nostrils, in catarrh. Common snuff
and other vegetable irritants are so used.

EBBOB (Lat. error t from errare, to wander).
In observations of every kind errors are un-
avoidable. As in astronomy and other exact
sciences correctness in the result of instrumental
measurements is of the first consequence, it is
the constant care of the observer to detect and
make allowances for errors. The three princi-
pal sources from which errors may arise are:
1. External or incidental causes, such as fluctu-
ations of weather, which disturb the amount of
refraction ; changes of temperature, affecting the

EBSCH

form and position of instruments, etc. 2. Errors
of observation, being such as arise from inex-
pertness, defective vision, slowness in seizing
the exact instant of an occurrence, atmospheric
indistinctness, etc.; and such errors as arise
from slips in clamping and momentary derange-
ments of the instrument. 3. Instrumental de-
fects, owing to errors in workmanship, and such
as arise f ro-m the instrument not being properly
placed ("errors of adjustment"). The first two
classes of errors, so far as they cannot be re-
duced to known laws, alter the results of ob-
servations to their full extent; but being acci-
dental, they necessarily sometimes diminish and
sometimes increase them. Hence, by taking
numerous observations under various circum-
stances, and by taking the mean, or average, of
the results obtained, these errors may be made
to counterbalance one another partially, and to
that extent they may be rendered harmless.
With regard to the third class, it is the peculi-
aiity of astronomical and physical observations
to be the ultimate means of detection of all
defects of workmanship and adjustment of in-
struments, which by their minuteness elude
every other mode of detection, and such errors,
when found out, can almost invariably be re-
moved. It may bo mentioned, however, that
the method of subduing errors of the first two
classes by the law of average is not applicable
in all cases. In certain cases recourse must be
had to a, system of reduction or calculation,
known as the method of least squares. See
LEAST SQUARES, METHOD OF.

EBBOB, WRIT OF. A common-law process
for redressing erroneous judgments, which has
been superseded to a great extent in England,
as well as in most of the United States, by the
process of appeal. A court possessing the power
to grant this writ is sometimes called a court
of error. In some of our States the court of
last resort, whose judgments are not subject to
revision by another tribunal, is known as the
supremo court of errors. See COURT.

The procedure under a writ of error is some-
what similar to that in an original action, the
defeated party therein becoming the "plaintiff
in error," and the successful party the "de-
fendant in error." The writ recites, in a general
way, the cause of the defeated party's complaint,
while the assignments of error specify the par-
ticular mistakes of law alleged to have been
made by the lower court. These specifications
are denied by the defendant in error, and thus
an issue of law is raised for the court of error,
the decision of which results either in an affirm-
ance or reversal of the judgment of the lower
court. Apart from the difference in the pro-
cedure employed, a writ of error differs from
an appeal in that it brings up for review only
alleged errors of law committed by the trial
court, whereas an appeal takes up the whole
case for reconsideration by the higher court and
may therefore involve the reexamination of the
questions of fact determined in the court below.
In the United States the writ of error is the
appropriate process for carrying a case from tho
highest appellate court of a State to the Su-
preme Court of the United States. See APPEAL;
PROCEDURE; PLEADING.

EBSCH, Srsh, JOHANN SAMUEL (1706-1828).
The founder of modern German bibliography,
born at Grossglogau, Silesia. At Halle, whither
he was sent to study theology in 1785, he de-
voted himself also to historical investigations.

EESE 74

After several years of editorial work in Jena,
Gottingen, and Hamburg, during which time he
held the chair of philosophy, then that of geog-
raphy and statistics at Halle, he commenced, with
Gruber, in 1818 the publication at Leipzig of
the Allgemeine Encyklopadie der Wissenschaften
und Kunste, a work of immense value. His
Han&bucli der deutnchen Litteralur seit der Mitte
des achtzehnten Jahrhundcrts lis auf die neueste
Zeit (1812-14) is excellent for its time.

EESE, Srs. A name given to Irish Gaelic and
also applied by the Lowlanders in Scotland to
the people of the Highlands, as will be seen in
the thirteenth-century laws of the Bretts and
Scots (q.v.). Erse is an early Scottish variant
of the word "Irish" (OEng. Iriso or ONorse
Irskr), for which the native name is Gaelic.
Though the word is now nearly obsolete, it is
still used by some writers as the ordinary desig-
nation of Irish alone.

EBSE3KTE, eTsldn, DAVID STEWABT, eleventh
EARL OF BUOTTAN (1742-1829). A Scottish
author and antiquarian. He was educated at
the University of Glasgow, after having received
instruction in mathematics from Colin Mac-
laurin. In 1780 he founded the Society of Scot-
tish Antiquaries. His agitation effected a reform
in the election of Scottish representative peers.
He wrote: An Account of the Life, Writings,
and Invention of Napier of Merchiston (with
Dr. Walter Minto, 1787) ; Essays on the Lives
of Fletcher of Saltoun and the Poet Thomson
(1792) ; Anonymous and Fugitive Essays (1812).

EESKINE, EBENEZEB (1080-1754). A Scot-
tish theologian, the founder of the Secession
church in Scotland. He was the son of the Rev.
Henry Erskine, minister of Chirnside in Ber-
wickshire, and was born at Dryburgh, Berwick-
shire, June 22, 1680. He studied at Edinburgh,
and, after acting for some time as tutor and
chaplain in the family of the Earl of Rothes,
he was licensed to preach the gospel by the pres-
bytery of Kirkcaldy in 1703. In the same year
he was appointed minister of Portmoak in the
shire of Kinross. In 1731 he was transferred to
Stirling, after having discharged the pastoral
office in Portmoak for 28 years. Previous to
this event, however, the religious peculiarities
of Erskine had brought him into unpleasant re-
lations with some of his brethren, by his defense
of the Marrow of Modern Divinity, a book re-
garded as not strictly Calvinistic. Later he
protested against the assumption of authority
by the synod in the matter of assigning ministers
and, along with three other clergymen, was de-
posed in 1733. (See PBESBYTERIANISM. ) He
was shortly after joined by his brother Ralph
and several other ministers. They now virtually
formed a distinct sect, but they still continued
to occupy their parish churches. The synod in
1734 restored them to their legal connection
with the church, but Erskine would not accept
its action. In 1736 Erskine and his friends for-
mally seceded, but still it was not till 1740 that
they were ejected from their churches. Shortly
after this, a quarrel broke out among the se-
ceders in regard to the propriety of taking the
civic oath required of burgesses of Edinburgh,
Glasgow, and Perth. The result was a division
of the sect into two bodies, the Burghers and
Antiburghers. Erskine was the leader of the
Burghers. He died in Stirling, June 2, 1754.
His Works were published in 1785 and his Life
and Diary in 1840, at Edinburgh. Consult his
life by J. Ker (London, 1881).

ERSKI2TE

ERSKINE, JOHN (OF Dim) (1509-01). A
Scottish reformer, of a noble family, which lost
several members at Flodtlen Field. He was
educated at King's College, Aberdeen, and then
abroad, after accidentally killing a priest. He
brought the study of Greek into Scotland and
was one of the iirst followers of Knox, his
signature being affixed to the first covenant of
the Scottish reformers. He was one of the
commissioners sent to France to attond the
marriage of Queen Mary and acted as mediator
between Knox and the Queen in their famous
quarrel. In 1578 he helped compile The Second
Book of Discipline.

'ERSKINE, JOHN, eighteenth LORD EBSKINE
and eleventh EABL or M\R (1075-1732). A
Scottish politician. He was born at Alloa and
in 1705 became Secretary for Scotlnnd. He
was a commissioner for the Union and in 1713
English Secretary of State. He became one of
the principal leaders of the Jacobite party, and
in 1715 was commander in chief of the Pre-
tender's forces in Scotland. He had to retreat
after the battle of Sheriffmuir, on Nov. 13, 1715,
and accompanied the Pretender to Saint-Ger-
main, where he engaged in all sorts of in-
trigues, and severed his connection with the
Stuarts in 1724. He was unscrupulous and
corrupt, and utterly devoid of principle in
politics; but he is said to have been a man of
ability and to have suggested several important
municipal improvements for Edinburgh.

ERSKINE, JOHN (of Carnock, and after-
ward of Cardross) (1G05-1768). An eminent
Scottish jurist and professor of Scots law in
the University of Edinburgh. He was the son
of the Hon. John Erskine, of Carnock. John
Erskine, the father, was a man of importance
in his day, not only on account of the family
to which he belonged, which even then had been
prolific in historical characters, but in conse-
quence of his personal qualities and the posi-
tions which he held. Having been forced to
quit Scotland from his attachment to tho Pres-
byterian religion, he retired to Holland and be-
came an officer in the service of the Prince of
Orange. At the Revolution ho accompanied
William to England, and as a reward for his
services was appointed Lieutenant Governor of
Stirling Castle and lieutenant colonel of a regi-
ment of foot. John Erskine, the younger, born
1695, became a member of the Faculty of Advo-
cates in 1719, but did not succeed as a practi-
tioner of the law. On the death of Alexander
Bain, in 1737, Erskine was nominated to suc-
ceed him in the chair of Scots law, an office
the duties of which he performed with great
reputation for 28 years. In 1754 he published
his well-known Principles of the Law of Scot-
land) which, like tho Commentaries of Black-
stone in England and America, became the
favorite textbook for many successive genera-
tions of law students. On his retirement from
the professorship in 1765, Erskine occupied him-
self in preparing his more important work, The
Institutes of the Laws of Scotland, but it was
not published till 1773, five years after his
death. As a legal writer, Erskine is inferior
to none of the Scottish jurists, with the single
exception of Lord Stair, who had the benefit of
the more learned and wider judicial training of
earlier lawyers who were educated in a con-
tinental school. But of all those departments
which constitute the law of Scotland, as de-
veloped by the usages and forms of society in

ERSKINE

the country itself, there is at the present day
no clearer, sounder, or more trustworthy expos-
itor than Erskine.

EBSKI3STE, JOHN (1721-1803). A Scottish
theologian, son of John Erskine, of Carnock;
he was born in Edinburgh, June 2, 1721, studied
at the University of Edinburgh, and in 1743 was
licensed to preach by the presbytery of Dun-
blane. In the following year he was ordained
minister of Kirkintilloch, near Glasgow, where
he remained until 1753, when he was presented
to the parish of Culross in the presbytery of
Dunferznline. In 1758 he was transferred to
New Greyfriars Church, Edinburgh, and in 1767
he was promoted to the collegiate charge of Old
Greyfriars, where he had for his colleague Dr.
Robertson. In the General Assembly of the
Church of Scotland he was for many years the
leader of the popular or evangelical party. He
died in Edinburgh, Jan. 19, 1803. Erskine's
writings are exceedingly numerous. They con-
sist mostly of sermons and theological pam-
phlets, and exhibit a superior degree of ability.
For his life, consult Wellwood (Edinburgh,
1818).

EBSKIKTE, JOHN (1746-1817). A Scottish
lawyer. He was born in England and was a
brother of Thomas, Lord Erskine. He was a
Whig in politics and was appointed Lord Advo-
cate of Scotland in 1783 and again in 1806. His
fame rests chiefly on his wit and eloquence as an
advocate at the Scottish bar.

ERSKI3TE, JOHN (1879- ). An Ameri-
can university professor of English, born in
New York City. He graduated from Columbia
University in 1900 (AM., 1001; Ph.D., 1903),
where he became associate professor of English
in 1909. He had previously served as instruc-
tor in English (1903-06) and associate pro-
fessor (1906-09) at Amherst College. Besides
numerous magazine contributions in prose and
verse, he published: The Elizabethan Lyrio
(1903)5 Selections from The Faerie Queene
(1905); Actccon and Other Poems (1907);
Leading American Novelists (1910) ; Written
English, with Heien Erskine (1910; rev. ed.,
1913) ; Selections from the Idylls of the King
(1912); The Kinds of Poetry (1913); Poems
of Wordsworth, Shelley , and Keats, with W, P.
Trent (1914); and he contributed to the sec-
ond edition of the NEW INTEBNATIONAL EN-
CYCLOPJEDIA.

ERSKZETE, RALPH (1685-1752). A Scottish
clergyman. He was born at Monilaws in North-
umberland, studied at the University of Edin-
burgh, was licensed to preach in 1709, and be-
came pastor at Dunfcrmline, in 1711, of the
United Free Church in Queen Anne Street. He
sympathized with the sentiments of Ms brother,
Ebenezcr Erskine (q.v.), who founded the Scot-
tish Secession church, and in 1737 formally
withdrew from the Church of Scotland. Like
his brother, he was a most popular preacher.
His Gospel Sonnets (1732; 25th ed., 1795)
show Watts's influence and his poem Smoking
Spiritualized is a quaint conceit. Consult his
Life and Diary (Edinburgh, 1842) by Fraser.

EBSKINE, THOMAS, LOBD (1750-1823). An
eminent English advocate. He was born in
Edinburgh, Jan. 21, 1750, the youngest son of
Henry David, the tenth Earl of Buchan. His
early education was meagre, though he attended
classes at St. Andrews University during 1762
and 1763. At the age of 14 he entered the navy
as midshipman and served for several years in
VOL.

the West Indies. Returning to England soon
after the death of his father, he gave up the
navy for the army.

Although he had been promoted to a lieu-
tenancy, he was led by a chance conversation
with Lord Mansfield to make a second change
in his profession — to give up the army for the
bar. He sold his commission in 1775, entered
Lincoln's Inn, became a student in the chambers
of Buller (afterward Mr. Justice Buller),
matriculated as a gentleman commoner in Trin-
ity College, Cambridge, and was called to the
lar in 1778. During this period of study he
was very poor; and he declares that he was
spurred to the eloquence which gained for him
instant fame, in his first case, by the thought
that his children were plucking at his gown,
crying to him that now was the time to got
them bread. N<5t only did his remarkable ad-
dress "entrance the judges and the audience,"
but it brought him many retainers and opened
to him a lucrative practice. In 1779 he re-
ceived from Admiral Keppel, whose acquittal
upon court-martial he had secured, a £1000 fee.
Five years later his annual income had increased
to £3000, and it is said that he made while at
the bar £150,000. He was not a great lawyer,
but his unfailing courtesy, good humor, high
spirits, and great eloquence placed him at the
head of the English bar. His most remarkable
successes as an advocate were gained in a scries
of litigations connected with the law of libel and
treason. His defense of the dean of St. Asaph
led to the passing of Fox's Libel Act in 1702,
which affirmed the doctrine for which Erskine
had contended, that the question whether a
particular publication is libelous or not is for
the jury and not for the court. By his success-
ful defense of Walker, Hardy, Home Tooke,
and others, he exploded the theory of construc-
tive treason upon which the prosecutions of
these persons were based, and rendered invalu-
able service to the cause of personal liberty.
In all these cases, as well as in his defense of
Paine on the occasion of the publication of
The Rights of Mant he displayed great moral
courage and a lofty conception of professional
duty.

Erskine entered Parliament in 1783, but his
career both in the House of Commons and in
the House of Lords was in striking contrast
with that at the bar. His maiden speech was a
failure owing to his fear of Pitt. On other
occasions he actually broke down, and he was
never able to address Parliament with the elo-
quence and power which characterized his fo-
rensic efforts. In 1806 he was made Lord Chan-
cellor and elevated to a peerage with the title
of Baron Erskine of Restorniel. His reputa-
tion was not enhanced by his labors in this
office, and after his retirement from the chan-
cellorship, when the Whigs went out of office
in 1807, he sank into comparative insignificance
and poverty. Dying in 1823, he left his second
wife and young child in straitened circum-
stances. Consult Campbell, Lives of the Ohan-
cellors (London, 1868), and High, Speeches of
Lord Erskine (Chicago, 1876).

EBSKINE, THOMAS, of Linlathen (1788-
1870). A Scottish writer on theology. He was
born at Edinburgh, studied law at Edinburgh
University, and practiced from 1810 until 1810,
when he devoted himself to literary work. His
theological views, particularly on "universal
restoration" and the Atonement, were not or-

EBTTLI 76

thodox; but his earnestness won them isvor,
and John McLeod Campbell (q.v.) and Fred-
eric Denison Maurice (q.v.) were much indebted
to them. The public advocacy of them led to
Campbell's expulsion from tlie Kirk in 1831.
Erskine's principal waitings are: Remarks on
the Intanal Evidence of ihe Truth of Revealed
Religion (1820; 10th ed., 1878); The Uncon-
ditional Freencss of the Gospel (1828; new
ed., 1873); The Doctrine of Election (18:37;
2d ed., 1878) ; Spiritual Order and Other Papers
( 1871 ) . His works were translated into French,
and he had many friends in France. Consult
his Letters (1877), ed. by William Hanna,
with contributions by Principal J. C. Shairp
and Dean Stanley.

ERTTLI. See HERULI.

EBTJPTIVE BOCKS. See IGNEOUS ROCKS.

EBWIN V03ST STEINBACH, er'ven fun
stin'baG. The name of two German architects,
father and son, born in Stembach, and suc-
cessively occupied in the construction of a new
facade ior the cathedral of Strassburg between
1277 and 1339. Neither the dates of biith and
death nor the precise work accomplished by
either can be accurately stated; but the greater

?art of the facade was probably completed by
339. The great northwest spire was not built
till a century later. The name Erwin von Stein-
bach, by which both are generally known, was
not used before the seventeenth century. In
1845 a memorial monument was erected at
Steinbach.

EEXLEBE1T, erksla-ben, JOIIANN CHRISTIAN
(1744-77). A German physician and naturalist.
He was born at Quedlinburg and was a son of
the highly gifted Dorothea Christine Erxleben,
the first woman who obtained the degree of
M.D. in Germany. He was educated at Got-
tingen, where he occupied the chair of natural
philosophy from 1771 until his death. His
principal works are the textbooks Anfangs-
griinde der NaturgescMchte (4th ed., 1791) and
Anfangsgrilnde der Naturlehre (8th ed., 1794).
EB'YCFNA (Lat., relating to Eryx, from
Erycs, Gk. *Epi;£, a mountain in Sicily). A
name of Aphrodite, derived from that of Mount
Eryx.

ER'YMANTHTJS (Lat., from Gk. 'Ep^av-
6os, Erymanthos). The ancient name of a
mountain chain in the extreme northwest corner
of Arcadia, now called Olonos. The highest
peak is 7300 feet. A small river, also called an-
ciently Erymanthus (at present Douana), rises
in the mountains and eventually joins the Al-
pheus on the borders of Elis. This region was
the scene of the famous struggle of Hercules
with the Erymanthian boar. Being ordered to
bring the animal to Mycenoe alive, Hercules
chased it into the deep snow and, having thus
tired it out, caught it in a noose.

EBYNGK), e--rfn'g6 (Lat. eryngion, erynge,
Gk. ^prfryio?, eryngion, tytyvn, erynge, eryngo),
Eryngium. A genus of umbelliferous plants,
which have simple umbels, resembling the heads
of some composite flowers. The species number
about 150 and are mostly natives of the warmer
temperate parts of the world, with alternate
simple or divided leaves, which have marginal
spines. One species, the sea eryngo or sea holly
(Eryngium maritimum), which is common in
the British Isles and is frequent on sandy sea-
shores, is a very stiff, rigid, and glaucous plant.
Eryngium campestre has also been found in Eng-
land and Ireland, but is very rare. Its root

was formerly much employed in some parts of
Europe as a tonic. The root of Eryngium man-
tunuin is used in the same way, possesses the
same properties, and is sweet and aromatic. It
is sold in a candied state and was formerly re-
puted to be a stimulant, restorative, and aphro-
disiac. Eryngo root has also been used as an
aperient and diuretic. Linnaeus recommends the
blanched shoots of Eryngium maritimum as a
substitute for asparagus. Eryngium foctidum,
a native of the warm parts of America, is called
fitweed in the West Indies, a decoction of it
being much used as a remedy in hysterical
cases. Eryngium yuccifohum, a native of low,
wet places in North and South America, is
called rattlesnake master and button snakoroot.
The root is said to be diaphoretic and expecto-
rant and has a spurious reputation as a cure for
the bite of a rattlesnake. A number of species
are cultivated as ornamentals on account of
their curious habit of growth and the stc-cl-bluc
color of tlicir stems and bracts.

ER'YON' (Neo-Lat., from Gk. e/oiW, pros,
part, of ^piW, eryein, to draw out). A fossil
macruran crustacean found in the Mosozoic
rocks of Europe. The quadrate carapace is thin
and flat, with dccplv denticulate lateral mar-
gins, a straight or dented front margin, and a
broadly truncated posterior margin. The tho-
racic legs are slender and bear pincers, the first
pair being much longer than the others. The
abdomen is shortor than the carapace, and the
caudal swimming plates arc small. About six
species are known, ranging from the Liassic of
England, through the Jurassic, into the Lower
Cretaceous of Silesia. The host-known species
is Eri/on propinqiiu*, with a body 5 inches long,
of which finely preserved specimens have been
found in the Jurassic lithographic limestones of
Solenhofen, Bavaria. Eryon has a modern ally
in the blind genus Willemossia, which inhabits
the deepest portions of the ocean. For illus-
tration, see Plate of CRUSTACEA, Fosstr,.

ERYSICHTHOlSr, er'l-slk^thftn (Lat., from
Gk. r&pvffl'x.e&v, earth render). Son of the
Thessalian King Triopas, punished by Dometer
with unappeasable hunger because he cut down
trees in a grove sacred to the goddess. Ho
finally devoured his own limbs and died. His
daughter Mncstra, who had received from Posei-
don the gift of transforming herself into differ-
ent shapes, was repeatedly sold by her father
under the forms of a bird, a cow, and n horse,
and each time returned to him.

ERYSIMUM (Lat., from Gk. tptifftpov, cry si-
mon, hedge mustard). A genus of plants of the
family Crucifene, with four-sided seed pods,
Erysimum, cheiranthoides, wormseed mustard, a
branching annual, about 18 inches high, with
small yellow flowers, is found in many parts of
Europe and also in North America. * It i ft not
uncommon in waste places and cultivated
grounds in the British Isles, but may perhaps
have been originally introduced for its medicinal
use. Its seeds were formerly much employed
as an anthelmintic, from which it has the name
of wormseed. It is also called treacle mus-
tard, because it was employed as an ingredient
in the famous Venice treacle. Erysimum pcr-
foliatum, or Conryngia oriental is, harc/s-ear
mustard, is cultivated in Japan for the fixed
oils contained in its seed. This plant has been
introduced into parts of Canada and the United
States, where it threatens to become a trouble-
some weed. Some of the plants formerly re-

ERYSIPELAS

ferred to as Erysimum are now included in other
genera, as Sisymlrium and Alliaria (q.v.).

ER'YSIP'ELAS (Lat., from Gk. tpvelireXas,
from ipvcri-. erysi-, variant of epvOpos, erythros,
red, Lat. ruler, rufus, Eng. red, Ger. rot, Ir. mad,
OChurch Slav, rudru, Skfc. rudhira,, red + ir&Xi;,
pelle, skin, Lat. pellis, Eng. fell, Ger. Fell, Lith.
plevt, skin), or SAINT ANTHONY'S FIBE. An
inflammatory disease of the skin and subcutane-
ous tissues, attended by diffused redness and
swelling of the part affected, and in the end
either by desquamation or by vesication of the
cuticle, or scarf skin, in the milder forms, and
by suppuration of the deeper parts in the
severer varieties of the disease (phlegmonous
erysipelas). Erysipelas affects, in a large pro-
portion of instances, the face and head; it is
apt to be attended with a high fever and often
with delirium and meningitis. Severe or phleg-
monous erysipelas is apt to be succeeded by
protracted and exhausting suppurations, and
sometimes by diseases of the bones or inflamma-
tions of the internal organs. Erysipelas is
frequently an epidemic disease in surgical hos-
pitals, especially on the field of battle. (See
EPIDEMIC.) It is dangerously infectious. The
treatment is supportive — tonics, such as iron,
strychnine, and quinine; antiseptic dressings,
and occasionally incisions in deep erysipelas
with tension or suppuration. Specific vaccines
l»avo proved valuable aids in the dire. The
Streptococcus erysipclatis, identical with Strep-
tococcus pyogones, is the causative perm. Tlie
presence of the bacteria in the subcutaneous
tissues causes redness of the overlying skin and
more or less infiltration of the tissues with
scrum, oil with serum and pus. See ICIITHYOL;
ANTHONY, SAINT, FIRE OF.

ER'YSIPHA'CE^E. The family of mildews.
Seo MILDEW.

ER'YTHE'MA (Neo-Lat., from Gk. £p60wta,
redness, from epvGalvew, erythaincin, to redden,
from tpv8p6s9 erythros, red). A term, which has
been looHely applied to many different diseases.
In its correct usage it denotes not a disease,
but a symptom, viz., a loi'al congestion (or
hyperaemia) accompanied with super licial red-
ness, which disappears under slight pressure.
(Whitehouae.) Simple erythema consists of
patches of rose, scarlet, or deep-purplish red,
in spots, rings, or irregular patterns, or in
areas with faint margins. There are heat and
tingling, rarely tenderness. Heat, cold, fric-
tion, and pressure, bites and stings, irritant
substances and chemicals, comprise the external
causes; while rheumatism, drugs, toxin pro-
duced during fever or indigestion, and roll ex
nervo action are the principal internal causes.
In inflammatory erythema there is an exudation,
with elevation of the red surface and sometimes
an extravasation of blood. (See CHILBLAIN;
FROSTBITE.) There may bo papules, vesicles, or
irregular markings, nodules or blood blisters
(erythema exudativum multiformc, Hebra).
There may be fever, gastric symptoms, coated
tongue, followed by pain and swelling about the
joints, especially in the lower extremities, with
the formation of nodes along the shins and tops
(dorsa) of the feet; this constituting erythema
nodosum. Erythema venenatum is a form due
to exposure to poisonous plants. Erythema
solare is another term for sunburn. Regulation
of digestion, diuretics, alkaline solutions, oil
inunctions, and protective powders or ichthyol
are useful in the treatment in conjunction with

the removal of the immediate cause, where this
can be determined.

ERYTH'IA. One of the Hesperides (q.v.).

ERYTHRJE'A. See CENTAURY.

ERYTHRJEA. See ERITREA.

ER'YTHR^aS'AN- SEA (Lat. Mare Enjth-
r&um, Gk. ^ tyvdpa. 0d\a<r<ra, the red sea). In
ancient geography, a name applied to an expanse
of the Indian Ocean, including the Arabian Sea
and Persian Gulf. Later geographers restricted
the name to the Arabian Sea.

ER^FTHRITE. A hydrous ar senate of co-
balt occurring in monoclinic prisms, in drusy,
incrustating forms and in earthy pink crusts
upon other cobalt minerals. It is usually crim-
son red to peach red in color, from whence it
derives the common name of cobalt bloom.
Erytlirite occurs in Saxony, Baden, Norway, and
in Pennsylvania, Nevada, and California. It
'has recentlv been found at Cobalt, Canada.

ER'YTHRCXNTCTM: (Neo-Lat., from Gk. tyv-
Opoviov, erythronion, the name of some plant,
from ipv8p6s, erythros, red), DOG'S-TOOTII VIO-
LET, or ADDEB'S-TONGTJE. A genus of bulbous-
rooted plants of the family Liliaceae, found in
the light, rich soil of cool, moist, but not densely
shaded woods of the north temperate zone. Nine
species with numerous well-marked varieties are
indigenous in British Columbia, Washington,
and Oregon; one in the Rocky Mountains from
Colorado to California; four in eastern North
America, and four in the Old World. In early
spring two radical leaves, often handsomely
mottled, appear; between them is a naked scape
bearing one or several flowers with more or less
reflexed petals, whose colors range in some
species through various shades of yellow to
white, in others from greenish to lavender and
reddish tints. Erytlironium grandiflorum (for
illustration, see Plate of CALIFORNIA FLORA
and Plate of MONOCOTYLEDONS), one of the Pa-
cific coast species, has unmottled leaves, pro-
duces 1-5 very bright yellow flowers on each
scape. Erytlironium americanum, of which
there are several varieties, is the commonest
species east of the Mississippi. (For illustra-
tion, see Plate of LILIAOHUB.) The name "ad-
dcr's-tongue" is also applied to the fern
Ophioglossum vulffatum.

ERYTH/ROPHYLL (from Gk. Ipv8p6s, ery-
tliros, red + 4>t\\ov, phyllon, leaf). A name
formerly applied to the red pigments appearing
in leaves in autumn. See ANTHOCYAN; COLOR
IN PLANTS.

ERYTHROSIN". See COAL-TAK COLOBS.

ER'YTHROX'YLON. See COCA.

E'RYX (Lat, from Gk. "Epu£). An ancient
city and mountain in. the western part of Sicily.
The mountain is now known as Monte San Giu-
liano. The summit was occupied by a famous
shrine of Venus Erycina. During the first
Punic War it was1 hold by Hamilcar Barca.

ERZBERG-, erts'be'rK. See EISENERZ.

ERZERTTM:, eyz'-ruom', or ERZEROTJM.

The capital of the vilayet of the same name in
Turkish Armenia, situated on a plain 6000 feet
above the sea level (Map: Turkey in Asia, D 2).
There are a number of mosques, baths, and
mausoleums. ItB fortifications have been re-
newed since 1864. Erzerum is famous for its
copper and iron ware as well as for its shawls
and carpets. The industries, however, have de-
clined considerably on account of emigration
and the turbulent state of the country. Its
commerce, which was mostly with Persia, has

EBZGEBIBGE

diminished since the completion of the Trans-
caucasian Railway, over which route the trade
between Persia and Europe is mainly carried.
The population is variously estimated at from
43,000 to 80,000, half of whom are Turks, the
rest being Armenians, Persians, and Greeks. It
is the scat of several consular representatives.
Erzerum is an ancient town. Its Armenian
name was Garin Khalakh. Near it stood the
old gyro-Armenian town of Arsen. When the
Seljuks captured this place, the inhabitants
fled to a fortress at Erzerum, which the Seljuks
accordingly called Arsen-er-Rum, i.e., Arsen of
the Romans (or Byzantines), whence the modern
Erzerum. In 1201 it fell into the hands of the
Seljuks; of the Mongols in 1242; and finally,
in 1517, into those of the Turks. In the War
of 1828-29, between the Turks and the Rus-
sians, the taking of Erzerum by the latter de-
cided the campaign in Asia. Erzerum was an
important military centre during the War of
1877-78 and held out against the Russians, who
were allowed to occupy it at the close of the
war. In October, 1878, it was returned to the
Turks.

EBZCKEBIBGKE, erts'ge-ber'ge (Ger., Ore
Mountains). A mountain range of Europe, ex-
tending along the boundary line between Sax-
ony and Bohemia (Map: Germany, E 3). It
stretches southwest and northeast for a dis-
tance of about 100 miles, from the Bister Moun-
tains on the southwest to the Elbsandstein
Mountains on the northeast. It has a breadth
of about 25 miles and rises abruptly on the
south side, while the north side slopes gradually
and contains many well-cultivated and fertile
valleys. The highest peak, the Keilberg, is
4060 feet high, while the average elevation is
about 2500 feet. The Elbe receives the drainage
from both sides of the watershed — on the south
through the Eger, and on the north chiefly
through the Mulde. The range is crossed by-
numerous passes and railway lines. The forests
are very extensive and the climate is somewhat
rigorous. The summer air is, however, invigo-
rating, and many resorts, such as Kipsdorf and
Barenfels, are found among the mountains.
The main central mass is gneiss, with mica
schist on the northern slope, but with some
crops of eruptive rocks. The mineral deposits
from which the range takes its name are of
great importance. Silver was found in the
Erzgebirge as early as the twelfth century, and
lead, copper, tin, iron, nickel, and cobalt have
been mined for a long time. Large deposits of
coal are also found, and the industrial impor-
tance of Saxony and Bohemia is due to a large
extent to the mineral wealth of the Erzgebirge.
EBZINGAN, Si/zlng-an. The capital of a
sanjak in the Vilayet of Erzerum, Asiatic Tur-
key, on the Sivas-Erzerum road, 86 miles south-
east of Erzerum (Map: Turkey in Asia, D 2).
It is 3900 feet above sea level, on the western
fringe of a fertile plain watered by the western
Euphrates. It is an important garrison town,
and its chief features are the modern govern-
ment buildings, extensive barracks, and mili-
tary hospital. There are also a fine mosque, a
good bazaar, an Armenian teachers' seminary,
and Armenian schools for juveniles. With
the exception of the main thoroughfare, the
streets are narrow and dirty. There are manu-
factures of silk, cotton, canvas, and copper
ware, and in the vicinity are government tan-
neries and clothing factories. Agriculture is

78 ESAU

well developed, cereals and fruit being largely
grown on the surrounding plains. The Arsinga
of mediaeval times, it was a place of importance
as early as the fourth century. There are now,
however, few traces of its antiquities. It was
almost totally destroyed by an earthquake in
1784. Pop., about 18,000, of whom about one-
half are Mohammedans and the rest Armenian
Christians.

E'SARHAD'BON (Assyr. Asur-ali-iddina,
Asur lias given a brother). A King of As-
syria who succeeded his father, Sennacherib,
and reigned 681-668 B.C. He had boon placed
over Babylonia during his father's lifetime and
by a special decree had been declared heir to
the throne. In consequence perhaps of this
favoritism shown to a son who was not the
oldest, Sennacherib was murdered by two of
his sons, Sharozer and Adannalik '(2 Kings
xix. 36-37). The Babylonian chronicle, how-
ever, makes mention of only one eon as the
assassin. Proclaiming himself Governor of
Babylonia, Esarhaddon set out in hot haste to
avenge his father's death. The war, which is
noted in the Babylonian chronicle as an inter-
regnum, lasted less than a year, and at the
end of that time Esarhaddon was able to de-
clare himself King of Assyria. His reign was
full of military campaigns. He conchu'ted suc-
cessful operations against the Chaldeans. Tn
the west Sidon was captured and razed to the
ground. Tyre he tried to take, but failed. His
most important enterprise was an attack upor
Egypt. In two campaigns (673 and 670 fc.c.)
Egypt was taken and reorganized under As-
syrian rule. It was Esarhaddon's misfortune
that during his time began the series of at-
tacks from the north which finally ended in the
fall of Assyria, but he did all lie could to check
them. In 668 Egypt rebelled, and he sot out
to chastise the rebels, but died on the way. He
showed a great predilection for Babylon, and,
granting the people as much independence as
was consistent with the recognition of Assyrian
supremacy, he planned the rebuilding of the citv,
which had been destroyed by Sennacherib in 680,
and restored it to its former glory. By his
wish Samas-sum-ukin was made Governor of
Babylonia and Asurbanipal King of Assyria.
Despite his numerous wars, he found time for
elaborate building enterprises. He is regardex!
as one of the noblest of the Assyrian Icings.
See ASSYRIA.

ESAU (Hob. Esau, hairy). According to
Gen. xxv. 24 ff., the elder son of Isaac and
twin brother of Jacob. The rivalry of the two
brothers began when they were still in the womb
(Gen. xxv. 22) . When Esau grew up, he became
a "-man of the field,** as opposed to Jacob, who
"dwelt in tents" (Gen, xxv. 27), As the eJder
son, he was entitled to precedence over Jacob,
but sold his birthright to his brother (Gen. xxv.
29, 34). In spite of this he attempted to secure
Isaac's dying blessing, which pertained to the
birthright; but Jacob circumvented him, and
Esau^ received only a secondary blessing (Gen.
xxxvii. 1-40). Esau, now greatly enraged, re-
solved to kill his brother, and "Jacob fled to
escape him (Gen. xxxvii. 41, 45) ; but on Jacob's
return from sojourning with Laban, 20 years
after, Esau bwame reconciled to him (Gen.
xxxiii, 1-15), and the two brothers later buried
their father together (Gen. xxxv. 29).

This narrative is regarded by mnny scholars
as reflecting the history of the'Edomites, repre-

ESCAPE

sented by Esau, and the Israelite*, represented
by Jacob. This is indeed suggested by the oracle:
"Two nations are in thy womb, and two peoples
shall part from thy bowels; and the one people
shall be stronger than the other people, and the
elder shall serve the younger" (Gen. xxv. 23).
As a nation, Edoin was older than Israel, hav-
ing had a succession of kings before there was
a union of the tribes and a kingdom in Israel
(Gen. xxxvi. 31 ff.). But Edom was conquered
by David and continued for some time to be
subject to the dynasty he founded. The story re-
veals a ceitain admiration for the qualities of the
kindred people, but aho an unmistakable pride
in the cleverness with which a richer blessing,
i.e., greater prosperity and power, was won by
Israel. There is no explicit or implied criticism
of Jacob's cunning and deceit; it was the mani-
fest destiny of Israel to become the ruler, and
Edom would have to be satisfied with its lot.
Israel had been foreordained to enjoy the lux-
uries of its rich land and to hold power over
the older nation; let Edom hunt for a living
among its mountains; but let both peoples be
mindful of their common origin. In the judg-
ment of many interpreters to-day, neither the
poetic oracles nor the prose story can have
been written before the reign of David, or after
the reSstablishment of Edomitish independence.
Those who follow the current system of Penia-
teuchal analysis assume that in the narrative
two versions — one Judcean, the other Ephraim-
itish — have been interwoven, and that the former
shows more sympathy with Edom and a veiled
criticism of the northern kingdom, Israel. But
the analysis has been seriously questioned by
independent scholars (see PENTATEUCH), and
there seems to be no clear sign of any such crit-
icism. There is nothing that necessitates a
later date than the time of Solomon. See
EDOM, and consult Schmidt, Messages of the
Poets (New York, 1911), and Gunkel, Genesis
(3d ed., Go'ttingcn, 1912).

ESBJERQ, es'byerg. A seaport of Denmark,
situated on the North Sea, opposite the island of
FanO, and 35 miles west of Kolding (Map: Den-
mark, B 3). The town has considerable manu-
facturing and fishing and is an export centre for
dairy products, bacon, beef, and cattle. It has
steamship traffic with England and is the ter-
minus of a submarine cable to Calais. Pop.,
1890, 4111; 1901, 13,365; 1911, 18,208.

ESCALAJSTTE, As'ka-lan'ta, JUAN (?-1519).
A Spanish soldier and explorer. He went to
Mexico with Hernan Cortes, by whom he was
appointed high constable of Villa Rica de Vera
Cruz, founded by Corte's at the place where he
landed. At the order of his chief Escalante de-
stroyed the Spanish fleet of 10 vessels and
remained on guard at the new settlement with
150 men while Corte's marched to the interior.
Because of the assassination of two of his men
by hostile tribes Escalante with 50 of his men
and several thousand Indian allies attacked the
offending natives, but, though the Spaniards
won the batle, he and seven of his men were
killed.

ES'CALA'TOR. A form of mechanical ele-
vator for passengers or freight, in which the
lift is in a direction inclined from the vertical.
It resembles an endless band conveyor and is
made up of slats or narrow platforms hinged
to each other and carried by a pair of chains
borne on revolving drums—one at the upper
level and the other at the lower. The pas-

senger steps upon the moving band of slats
or treads at the bottom, moving horizontally
as upon a moving sidewalk (see TBAVELING
SIDEWALK); but in a few feet thereafter the
incline begins, and each slat or tread icmaining
horizontal forms a tread as of a stairway, mov-
ing upward along the incline. At the top the
treads pass into horizontal motion, close to-
gether, and the passenger steps off upon the
stationary surface at the end or side or both.
Hand rails permit the passenger to steady his
body as the treads ascend. The passenger can
ascend the flight of treads as a stairway and
thus hasten his transit. See ELEVATOR

ESCALLOP. See SCALLOP.

ESCAL'OP, or ESCALLOP (OF. escalope, from
MDutch schelpe, shell, dialectic Gcr. ftchclfe,
husk, Eng. scalp), or SHELL. A symbol used in
heraldry to signify that the bearer lias made
many long voyages by sea. As an emblem of pil-
grimage, it was commonly given to those who
had been to the Crusades, and it camo to be
regarded as indicating either that the bearer or
his ancestor had been a crusader. The escalop
shell was the emblem of St. James; hence all
those who made the pilgrimage to his shrine
at Compostela were entitled to bear the escalop
shells. See HERALDRY.

ESCANABA, e's'ka-na'ba. A city and the
county seat of Delta Co., Mich., 73 miles south
of Marquette, on the Chicago and Northwestern,
the Minneapolis, St. Paul, and Sault Sainte
Marie, and the Escanaba and Lake Superior
railroads, and on Little Bay de Noquette, an
inlet of Green Bay, Lake Michigan (Map: Michi-
gan, C 3). Situated on a picturesque promon-
tory and having excellent facilities for trout
fishing and boating, Escanaba is a popular sum-
mer resort. It has a good harbor with a front-
age of 8 miles, has regular steamboat connection
with a number of lake ports, and is one of the
most important shipping points for the Lake
Superior iron region. There are eight iron-ore
docks, handling more than 4,000,000 tons annu-
ally, and large merchandise docks, the trade in
coal, fish, and lumber being extensive. The
city contains railroad repair shops, an ore-crush-
ing plant, furniture, flooring, and wooden-ware
factories, and a tie-preserving plant. Note-
worthy features include the public library, hos-
pital, high school, city hall, county jail, and
courthouse. Escanaba was settled in 1863,
incorporated as a village in 1883, and first
chartered as a city in the same year. Pop.,
1900, 9549; '1910, 13,194; 1014. (U. S. eat.),
14,747; 1920, 13,103.

ESCAPE ( OF. escaper, eschaper, Fr. tchappcr,
It. soappare, to escape; probably from ML, ea?
capa, out of a cloak or cape, from Lat. ex, out,
and ML. capa, cape). In its broadest sense, the
unauthorized liberation of a person from law-
ful custody, in any manner or for any time, how-
ever short. If the liberation is accomplished by
the prisoner himself with force, it is called
prison breaking, or prison "breach; if it is effected
by others with force, it is called rescue. An
escape by the prisoner himself, if with force,
is a felony, and, if without force, a misde-
meanor, punishable by fine or imprisonment.
Under modern statutes a prisoner who has
made his escape and been recaptured loses
the commutation of his sentence which he may
have earned by previous good conducts A person
who aids a criminal in escaping, or in attempt*
ing to escape, is guilty, as a rule, of the same

ESCAPEMENT So

grade of crime and liable to the same punish-
ment as the prisoner who escapes. This prin-
ciple applies al&o to officers who voluntarily
permit an escape. If the officer is negligent,
simply, he is guilty of a misdemeanor. When
a perboii is imprisoned under a final judgment
in a civil action, his escape renders the sheriff,
or oificor having him in custody, liable to the
plaintiff. Consult the authorities referred to
under CmnxAL LAW.

ESCAPE'MENT. That part of the machinery
of a watch or clock by which the onward revolv-
ing motion produced by the moving power,
whether- weights or spring, is restrained by the
time-measming clement, such as the pendulum
or balance wheel. The latter allows one tooth
of the last wheel in the train of gears to
escape or pass the pallets of the escapement at
each swing or oscillation. See CLOCK; WATCH.

ESCAPE WAKBANT. A warrant author-
ized by English statutes of 1702 and 1700 for
the better preventing of escapes from the Queen's
Bench and Fleet prisons. At present it is em-
ployed but rarely. A new warrant is not
necessary for the rearrest of an escaped pris-
oner; but the person from whose custody he
escapes may pursue and retake him, and may,
after notice of his errand and refusal of ad-
mittance, break open doors or windows in order
to effect the recapture.

ESCARP, or SCARP (Fr. escarp e, It. scar pa,
from Fr. escarped It. tcarpare, to cut steep).
The side or slope of the ditch next to the para-
pet. When the ditch of a permanent fortifica-
tion is dry, the escarp is usually faced with
mason work, to render it difficult of ascent; and
behind this facing, technically known as revet-
ment (q.v.), there are often casemates (q.v.)
for defense. See FORTIFICATION.

ESCARPMENT. See CLIFF.

ESCAtJT, a'skoA The French name for the
river Scheldt (q.v.).

ESCHAR, eVkiir (OF. escare, Lat. eschara,
Gk. tffxdpa, eschara, scab). A slough or portion
of dead or disorganized tissue. The name is
commonly applied to artificial sloughs produced
by the application of caustics (q.v.).

'ESCHATOLOGY, es'ka-t6i'o-ji (from Gk. *<r-

xaros, eschatos, last + -\oyta, -logia, account,
from X£yety, tegein, to say). The doctrine con-
cerning man's existence after death, the future
of nations, and the final condition of the world.
Even on the lower stages of religious develop-
ment speculation upon the tilings to come is
not wholly limited to the fate of the individual.
The shifting fortunes of war and the varying
success in obtaining supplies give rise to anxious
or hopeful thoughts of what may befall the
tribe. Devastating floods, fires, cyclones, earth-
quakes, or volcanic eruptions, and terror-inspir-
ing eclipses of the heavenly bodies suggest the
possibility of a destruction of the world. But
the higher forms of eschatological thought pre-
suppose a more complex social organism and a
closer observation of natural phenomena. It is
especially myths of astrological origin that fur-
nish material for highly developed eschatologies,
and oppression by nations aspiring to world
empire that supplies the impulse. Hope of de-
liverance from galling political servitude springs
from a proud and outraged national conscious-
ness, kept alive by the memory of past greatness,
and dreams of empire are born of the example
set by mighty conquerors and rulers holding
nations in subjection. Only prolonged observa-

ESCHATOLOaY

tion of the movements of the planets and the
sun's course through the signs of the zodiac can
render possible the thought of a reoccurrence at
the end of the present period of the events con-
nected with the world's origin, and a renovation
of the world after its destruction. Along the
different lines of eschatological speculation there
is, therefore, a general development reflecting
the growth of man's intellectual and moral per-
ceptions, his larger social experience, and his
expanding knowledge of nature. The outward
forms, however, vary according to the character
of the environment and the peculiar genius of
each people, and are also influenced by the rela-
tive value accorded to the individual and to the
nation or the world. It is seldom that an es-
chatological idea is found in any people that is
without a parallel among other nations, but it is
equally rare that the same idea occurs in exactly
identical form in different systems of religious
thought.

Belief in a survival of the spirit or double,
conceived as a material substance, in connection
with the dead body as its local habitation as
long as food and drink are furnished, gives little
opportunity for the imagination. As, \\ith the
advance of civilization, the great cosmic forces
come into prominence as objects of worship, and
the departed spirits are brought into connection
with them, the life beyond grows richer ; and as
the peculiar tribal customs establish a standard
of right and the effects of conformity are ob-
served, the spirits themselves are made subject
to the same laws of retribution, and a judgment
after death is introduced. Tlnough this two-
fold development the future life may thus be
spiritualized and assume a moral character, as
in ancient Egypt. But it is also possible for the
old conception of a shadowy existence in the
pave or a subterranean realm to retain its hold
in the main, while a way out of it into larger
life, with moral distinctions, is found in the
thought of a restoration and reanimation of the
old body, thus insuring personal identity, as in
Persia and Judaea. Or the spirit may 'be con-
ceived of as entering immediately upon death
into another body, to live again and die and bo-
come reincarnated in ever new forms, as in
India. This doctrine of metempsychosiH renders
it possible to introduce into the future life the
nicest moral adjustments, implying at once pun-
ishments and rewards for conduct in a previous
stage of existence and the possibility of rising
or sinking in the scale of being according to
present conduct. In spite of the perfect justice
thus regarded as being administered on every
stage of being, this never-ending series of births
and deaths may come to appear as an ovilr if
the present life* seems such, and deliverance may
then be sought from the infinite wheel of ex-
istence in Nirvana. Still another possibility
presents itself, when the functions of the minil
are considered as indicating a purely spiritual
essence independent of the body, having no be-
ginning and no end, as in Greece. This abstract
conception of immortality may be made the
philosophical basis of a nope for a more con-
cretely conceived personal life after death. For
further details of this phase of eschatology, see
IMMORTALITY.

The ideas held by different nations as to the
future of the human race and the world are only
imperfectly known to us. It would, of course,
be quite wrong to suppose that such notions have
been cherished only where we are fortunate

ESCHATOLOGY 81

enough to have testimony as to their existence,
or that they have held a place in the life of na-
tions proportionate to their prominence in such
literary remains or other accounts as we may
possess. But certain inferences can be drawn
from the type of eschatological thought that
comes to view. When the belief in a coming
destruction of the world by a fire or a flood is
found among uncivilized tribes in the Pacific, or
American aborigines, it is not likely that it
originated in astronomical speculation, Imt
ratlicr that it was engendered by some terrify-
ing experience of the past. Though the medium
through which the accounts have come makes
them somewhat doubtful, it is not impossible
that the Spaniards found in Central America
the belief in the coming of a white conqueror.
If so, the history of the great American civiliza-
tions had prepared men for the possibility of
the overthrow even of an ancient Idngdom, and
this apprehension had been fused with the vague
rumor of white men who had once settled in the
New World. The notion of four great periods
of the world, each lasting hundreds of years and
ending in a universal conflagration, also pre-
supposes a longer historic development. The
remarkable stability of the Chinese Empire and
the practical disposition of its people preclude
the development of a flourishing eschatology.
On the other hand, the brooding genius of India
caies little for political independence and is too
deeply impressed with the infinite to have its
attention absorbed by possible catastrophic
changes in the world. There are no last things
to claim enthusiastic interest in a pantheistic
philosophy that sees in every form of life a
manifestation of the divine. But the infinite
stretches of divine sway arc divided into periods ;
and these fcalpas, or epochs, give an eschatolog-
ical perspective. In the main, however, it is the
future of the individual only that occupies the
mind of Brahmin and Buddhist alike. Quite
different was the attitude of the ancient Ira-
nians. Those who adopted the teachings of
Zarathustra seem early to have developed the
simple notion of a coming destruction of the
world by fire into the idea of a great moral
ordeal. As an individual may prove the truth
of his religion by undergoing an ordeal of fire,
so at the end of the world the worshipers of the
lord Mazda will bo distinguished from all others
by successfully enduring the ordeal of molten
metal, and the good will then bo recompensed.
This conception is found in the Gathas, the
earliest part of the Avestan literature. It is not
certain that the idea of a resurrection from the
dead goes back to the period represented by the
Gathas. But Herodotus seems to have heard of
such a Persian conception in the fifth century
B.C., and Theopompus, the historian of Philip of
Macedonia, described it as a Mazdayasnian doc-
trine in the fourth century B.C., in a work of
which excerpts have been preserved by Diogenes
Laertius and JEncns of Gaza. Whether the
resurrection was already at that time connected
with the coming of the Saosbyant is uncertain.
In the later Avesta it is distinctly the work
of the Saoshyant to raise the dead. A final
revelation of character, a brief period of punish-
ment in a hell, and an ultimate restoration of
all to blessedness, are here assumed. Charac-
teristic of Mazdaism is the idea of a gradual
evolution towards a rational and moral end, and
of the preparation for this end by tbo work of
the faithful. The world is conceived as lasting

ESCHATOLOGY

12,000 years. The appearance of Zarathustra
falls at the beginning of the last quarter, and at
each of the following millenniums one of the
three sons of Zarathustra is born, the last of
these being Astvatereta, the "restorer of the
bodies," or Saoshyant, "the savior." This savior
lias no political character. After the final con-
quest of the serpent, Azi Dahaka, the reign of
immortality begins. During the period in which
the native religion was suppressed and gradually
crowded out of its home by Islam, the hope of
the persecuted turned to the future, as the apo-
calyptic sketches in the Pahlavi literature show,
and the return of the old King Kai Khosru was
ardently desired. The Homeric poems and
Hesiod show how the Greek mind occupied itself
with the soul's future in the Elysian fields or
the darker realms of Hades. Through the
Orphic and Eleusinian cults this thought was'
deepened, and the Christian doctrines of heaven
(q.v.) and hell (q.v.) are largely due to Greek
speculation. That the future of nations and
the world also played an important rftle in Greek
thought is evident from the prophecies of the
Sibyls. For while the original Sibylline Oracles
have not been preserved, the references to them
by Hevaclitus and Plato reveal their character,
and this is also indicated by the imitations in
our present Sibylline Oracles. The same source
betrays the eschatological thought of the Ro-
mans. Some details of Vergil's description of
the golden ago may indeed have been borrowed
from our Pseudo-Sibyl, herself reminiscent of
Isaiah; but it is quite likely that the conception
itself goes back to a genuine Roman origin. An
cschatological mood dominates the epoch ushered
in by Alexander's conquests, and cWeo-Roman
thought is fused with. Oriental speculation in
the outlook upon the world's future as in other
respects. In a similar manner the Scandinavian
idea of a destruction of the earth by fire and its
subsequent renovation under higher heavens, to
be peopled by the descendants of Lif and Lif-
traser, as set forth in VOluwpa, no doubt reflects
a primitive Germanic conception. Even the twi-
light of the gods may have belonged to the origi-
nal myth. But the picture has unquestionably
been retouched by Christian hands.

Among the Semitic nations none has probably
contributed more largely to the common stock
of later eschatological -material than the people
of ancient Babylonia, Their creation myth and
astrology, based on careful observations of the
celestial bodies, furnished events to be expected
and foretold when times and seasons might be
looked for. Nevertheless, such of their literary
remains as have been discovered and examined
do not permit us to determine what the- Baby-
lonians themselves thought of the world's fu-
ture. It iw among peoples to some extent
dependent upon their civilization that we find
the Marduk-Tiamat myth transferred from tho
beginning to the end of the world, and the mil-
lennial periods of the world's course elaborated.
In early Israel the "Day of Yah we" was a day
of battle deciding the fortunes of a people. If
the masses looked forward to it as a day of
deliverance and victory, men like Amos and
Ilosea, Isaiah and Micah, Zephaniah and Jere-
miah, feared that, tho moral conditions being
what they were, the advance of Assyria would
bring destruction, complete or well-nigh com-
plete, to Israel and Judah. They were prophets
of doom. To one of the greatest among them,
,Toremiah, this solemn forecast of coming judg-

ESCHATO&O&Y

mcni was the criterion of true prophethood. In
later times the books containing their oracles
were interpolated with prophecies of coming
prosperity, which neither reflect their moral
attitude nor are in harmony with their historic
ciicumstances. But they are themselves signifi-
cant signs of the expansion of escliatological
hopes. The establishment of the Achsomenian
Empire aroused among the Jews expectations
of a return from Babylon, the restoration of
the temple, and improved social conditions, as
Isa. xl-xlviii indicates. During the numerous
insurrections that marked the beginning of the
reign of Darius Hystaspis, Haggai and Zecha-
nah fanned the hopes of Judcean independence
under a descendant of the old Davidic house,
the present Governor of Judaea, Zerubbabel
(q.v.) ; and Jer. xxx-xxxi apparently shows
that this hope still lived after the death of
Zerubbabel and found new nourishment in the
great conflict between Persia and Greece. Alex-
ander's phenomenal career, widening the hori-
zons of men, inspired in Judsea, as elsewhere,
serious thoughts concerning the destiny of na-
tions. But the strongest impulses to eschatc-
logical speculation were furnished by the re-
ligious persecution under Antiochus IV Epiph-
anea and the Maccabean revolt. The Book
of Daniel, written 165 B.C., voices the hope that
the kingdom of the world will be given to the
saints of the Most High, i.e., the Jewish people.
Its celestial representative, probably Michael,
after the destruction of the beast representing
the Greek kingdom, comes with the clouds and
receives the empire of the world. There is no
Messiah in this apocalypse. The first distinct
appearance of this deliverer and king is in the
Psalms of Solomon, written soon after the con-
quest of Palestine by Pompey, in 63 B.C. (See
MESSIAH.) During the century that lay between
the Maceabean uprising and the final loss of
independence to the Romans, the eschatological
hopes centred upon the Asmonaean princes, by
whom the conquest of the world was expected,
as many a psalm in the Psalter testifies. The
longing for a descendant of the Davidic line
who would break the Boman yoke, establish the
empire of the Jews, and rule as a righteous king
over the subject nations, grew strong enough in
the first century of our era to cause the rebel-
lion that in 70 A.D. led to the destruction of
Jerusalem. When Jesus proclaimed the coming
of the kingdom of heaven, it is natural therefore
that, in spite of His disavowal, He should be
understood by some to be a claimant to the
kingship of the Jews. Attracted by His wonder-
ful personality, from love of Him and faith in
the prophetic word, His disciples were filled with
the conviction that He would return as the
Messiah upon the clouds of heaven. Apocalyptic
writings, such as Fourth Ezra (see ESDRAS,
BOOKS or), Enoch xxxvii-lxxi (see Ewoon,
BOOKS OF), and the Jewish originals utilized and
expanded in Matt, xxiv (Mark xiii, Luke xxi)
and the Revelation of John, show that even in
circles where the hopes of the future did not
attach themselves to the personality of Jesus,
the Messianic idea grew more and more tran-
scendent. It is not probable, however, that the
final judgment and the raising of the dead were
ever conceived by an adherent of the Jewish
faith as functions of the Messiah. While on
many points the eschatological ideas of the early
Church were far from being fixed, it seems to
have been quite generally believed that the end

of the world was approaching; that it would b*
heralded by angelic trumpet blasts and ushered
in by the descent of Jesus as the Messiah from
heaven to establish His kingdom; that the liv-
ing saints would then be translated and the
dead in Christ raised to reign with Him for
1000 years; and that after the final conflict
with evil the last judgment would be held, the
present world would be destroyed by fire, and
there would be a new heaven and a now earth
in which righteousness should dwell. As Chris-
tianity spread, through missionary activity or
military conquests, the Kingdom of God was
identified with the Church, the doctrine of the
millennium was largely abandoned, and eschatol-
ogy occupied itself chiefly with the future of
the individual in heaven, purgatory, or hell.
The great creeds of Christendom, however, af-
firmed the belief in a return of the Son of God
to judge the quick and the dead, and a resur-
rection of the just and the unjust. There does
not seem to be sufficient documentary evidence
to support the general assumption that about
the year 1000 A.D. there waa a widespread belief
in the impending end of the worm. But the
famous hymn,

Dies ire, dies ilia
Solvet scBolum in favilla,
Teste David cum Sibylla,

leaves no doubt either as to the eschatological
mood of mediaeval Christianity or as regards
the source whence it was nourished. And of
this there is testimony in the numerous apoca-
lypses that grew up. It is natural that the
biblical language concerning the millennium in
Rev. xx and the destruction of the world by
fire in 2 Peter should have occupied many minds.
The more radical religious movement of the
Renaissance period was strongly impregnated
with eschatological thought. In the Baptist and
anti-Trinitarian churches ardent expectations of
the establishment of the kingdom of heaven
on earth went hand in hand with the rejection
of sacramental magic, devil, and hell, and piac-
tical attempts at founding a new social order,
with hopes for the ultimate restoration of all
souls after a period of unconscious sleep or
limited punishment. In the great Lutheran,
Anglican, and Reformed churches the rejection
of the doctrine of a purgatory and of the inter-
cession of the Virgin and the saints fixed man's
destiny irrevocably at death, and therefore
tended to render the closing scenes of judgment
and resurrection of less practical importance, to
eliminate the premillennial coining of Christ,
and to make the millennium the result of a long-
continued development of Christian life. By an
allegorical method of interpretation the natural
import of biblical language waa lost and scrip-
tural support found for the new outlook upon
the^ future. Since the days of the French Revo-
lution and the career ot Napoleon there have
been repeated outbursts of eschatological en-
thusiasm. Where the reaction against allegori-
cal interpretation has not led to the adoption
of a historico-critical method, the belief that all
biblical prophecies will be fulfilled has en-
gendered an ingenious system of exegesis by
which the things expected by the Jews of the
Maccabean period or the early Christians to
occur in their own lifetime are transferred to
the interpreter's own immediate future, some
starting point for the new cycle of fulfillments
being arbitrarily chosen. Thus, an independent
eschatological speculation not unlike that of old

ESCHATOLOOY 83

may flourish under cover of biblical authority,
and keep alive the expectation of impending
judgment upon sin and fundamental changes in
man's life and the interpretation of history in
the light of eternal purposes.

Islam adopted from Judaism and Christianity
the doctrines of a coming judgment, a resurrec-
tion of the dead, and everlasting punishments
and rewards. Later contact with Persian
thought greatly enriched its eschatology. Es-
pecially important was the thought of a rein-
carnation of some great representative in the
past of Allah or His prophets. Again and again
the world of Islam has been stirred by the
expectation of some Imam or Mahdi to reveal
more fully the truth or to lead the faithful into
a better social condition on earth. Iran and
Africa have been most fertile in such movements.

In modern Judaism the return of Israel to its
land, the coming of the Messiah, the resurrec-
tion of the dead, and everlasting retribution are
still expected bv the orthodox, while liberals
look upon Israel s mission as connected with the
regeneration of the human race, and hope for
an immortal life independent of the resuscitation
of the body.

The criterion of exact science is its capacity to
predict future things. In this lies to a large
extent the convincing force of astronomical the-
ories through which our modern estimate of the
universe has been chiefly formed. A science
that unfailingly foretells future events furnishes
a now eschatology by suggesting that the earth's
life is but an episode in the never-beginning and
never-ending course of nature, and that, barring
accidents, this planet must one day end its sepa-
rate existence in the arms of its celestial parent,
the sun. History, in its widest sense, teaches
that the future of the human race must grow
out of its present life, and that the conditions
of humanity, whatever new revolutions may
come, are not to be affected by cataclysmic
changes wrought from without, but by forces
already operating within. By observation of
present tendencies it seems to many thinkers
possible to predict that warfare will cease; that
arbitration will take its place as a means of
aettling international differences; that compe-
tition and monopoly, with the extremes of wealth
and poverty to which they give rise, will yield
to public administration of industry and com-
merce for the public good, or some form of co-
operation involving a more equitable distribution
of the bounties of nature and the products of
common toil; that ignorance will bo reduced by
universal education fitting each individual for
the highest service he can render to society; that
disease and criminality will be stamped out by
preventive and remedial measures; that the con-
flict between rival sects and religions will end
in a fellowship no longer based upon creed or
cultic performance, but upon a common interest
in the pursuit of truth and righteousness; and
that thus the chief blessings associated with tho
millennium will come, not through a radical
change in man's nature wrought by supernat-
ural power, but by a gradual amelioration of
the race. Eschatological speculation of this
character, already seen in Plato's Republic and
Thomas More's Utopia, has taken a strong hold
upon the present generation. In the effort to
realize the eschatological dreams of human so-
ciety as it ought to be by strengthening the
movements of thought and life that tend in the
right direction, compensation is found by many

ESCHEAT

for the silence of science concerning a survival
of the individual, while they are ready to wel-
come any light that may be shed upon the
mystery of death. See HEAVEN; HELL; IM-
MORTALITY; INTEBMEDIATB STATE; JUDGMENT,
FINAL; MILLENNIUM.

Bibliography. An extensive bibliography of
the older literature by Ezra Abbot may be found
in Alger, A Critical History of the Doctrine of
a Future Life (New York, 1871). Consult the
works on biblical theology, such as Oehler,
Schultz, Dillman, Stade, Marti, Henry Preserved
Smith (1914), for the Old Testament; Baur,
Schmidt, Oosterzee, Meyer, Weiss, Beyschlag,
Wendt, Immer, Holtzmann, for the New; Lu-
thardt, Die Lehre von den letsten Dingen (Leip-
zig, 1861 ); Stade, Die alttestamentlichen Vor-
stellungen vom Zustande naoh dem Tode (ib.,
1877); Newman Smyth (trans.), Dorner on the
Future State (New York, 1883) ; Jeremias, Die
"babylonisch-assyrischen Yorstellwigen vom Leoen
nach dem Tode (Leipzig, 1887) ; Schwally, Das
Leben nach dem Tode (Gicssen, 1802 ) ; Toy, Ju-
daism and Christianity (Boston, 1892) ; Ka'bisch,
JBschatologie des Paulus (Gottingsn, 1893);
Salmond, The Christian Doctrine of Immortality
(Edinburgh, 1897); Smend, Alttestamentliohe
JReligionsgeschichte (Freiburg, 1893); Marti,
GeftcMchte der israelitischen Religion (Strass-
burg, 1897) ; Charles, Critical History of the
Doctrine of a Future Life (London, 1899) ; Beet,
Last Things (ib., 1897); Russell, The Parousia
(ib., 1887); S. Davidson, Doctrine of Last
Things (ib., 1900); 'Soderblom, La vie future
d'apres le ma%d6isme k la lumiere des croyances
pareilles dans les autres religions (Paris, 1901) ;
Boklen, Die Vcnoandtschaft der jiidisch-christ-
lichen mit der parsisohen Esohatologie (Gottin-
gen, 1902); Gressmann, Ursprung der israel-
itisch-judischen Eschatolagie (ib., 1905); Guy,
Le millenarisme dans ses origines et son d6vel-
oppement (Paris, 1904) ; Boussct, Religion des
Judentums (2d ed., Berlin, 1900); Mills,
Avcsta Eschatology (Chicago, 1908) ; Sharman,
Teaching of Jesus about tlie Future (ib., 1909) ;
Dobschtitz, Eschatology of the Gospels (Lon-
don, 1910); MacCulloch, Early Christian Vi-
sions of the Other World (Edinburgh, 1912);
Jastrow, Hebrew and Babylonian Traditions
(New York, 1914) ; Eduard Norden, JEneis buoh
VI (Leipzig, 1903).

ESCHEAT (Fr. tchoir, from Lat. cadere, to
fall out or happen) . An incident of feudal tenure
of real property, whereby the course of descent
from the tenant is obstructed, and the property
falls back or reverts to the immediate lord of
whom the fee is held. In the common-law
system there is, in theory at least, no such thing
as absolute ownership of real property. The
most extensive estate which one can have, the
fee simple, is regarded as a derivative or sub-
ordinate estate, held of a superior, landlord, to
whom in certain eventualities it will return.
The fact that in process of time moat, if not all,
intermediate or mesne lords have been elimi-
nated, and that lands arc now held in subordina-
tion only to the state, or, in England, to the
crown, does not vitally affect this principle.
The claim of the state to take lands by escheat
is still based upon the theory of a superior lord-
ship or proprietorship,' and the holder of land
in fee simple is still properly described as a
tenant. In order to complete the title acquired
by ^scheat, it is necessary that the superior
lord shall perform some act, such as entering

ESCHENBACH 84

and taking possession of the land or bringing
an action at law for its recovery. The principle
upon which he thus recovers the property is
that, since none but those who are of the blood
of the person last seised can inherit, and there
are no persons of that blood in being and capa-
ble of inheriting, the land must result back to
the lord of the fee, of whom it is held.

According to the law of England, escheat was
either propter defectum sangninis — i.e., because
there were no heirs of the deceased tenant — or
propter delict um tcnentis — i.e., because the blood
of the tenant was attainted or corrupted, so that
those who were related to him as heirs could
not inherit. Such corruption of blood occurred
when the tenant was convicted of treason or
felony. The rule applied to all felonies and
frequently produced much hardship. This form
of escheat was peculiar to English law. It is
to be carefully distinguished from forfeiture of
lands to the crown for treason or felony, which
has prevailed in other countries besides England.
When this latter penalty was enforced for
the crime of treason, the offender forfeited all
his lands absolutely to the crown; when it was
enforced for any other felony, the forfeiture to
the crown was of all the offender's estates for
life absolutely, and of all his estates in fee
simple for a year and a day, after which they
escheated to his immediate lord. (See FOB-
FEiTiinE.) In English law escheat as a result
of conviction of crime is now abrogated; and
all forfeiture for crime, except in cases of out-
lawry, is abolished. (Statute 33 and 34 Viet.,
c. 23.) It is provided by the Constitution of
the United States that "Congress shall have
power to declare the punishment of treason; but
no attainder of treason shall work corruption of
blood, or forfeiture, except during the life of the
person attainted." (Art. iii, § 3.) This indicates
the policy which has molded the laws of the va-
rious States, so that escheat as the result of
crime is practically unknown in this country.

Though the feudal system of land tenure ex-
isted only in its later and mitigated form in the
United States, and though it has been expressly
declared to be abolished in some of the States,
it continues in many important respects to gov-
ern the real-property law and its incidents. By
virtue of statutory provisions, generally found
in the State constitutions, the title to the prop-
erty of one who dies without heirs is still trans-
ferred to the State in which it is situated, and
this transfer is still denominated an escheat.
It is the general rule that a proceeding known
as ''inquest of office" must be instituted, and an
office found in behalf of the State, in order to
vest in it the title to a decedent's realty. But
this is not required in some of the States. See
ESTATE; FEE; REAL PBOPERTY; TENURE; and
the authorities there referred to.

ESCHENBACH, eWen-bao, WOLFBAM VON.
See WOLFRAM VON ESOHENBAOH.

ESCHENBTTRG-, gsVen-boTJrK, JonANN JO-
ACHIM (1743-1820). A German literary critic
and translator, born at Hamburg and e'ducated
at Leipzig and G5ttingen. He became tutor in
1767, professor in 1777, and director in 1814 of
the Collegium Carolinum in Brunswick. Be-
sides publishing German, translations of English
writers, notably the first complete German trans-
lation of Shakespeare's plays, RhaJcespeares thea-
tralische Werke (13 vols., 1775-82), he wrote,
among many, the hymns "Dir trau' ieh, Gott,
und wanke nicht" and "Ich -will dich noch im

ESCHEBICH

Tod erheben," and was author of: Eandbuch der
Uassischen Litteratur, Alter tu in skitnde und
Mythologie (1783; 8th ed., 1837); Entwurf
einer Theorie und Litteratur der schonen Rede-
Icunste (1783; 5th ed., 1836); Beispielsamm-
hing sur Theorie und Litieratur der schoncn
WissenscJiaften (8 vols,, 1788-95) ; Lehrluch
der \Vissenschaftskunde (1792; 3d ed., 1S09);
Denkmalcr aJtdeutscher Dichtkitnst (1709).

ESCHENMAYER, esh'en-ml-er, KARL AU-
GUST VON ( 1708-1852 ) . A German metaphysician.
He was born at Neuenburg, and was professor of
practical philosophy at the University of Tu-
bingen from 1818 to 1836. He studied and taught
philosophy from the standpoint of Schilling
(q.v.), his mystical tendency expressing itself
in the assertion that one must advance beyond
philosophy into nonphilosophy, a realm where
not "speculation, but faith," holds sway. He took
a deep interest in animal magnetism. His feel-
ings found expression in violent polemics against
the theories of Hegel and Strauss and in fanci-
ful dreams of the spirit world. Among his
writings arc: Die Philosophic in ilireiu T'chcr-
gange &it,r Nichtphilosophie (1803) ; Psychologic
(1817); System der Moral philosophic (1818);
Kcligionsphilosophie (1818-24); JMystcncn dcs
innern Lebens (1830); Grundriss der Nalur-
philosophic (1832); Betrachtungcn illcr den
physischen Weltbau (1852).

ESCHER, gsh'Sr, JOIIANN HEINBICII ALFRED
(1819-82). A Swiss statesman, born at Zurich.
He studied law in his native town and at Bonn,
Berlin, and Paris. In 1844 he was elected mem-
ber of the Grand Council of the Canton. Even
at tliat early period his sentiments were decidedly
liberal. In January, 1845, together with six
others, who shared his opinions, he published the
famous summons to the popular assembly in
Unterstrass, demanding the expulsion of the
Jesuits. He was elected to the Council of the
Interior in 1845 and to the Council of Educa-
tion in 1846. The reorganization of the schools
in tho Canton of Zurich was his chief work, and
he succeeded in introducing modern methods into
the system of secondary education. In Decem-
ber, 1847, he became President of the Grand
Council, and the following year he w^is sent as
a deputy to the Federal Diet. In December of
the same year he became President of the newly
elected Cantonal Administrative Council. His
energies were directed to the promotion of edu-
cation, but he also furthered railway enterprise
and banking institutions in Switzerland. He
was President of the National Council in 1849,
Vice President of the Confederation in 1856-57
and 1861-62, and became subsequently several
times President, He died Dec. fl, 1882, at
Zurich, where a bronze statue has been raised to
his memory. Consult Schorr, Alfred Escher
(1883).

ESCHEBICH, eWer-iK, KARL LEOPOLD
(1871- ). A German entomologist, born in
Schwandorf and educated at Munich, WUrzburg,
Leipzig, and Heidelberg. From medicine he
turned to zoology and traveled in Tunis ( 1802 ) ,
Central Asia Minor (1895), Algeria (1898,
1902), Abyssinia (1906), Ceylon (1910), and
North America (1911). In* 1901-06 he was
privatdocent at Strassburg, and in 1907 be-
came professor in the Forestry Academy at
Tharandt. He wrote: System der Lcpismatidcn
(1905); Die Ameisc (3906); Fcricnrcisc
Erythrea (1908) ; Die Termiten ode*
Ameisen (1900) and Termitenle'ben auf

ESCHER VON DEB LINTH 85

(1910), singularly interesting and valuable
studies; Die angewandle Entomologie ^tl der
Vereinigten Staaten (1013); Die ForstmseLten
Mitteleuropas, vol. i (1013).

ESCHEB VON DEB LIHTH, Ssh'er fon der
lent, HANS KONRAD (17(37-1823). A Swiss
statesman, born at Zurich. After study at G6t-
tingen (1780-88) and extensive travel, lie \\as
a member of the Legislative Assembly of the
Helvetian Republic in 1708-1802. In 1798-1801
he edited the SclnccizerittcJicr Repiibl leaner. In
1802 he withdrew from politics, and from 1807
to its completion in 1822, as president of the
board of inspection, directed the improvement
of the Linth, the upper course of the Limmat,
by means of a canal. A large tract of land was
thus reclaimed to useful purposes. Esclier was
regarded as a benefactor of the commonwealth,
and the surname Von der Linth was oflicially
granted to his family in 1823. Consult the
biography (Zurich, 1852) by Hottinger.

ESCHBICHT, esh'riKt, DANIEL FJJEDERTK
(1798-1863). A Danish physiologist and zoolo-
gist. He was born at Copenhagen, studied medi-
cine there, and after practicing as a physician
for three years, took a supplementary course in
physiology and comparative anatomy in Germany
and France. He was professor at Copenhagen
from 1836 until his death, when his valuable col-
lection was acquired by the Zoological Museum.
His investigations covered an extensive field.
Among his principal publications are Ilaand-
1)og i Physiologic (new ed., 1851) and Folke-
Uge Forcdrag (1855-59).

ESCHSCHOLTZ, Ssh'sh&lts, JOHANN FBIED-
BICII (1793-1831). A Eussian naturalist and
traveler. He was born at Dorpat, where he
studied medicine. In 1815 he made a tour of
the world with Otto yon Kotzebue and Adalbert
von Chamisso, collecting a great number of zo-
ological specimens and making important scien-
tific investigations. The results of this voyage
were published in ELotzebue's Entdccbitngsrcisc
in die Rudscc und Beringstrasse (1821), to
which TCuchsfholtz contributed a number of
valuable articles. After his return in 1819 ho
was appointed extraordinary professor of anat-
omy in Dorpat, and in 1823 he again accom-
panied Kotzebue on a voyage around the world.
The extensive collection acquired during these
tours was presented by Eschscholtx to the Uni-
versity of Dorpafc in 1826. Tie later published
a catalogue of the 2400 animals of this collec-
tion in vol. ii of Kotzebue's Ncuc Rciso urn die
Welt (1830). A botanical species, Escli-
sclioltcia, was named in his honor by Chamisso,
and Eschscholtz Bay, an inlet of Kotzelrao
Sound, on the coast of Alaska, perpetuates hi A
achievements as an explorer. His principal
work is the ZoologiscJicr .Ufa*, cnUicd'tcnd Al)~
l)ildnng&n. und Bestfvreibung neuer Tierartcn (5
parts, 1829-33).

ESCHSCHOLTZIA, gsh-sholts'I-a (Neo-Lat.,
named in honor of «T. F. Esehscholtz, a Rus-
sian naturalist and traveler) . A genus of plants
of the family Papavcracetr. Eachscholtvia, call-
fornica, the baliforaia poppy, and other species,
natives of California and Arizona, have now be-
come very common in our flower gardens, mak-
ing a showy appearance with their large deep-
yellow flowers. This plant has a remarkable
calyx, which, much resembling in its form the
extinguisher of a candle, separates from the
dilated apex of the flower stalk and is lifted and
thrown off by the expanding flower. For illus-

ESCOBEDO

tration, see Plate of CALIFORNIA FLORA, and
Plate of POPPY AND PEPPEB TREE.

ESCHWEGE, gsh'vu-ge (mediaeval Eslencwcg,
JjScJiinicanch). A town of the Prussian Prov-
ince of Hesse-Nassau, situated in a fertile valley
of the Werra, 25 miles east-southeast of Cassel
(Map: Prussia, D 3). It consists of an old
and a new town, on the left and right banks of
the river respectively, and a suburb on an island
connected with the mainland by two stone
bridges. The castle, erected about 1386, is no\v oc-
cupied by the district court. The so-called Blac k
Tower is all that remains of the convent founded
by Charlemagne. Eschwege is an important in-
dustrial centre. It has large tanneries, manu-
factures of woolen, cotton, and linen goods, hair-
cloth, soap, cigars, brushes, shoes, and machines
It has large slaughterhouses and does a lar»c
business in pork and sausage. Pop., 1900, 113-
117; 1010, 12,542.

ESCHWErLEU, esh'vl'ler. A town of the
Prussian Rhine Province, on the Inde, about
8 miles northeast of Aix-la-Chapelle (Map:
Prussia, B 3). It is the centre of a rich mining
district, its coal mines being noted for their
great depth and superior quality, of product.
Cadmium, zinc, copper, and lead are also mined,
as they have been from the days of the "Romans.
The manufactures comprise boiler plate, iron
pipe, wire, tin plate, wheels, boilers, machinery,
miscellaneous articles of iron, copper, zinc, and
lead, confections, belting and leather goods,
bricks, malt and beer. Pop., 1900, 21,895; 1910,
24,718.

ESCLOT, BERNAT. See DESOLOT.

ESCOBAR Y MEMDOZA, as'ko-Biir' £ mon-
do'tha, ANTONIO (1589-1669). A Spanish Jesuit
and casuist, born at Valladolid. He was ac-
cused of founding the doctrine that the moral
value of actions lies in the nature of the inten-
tion ; in other words, that purity of purpose may
be justification for actions contrary to the moral
code and contrary to human laws. His casuistry
was severely criticized in the Provincial Let-
ters of Pascal, and his doctrines were disap-
proved by many Catholics and gently censured
by the authorities at Rome. Under the witty
ridicule of such French writers as La Fontaine,
Boilcau, and MoliSre the name of Escobar, a
priest of exemplary life, was used for coining
the word escobarderie, a synonym for extreme
laxity in moral principle. Among his writings
are Liler Theologies Moralis (London, 1646) and
Swnmula Casuum Gonscientice (Pamplona,
1620).

ESCOBEDO, as'kO-na'Do, MARIANO (1827-
1902). A Mexican soldier, born at Dos Arroyos,
Nuevo Leon. He was originally a muleteer,
took part in the Mexican War, became promi-
nent m the "War of the Reform," was in 1859
appointed a colonel by Juarez, and contributed
largely -to the success of the Republican cause.
Upon the establishment in Mexico of the ill-
fated Empire of Maximilian, he withdrew to
San Antonio, Tox., organized a republican force
made up of Mexican refugees, ex-Confederate
soldiers, and negroes, and in 1865 captured the
garrison of Monterey. In 1867 he utterly de-
feated Miramcm at San Jacinto and was ap-
pointed commander in chief of the republican
armies, with rank of general of division. On
May 15 of that year he took QuerStaro and cap-
tured the Emperor Maximilian. In 1875-76
he supported President Lerdo do Tejada against

ESCOIQUIZ 86

the revolution under General Diaz, served Lerdo
as Minister of War, escaped to New York, and
was afterward active in conspiracy against the
Diaz government, but in 1882 accepted the office
of president of the supreme military court of
justice. He retired in 1884.

ESCOIQUIZ, eVkO-e-kSth', JUAN (1762-1820).
A Spanish churchman, politician, and author,
born in Navarra or at Bermeo in Biscaya —
accounts vary. He became the instructor of the
future King Ferdinand VII and gained an as-
cendancy over his pupil that lasted for many
years. After the abdication of Charles IV
(1808) Escoiquiz was made Counselor of State;
he accompanied Ferdinand to Bayonne and saw
him fall into the trap so skillfully set by Napo-
leon (1808). During the devastating War of
the Peninsula he remained in France. Upon the
return of the King to power he was made Min-
ister, but soon fell into disgrace, and afterward
was exiled to Ronda, where he died. He wrote
Idea sencilla de las razones que motivaron el
vinje del reij Fei-nando VII d Bayona (1814),
which is an important historical document; and
a translation of Young's Night Thoughts (1797)
and of Paradise Lost (1813).

ESCOLAE/ (Sp. scholar). A mackerel-like
fish (Ruvettu pretiosus) of tropical parts of the
Atlantic in deep water, and well known in the
Mediterranean, where it is called by the Italians
roveto or ruvetto. It is not much valued in
Europe, but is highly regarded in the Antilles,
and especially in Cuba, where the fishermen
make a business of catching it between the dis-
appearance of the spear fish and the coming of
the red snappers. Its extreme oiliness and its
rough skin have caused it to be called oilfish and
scourfish along the Gulf coast. The term "es-
colar" is applied by ichthyologists to the whole
family (Oemyplidae) which this fish represents.
ESCOBTATj, Span. pron. Ss-k&-rl-al' (Sp.,
from escoria, slag, from Lat. scoria, Gk. <r/c«pfa,
sJctiria, slag). A celebrated building in Spain
(El real monasterio de San Lorenzo del Es-
corial), comprising a monastery, church, col-
lege, tomb, and palace. During the battle of
San Quentin, won by the Spaniards on St. Law-
rence's Day (Aug. 10), 1557, a church dedicated
to that saint was destroyed. In fulfillment of
a vow of gratitude to St. Lawrence for the vic-
tory, Philip II built the Escorial on a bleak
height of that name, 2700 feet above the sea,
about 27 miles northwest of Madrid, and dedi-
cated it to St. Lawrence. Begun by the archi-
tect Juan Bautista, of Toledo, in 1563, and
completed in 1584 by Juan de Herrera, his
pupil, it is not only the largest building in
Spain, but also the most notable monument of
the Griego-Romano style in Spain. XExternally
without artistic merit except for the 'fine dome
of the church and the picturesque grouping with
it of the six towers which vary the silhouette
of the whole, it is remarkable for the ingenuity
of its yast plan and the grand scale of the
church. The Escorial occupies a rectangle of
750 by 580 feet, with a projecting wing on the
rear or east side of about 175 by 120 feet, and
comprises 13 courts, producing a fancied resem-
blance to the gridiron of St. Lawrence. The
church, which dominates the entire design, fronts
on a central court, entered from the west by
the main portal, which is opened only to admit
the King on his first visit, and a second time
to receive his body for burial. The church is
a noble design, 340 feet long by 234 wide, oover-

ESCOST

ing an area of 70,000 square feet, and crowned
by a central dome 70 feet in diameter and 320
feet high externally. The interior of the church
is of dark marble; previous to the destructive
occupation by the French in 1808 it was rich
in works of art. Its chief treasure is a life-
size crucifix of ivory by Benvenuto Cellini ( q.v. ) .
From a small room in the adjoining palace
wing Philip II, when sick and dying, was ac-
customed to listen to the celebration of the mass
through a grated window opening into the chan-
cel. Below the high altar of the church is the
Pantheon, or royal tomb, an octagonal chamber
with niches containing black sarcophagi in which
rest the bodies of all the kings of Spain since
the Emperor Charles V, with the exception of
Philip V and Ferdinand VI. The palace of the
Escorial was formerly rich in treasures of paint-
ing and contained works of Raphael, Rubens,
Velasquez, Titian, and Tintoretto. The library,
which was under the care of the monks of St.
Jerome (driven out by the French), comprised
30,000 volumes and 4500 manuscripts, concerned
mostly with Arabic literature. The Augustin-
ian monks have been in charge of the convent-
ual buildings since 1885. The Escorial has suf-
fered many vicissitudes; fire in 1667, plunder-
ings by the French in 1808 and 1813, and se-
vere injury by fire from lightning in 1872 have
necessitated extensive repairs.

Bibliography. Los Santos, Descripcidn del
real monasterio de 8an Lorenzo del Escorial
(Madrid, 1657); A. Rotondo, Historia artistica
. . . del monasterio de San Lorenzo (Madrid,
1856-61); A. F. Calvcrt, The Escorial: A
Historical and Descriptive Account, etc., with
278 illustrations (London and New York,
1907). The emotional effect produced by the
building is well described in C. Quinet, Tacances
en Espagne (Paris, 1846) ; and John Hay, Cas-
tilian Days (New York, 1875).

ES'CORT (Fr. escortet It. scorta, guide, from
scorgcre, to guide, from Lat. ex, out + corrigc.rc,
to correct, from con, together -f- rcgcre, to di-
rect). Tn the United States army ceremonial
escorts are of two kinds — escorts of honor and
funeral escorts. Escorts of honor are picked
bodies of troops, detailed to receive and escort
personages of high rank, civil or military. The
troops assigned for this duty may be composed
of cavalry, artillery, or infantry, but are in-
variably selected for their soldierly appearance
and superior discipline. An officer is also de-
tailed to attend the personage escorted and bear
communications from him to the commander of
the escort. The strength and character of such
escort is largely determined by the status of
the personage escorted. Fune'ral escorts are
bodies of troops in numbers appropriate to the
rank and grade of the deceased, detailed to at-
tend and escort the funeral cortege, as may
be ordered. The United States Army Regula-
tions (1013) order that for the funeral escort
of the Secretary of War, or general of the army,
a regiment of infantry, a squadron of cavalry,
and one battalion of field artillery form the
detail; for the Assistant Secretary of War or
the lieutenant general, a regiment of infantry,
a squadron of cavalry, and a battery of field
artillery; for a major general, a regiment of
infantry, two troops of cavalry, and a battery
of field artillery; for a brigadier general, a reg-
iment of infantry, a troop of cavalry, and a
platoon of field artillery; for a colonel a regi-
ment; a lieutenant colonel or major, a battalion

ESCOSTTBA j

or squadron; a captain, one company; a sub-
altern, a platoon; a noncommissioned staff offi-
cer, 16 men under a sergeant; a sergeant, 14 men
under a sergeant; a corporal, 12 men under a
corporal; a private, 8 men under a corporal;
an enlisted man of field artillery, one section.
The coilin is carried on a caisson, as a rule.
Six pallbearers are selected from the grade of
the deceased, as far as practicable. The above
are escorts of ceremony. Escorts, in the sense
of bodies of troops used as guards or protecting
forces, are also employed with armies in the
field; e.g., the infantry or cavalry escort of
field artillery, escorts and guards for the sup-
ply trains in rear of an army, escorts and guards
for a "convoy of prisoners," etc. Such escorts
vary in strength from a few men to entire or-
ganizations and are often composed of two
arms, usually cavalry and infantry.

ESCOSURA, Ss'ka-soS'ra, PATBICIO DE LA
(1807-78). A Spanish statesman and author,
born in Madrid. Early imbued with the revo-
lutionary spirit rampant in the Spain of his
day, Escosura was obliged to leave Ms country
and study abroad. Upon his return he took to
literature and published two successful novels,
somewhat in the manner of Walter Scott — El
conde de Candespma (1832) and Ni rey, ni
rogue (1835). Banished for his Carlist sym-
pathies, he afterward became Undersecretary of
State, Minister of the Interior, and Ambassa-
dor to Germany (1872). In 1876 he was elected
a member of the Spanish Royal Academy. His
most important works are: Estudios hist6ricos
solre las costumbres espaiiolas (Madrid, 1851);
Historia constitutional de Inglaterra ( 1859 ) ;
La Espana artistica y monumental (1842-50);
several plays, such as La corte del Buen-Retiro
(1837); Las mocedades de Hernan Cortes
(1846); Bdrbara Blomoerg; Don Jaime el
Conquistador; Roger de Flor (Barcelona, 1861,
two tomes in one quarto volume, illustrated).

ESCRIBAIJTO, Ss'krS-ba'no. See HALFBEAK.

ESCRIBED CURVE (from Lat. e} out -f
soribcre, to write, draw). A curve externally
tangent to the sides of a polygon; e.g., an es-
cribed circle of a triangle is tangent to one

side and to the other two produced. The bisec-
tors of the interior and exterior angles of a
triangle intersect by threes in four points, of
whicti the exterior ones are the centres of the
escribed circles of the triangle. For example,

*7 E6BSAELOK

0 IB the centre of an escribed circle of the tri-
angle ABC in the preceding figure.

ES'CROW' (AF. escrow, OF. escroue, escroe,
bond, Fr. 6orou, entry in a jail book, from
MDutch schroode, AS. screade, shred, slip of
paper, Eng. screed). A sealed instrument,
placed in the hands of a third person to be kept
by him until certain conditions are satisfied,
and then to be delivered over to the obligee or
grantee. While in the hands of the third per-
son, awaiting fulfillment of the prescribed con-
ditions, the instrument is not a perfect deed
and does not operate as an obligation or a con-
veyance. As a rule, it takes effect from the
second delivery. Hence, if it is a deed of prop-
erty, the ownership passes from the grantor to
the grantee as of the date of such delivery. But
an exception to this rule is made when justice
requires, or when necessary to protect the rights
of persons who are not parties to the transac-
tion. For example, if the grantor becomes men-
tally or legally incapacitated between the de-
livery to the third person and the delivery by
the latter to the grantee, the deed will take ef-
fect as of the date of its first delivery, in order
that it may be rendered valid. This is accom-
plished by the legal fiction of ''relation." In
order to uphold the deed, the act of final de-
livery is viewed as having been done at the time
of tlie conditional delivery — as relating back
to that date. See DEED; DELIVEBT.
ES'CUAGKE. See SCUTAGE.
ESCUERZO. See FERKEIBO.
ESOUIWTLA, as-kc'n'tla. A town and capital
of the department of the same name, Guatemala,
30 miles southwest of the city of Guatemala
(Map: Central America, B 3). It is the centre
of a district, growing sugar cane, coffee, and
cacao, and has considerable transit trade owing
to its situation on the railroad from Guatemala
to the port San Jose". Escuintla is a noted
resort, frequented by great numbers of persons
for its baths. Pop., 1910 (est.), 14,000.

ESCULA'PIANS. A Catholic order, histor-
ically connected with the work of Joseph Cala-
sanctius (1556-1648). He was born in Aragon,
was ordained a priest in 1583, went to Home
in 1592, and became interested in the education
of poor and neglected children. Pope Clement
VIII sustained his efforts, and in 1002 he laid
the foundations of an order, the Piarists, de-
voted to this work. In 1614 the NEsculapians
were founded in Borne and have given them-
selves to education. In 1905 they had 2137
members and directed 150 colleges. In Cuba
they have a college at Guanabocoa. In 1889
another order, the Pious Workers of St. Joseph
Galasanctius, was founded at Vienna, for edu-
cation and works of charity, especially among
workingmen.

ES'CULENO? SWALLOW. See SAIANGAKE.
ESCURIAL. See ESOOBIAL.
ESCUTCHEON (formerly scutcheonf from
OF. escu8sont Fr. fousson, from OF. escu, escut,
Fr. 6cu, shield, from Lat. scutum, shield). A
term in heraldry (q.v.), synonymous with shield.
An escutcheon of pretense, or inescutcheon, is
a small shield placed in the centre of the larger
one and covering a portion of the charges on the
latter, in which a man carries the arms of Ms
wife when she is the heiress of her family. It
is said to be carried swrtout, or over all. Some-
times also a shield over all is given as a reward
of honor.
ESDRAELON, Sa'dra-^on or es-dr&'Mon

ESBRAS 88

(Gk. 'EffdpjXuv, Esdrcl&n, the Greek form of
the Hebrew word rendered as Jezreel in the
English Bible, meaning "God has sown"). The
greatest plain in Palestine, separating the moun-
tain ranges of Galilee from those of Samaria,
watered by the Kishon (Map: Palestine, 02).
It may be described as a triangle, having for
its base the high hills — of which Mount Gilboa
is the most important — forming the watershed
between the Jordan and the Kishon, extending
north and south from Nazareth to Jenin, a dis-
tance of about 15 miles. The northern boundary
is the hills of Galilee westward from Nazareth
about 12 miles to a point where the Kishon
breaks through in a narrow pass leading to the
seacoast and Acco. On the southwest is the
Carmel range, extending from the sea to Jenin,
about 20 miles. The plain was allotted to Issa-
char in the division among the tribes (Josh.
xix. 17-23). It is of groat fertility and has
been of much importance in the annals of Pales-
tine. Armies and caravans from all directions
must pass through it, and, owing to its level
character, it naturally became the field on which
were fought the decisive battles for the posses-
sion or defense of Palestine and Syria. It was
the scene of the triumph of Barak over Sisera
(Judg. iv) and of Gideon over the Midianites
I Judg. vii) , as well as of the final defeat of Saul
by the Philistines (1 Sam. xxxi) and of Josiah
by Pharaoh Necho of Egypt (2 Kings xxiii.
29-30). The great contest between Elijah and
the prophets of Baal is said to have taken place
on its western border (1 Kings xviii. 17 ct scq.) .
It was through the plain that Jehu came riding
to Jezreel (2 Bangs ix. 16 et seq.). The armies
of Assyria and Egypt met there repeatedly, and
in modern times the plain has figured in the
wars of Napoleon. It has been supposed that
this plain is referred to in Revelation as the
battlefield par excellence, where "the kings of
the earth and of the whole world" were to gather
for the battle of the great day of God (Rev.
xvi. 14, 1C ) ; but it is possible that "the place
called in Hebrew Har-Magedon" is named after
some chthonic divinity originally belonging to
the mythical lore of Babylonia. Consult George
Adam Smith, Historical Geography of tJic Holy
Land (New York, 1895). See ARMAGEDDON.

ESDBAS (Gk. "Bo-Spas, Ezra), BOOKS OF. Tn
the Latin Vulgate there arc four books of Es-
dras. Two of these correspond to the canonical
books of Ezra and Nehemiah; two are not re-
garded as canonical. As the last of them con-
tains two chapters prefaced to the Apocalypse
of Ezra and two chapters added at the end, it
has been proposed to designate these as the
fifth and sixth books of Esdras, The present
confusion in regard to the titles of those books
arises from the different order in the Greek
version. A desirable uniformity may perhaps
be brought about most easily by adhering to
the nomenclature of the Vulgate, but using
V Esdras for chaps, i and ii, and VI Eadras for
chapa. xv and xvi of the Latin. The books would
then be:

I ESDRAS, the Greek translation of the Hebrew
and Aramaic canonical Book of Ezra substan-
tially in the form it has in our Masoretic text.
This is supposed by some scholars to be the
original Greek version. Others maintain that,
as in the case of the Book of Daniel, Theodo-
tion's version was substituted for the earlier
translation, and that I Esdras is the work of
this translator living in the second century A.D.

ESDBAS

Whether this be so or not, it is significant that
in the Greek manuscripts 1 Esdras appears as
the first part of Esdras B.

II ESDRAS, the Greek translation of the canon-
ical Book of Nehemiah substantially in the form
it has in our Masoretic text. In the Greek
manuscripts it appears as the second part of
Esdras B, and as to its origin the same opinions
are held as in the case of I Esdras.

III ESDRAS, a Greek translation of the books
of Ezra and Nehemiah. Because of the marked
diJTerence in the order of the chapters in some
parts, the additional story of Darius and the
Three Pages, and some other peculiarities, this
has been regarded as a later and independent
rendering, of less value than I and IT Esdras.
But many eminent scholars look upon it as
the oldest of our Greek versions, and consider
its order as more likely to have been the origi-
nal one, the story of Darius and the Pages as
an interpolation, and the fact that this version
was given the first place as Esdras A in the
manuscripts as important. In early English
Bibles the designation used by the Vulgate was
followed; the Geneva Bible of 1560 followed the
Greek and called it the First Book of Esdras,
and that has often been done since then. It
has its disadvantages, however, and the usage
of Jerome may be adhered to without any agree-
ment with his views as to its later date and
inferior character being implied. On III Es-
dras, consult especially: Howorth, in Proceed-
ings of the Society of Biblical Archccology
(1901-02); Torrcy, Ezra Studies (Chicago,
19 10) ; Cook, in Charles, The Apocrypha and
Pscudrpigrnpha of the Old Testament (2 vols.,
Oxford, 1013).

IV ESDRAS, an apocalypse ascribed to E/ra.
It is extant in Latin, Syriac, Ethiopia, two
Arabic, Armenian, and fragments of Saidic and
Georgian versions. The Greek translation from
which these were made has not boon found.
Yet all recent investigators arc agreed that oven
this Greek text cannot have been the original,
but that the author, or authors, wrote either in
Hebrew or Aramaic, and probably in Hebrew*
There is every reason to believe that a Ralathiel
apocalypse has boon used by tho author who
writes in the name of Ezra. The opening Ftuto-
nient '"I, Salathiel, who am also Ezra" (iii. 1)
is most naturally explained as coming from a
compiler, who particularly in iii-x used the
ftilntlriol apocalypse, written, as iii. 1 shows, in
tho thirtieth year of the downfall of the city,
or in 100 A.D. As the eagle vision (chaps, xi,
xii) can scarcely be earlier than the time of
Domitian, and chaps, xiii, xiv clearly come from
the same author as the vision of the eagle, the
present work probably goes back to two sources
united at tho beginning of the second century
A.D. This work has sometimes been called the
Second Borik of Esdras. Consult especially:
Hilgenfolrl, Mcssias Judceonim (Leipzig, I860) ;
Volkmar, Das vierte Buch Esra (Tubingen,
1863) ; Violet, Die Esra~Apokalypsc (Leipzig,
1010) ; Kabisch, Daft vierte Buch Esra (Got-
tingen, 1880) ; Gunkel, Das vierte Buch Esra
(Ttibingcn, 1900); Box, The Esra- Apocalypse
(London, 3912) ; Szdkely, BiWotheoa Apocrypha
(Freiburg, 1913).

V ESDBAS, chaps, i and ii of the Latin IV
Esdras, a Christian addition which treats of
the rejection of the Jewish people by God and
His choice of Gentile Christians, It is Home-
times called II Esdras in Latin manuscripts.

ESERINE 8g

VI ESDBAS, chaps, xv and xvi of the Latin

IV Esdras, a Jewish addition containing chiefly
invectives against sinners with predictions of
wars and disasters. It is sometimes called

V Esdras in Latin manuscripts. Consult the
editions of Hilgenfeld and Volkmar. See
APOOEYPHA.

ESERINE. See CALABAB BEAN; ALKALOIDS.
ESH'ER, WILLIAM BALIOL BRETT, first VIS-
COUNT (1815-99). An English jurist. He was
educated at Westminster and at Caius College,
Cambridge, and was called to the bar in 1840.
Ho sat in Parliament during 186C-08 and then
became Solicitor-General, but was in the same
year appointed a justice of the Court of Com-
mon Pleas. He was a lord justice of appeal
from 1876 to 1883 and then became Master of
the Rolls. He was knighted in 1868, and raised
to the peerage in 1897, at the time of his re-
tiring from the bench. His judgments as Mas-
ter of the Rolls are highly esteemed and con-
stitute a valuable contribution to the develop-
ment of equity jurisdiction.

ESK. The name of a small Scottish river of
Dumfriesshire, formed by the confluence of the
Black Esk and White Esk, which rise on the
borders of Selkirkshire, near Ettrick Pen. It
runs 35 miles south and forms for a mile the
boundary between Scotland and England (Map:
Scotland, E 4). For the last 8 miles it runs
south-southwest through Cumberland, England,
ending in the Solway Firth. It flows through
some charming scenery, past Langholm, Canobie,
and Longton. The upper part of its valley is
called Eskdale Muir.

ES'KERS, ES'KARS, or ES'CHABS (Ir.
eiscir, ridge). The name given in Ireland to
large heaps of gravel that were accumulated
during the Pleistocene period. They are iden-
tical with the Asar of Sweden and resemble
kames (q.v.), but are longer and follow a wind-
ing course. The gravel is often heaped into
narrow ridges 40 to 80 feet in height and from
1 to 20 miles in length. Similar winding ridges
of gravol and sand are found in northern North
America, where they are often associated with
broad level-topped deposits of sands and gravels
closely resembling river deltas. This associa-
tion and their peculiar structure and configura-
tion have led to the belief that eskers are de-
posits formed by streams which flowed beneath
the ice sheets of the Glacial period. In general
the eskers follow tho direction in which the con-
tinental glacier moved.

ESKILSTTTBTA, Gs'kils-too'nA, (Swcd., Eskil's
town). A city of Sweden, situated on both
sides of the Eskilstunaa, over 60 milos west of
Stockholm (Map: Sweden, F 7). Tho town,
divided into old and new sections by the river,
is regularly built in the now quarter, and is
famed for its iron and steel manufactures, es-
pecially the gun factory on an island in the
river. The town manufactures fine cutlery.
There is regular communication with Stockholm
by steamship as well as by rail. Pop., 1900,
13,003; 1912, 28,485. Eskilstuna is named after
St. Eskil, the English apostle of Christianity in
Siklermanland, who is supposed to have been
buried here after his martyrdom.

ES/KIMO. A race confined to the Arctic re-
gions of America and the extreme northeastern
part of Asia. The name means "raw-fish eat-
ers" and was applied to them by their Algon-
quin Indian neighbors living south of them.
The American Eskimo call themselves Innuit,

ESKU&O

i.e., men; their congeners in Asia giving them-
selves the name Yuit or Yu-kouk, other forms
of the same word. The Eskimo have been so
absolutely secluded in their habitat that an-
thropologists have had great trouble in dealing
with the question of their origin. Dr. H. Rink>
who made a life study of Greenland and its
people and is the greatest authority on them,
held that most Eskimo weapons and implements
are of American origin; he advanced the theory
that, even though the Eskimos originally may
have come from Asia, they developed as a race
in the interior of Alaska, whence they finally
migrated northward and spread out along the
coasts of the ice sea. He said that their speech
is closely connected with the primitive dialects
of America, while their legends and customs
resemble, or at least suggest, those of the
Indians. Later the researches of Dall, Olivier,
Nordquist, Krause, and others led to the con-
clusion that the Eskimo wore derived directly
from peoples of the Asiatic polar regions, some
of whom came to America across the narrow
Bering Strait. Within recent years the investi-
gations of Hrdlicka, Boas, and others have borne
out the early view of Rink, since anatomically
as well as culturally the Eskimo seem to have
sprung from the same stock as the Indians.

Though the evidence as to the origin of the
Eskimo is not complete, there is at least good
reason for the theory that within a compara-
tively recent period they developed their in-
dividuality either on the north Atlantic coast
of North America or in the vicinity of Hudson
Bay, from whence they spread into Greenland
and Alaska, the Aleutian Islands, and parts of
Siberia. They must have reached Greenland
before the Norwegian colonies of Osterbygd and
Vesterbygd were established, for Eric the Red
and others found in both these districts the
ruins of human habitations, fragments of boats,
and stone implements, which they thought must
have belonged to a feeble folk whom they there-
fore called Skrellings (weaklings). Nanaen and
others believe that at this period the Green-
land Eskimo were living north of 68° N., where
seals and whales abound, and that thev did not
make their permanent settlements in South
Greenland until after they had destroyed the
Norwegian colonies there in the fourteenth %
century.

The regions inhabited by the Eskimo extend
from Bering Strait over the northern coast of
America and its groups of Arctic islands to the
east coast of Greenland. With a habitat spread-
ing over 3000 miles, the Eskimo have a wider
geographical range than any other aborigines.
In spite, however, of the great distances, which
have divided the various groups from one another
for probably more than 1000 years, the race has
preserved the most striking uniformity in lan-
guage, habits, and mode of life, excepting in so
far as certain tribes have been influenced by
contact with the white men. The insignificant
differences* of language among these isolated
groups have been often remarked. Common to
all are the same stem words, the same affixes.
The chief characteristic of the language is that
it is .highly polyaynthetic, single words of com-
plex structure expressing ideas that in English
would fill out whole sentences. Mr. Hugh Lee,
who learned tho language among the Smith
Sound natives of north Greenland, says that
he had little difficulty in communicating1 with
the Eskimo of Cape Prince of Wales, Alaska.

ESKIMO $0

A similar condition has been observed among
the Eskimo of Labrador, the Arctic archipelago,
tmd Greenland, though dialectic differences exist
between the various groups and villages. How-
ever, the Aleutians are so far removed as to
make their speech unintelligible to the main-
land natives.

The uniformity of language is not so great,
however, as to preclude the linguistic classifica-
tion of the Eskimo. In the first place, we have
two distinct divisions, the Aleutians and the
Eskimo proper. The former is a small compact
group and may be treated as a unit; the latter,
on the other hand, is a widely distributed people
with many cultural subdivisions. According to
culture these seem to fall in the following
divisions:

1. The Greenland Eskimo. Occupying the
lower part of Greenland and in two groups,
those of the east coast, now extinct, and those
of the west coast, who have become civilized.

2. The Central Eskimo. Including those of
Smith Sound in north Greenland, made famous
by Peary; those of eastern and northern Baffin
Land; those of western Hudson Bay; on Boothia
Felix; and the now extinct people of South-
ampton Island.

3. The Eskimo of Labrador. Extending along
the coast from near Newfoundland to Hudson
Bay and including a few settlements on the
southern shore of Baffin Land.

4. The Eskimo of Banks Land. Including
those on Victoria Island and Coronation Gulf,
recently visited by Stefansaon.

5. The Mackenzie River Eskimo. Those at
the mouth of the Mackenzie and along the coast
between Cape Bathurst and Herschel Island.

6. The Alaskan Eskimo. All those in Alaska
except the Aleutians.

7. The Siberian Eskimo.

Our knowledge of divisions four, five, and six
is still rather vague, so that the above grouping
must be considered tentative. For the other
groups, however, we have sufficient data to make
the classification definite.

No satisfactory estimate of the number of
living Eskimo can be made. According to the
census of 1910 the Aleutians numbered 1451
and the Alaskan Eskimo 12,636. The Green-
land Eskimo are estimated at 10,000, and it
is unlikely that all the others will total 9000.
See ALASKA.

The Eskimo are between 62 and 64 inches in
height, with broad, round faces and high cheek
bones. They are well built, usually lat, and
many of the men have remarkable muscular
development; the eyes are narrow, the hair is
straight and jet black, the beard is very thin
and often entirely wanting. The skin is light
brown or dark brown. They are a short-lived
people, rarely attaining an age much beyond
60 years. In Greenland and Alaska they have
mixed with the whites until there is a very
large percentage of mixed bloods. Note should
also be taken of the peculiar "blond" or "white"
group discovered by Stefansson, near Corona-
tion Gulf. (See WHITE ESKIMOS.) All the
groups, excepting those which have long had
intercourse with the white race, may be classed
in point of development with the prehistoric
races of the age of ground-stone tools, though
the Smith Sound natives, long before they met
the whites, obtained iron from the Cape York
/meteorites, with which they tipped their weap-
ons. This tribe, and indeed all the Greenland

ESKIMO

Eskimo, have no wood except such fragments of
driftwood from Siberia as they have picked up
on the shore and such pieces as they have ob-
tained from white men.

The sustenance of the Eskimo is chiefly de-
rived from the capture of seals and cetaceous •'
animals, the pursuit of which has kept them in-
habitants of the seashore. The seal is their
staple winter food and their most valuable re-
source, supplying them with dog food, clothing,
boats, tents, harpoon lines, light, and heat. The
walrus, narwhal, whale, boar, and to a smaller
extent the deer, fox, and haie, also afford
important supplies. Thousands of birds are
stored for winter use. In summer caribou are
hunted, the skins of which furnish the clothing
for the next winter.

The men arc constantly employed in limiting
or in the manufacture and care of their hunt-
ing contrivances, among which is the kayak, in
which they chase their sea prey. The kayak is -
a swift and seaworthy canoe, made of skin, en-
tirely decked over except for the round hole in
the middle in which its one occupant sits. It
is propelled by a double-bladcd paddle. The
oomiak (umiak), or woman's boat, also built l'"
of skin, but open, is large enough to carry sev-
eral passengers and also freight. It is paddled
by women. The harpoon is a remarkably ingen-
ious implement whose barb detaches itself from
the handle when the animal is hit and, being
attached to a float or drag, prevents the escape
of the game. The dog sledge is common e\ cry-
where except among the Eskimo of southwestern
Greenland. In regions where iron is obtainable
from the white men, iron runners are nwv
largely substituted for those of ivory or whale-
bone, formerly used. Eskimo dogs are admi-
rably adapted for sledge work.

The dwellings are always of two kinds — tents
for summer and houses or huts for winter use.
The tents, or tupiks, are made of sealskin; the .'
igloos, or winter houses, are far more varied in
structure among the different groups. They
are usually built of stones, chinked and covered
with moss and banked up with snow. The en-
trance is a long passage high enough to admit
a man crawling upon hands and knees. In some
places — e.g., in northern Alaska — huts are half
underground. Many of the western and Lab-
rador Eskimo build their houses chiefly of
wood. Some of the winter houses of the East
Greenland natives shelter 40 to 60 persons. The
temporary winter houses, built during journeys,
are made of blocks of snow, piled in a shape
somewhat like that of a beehive. This is aluo
the permanent winter house of the Central and
Banks Land divisions. The dress for men and
women consists of boots, trousers, and a jacket
with a hood, which can be drawn up to cover
the head. Women nursing children carry their
infants in hoods. The boots of the women are
higher than those of the men, and indeed among
the Smith Sound Eskimo extend to the thighs.
Except where trade is carried on with the
whites, the clothing is entirely of furs and the
skins of birds, and may be considered perfect
for the conditions under which it is worn.

In the relations between the sexes there is
much laxity, but where missionary influences
prevail the marital relations are of the con-
ventional civilized type, and the sexual morality
of many natives is of a high order. There is
much that is admirable in these simple-minded
people. They are honorable with regard to

ESKIMO DOG 91

property, children and the aged and infirm are
well cared for, and generosity and hospitality
are characteristic traits. Most of the products
of the hunt are common property. The Eskimo
are naturally cheerful, merry, and light-hearted,
fond of song and music and with some skill in
its production, though among tribes not in close
contact with white men the only musical in-
strument is a kind of small tambourine made
of membrane stretched over an oval bone frame.
They are friendly to strangers, and warfare is
almost unknown among them. Many are adepts
in making carvings of walrus ivory, the Alaska
natives excelling in the ornamentation and finish
of these products. Those natives who are not
under missionary influence have the vaguest re-
ligious ideas. They believe in invisible powers
or demons which rule over the riches of the sea,
and a special function of the angekoks, or
shamans, is to propitiate these mysterious
influences.

Bibliography. H. Rink, Tales <md Tradi-
tions of the Eskimo (London, 1875) ; id., Danish
Greenland (ib., 1887); id., TJie Eskimo Tribes
(ib., 1887) ; Josephine Diebitsch Peary, My
Arctic Journal (New York, 1893) ; Nansen,
Eskimo Life (London, 1894) ; R. E. Peary,
Northward over the Great Ice, vol. i, appendix
ii; F. Boas, "The Central Eskimo/' Siath An-
nual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, pp.
399-660; Murdock, "The Point Barrow Eskimo,"
Ninth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnol-
ogy (1886-87); Nelson, "The Eskimo about
Boring Strait/' Eighteenth Annual Report of
the Bureau of Ethnology, part i (1896-97) ; W.
Thalbitzer, A Phonetical Study of the Eskimo
Language (Copenhagen, 1904) ; V. Stefansson,
My Life loith the Eskimo (1913).
ESKIMO DOG. See SLEDGE DOG.
ESKI-SHEHR, Ss'kS-shS'h'r. A town and
railway junction in the Kutai Sanjak, Brusa,
Asiatic Turkey, on the Pursak Su, 164 miles
west of Angora, by rail (Map: Turkey in Asia,
B 2 ) . It is noted for its warm mineral springs
and valuable meerschaum mines. It is the*
ancient Dorylseum. Pop., 20,000, of which one-
third are Christians and the rest Mohammedans.
ESKI-SHEHR. The ancient section of the
town' of Malatia (q.v.) in Asia Minor.

ESKI-ZAGRA, e's'kS zft'gra (Turkish name,
meaning Old Zagra; Bulg. Stara-Zagora] . A
town of Eastern Rumelia, Bulgaria, capital of
the Department of Stara-Zagora, situated at
the southern base of the Balkans, 45 miles south
of Tirnova (Map: Turkey in Europe, E 3). In
the neighborhood arc numerous gardens, and
rose oil is one of the chief products of the town.
There are also a number of mineral springs.
Eski-Zagra is advantageously located at the
junction of the chief passes in the central Balkan
Range. In July, 1877, a battle was fought near
Eski-Zagra between the Russians under General
Gurko and the Turks under Suleiman Pasha,
as a result of which the Russian forces were
thrown back. Pop., 1887, 16,039; 1910, 22,003;
composed chiefly of Bulgarians, Turks, and Jews.
ESIiA. A river of Spain, 150 miles long,
rising at the base of the Pefia Urbina, one of
the highest peaks of the Cantabrian Mountains,
and flowing in a general southerly direction
through the provinces of Le6n and Zamora to
its confluence with the Duero, about 20 miles
below the city of Zamora (Map: Spain, 02).
ESLAVA, i-sla'va, MIGUEL HILABION (1807-
78). A Spanish composer and theorist. He
Vox* VTIL— 1

ESMABCH

was born at Burlada, near Pamplona. In 1828
he became maestro in Ossufia Cathedral, where
he also took holy orders. In 1832 he was ap-

?ointed to the same position at Seville, and in
844 he became court maestro to Queen Isa-
bella at Madrid. Bis principal works are the
three operas El sohtarw (1841), Las treguas
de Tolemaida (1842), and Pietro el crudele
( 1843 ) ; the valuable collections Museo orgdnico
espanol and Lira sacro-hispana (1869); about
150 masses, motets, and psalms, and a brief
history of the church music of Spain.

ESLAVA, SEBASTIAN DE (1714-89). A
Spanish soldier, born in Navarra, and one of
the cadets with whom the Real Acadcmia Militar
of Barcelona was founded. Having served with
distinction in the wars of Philip V, he was ap-
pointed in 1738 lieutenant general, and in 1740
Viceroy of New Granada (the present Republic
of Colombia). He refortified the fort of Carta-
gena, which in 1741 he brilliantly defended
against a strong English force under Admiral
Sir Edward Vernon. He served as Viceroy until
1748. On his return to Spain he was advanced
to the grade of captain general and in 1750 was
made Governor of Andalusia (a highly coveted
post at that time). The same year he was ap-
pointed director of the Spanish infantry (a
post he held for four years). Then, in 1754,
he became Secretary of State for War. On the
accession of Charles III to the throne Eslava
retired to private life, living in Madrid till his
death.

ESMAITO, es'man, GUSTAV (1860-1904). A
Danish author and journalist, born and edu-
cated at Copenhagen. He studied law, but
abandoned it for literature, his first production
being the two tales published in the volume
(lammel Qceld (1885). His plays, which are
frequently performed in Denmark] Norway, and
Sweden, are superficially effective, but lacking
in dramatic characterization. Among them may
be mentioned: J Stiftelsen (1886) ; / I'rovinsen
(180(1); Den l-ccre Familie (1802); Magdalene
(1893) ; Den store MasJcerade (1895) ; Vandre-
falken (1898); Det gamle Hjem (1899); Alex-
ander den Store (with Sven Lange) ; Sangerin-
dcn (1901).

ESMABCH, eVmarK, JOHANNES PBIBDRICH
AUGUST VON (1823-1908). A German surgeon,
born at Tanning, Schleswig-Holstein. He studied
medicine at Kiel and Gottingen, and in the
Danish War of 1848 served as lieutenant, as
assistant surgeon, as chief physician of the citi-
zens' hospital at Fleusburg, and lastly as adju-
tant of Dr. Stromeyer. He became professor
and director of the hospital at Kiel in 1857, and
during the Schleswig-Holstein War (1864) he
was eminent in hospital work, and during the
Franco-German War (1870-71) he was physi-
cian general and consulting surgeon to the army.
In 3871 he returned to Kiel as professor of
surgery. His second' wife was the Princess Hen-
riette of Schleswig-Holstein. He was for many
years the greatest authority on gunshot wounds.
He originated valuable improvements in barrack
hospitals, ambulances, etc., and was the inventor
of the bloodless method of operating on the ex-
tremities, which consists of applying a bandage
firmly to the extremity from its distal point
upward, thus pressing the blood out of the limb
before applying the tourniquet. In this way
danger from venous congestion after constrict-
ing thfe limb is avoided. This method was in-
vented by Esmarch independently and in igno-

ESMAUCH

ranee of tiittiilar suggestions by Grandesso Sil-
vestri of Vicenza. Among Ms medical works
are: Ueber Resektioncn nach Schusswundcn
(1851); Beitrage sour praktisclicn Chirurgie
(1S53-CO): Uebcr cluotiisclie (Jeletikentziindun-
gen (1867); Ueber den Kampf der Uumanitut
gcgen die Sclirecken des Krieges (1860; 2d ed.,
1899) ; Der erstc Verband auf dem> Sclilaclit-
felde (3d ed., 1899); Terlandplate nnd Fcldla-
zarett (1871); Ueber kunstliclie Blutlcere bei
Opciationen (1873); Handbucli der kricgxclii-
ruryisclien Tcclwik (1877 and several subsequent
editions) ; Die erste Hilfe bei plbtzlichen Un-
(jhicksf alien: Em Leitfaden fur tiawaritcr-
schulen (17th ed., 1901).

ESMABCH, KAJBL (1824-87). A German
jurist, born at Sonderburg and educated at Kiel,
Bonn, Heidelberg, and Berlin. In 1855 he be-
came professor of Roman law at Cracow and
two years later at Prague, where he remained
until his death. Besides a number of epic
poems, published under the name Karl von Alsen,
he wrote the well-known legal work entitled
Romische R edits geschicJitc, (2d ed., 1877-80).

ESMENARD, es'mS'nar', JOSEPH ATJMIO.VSE
(1769-1811). A French publicist and poet, born
at Pelissane (Bouches du RhAne). After travel-
ing extensively lie settled in Paris and became
coeditor of La Quotidienne (1797) and Lc J/rr-
cure de France (1798). During the Consulate
he was sent as secretary to the Arliniral Villa let-
Joyeuse, Governor of Martinique, and afterward
was Consul to the island of St. Thomas (1804).
A year later he published his poem La nariya-
tion (1S05), which had its inspiration many
years before in his early travels in America. He
was received into the Academy in 1S10 and
shortly after incurred the displeasure of Napo-
leon by a satirical article on Thissin in Lc Jour-
nal de I'Empire, for which he A\as obliged io
leave France.

ESMERALDA, es'ma-ral'da. The sweetheart
of Quasimodo, in Victor Hugo's .\otrc Dainr dc
Paris.

ESMEBALODAN. A linguistic stock of South
American Indians once occupying this entiie
course of Esmeraldas Rivor 'in northwestern
Ecuador. Consult Rivet, in L'Attuir liiifj'iris-
tique (1908-10), and Seler, Gcs. A bJi. cr. amer.
Rprach- u. Altertitmsk , vol. i, pp. 49-04 (Berlin,
1902).

ESMERALDAS, 6ft'mA-rRl'da.s. A port of
Ecuador and capital of the province of the samo
name, situated at the mouth of the Esmeraldas
River on the Pacific Ocean (Map: Brazil,
A3). The surrounding- region produces tagua
(see IVOBY, VEGETABLE), tobacco, and cacao.
The manufacture of cigars is the chief industry.
Tagua, rubber, sugar, and cattle arc the prin-
cipal exports. The name was given by the Span-
iards from the emeralds discovered in the vicin-
ity. Pop., about 3000.

ESMOND, BEATRIX. A cousin of Henry Es-
mond, in Thackeray's novel of that name; a
beautiful, vain, ambitious woman who also ap-
pears in The Virginians as Madame dc Bernstein.
ESMOND, HENBY V. (1869-1922). An Eng-
lish dramatist and actor, whose real name is
Jack, born at Hampton Court, England, and
educated by tutors. In 1885 he wont on the
stage, but after 1896 devoted himself chiefly to
writing. His best-known plays are: One Rum-
mer's Day (1897) ; Griersoris Wai/ (1897) ; The
Wilderness (1901); When we Were Twenty-am
(1901); The Sentimentalist (J902) ; My 'hady

02 ESOTERIC

I- \irtuc (191)2); Lltllii's LiUh* Lore Affair
(1903); A Young Man's Fumy (L!U2). I'on-
sult William Winter, Tin1 \\tillct o] Tune (2
vols.. New York, 1913).

ESITAMBUC, fis'nilN'buk', PIERRE BELAIX n'
(1. "585-1 630). A French navigator and founder
of the French settlements in the West Indies.
lie was born at Allouville, and as commander
of a vessel in the Caribbean took possession of
the island of St. Christophei for the purpose
of colonization. A plan suggested by him to
the governments of France and England, whereby
the island was to be divided between the
two countries, was approved, and in ll>2(i D'Es-
nambuc transported more than 500 immigrants
to the new possession. Between the years 1*127
and 1630 he established settlements on Mai-
tinique and other islands of the Cai ibbean rl lie
town and fort of St. Pierre, completely destroyed
by a volcanic eruption, May 8, 1002, ^\ere
founded by him.

ES'MTE (Egyptian ftn#t, Coptic fln<*). An
Egvptian town on the left bank of the Nile
(Int. 25° 15' N., long. 32° 8' E.), about halfway
between Erment and El Kab (Map: Egypt,
C 2). T5y the Greeks it was railed Latopolis,
from the fish latos which was levi-red there.
Esne was a place of considerable importance,
especially in Roman times. The temple, ileili-
cnted to the god Knum, was probably built
umler the Ptolemies on the site of an older
structure. The great portico of 24 columns con-
tains many inscriptions of Roman emperors.
One of these bears the name of Dennis (250 A.D.)
in hieroglyphics. Near Ksne is the ancient con-
vent of Ammonins, said to have been founded
by the Empress Helena in honor of the martyrs
who perished here in the, persecution under
Diocletian. Near here Coptic buildings have
been discovered. Consult: Chanipollion,' JVofirrs
(tcwriptwcs (Paris, 1844) ; Marietta, Mouu-
inciils of (rppcr Kgttpt (London, 1877); Lane-
Poole, Kffin»t (ib., 1881).

ESOP. See .TCsop.

ESOPHAGUS. See (ItaoPirAGCTS.

ESOOPITS WAR. An intermittent conflict
between the Indians and the Dutch settlers at
Efiopua (now Kingston) in "Ulster Co., X. Y.,
win eh began in the summer of ](>58. Some In-
dians employed as field hands by the Dutch,
while drunk and boisterous, were fired upon by
the farmers. This gave rise to :i series of bloody
reprisals on the part of the savages, the most
serious of which was the destruction of the
village of Wiltwyck (the Dutch equivalent for
the Indian Esopus), when 40 women and children
wore carried oil' as prisoners and 21 men were
killed. Governor Stuyvesant of New Nether-
land, in retail ntion, immediately sent up a force
which punished the Indians. Tn "May, 1(>C4, a
treutv of friendship was concluded.

ES'OTERIC (Ok. «rwT«/H/r6s, csvtcrtftos. inner,
from !<ro>, csti, within ) . A word used at first by
the ancient (Sreekn of those initiated into the
Mysteries, but later applied in ancient as in mod-
ern times to mark a distinction supposed to
exist between certain classes of the writings or
discourses of Aristotle (q.v.). The esoteric
works, designed for the disciples, were thought
to be less popular, either in style or in treat-
ment, and to contain more technical doctrines,
than the exoteric works, which were desiufnexl
for the public. The word esoteric is not used
by Aristotle himself, and it is doubtful if hU
use of the word exoterio implies this distinc-

ESPAXIEK $

tion; he may be referring merely to "popular
treatises." Grote understands the word eaoteric,
as used by Aristotle, to refer to the dialectic
method, as opposed to the nonexoteric (eso-
teric), or didactic, method. The term was also
applied to the special teachings of Pythagoras.
Consult Christ-Schraid, Geschichte dcr One-
chischen Litteratur, i, 673 (5th ed., Munich, 1908) .

ESPALIER, es-pal'y5r (Fr., fruit wall, It.,
spalliera, from Lat. spatula, broad piece, blade).
A system of training fruit trees or vines on a
wall. The trees are generally grown as cordons
(q.v.). The branches are fastened to a trellis
which is supported by the wall. Trees which
are trained on a trellis opposite an espalier,
usually with a path between, are called con-
traespaliors.

ESPALIER PLANT. A plant which cannot
grow erect without outside mechanical support;
hence a prostrate or procumbent plant. See
STEM.

ESPARSETTE. See SAINFOIN.

ESPARTERO, i'spiir-ta'ro, BALDOMEBO (1792-
1879). A Spanish general and statesman. Ho
was born Feb. 27, 1792, at Granfttula in La Man-
cha and was educated at the University of Alma-
gro. Upon the outbreak of the war against
Napoleon he joined the patriot forces and fought
until 1814, going the next year to South Amer-
ica. Therfe he served with the Spanish forces
throughout the War of Liberation waged by the
South American colonies. He returned in 1824
to Spain and took a prominent part in the civil
conflicts which followed the death of Ferdinand
VII and the accession of Isabella II. He rose to
be lieutenant general, and twice, as commander
in chief, saved Madrid from the Carlist forces —
once in August, 1836, and again in September,
1837. In 1836, too, he twice forced the Carlists
to raise the siege of Bilbao. In 1839, by
making with Maroto the famous convenio de
Vergara (whereby the titles and ranks for
nearly 1000 Carlist officers were recognized),
he practically ended the war and drove Don
Carlos from Spain — a service for which he was
made Duke of Victoria and Duke of Morella
and grandee of Spain, after having been created
Count of Luchana for his bravery at Bilbao
and Luchana. He now became practically mili-
tary dictator of Spain, allied with the Progress-
ist party, and in 1841, after the Queen Mother
Maria Christina was forced to resign the re-
gency, he was appointed by the Cortes in her
place. His government was marked by energy
and ability ; but in 1843 a combination of parties
naturally inimical to each other, the Republi-
cans and Moderates, overthrew his government
and drove him into exile. He spent four years
in England and in 1848 returned to Spain,
living quietly at Logrofio till 1854, when an
insurrection of the people compelled the Queen
Mother to leave the kingdom. Espartero, sup-
ported by the Progressists, and General O'Donnell,
supported by the Conservatives, now conducted
a coalition government for two years; but the
Progressists lost their hold in that time, and
Espartero gave way (July, 1856) to O'Donnell.
After 1856 Espartero refused to be active in
politics, and in 1857 he resigned his dignity
as senator. After the revolution of 1868, which
resulted in the expulsion of Queen Isabella,
he gave his full adhesion to the provisional
government, though he took no part in its pro-
ceedings. In 1870 he declined to become a candi-
date for the throne of Spain. King Amadeo

& ESPERANTO

made him Prince of Vergara. In 1875 he ad-
hered to King Alfonso. Consult Florez, Espar-
tero, Historia de su vida militar y politica
(Madrid, 1843-44), and Mariana, La regencia
de Baldomero Espartero (ib., 1870). See SPAIN.
ESPARTO. A grass (Stipa tenacissinia) ex-
tensively employed in the manufacture of paper
in Great Britain. Esparto is grown in northern
Africa, Spain, and adjacent countries, from
whence it is shipped for paper stock. A part
of the esparto paper stock is derived from
Lygewn spartium, a grass of the Mediterranean
region.

ES'PER, EUGEN JOHANN CHBISTOPH (1742-

1810) . A German naturalist, born at Wunsiedel.
He was appointed professor of natural history
at Erlangen in 1782 and director of the cabinet
of natural history there in 1805. His works
on butterflies, Die europiiischen Sclimetterhnge
(new ed., 1829-39) and Die ausldndischen
Sohmetterlinge (new ed., 1830) are notable.

ESPERANTO, a'spi-ran't6. The most popu-
lar among the proposed auxiliary international
languages. It has been indorsed by such men as
Berthelot in France, Sir William Ramsey in
England, Ostwald in Germany, and the philolo-
gist Schuchardt in Austria. It has been intro-
duced in many schools as a free elective, and the
Chamber of Commerce in London has put it on
its list of examinations for candidates wishing
to apply for positions. It was invented by a
Riiflsian physician, Zamenhof, whose first publi-
cation on the subject, in 1887, was signed "Dr.
Esperanto" (Hopeful). The directing principle
is to make use of everything that is common to
the civilized languages and drop what is special
to any one of them. In pronunciation, the Eng-
lish 10 and th, the French u, the Spanish j and
•>7, arc dropped; different sounds represented
by the same letter are distinguished, e.g., g
is always guttural (good), while ^ is used in
words like gem; and so for other letters; thus,
the strict phonetic spelling is possible: one
sound, one letter. The principle of internation-
alism is specially obvious in the vocabulary:
words common to all civilized languages are
chosen first; then those common to all but ono
language are adopted; then in all but two, and
so forth. But when there is no one inter-
national word, a selection is usually made,
though somewhat at random, between Romance
and German words. It may be noted that Slavic
roots are less numerous than those of the above
languages. A system of about 30 prefixes and
suffixes, also borrowed from living languages,
renders easy the task of memorizing. Instead
of having one word for good and one for lad,
Esperanto says good and not-good (bona, mal-
bona), which is not always true; the infix in
marks the feminine; patrp, father, patrino,
mother; this principle applies in nouns, adjec-
tives, adverbs, verbs, etc. Again, instead of two
words like cut and knife, Esperanto will say cut
and cutter (trancl, trancllo). The grammar has
16 rules without exceptions. The ending o
always represents a noun, a an adjective, e an
adverb, ; the plural, i the infinitive of a verb,
as the present tense, is tho past, os the future,
u the imperative, us the conditional, etc. Pos-
sessive adjectives are formed by adding the
adjectival a to the personal pronouns, mi, I,
mia, my; the same for ordinal adjectives, tri,
three, tria, third. For interrogation Ot* is placed s
before an affirmation.

The adaptability and flexibility of Esperanto

ESPERANTO 04

have been illustrated by translations of scien-
tific, philosophical, and literary works. There
are Esperanto clubs in nearly all large cities.
Consult O'Connor, Esperanto Complete Text-
Book (New York). Following is a specimen of
Esperanto, with the English translation:

Esperanto Text: Simpla, fleksebla, belsona,
vera internacia en siaj elementoj, la lingvo Es-
peranto prezentas al la mondo civilizita la solan
veran solvon de lingvo internacia; car, tre
facile por homoj nemulte instruitoj, Esperanto
estas komprenata sen peno de la personoj bone
edukitaj.

"Simple, flexible, well sounding, truly interna-
tional in its elements, the language Esperanto
presents to the civilized world the only true
solution of the international language; for, very-
easy for people not much learned, Esperanto is
understood without trouble by well-educated
people."

There is little doubt that the present
spread of Esperanto would have been much
greater, had it not been for the creation of
new letters by its author. This is the first
international language to make such an attempt,
with the result that many sympathetic news-
papers and other publications, not possessing
the special characters like £ 'ft 8, ;, £, and rt,
did not find it possible to print without great
difficulty extracts and articles in Esperanto.
Besides philologists, whose objections to an in-
ternational language are more or less well-
known, others have found fault with many of
the essential principles of the language. Thus,
the principle of internationality of roots is not
strictly followed; the accusative case is consid-
ered by some unnecessary; while speakers of the
Romance languages object to the use of -a to
indicate adjectives and -o to indicate nouns, as
confusing to them. Many also object to the use
of the feminine form of the definite article (la)
of the Romance languages instead of the simpler
English the. While the verb is in general good,
there is no doubt that the noun could be im-
proved upon. The Germanic words, which arc
usually poorly selected, could either be omitted
or reduced to the common Germanic form. Fi-
nally, the mixture of languages, it is main-
tained, renders it difficult for one to acquire the
vocabulary.

But in spite of these objections and many
others that could be adduced, Esperanto has
well served its purpose. Even if it is doomed
to die, as many believe, it has shown the possi-
bility and the necessity of a means of interna-
tional communication if for no other means
than those of business. Excess of enthusiasm,
such as the translation of Shakespeare into Es-
peranto, has often provoked the gibes of the
opposition. Of the many publications issued
during recent years which treat of Esperanto, it
will suffice to note the following: Ivy Kellorman,
A Complete Grammar of Esperanto (New York,
1910) ; Bullen, Lessons in Esperanto (ib., 1908) ;
Rhodes, EnglisJi-lBsperanto Dictionary (ib., 1008),
which is based upon the Fundamento of Dr.
Zamenhof, as well as the literature in Esperanto
and the national Esperanto dictionaries bearing
the "aprobo" of Zamenhof ; Zamenhof, Die Welt-
sprache^ "Esperanto"; vollstandiges Lehrbuch,
trans, into German by Trompeter (Nuremberg,
1891); id., ~Worterbuch der mtemationalen Es-
peranto-Sprache (ib., 1891); Me"ray, La langue
international auMiaire "Esperanto" et la Iitl6-
ratwre scientifique (Paris, 1902) ; Brugmonn and

ESPINEL

Leskien, Zur Kritik der kunstlichen Weltspra-
chen (2d ed., Strassburg, 1907); Underhill, Es-
peranto OAI& its Availability for Scientific Writ-
ings ( Denver, 1908 ) ; and the periodical The
British Esperantist. See INTERNATIONAL LAN-
GUAGE.

ESPERSOtf, a'spar-son', PIETRO (1833-
). An Italian jurist, born at Sassari, Sar-
dinia. He studied at the university there, and
was instructor in law in the university from I860
to 1SC5. In the latter year he was appointed
professor of international law at the University
of Pavia. His works include: ttapportt yiuridici
tra i oellifje-ranti e i neutral i (1805) ; La t/uvs-
tione Anglo- Americano del* "Alabama," discussa
secondo i principii del diritto international e
(1869); Oiurisfhsione international e maritima
(1S77); L'Anglctetre et les capitulations tlans
Vile de Ohypre au point de rue du, droit inter-
national (1879) ; Le legge sulla naturalizzazione
in Italia (188G) ; De9 dritti dl autoie ftullc opera
dell3 ingegno ne' rapporio international i (1890).

ESPOTAiy. A town of Colombia, in the
Department of Tolima, 70 miles southwest of
Bogota. It has tobacco and pottery industries.
Pop., 10,000.

ESPINAX (Sp., thorny), or CHANAR. See
THICKET.

ESPI1TAS, a'spg'na', VICTOB ALFRED (1844-
1922). A French philosopher and sociologist,
born at Saint-Florentin. In 1S93 he became pro-
fessor of social economy at the Sorbonne, Paris,
and in 1904 professor of the history of the
doctrines of economics. He wrote: Les socicl^s
animates (1877); Histoirc des doctrines ceo-
nowiques (1893); La pMlosophie sociale du
XTlIIdme siecle et la Revolution (1898); La
troisieme phase et la dissolution du mcrcJian-
tllisme (1902). He translated, with Th. Bibot,
Spencer's Principles of Psychology (1874).

ESPIWASSE, as'pe"nas'. See I/EHPLVASHE.

ESPINASSE, ESPRIT CHAELES MARIE (1815-
59). A French general, born at Casteluaudiiry.
He was made a general and aid-de-camp to Louis
Napoleon after the coup d'etat of Dec. 2, 1851,
in recognition of his service in invading the
National Assembly at night and seizing the
quaestors. During the Crimean War he fought
at the taking of the Malakoff. As Minister of
the Interior from February to June, 18.18, hu
presented to the French Legislature the famous
Loi de surete generalc. He then became sen-
ator, tie- was killed at Magenta.

ESPIKTEL, a'spfi'nfcl', VICENTE MABTLNKZ
(1551-1624). A Spanish poet, novelist, and
musician, born at Honda, Andalusia. After
studying at the University of Salamanca, from
which lie was expelled in 1572, lie served as a
soldier in Italy and Flanders and upnn his re-
turn to Spain, about 1584, prepared to enter the
church, taking orders in 1587 find becoming chap-
lain of Honda in 1591. For absenting himself
from his living without permission he lo*t his
cure. Later lie was made choirmaster of Plasen-
cia. He revived a form of poetry known as
dfoimas — stanzas of 10 octosyllabic versos —
which came thereafter to be called eftpinrlas.
He was credited by his contemporaries (inter
alios Lope de Vega) with having added a fifth
string to the guitar. This is now disputed on
evidence tending to prove that at earlier dates
there were guitars with five, and even with six,
strings. His most important work is a ro-
mance, Relaciones de la vida del escudero Marcos
de 0~breg6n (1-618), which is largely an auto-

ESPINOSA

biography with embellishments. For many
years Lesage was accused of having ruthlessly
pillaged Marcos de Obregdn for his Oil Bias.
The matter has been thoroughly cleared up, and
it is shown that Lesage's total borrowings from
French and Italian sources, as well as from this
and other Spanish sources, represent only about
one-fifth of the bulk of Oil Bias. Espincl also
wrote a translation of Horace and lyrical poems,
Diver sas rim as de Vicente E spinel" (1591). He
left in manuscript many poems which have re-
mained incdited because of their licentiousness.
Consult Pedro Salva y Mallen, Catulogo de la
liUioleca de Salvd (Valencia, 1872), for some
previously unpublished poems. Conbult also J.
Perez de Guzman's edition of Marcos de Olregfri
(Barcelona, 1881) with introduction, and Leo
Clarctic, Lesage romancier (Paris, 1800).

ESPIKTOSA, a'spfc-no'sa, GASPAB DE ( ?1484-
1537). A Spanish lawyer and soldier, born at
Medina del Cainpo. In 1514 he accompanied
Pcdrarias Davila to America and became chief
justice of the colony at Darien. He was judge
of the tribunal which condemned to death Bal-
boa, Davila's predecessor as Governor, but re-
fusod to pass sentence upon the famous explorer
until ordered to do so by the Governor. He
abandoned his judicial position and was the
loader of several expeditions against the Indians,
whom he treated with great cruelty. In 1518
he founded Panama and several years later re-
turned to Spain, where he was rewarded by
the Emperor Charles V and was appointed a
crown officer in Santo Domingo. He returned
to Panama, and when Pizarro fitted out his
second Peruvian expedition became one of his
financial backers. He tried also to bring about
an understanding between Almagro and Pizarro,
but died in Cuzco without fulfilling his desire.

ESPIHITO SANTO, a-spe're-tvi siiNt\i
(Portug.). A maritime state of Brazil, bounded
by the state of Bahia on the north, the Atlantic
Ocean on the east, the state of Rio de Janeiro
on the south, and Minas Geraes on the west
(Map: Brazil, 1ST., J 7). Its area is 17,310
square miles. The Sierra dos Aimores marks the
western border. The coast is generally swampy,
but to the south there are precipitous clilfs.
The interior is generally mountainous, with ele-
vations reaching 7000 feet. The main river is
the navigable Rio Doce, which divides the state
into two equal parts. All the streams are well
supplied with fish. There is but one good har-
bor, that of Espirito Santo. The tropical cli-
mate is tempered by the proximity of the sea,
the mountains, and the extensive forests.

The soil is very fertile. Sugar cane and coffee
are chiefly grown, cotton and rice receiving some
attention. There is one cotton mill in the state.
The principal export is coffee, which is all
shipped from Victoria (q.v.), the capital and
practically the only port The forests furnish
costly woods and rare drugs. There are wild
stretches of land, lying for the most part in
the north, little explored as yet, and inhabited
by Indians. Fishing is a leading occupation.
Deposits of marble and lime have been found,
but there is no mining. Stock raising is neg-
lected. Espirito Santo has four representatives
in the national Chamber of Deputies. There are
in the state about 50 miles of railway.

Pop., 1890, 135,997; 1900, 209,783; 1913,
430,000. There are several German settlements.
Though the state is liberal in its supply of
funds for public schools, the percentage of chil-

ESPBITS FOBTS

dren receiving instruction is low, and the inhabi-
tants have little education. The shores of
Espirito Santo were first visited by the Portu-
guese in 1535.

ESPOTJS'AL (OF. espousailles, Fr. epou-
sallies, from Lat. sponsaha, betrothal, pi. of
sponsalis, bridal, from sponsa, bride, from spon-
dcre, to pledge). A ceremony of betrothal pre-
paratory to marriage. 1. Among the Jews the
first advances suggesting betrothal or engagement
were generally on the part of the young man's
parents (Gen. xxxiv. 6, 24) ; sometimes, however,
the young man himself suggested the union
(Judg. xiv. 2). The proposition was accom-
panied by the giving of gifts, and, when both
parties agreed, the groom's parents gave a
dowry to the bride's family. Originally this
was the property of the family, but later it be-
came the property of the bride to provide for
her future in case of forced divorce or the death
of her husband. From the time of betrothal
any breach of chastity on the part of the bride
meant death, and in general the same rules ap-
plied as if the marriage had already been cele-
brated. There was no definite period after be-
trothal when the marriage took place. In later
times the right of choosing was given to the
individuals concerned in the marriage, but even
then the form of betrothal was still binding. 2.
In the early Christian Church also a ceremony
of espousal preceded marriage. The prelimi-
naries consisted in a mutual agreement between
the parties that the marriage should take place
within a limited time, confirmed by certain
donations as the earnest of marriage, and at-
tested by a sufficient number of witnesses. The
free consent of parties contracting marriage was
required by the old Roman law and by the Code
of Justinian. The gifts bestowed were publicly
recorded. The dowry settled on the bride was
stipulated in public instruments under hand
and seal. The ring was given at the betrothal
rather than at the actual marriage. The use of
the marriage ring dates from very early times,
and its recognized place was then as now on the
woman's fourth finger. The witnesses present,
friends of both parties, were usually 10 in num-
ber. The espousal, as incorporated with the
wedding rite, is plainly traceable in the usage of
the Roman, Anglican, and other churches of the
present day. Consult Mielziner, Tlie Jetcish Law
of Marriage and Divorce (Cincinnati, 1884).

ESPRIT DBS LOIS, fc'spre* d& IwU. See
MONTESQUIEU.

ESPBITS POUTS, A'sprfe' for (Fr., bold spir-
its). The name assumed by the French school
of writers termed freethinkers (q.v.) in England
and including Voltaire, Diderot, Eelv6tius,
D'Alembert, and their contemporaries. While
the English freethinkers aimed at securing
merely freedom of religious speculation, and
did not seek the violent substitution of a system
based upon their own views for the existing
order, the French esprits forts held a distinctly
aggressive position outside of all religious con-
fessions, vigorously opposed the despotism of
church as well as of state, and were propagan-
dists of the most radical sort. Skeptical of the
value of human feeling as a guide, they desired
the authority of pure reason alone to be recog-
nized and the supremacy of the intellect to be
everywhere acknowledged. Their influence was
extensively felt, and many of the doctrines which
they inculcated bore both good and evil fruit in
the following century,

ESPRONCEDA Y LARA g6

ESPRONCEDA Y LABA, is'prSn-tha'Da
6 la'ra,, Jos 6 IGNACIO JAVIEB OBIOL ENOABNA-
CI6N DE (1808-42). A Spanish poet, born at,
or near, Almendralejo, Estremadura. At 14,
Espronceda was already noted for liis verses
and had joined a secret society; and shortly there-
after he was sent to the Franciscan convent at
Guadalajara for five years of seclusion as a
revolutionist. He fought in Paris in the revolu-
tion of 1830 and afterward in the struggle for
Polish liberty. Taking advantage of the am-
nesty of 1833, lie returned to Spain, obtained a
comin lesion in the Queen's Guards, was sent to
The Hague in 1840 as Secretary of Legation,
and in 1842 was elected deputy from Aimer ia;
hut he was frequently in political and official
disfavor, for his republican spirit kept him in-
volved in plots, only ceasing with his early
death. Espronceda is called the Spanish Byron,
and he has also been compared to Victor Hugo,
but has neither his force nor originality. He
stood for the ardent, eager, revolutionary young
Spain of his day, and his odes reflect that spirit.
No lyric poet o"f his country has surpassed him
in these. While in seclusion at Guadalajara, he
began his epic poem El Pelayo. Later he wrote
a part of another narrative poem, El diallo
mundo (1841), dealing with the Faust legend;
a novel, Don Sancho Sal da no, (1834); and a
fantastic romance, El estudiantc de Salama,nca9
a variation of the Don Juan legend. A com-
plete edition of his works, Obras poeticas y
escritos en prosa, was prepared in 1884 by his
daughter, Dofia Blanca de Espronceda de Esco-
sura, with much material hitherto unedited.
The second volume has not been published. Con-
sult also: E. Rodriguez Soils, flspronoeda: su
tiempo, su vida, y sus o&rcw (Madrid, 1883) ;
the excellent works by Philip H. Churchman,
"Espronceda's Blanca de Borbtfn" and "More
Inedita," in the Revue ffispanique, vol. xvii,
pp. 549-777 (1907), "An Espronceda Bibliogra-
phy,'3 in the Revue Hispanique, vol. xviii, pp.
741-773 (1907), and "Byron and Espronceda,"
in the Revue JTinpanigue, vol. xx, pp. 1-210
( 1009 ) ; A. Bonilla y San Martin, "El Ponsa-

ESQUIMALT

raiento de Espronceda," in the Espcula
vol. ccxxxiv, pp. 69-101 (1908) ; J. Fitzmaurice-
JCelly, in the Modern Language Review, vol. iv,
pp. 20-39 (1908) ; J. Cascales y Mfiffoz, "Apun-
tes y materiales para la biografia de Espron-
ceda," in the Revue Hispawique, vol. xxiii, pp.
1-108 (1010).

ES^PY, JAMES POLLABD (1785-1860). An
American meteorologist, the founder of modern
physical or theoretical meteorology. He was
born in Westmoreland Co., Pa., graduated in
1808 at the Transylvania University, Lexington,
Ky., studied law at Xenia, Ohio, and was prin-
cipal of the academy at Cumberland, Md., from
1812 to 1817. He then became professor of
languages in the classical department of the
Franklin Institute of Philadelphia, where he re-
mained until about 1853, when he resigned in
order to devote himself wholly to meteorological
lectures and investigations. His memoir of 1836
on the theory of storms gained for him the
Magellanic prize. In 1840 he visited England
and France and discussed his theories in person
before the British Association and the French
Academy of Sciences. Espy*s convection theory
was based on sound physical principles, but his
ideas on the mechanics of storms are not borne
out by observed facts. Redfield supported the
now generally accepted rotary theory of the

mechanism sometimes set in action by convec-
tion. In 1841 Espy returned and published his
Philosophy of Storuis. In 1842 the United States
Congress appointed him meteorologist to the
War Department, where he established a service
of daily weather observations, compiled daily
weather maps, traced the progress and develop-
ment of storms, and submitted, in October, 1843,
a first annual report containing a great body of
facts. He was subsequently appointed meteorolo-
gist to the Navy Department. In 1852 he was
ordered by Congress to continue his researches
in connection with the Smithsonian Institution,
which had already undertaken the collection of
meteorological data. To Espy are due the stim-
ulus and the knowledge that made the present
United States Weather Bureau a possibility.
An appreciative sketch will be found in Apple-
Ion's Popular Science Monthly for April, 1880.
Consult also Monthly 'Weather Review, vol. xxxv
(Washington, 1907).
ESQUILACHE, a'ske-la'cha, DON FRANCISCO

I)E BOBJA Y ABAG6N, PRlNCIPE DE (C.1581-1G58) ;

known also as FRANCISCO DE BOR.TA Y ACEVEDO.
A Spanish poet, born in Madrid. He was Vicoroy
of Peru from 1614 until 1621, and the remainder
of hia life was spent at the court of Madrid.
He is the- author of the sacred poem La paswn
de Nuestro Senor (1638); an epic poem in
honor of the conquest of Naples, Xapolcft rc-
cupe'tada (Saragossa, 1651) ; and a translation
of Thomas a Kempis (Brussels, 1661). Several
editions of his poems have been published under
the title Obras en, verso (1030-48, 1654-03).
Selections of his works are to be found in the
liilrtioteca de Autores Espafiolcs, vols. xvi, xxix,
xlii, and Ixi.

ES'QTTILINE HULL (Lat. Esquilinus Mons).
The highest of the seven hills of Rome (246
feet), standing between the Viminal and the
Ctrlian and east of the Palatine. It has two
spurs, Mons Oppius and Mons Cispius, on the
former of which stands the church of San Pietro
in Vincoli, on the latter Santa Maria Maggiore.
Its unsanitary condition in early times was
remedied under Augustus by Maecenas, who
buried a whole section under a layer of fresh
earth 25 feet deep and laid out on *it the pleas-
ure grounds known as the Gardens of Maecenas
(q.v.). The Esquiline under the Empire became
a fashionable residence section. On it stood the
houses of Vergil, Horace, Maecenas, and Proper-
tins, and also the baths of Titus. Nero's Qoldon
HouHe covered much of the Esquilino. Many
ruins of ancient edifices have been uncovered,
but at once destroyed, in the course of modern
building operations, and the district now forms
an entirely new quarter of the city. Consult
Platner, The Topoqraphy and Monuments of An-
cient Rome (2d ed., New York, 1011),

ESQXTIIiIlTTrS MONS. See ESQUILINE HILL.

ESQTTIMALT, fe-kwttnnlt. -A naval and
military station near Victoria, B. 0., Canada,
on Vancouver Island and the Strait of San Juan
de Fuca (Map: British Columbia, D 5), and on
the Esquimalt and Nanaimo Railway. The in-
dustries include a salmon cannery, shipbuilding,
a limekiln, oyster beds, a barrel factory, and a
tile and sewer-pipe factory. Esqiiimalt has an
excellent harbor and was for a time the head-
quarters of the British Pacific squadron ; it al«o
has a navy yard, graving dock, barracks, arsenal,
meteorological station, and hospital. It is con-
nected with Victoria by an electric railway. It
has strong fortifications, manned by Canadian

ESQUIMAUX <

troops, the British garrison having been with-
drawn in 1006. In 1910 the dry dock was trans-
ferred by the British Admiralty to the Canadian
government. Four \vai ships were stationed
here, also a school of coast-defense artillery.
Pop., 1014, about 250, exclusive of military and
naval forces.

ESQUIMAUX. See ESKIMO.

ESQUIBE (OF. esGuyer, Sp. scudero, It. scu-
dicro, ML, scutariufi, shield bearer, from Lat.
scutum, shield). In chivalry, the shield bearer
or armor bearer of the knight to whom he was
an apprentice while learning the use of arms.
(See CHIVALRY.) The title is at present given,
in England and in some parts of the United
States, to all persons supposed to be in easy
circumstances, excluding manual laborers and
small shopkeepers. Although the title of es-
quire is now used with little discrimination, the
following seem to be those whose claim to it
stands on the ground either of legal right or
of long-established courtesy: esquires by birth —
(1) all the untitled sons of noblemen;' (2) the
eldest sons of knights and baronets; (3) the
sons of the younger sons of dukes and mar-
quises, and their eldest sons. There are also
esquires by profession, whose rank does not
descend to their children; and esquires by office,
e.g., justices of the peace, who enjoy the title
only during their tenure of office. The creation
of esquires by letters patent or investiture long
ago ceased.

ESQUIBOL, a'skS'rfil', JEAN ETIENNE DOM-
INIQUE (1772-1840). A celebrated French
alienist, born at Toulouse. He served in the
military lazaretto at Narbonne in 1704, ob-
tained his degree of M.D. in 1805, and was ap-
pointed physician to the Salpc'trierc at Paris lu
1811. After 1817 he delivered clinical lectures
on the diseases affecting the mind and their
cures; in 1818 he secured the appointment of
a commission, of which he became a momber,
for the remedy of abuses in insane asylums; in
1823 he became inspector general of the Uni-
versity, and in 1825 first physician to the
Maison des Alicnes. Ho was at the same time
principal physician of the private inaano asylum
at Charenton, which he had organized. During
the July revolution he lost all his public otfieos.
and withdrew into private life. By his humane
treatment of the insane he often effected cures.
His writings embrace all the questions connected
with the treatment of insanity. Esquirol paid
great attention to the construction of suitable
buildings for the insane; and most of the modern
insane asylums in France, such as those of
Kouen and Montpellier, have been built accord-
ing to his directions. His most important works
are Des illusions chess les aliencs (1832; Eng.
trans, by Liddell, 1833) and Des maladies
mentales considers sous los rapports medical,
hygif-niquc, et medico-legal (1838).

ESQUIHOS, a'skd'ros', ALPHONSE HENRI
(1812-76), A French poet, romancer, radical
politician, and anti-Catholic agitator, born in
Paris. He was imprisoned and confined for his
Evangile du peuple (1840) and exiled for his
political activity after Napoleon's coup d'etat
(1851). He was one of the few legislators who
dared to vote against the war with Germany
(1870). He held office under the Government
of National Defense (1870), was suspended by
Gambetta, elected deputy in 1871, and senator
in 1876, as democrate-socialiste. His political
works are: Paris, ou les sciences, les vnstitu-

>7 ESSAAD EFFENDI

tions, et les mceuts au XJXe siecle (1847);
Histoire des Montagnards (1847); L'Angleterre
et la vie anglaise (1859-70); La "Seerlande et
la vie hollandaise (1859). In English he pub-
lished Religious Life in England (1867). His
poetry appeared under the titles Les hirondelles
(1834); Chants d'un prisonnier (1841). To
fiction he contributed Le magicicn (1837) and
Charlotte Corday (1840). Socialistically ethi-
cal are La vie future an point do vue socialiste
(1857) and La moiale univcrselle (1869).

ESQUIVEL, i'ske-vel', JUAN DE (c.1470-
c.1510). A Spanish soldier. In 1502 he accom-
panied the expedition of Ovando, who was ap-
pointed to succeed Bobadilla as Governor of
Hispaniola. He was sent by Ovando in 1504 to
subjugate the Indians of the Province of Higucy,
then led in revolt by the cacique Cotabanama.
In 1509 be was dispatched by Diego Columbus
to conquer the island of Jamaica and establish
a colony there. He soon accomplished the sub-
mission of the Indians and founded the town of
Sevilla Nueva. During his few years of rule
the colony, through his wisdom and moderation,
attained to great prosperity.

ESS, 6s, VAN. The name of two Benedictine
monks, cousins, distinguished as Uoman Catho-
lics of the Liberal school. — The elder, KARL
VAN Ess (1770-1824), WJIB born at Warburg,
Westphalia, Sept. 25, 1770. He entered the
Benedictine monastery of Huysburg, near Hal-
berstadt, in 1788, became prior of the cloister in
1801, and episcopal commissary in 1811. He
died Oct. 22, 1824. With his 'cousin he pre-
pared a German translation of the Bible and
made a revision of the Osnabrtick song book.
He advocated the use of the German language in
the liturgy. — JOITANN HEINRICH VAN Ess, better
known by Ms romantic name of LEANDEB (1772-
1847), was born at Warburg, Feb. 15, 1772.
He was educated at the Dominican gymnasium
of Warburg, and joined the Benedictine monas-
tery of MartenmUuster at Paderborn in 1790.
He was ordained priest in 1796, was pastor at
Schwalenburg till 1812, and professor of the-
ology in the Marburg Seminary until 1822. He
then retired to private life and devoted himself
to the translation of the Bible and the circula-
tion of the Scriptures in this vernacular. His
work was disapproved by the Catholic authori-
ties, and he defended himself in several publica-
tions. He was for a time connected with the
Catholic Bible Society of "Regensburg, then was
agent of the British Bible Society. In 1807
he published a German translation of the New
Testament, the circulation of which was for-
bidden by the Pope. It is tho version row
circulated by the Wtlrttemherg Bible Society
among Roman Catholics. His translation of
the entire Bible was completed in 1840. He also
prepared editions of the Soptuagint and the Vul-
gate and the Greek New Testament. He died at
Affolderbach, in the Odenwald, Oct. 13, 1847.
Van Ess possessed a valuable library, which was
purchased after his death for the Union Theo-
logical Seminary of New York.

ESSAAD EFFEITOI, es'sjid €f-fen'de, MO-
HAMMED (1700-1848). A Turkish historian, born
in Constantinople in 1700. He wan surnamed
Sahaf-Zadeh, 'son of the bookbinder/ from his
father's occupation. He was historiographer of
the Ottoman Empire, superintendent of the offi-
cial journal of the Empire, and Ambassador to
Persia. A portion of one of his works has been,
translated into French and odited by Caussin de

ESSAD TOPTA3STI fi

Perceval under the title Precis historique de la
destruction du corps des Jawissaires (Paris,
1S33).

ESSAD TOPTANI, eVsad tOp-t^nS, PASHA
( c. 1803-1 920 ). An Albanian soldier and na-
tional leader, a member of the Toptani family of
Tirana, near Durazzo. He was trained for the
army, served in the garrisons of Macedonia and
Anatolia, and finally commanded the gendarmerie
at Constantinople. " For his services in the war
against Greece in 1897 he was granted the title
of Pasha. Although he killed the agent who had
been directed by Sultan Abdul Hamid to murder
his brother, Ghani Toptani, his influence was so
great that Abdul Hamid dared not punish him.
Instead, he was transferred to Janina, where
he commanded the local gendarmerie and was
even raised to the rank of general. Out of
hatred for Abdul Hamid, Essad joined the Young
Turk movement in 1908, marched with the Salo-
nika troops to vindicate the constitution, and
TV as head of the deputation that bore the news
of his deposition to Abdul Hamid. During the
Balkan War, Essad participated in the defense
of Scutari against the Montenegrins in 1912;
and when the Powers declared in favor of the
autonomy of Albania, he raised the Albanian,
flag over his troops. Shortly after this inci-
dent the Turkish commander, Hassan Riza Pasha,
was murdered, thus leaving Essad in full com-
mand at Scutari. In 1913 he was a member
of the provisional Albanian government, and in
1914 he was appointed Minister of War and
of the Interior. While on a visit to Italy and
Austria in 1914, he was honored with the cross
of the Order of the Crown of Italy and the grand
cross of the Order of Francis Joseph.

ES'SAY. Unlike other literary forms, as the
epic, the novel, and the drama, the essay was
the invention of an individual, not the climax of
a long process of growth and development. It
sprang complete from the pen of Montaigne in
the sixteenth century; and Montaigne still re-
mains the most illustrious of essayists. Pas-
sages in classical literature may be cited which
bear a certain relation to this form, and Bacon
called the epistles of Seneca "essays," but none
of these writings were in any real sense related
ancestrally to the modern essay. As contrasted,
e.g., with the novel, the essay according to
Montaigne is brief and structurally free in form
or formless. The name originally chosen for it
suggests certain characteristics which distin-
guish it now as clearly as they did in the day
of its origin. As the word "essay" — from the
French essai, experiment; the Latin, ea>agiumt
a weighing, from esoigere, to examine—indi-
cates, this form was a new literary experiment;
it approached its theme tentatively rather than
in the manner of sustained argument and final
exposition; it was a sally into, rather than a
complete conquest of, the chosen subject. In
Montaigne's hands it was chatty, informal, in-
timately personal, rambling, familiar, presup-
posing a single friendly listener. It was, too,
the flower of ripe culture and experience; it left
behind it a sense of overflow, as from deep
springs of humane wisdom. Such was the fa-
miliar essay as practiced by Montaigne, and
such substantially, in both form and manner, it
remains to-day, at least in one of its two de-
velopments.

France was late in producing successors to
Montaigne. The second practitioner of this
literary form was an Englishman, Francis

8 ESSAY

Bacon, after Montaigne perhaps the greatest of
essayists. His essays first appeared in 1597,
17 years after the appearance of the Essais of
the great Frenchman. In Bacon the character-
istics of the new literary genre are substantially
the same as in Montaigne; his essays are brief
and formless and informal — pithy jottings drawn
about a topic as steel fragments about a magnet;
without unity, the end forgetting the beginning;
confidential and intimate, though with a grave
confidence and a stately intimacy; suggestive
beyond anything in modern literature, yet with-
out pretext of organic structure or the orderly
conduct of thought to a logical conclusion. If
Bacon's essays lack the grace, abandon, flow, and
perfect ease of their predecessors, they still con-
form essentially to the Montaigne type.

After Bacon the seventeenth century saw little
or nothing of the true essay. The form was
often approached, though rarely achieved, in
tracts, news-letters, pamphlets, and the like.
In 1600, however, William Cornwallis published
papers which, however negligible from the liter-
ary point of view, were still in kind essays, and
in 1668 Abraham Cowley, beloved of Charles
Lamb, put forth Several Discourses by Way of
Essays which are truly akin to the essays of
Montaigne. In the year just named also ap-
peared Dryden's Essay on Dramatic Poesy,
which, in dialogue though it be, may be taken
as typical of a kind of writing different enough
from the essays of the first French and English
practitioners of the art, and yet retaining traits
in common with them. Dryden's Essay is longer
than ,the pioneers in this genre were wont to
make theirs. In place of formlessness there is
careful and logical structure, while the con-
fidential manner that engaged, flattered, and
held the attention of the reader gives place to
the literary tone and deportment proper to an
academic forum. On the other hand, Dryden's
Essay is brief as compared with dissertation or
treatise; it absolves itself from the duty of full
and exhaustive demonstration; and, however
carefully and logically composed, it insists upon
maintaining a modest, unpretentious, and ten-
tative air. Thus, early in its history, the word
"essay" was accepted — and still is — as referring
ambiguously and indifferently either to the fa-
miliar essay as practiced by Montaigne and
those in his tradition— -the brief, formless, per-
sonal, intimate essay; or to the longer, more
logical, less personal, and more formal type, of
which Dryden's Essay on Dramatic Poesy is rep-
resentative. After Dryden there is little to de-
tain the student of the essay until he reaches
the opening years of the eighteenth century, a
period voluminous in this kind of literature. In
the first decade of that century Addison and
Steele began to offer a world that has never yet
tired of them their delightful papers, ingratiat-
ingly confidential, familiar but well bred, and
full of pleasantness and humor. In this light,
debonair, and graceful form the essays of the
Tatler and the Spectator gathered up the float-
ing talk and gossip of society, the clubs, and the
coffeehouses; moralized the material; and offered
it again to the public fresher and more enter-
taining than at first, and a most wholesome and
grateful literary diet for the classes to whom
it appealed. Of the unnumbered essays of the
time — some 200 periodicals chiefly composed of
essays are said to have sprung up — compara-
tively few survived. Conspicuous among these
are many essays of Swift, which live with a

ESSAY

vitality that time will hardly sap, and are
published afresh for each succeeding generation.
After the Tatler and the Spectator, however,
the essay tended to become heavily moral and
dully didactic. But the second half of the
eighteenth century was to introduce one worthy
successor to the Spectator writers in Oliver
Goldsmith, whose miscellanies olfer many charm-
ing essays, essentially of the familiar type.
Contemporary with Goldsmith was Dr. Johnson,
who in the Rambler and elsewhere wrote heavy-
handed imitations, of the successes of an earlier
generation. By the end of the eighteenth cen-
tury the essay was practically dead.

In the early nineteenth century came Charles
Lamb to breathe a new life into the form and to
win for himself a place as a prince of essayists,
in some respects quite unsurpassed in the his-
tory of the art. He tossed aside the pomposity
and the complacent grandiosity of Dr. Johnson,
and therewith every shred of classical stiffness
that may have clung about Addison, and stood
forth a familiar essayist par excellence; free
to be his whimsical self; culling from the Eng-
lish literature of the preclassical period what-
ever in diction, phrase, or imagery struck him as
quaint, piquant, and racy; formless in his writ-
ings as he chose to be, yet binding, as by some
invisible chain of mood or sentiment, seemingly
rambling essays into a satisfying unity and har-
mony. Once more in his work the essay justifies
itself as for certain types of mind an, incom-
parable vehicle of self-expression. While Lamb
was writing, essays with a distinctive charm and
flavor were coming from the pen of a lesser
literary light, Leigh Hunt.

With the first quarter of the nineteenth cen-
tury, there came, too, a remarkable development
of the formal essay, literary and other. The
Edinburgh Review, Blackwood's, and Fraser's
assembled a notable group of essayists. At this
time, Hazlitt, Jeffrey, and De Quincey were
active, and in 1825 Macaulay published his
earliest essay, "Milton." Then, too, began to
appear the masterly essays of Carlyle. With
those men and others the formal essay reached
its full bloom, becoming more varied and elabo-
rate than ever before — critical, controversial,
contentious, philosophical, or scientific, and yet
retaining such distinctive traits of the form as
comparative brevity, a tentative and suggestive,
rather than a complete and final, aim, and an
air more freely personal, whimsical, and idiosyn-
cratic than would have become more extended
and pretentious works. The growing vogue of
periodical literature at this time insured the
essayist a wide hearing and opened a market
for him; and the essay forthwith became in-
creasingly a favorite form for independent
th inker B who desired to offer experimentally
new theories or to present some observation in
art, literature, history, or science, dealing thus
at first cursorily and suggestively with data to
bo embodied later, perhaps, in bulky tomes of
sustained logic and masses of ordered facts —
witness Spencer's Synthetic Philosophy or Dar-
win's Origin of Species. From the days of
Charles Lamb to the present, English literature
has never lacked distinguished practitioners of
the art of essay writing in its two branches of
the familiar and the formal essay, as the names
of Arnold, Pater, Lang, Stevenson, Dobson,
Gosse, Saintsbury, and Arthur Christopher Ben-
son variously and sufficiently attest.

American writers, as essayists, hold an honor-

IP ESSAYS AND REVIEWS

able place, with the mellow and genial essays of
Washington Irving initiating the familiar, and
those of Poe early representing the more formal,
type. To Emerson's genius the form was pre-
cisely suited, and he produced a body of writing
in this kind highly distinguished by originality,
richness of thought, and a serene and lofty tem-
per. Lowell blended the two types in work
likely long to prove informing and, thanks to
the robust and attractive personality that is a
part of it, delightful. And so, on to this day
of William Dean Howells, George Edward Wood-
berry, and Paul Elmer More, the essay stands
a substantial asset to the credit of American
literature.

In the country of its origin the essay was, as
has been said, long a well-nigh unpracticed form.
Certain writings of Voltaire, of Diderot, and of
others might pass on the whole as essays,
Voltaire, indeed, making free of the word in
entitling his Essai sitr les mccurs; but Voltaire
surely would not hove claimed, nor would Locke
in the case of his Essay Concerning Human Un-
derstanding, that the work in question had any-
thing in common with the essay proper save in
its tentative and experimental nature. There
appeared, however, about the middle of the nine-
teenth century, a great French essayist who pro-
duced through a prolific literary career an im-
posing array of essays of prime quality. The
reference is of course to Sainte-Beuve. This ac-
complished writer knew how to blend the ap-
pealing personal note of tlie intimate essay
with a wealth of ordered thought and a scholar's
store of precise knowledge, which, together with
a wonderful literary faculty, resulted in his
splendid series of studies and portraits, warmed
as if by the spirit of life itself, and of the
most varied and alluring interest. From Sainte-
Beuve'a day, uncounted French esfiayists, many
of them artists, scholars, and thinkers, and
some of them all three in one, have brought
forth unceasingly works in this kind which are
part of the literary glory of France and a
perennial delight to readers the world over.
The tradition of the French essay was ably up-
held to the end of the last century and beyond
by such men as Gautier, Brunetiere, Anatole
France, Jules LemaJtrc, and Kmilc Faguct.

ESSAY CONCERNING HUMAN UNDER-
STANDING. A famous philosophical work by
John Locke (1090).

ESSAY ON CRITICISM, AN. A didactic
poem by Alexander Pope (1711), laying down
the canons of poetic taste and verse structure.
The poem abounds in passages which have be-
come familiar quotations.

ESSAY ON MAN, AN. A noted philosophi-
cal and deistic poem by Alexander Pope, in four
parts, which appeared from 1732 to 1734, in-
spired by the metaphysical vagaries of Boling-
broke.

ES'SAYS AND REVIEWS. The title of a
volume of essays published in 1860, by six
clergymen and one layman of the Church of
England — Dr. Frederick Temple, Dr. Rowland
Williams, Prof. Baden Powell, H. B. Wilson,
Mark Pattison, Prof. B. Jowett, and 0. W.
Goodwin. The book, which was severely cen-
sured for heterodox views by nearly all the
bishops and many of the clergy, was condemned
by convocation in 1864. The ecclesiastical
courts sentenced Dr. Williams and Mr. Wilson
to suspension for one year; but on appeal the
sentence was reversed by the Privy Council

E3SEO-

106

ESSElffES

The most remarkable among the works put forth
in opposition were the Aids to Faith, edited by
Bishop Thomson, and Replies to Essays and
Rcrieiis, edited by Bishop Wilberforce.
ES'SEG. See Esz&K.

ESSEN, es'sen. A town in the Prussian Rhine
Province, situated between the Ruhr and the
Emscher, 20 miles northeast of Diisseldorf
(Map : Prussia, B 3 ) . The town is substantially
built, with clean, well-laid-out streets. The
cathedral, founded in 873, is one of the oldest
churches in Germany. Its treasury contains
some valuable works of art. Among modern
secular buildings are the Gothic Rathaus, in
front of which stands a statue of Alfred Krupp,
the new courthouse, and the Municipal Theatre.
The town's affairs are administered by a, mu-
nicipal council of 30 and an executive board of
eight members. It has a modern sewage system,
an excellent water supply, municipal gas works,
and an abattoir. Its educational institutions
include a gymnasium, a high school for girls,
several mechanical and industrial schools, a
school of mines, and a royal agricultural school.
Situated in the centre of one of the richest coal
and iron regions of Germany, Essen lias excel-
lent facilities for an extensive iron industry.
First among the industrial establish menta are
the famous Krupp steel and iron works, which
employ more than 43,000 men. There are also
a number of smelters, boiler works, manufac-
tories of walking sticks, dycstiuTs, bricks, and
liqueurs. In 1911 the chambers of commerce
of Essen and Mulheim-Oberhausen were united
in a single body with headquarters at Essen.
Essen has good railway facilities and an electric
street railway. It is tho seat of a United States
consular agency. The borough of Hiittenschied
was taken into the city limits in 1005, and the
commune Huttrop in 1008. Pop., 1000, 118,863;
1910, 204,653. Although the industrial activity
of Essen is only of recent growth, the town
itself is very old, tracing its origin to the
famous Benedictine nunnery of the same name,
founded in 873 A.D. In the' tenth century it was
given municipal privileges by the Abbess
Hagona. It was taken by the Spanish and the
Dutch in the seventeenth century, and was an-
nexed to Prussia in 1813. Consult Kellen, Die
Industriestadt Essen in Wort und BUd (Essen,
1902), and Zweigert, Die Trncaltuny tier Sladt
Essen im 19. Jahrhtindert (Essen, 1902).

ESSEN, HANS HENBIK, COUNT (1755-1824).
A Swedish statesman, born at Kaias, \Vewt
Gotland. He was educated in the State Uni-
versity at Upsala, then entered the army, be-
coming a cornet at 18, and accompanied Gus-
tavus III in his travels and campaigns. He
became Governor of Stockholm in 1795, and
Governor-General of Swedish Pomorania and
Riigen in 1800, and in 1807, as commander of
the Pomeranian army, distinguished himself
by his defense of Stralsund against the French.
Upon the revolution of 1809 he received the
title of count and a place in the Council of
State, In 1810 he was sent as Ambassador to
Paris by Charles XIII, and his negotiations with
Napoleon's ministers restored Pomerania to
Sweden. He was promoted field marshal in
1811; was sent against Norway (1813) and
was Governor of that country (1814-16) after
its union with Sweden, and in 1817 became
Governor-General of Skane, an old province
in southern Sweden. Consult the biography
(Malmo*, 1855) by Wieselgren.

ES'SENCE (Lat essentia, existence, from
e&se, to be). In logic, that which is included in
the logical definition (q.v.) and is opposed to
accidents. But as definitions aio based upon
classifications into genus and species, and as
there is no single absolute objective classifica-
tion, but all our classifications arc controlled
by some prevailing interest, which selects
What is relevant to its purpose, it follows
that what is essence according to one classifi-
cation is accident according to another. The
essential in logic as in life i« what a particular
purpose demands. In metaphysics essence is
sometimes used as equivalent to 'substance (q.v.).
In theology, Athanasius and other Greek writ-
era distinguish oixrta, ousia (essence or sub-
stance), denoting what is common to the Father,
Ron, and Holy Spirit, from v^offrao-ts, hi/postasis
(person j, denoting what is individual, distinc-
tive, and peculiar to each person.

ESSENCE DE PETIT GRAIN", es'sitxs' de
pe-te' grflN (Fr., essence of small grain). A
perfume obtained by the distillation of small,
unripe oranges, about the size of a cherry.
'ES'SENCES. See SPIRITS.
ESSENES, eK-scnz'. A .Jewish brotherhood,
whose origin can be traced back to the second
century B.C., and which ceased to exist in the
second century A.D. They first appear in history
during the early period of the Maccabjean up-
rising and were doubtless an expression of the
general tendency towards religious separatism
characteristic of that time. The derivation of
the name is doubtful. Its source may perhaps
lie in the Aramic fase, through the plural abso-
lute fat sen, or the emphatic 'hflsayijQ (pious)
which would correspond to the two Greek names
most largely used to designate the order, 'Effeyvol,
Hsftcnoi, and JE<r<ratoi, fissaioi. As an organiza-
tion it was confined to Palestine, lwvin» its
chief, if not its only, settlements on the shares
of the Dead Sea, though it represented tenden-
cies of thought and life which were ocncially
prevalent in that time and consequently mani-
fested themselves in many regions, especially
where Judaism was present. Many of 11 le order
resided in tho villages and even 'in the larger
towns and cities of" Palestine, which was not
inconsistent with their principles, though se-
clusion was more congenial to their manner of
life.

Information regarding the order is meagre,
being practically confined to that received from
the elder Pliny, Josephus, and Philo, who alone
speak of the Essenes from personal knowledge.
No mention is made of them in the Bible or in
Rabbinical literature. From these sources we
learn that their most distinctive features were
the strictness of their organ 1/ation, their intense
regard for ceremonial purity, including hyper-
Sabbatarianism, and their practice of the com-
munity of goods. A probation of one year was
required before the novice could be admitted to
the lustrations, and a further probation of
two years before he could obtain entrance to
the common meal and take the oath of full
membership. This oath demanded absolute obe-
dience and secrecy, and when broken was pun-
ished by an expulsion that, because of the con-
tinuance of the binding requirement that no
food should be taken which was ceremonially
unclean, was equivalent to death by starvation.
As regards their ceremonial purity, the special
points of insistence were abstinence from sexual
intercourse, — though there were some, constitut-

ESSENJES

101

ESSEX

ing, according to Josephus (War*, II, viii, 13),
a different order within the society who married
— innumerable washings, scrupulous bodily
cleanliness, the avoidance of contact with lower
orders in the brotherhood, the exclusive wearing
of white raiment, and particularly the peculiar
ceremonial requirements of their common meal,
to which none but full members of the order
were admitted, the food of which was specially
prepared by their priests, and the whole conduct
of which partook of the nature of a sacrificial
feast. As communists, all possessions and all
rewards of labor were held in common and dis-
tributed according to need. The chief employ-
ment of the brotherhood was agriculture, though
handicrafts of all kinds were carried on — the
only prohibition being trading, as leading to
covetousness, and the manufacture of weapons
and instruments which might injure men, as
being against their fundamental principle of
peace, though some members of the order were
found among the leaders and the fanatic fol-
lowers in the Jewish War. As a society they
were the first in history to condemn slavery, in
practice as well as in theory, as violating the
brotherhood of man.

The order had its chief roots in Judaism, its
struggle after ceremonial purity showing it to
be a refinement of Pharisaism. At the same
time it had elements so strongly at variance
with Judaism in general, and Pharisaism in
particular, as to suggest influences foreign to
Palestine. These elements were especially the
rejection of animal sacrifices, by which its mem-
bers were excluded from the temple worship;
the peculiar attention to the sun, which was
considered as representing the divine bright-
ness, the members praying towards it at its ris-
ing and avoiding all uncovering of themselves
before it; and especially the view entertained
regarding the origin, present state, and future
destiny of the soul, which was held to be pre-
" existent, being entrapped in the body as in a
prison and having before it, as a reward of
righteousness, a blessed paradise in the farthest
west, and, as a penalty of iniquity, a dark and
gloomy cavern full of unending punishments.
As to what these foreign influences wore, there
is considerable discussion, in which perhaps no
conclusions can be reached beyond the general
one that they were Oriental, rather than Greek,
gathering around an essential dualism whose
influence can be traced in other peculiarities of
the order's belief and custom. This is con-
firmed by the fact that Oriental influences were
prevalent in the West from the third century
B.C. to the third century A.D., within which time
Essenism flourished.

circles, had vital agreement with the precepts of
Christianity; so that from this element in Ju-
daism in general Christianity may have taken
many of its earlier converts, while it is more
than probable that Christianity's world-wide
development of these common ideals did as
much as anything to prepare Essenism for its
final disappearance as a distinctive organization.
Bibliography. A laige literature has been
produced on this subject. Among the later
books, consult: Liglitfoot, "Excursus," in Com-
mentary on Golossians and Philemon (3d ed.,
London, 1879) ; Schiirer, deschichtc des Ju-
disclien VoUc.es snr Zcit Jesu (3d ed., 3 vols.,
Leipzig, 1808-1001); FriodlUnder, Die Reli-
giosen Beicegungen Innerhalb des Judenthums
im Zeitalter Jesu (Berlin, 1005) : Bousset, Re-
ligion des Judentinns (2te Aufl., Berlin, 1906) ;
Pfleiderer, Primitive Christianity (Eng. trans.,
New York, 1006) ; Fairweather, The Back-
ground of the Gospels (ib., 1008). Also the
article by Moffatt, in fincycl. of Religion and
Ethics (New York, 1912), which quotes at
length the original sources. See JEWISH SECTS
and its bibliography.
ESSENTIAL OIL. See OILS.
ESSENTTT'KI, or ESSENTTJKSKAYA. A water-
ing resort in the Territory of Terek, in the
Northern Caucasus, Russia, about 10 miles
northwest of Pyatigorsk (Map: Russia, F 6).
It is situated at an altitude of about 2000 feet
and is much frequented during the summer
months because of its cold alkaline springs.
Pop. (eat), 8000.

ESSEQTTIBO, es'se-ke/bO (native name Dis-
sequebe). The largest river of British Guiana,
rising about 1° north of the equator on the
north slope of the Akarai Mountains, which
separate its valley from that of the Amazon
River (Map: Guiana, F 3). It flows in a
northerly direction, emptying into the Atlantic
west of Georgetown, after a course of over 000
miles. At its mouth, an estuary about 20 miles
wide is formed, containing numerous islets. Its
course is very tortuous and interrupted by
numerous cataracts, while its mouth is closed
by bars which can be passed by deep-draft ves-
sels only during high tide. It is navigated
for a considerable distance, and even heavy
vessels can ascend for a distance of about 40
miles from its mouth. Its chief tributaries are
the Rupununi, Potato, and the Cuyuni-Mazaruni,
all from the west. On the banks are forests of
locust tree, ironwood, ebony, greenheart, and
other fine timber trees. The region adjoining
the river was the subject of conflicting claims
between the British and Venezuelan govern-
ments, which led to the Arbitration Treaty of
Feb. 2, 1897. The award was made Oct. 3,
1809. See VENEZUELA, JJtsfor?/.

ESSnSS, COLLAB OF. A collar composed of a
series of the letter S. See SS, COLLAR OF.

ES'SEX (AS. East-8oa>xe, East Saxons). A
maritime county in southeastern England,
bounded on the north by Cambridge and Suffolk,
on the east by the North Sea, on the west by the
County of London and Hertford, and divided
from feent on the south by the Thames estuary
(Map: England, G 5). It has 85 miles of coast
line, and an area of 1530.5 square miles. On the
coast the surface is low-lying and marshy, but
from the centre to the north is undulating and
well wooded. The chief rivers are the Lea,
Roding, Roach, Blackwater, and Colne. Chalk,
brick, clay, and sea salt are the chief mineral

ESSEX

102

ESSEX

products. Wheat of excellent quality and bar-
ley are largely grown, and stock is raised for
market purposes. About four-fifths of the area
of the county is under cultivation. There are
extensive manufactures of chemicals, railroad
machinery and agricultural implements, powder,
lime, silks, etc., and valuable brewing, fishing,
and oyster industries. Capital, Chelmsford.
Pop. (with, associated county borough), 1001,
1,083,998; 1911, 1,350,881.

Esses figured prominently in early English
history. At the time of Csesar's invasion it was
inhabited by the Trinobantes, of whose advanced
civilization much numismatic evidence remains.
The Romans thoroughly colonized the country,
as is shown by relics dug up at Colchester, ^ as
well as by the Roman military road which
crosses the country. When the Roman power
declined the Saxons made Essex the object
of their raids, finally overrunning the land
and incorporating it with the domain of the
Count of the Saxon Shore. After the with-
drawal of the Romans, it was occupied by the
East Saxons, whence its name, and became a
member of the Saxon heptarchy. The East
Saxons continued to be ruled by a separate
dynasty until about 823, when they were ab-
sorbed by the West Saxons, which became the
ruling power in England. During the struggles
of Alfred the Great with the Danes, Essex was
the scene of many fierce conflicts, till, by the
Peace of Wedmore (879 A.D.), it was recognized
by Alfred as part of the Danish territory of
Guthrum. Later the Danes were driven out by
Alfred's son, Edward the Elder. In 1045 Essex
became nart of the earldom of Harold, but
at the time of the Norman Conquest it had
passed into the domain of the family of Swene.
Beginning with the Norman kings, and continu-
ing to the present time, it has constituted an
earldom of the crown, and has passed through
several family histories.

ES'SEX. A town and railway junction of
Essex County, Ontario, Canada, 15 miles south-
east of Windsor, on the Michigan Central Rail-
road (Map: Ontario, B 9). It has electric rail-
way connection with Kingsville, Windsor, and
Leamington. The manufacturing industries in-
clude flour and planing mills, a canning factory,
and brick and tile works. Natural gas is found
in the vicinity. Pop., 1901, 1391; 1911, 1353.

ESSEX. A town in Middlesex Co., Conn., 31
miles (direct) southeast of Hartford, on the
Connecticut River, and on the New York, New
Haven and Hartford Railroad (Map: Connecti-
cut, F 4). The town contains a public library.
It has a large piano factory and a bit factory.
Pop., 1900, 2530; 1910, 2745.

ESSEX. A town in Chittenden Co., Vt., 12
miles northeast of Burlington, on the Central
Vermont Railroad (Map: Vermont, B 3). It
contains the Essex Classical Institute. The
town is situated in a purely agricultural and
dairying region. Pop., 1900, 2203; 1910, 2714.
ESSEX, ABTHUB CAPEL, first EARL OF (in
the Capel line) (1632-83). An English states-
man. Charles II sent him to Denmark in 1659
as Ambassador in order to be rid of his oppo-
sition at home; but his conduct while there so
pleased the King that upon Ms return in 1671
he was made Privy Councilor and in 1672 Lord
Lieutenant of Ireland. He gave that country a
remarkably efficient, liberal, and honest govern-
ment until 1677 when, owing to the intrigues
of Ms enemies, he was recalled. He joined the

country party in England under the leadership
of Halifax and in 1679 was Commissioner of the
Treasury. In the following year he became a
member of Shaftesbury's party which urged the
exclusion of James from succession to the
throne. Although he did not approve of the
extreme measures of this faction he was arrested
and imprisoned in 1683 in the Tower, where he
was shortly afterward found with his throat
cut. Consult his Letters with an account of his
life (London, 1770; 2d cd., 1783), and Selections
from the Correspondence of Arthur Capel (Lon-
don, 1913).

ESSEX, ROBERT DBVEKEUX, second EAEL OF
(1567-1601). An English court favorite and
statesman. He was born at Nethenvood, Here-
fordshire. Entering Trinity College, Cambridge,
in 1579, he was given the degree of M.A. in 1581,
and three years afterward his guardian, Lord
Burghlcy, introduced him at court, where he
became a favorite of Elizabeth. Accompanying
his stepfather, the Earl of Leicester, to Holland,
he distinguished himself at the battle of Zut-
phen. After the death of Leicester, Essex con-
tinued to rise in the favor of Elizabeth, who
loaded him with honors. She gave him command
of the forces sent in 1591 to assist Henry IV of
France against the Spaniards; and five yoars
afterward she appointed him joint commander
with Lord. Howard in the expedition against
Spain. Though Essex displayed exceptional
courage at the taking of Cadiz, the expedition
was fruitless, so that on his return he had to
defend himself against various accusations. In
1597, however, he was made Earl Marshal of
England, and when Burghley died, Essex suc-
ceeded him as Chancellor of Cambridge. At the
outbreak of the rebellion in 1599 he went to
Ireland as Lord Lieutenant; but his government
was ill-advised and ineffective, and after a few
trivial undertakings he concluded with the rebels
a truce for which he was regarded at court with
grave misgivings. Contrary to the Queen's ex- •
press commands, he hastened back to London
to confront his enemies, and without changing
his travel-stained garments ho forcibly effected
an interview with the Queen in her bedchamber.
She received him kindly; but in June, 1600, he
was brought to trial before a. special court con-
sisting of the principal officers of state and the
judges, on charges of contempt and disobedi-
ence, and sentenced to dismissal from all offices
of state and to imprisonment in his own house
during the Queen's pleasure. Through the in-
tercession of Francis Bacon his liberty was soon
restored. But when he foolishly tried to excite
an insurrection in London to compel Elizabeth
to remove his enemies from the council, IIP was
imprisoned, tried, and condemned to death.
Elizabeth delayed signing the warrant for his
execution in the hope that lie would implore
her pardon. He was beheaded Feb. 25, 1601,
after defending himself with pride and dignity.
Consult: Bacon, Declaration of the Practises and
Treasons . . . Committed "by Robert, Late Earl
of Esseta (London, 1601); Spedding, Bacon, i
(ib., 1881), chief authority, should be read with
the following: Abbott, Bacon and Essex (ib.,
1877), more favorable than Spedding; Bar-
row, "Earl of Essex," in his Memoirs of the
'Nwoal "Worthies of Queen Elizabeth's Reign, pp.
333-376 (ib., 1845); Birch, Memoirs of the
Reign of Queen Elizabeth (ib., 1754) : Bruce,
Correspondence of King James VI of Scotland
with Sir Robert Cecil, etc. (Westminster, 1861) ;

ESSEX

Lohmann, Essejs-Trauerspiel (Leipzig, 1856) ;
Croxall, Memoirs of the Unhappy Favorite (Lon-
don, 1729); Wotton, Characters of Robert
Devweua) . . . and George ViUiers, etc. (Lee
Priory, 1814) ; Cooper, Athence Cantaltigienses
(2 vols., Cambridge, 1858), for his writings.

ESSEX, KOBERT DEVEREUX, third EARL OF
(1591-1646). An English general and politi-
cian. He was the son of Robert Devereux,
second Earl of Essex, and in 1604 regained pos-
session of his father's titles, which had been at-
tainted in 1601. He was educated at Eton and
Merton College, Oxford, and after the accession
of James I was one of the companions of the
Prince of Wales, afterward Charles I. In 1606
he was married to Frances Howard, daughter
of the Duke of Suffolk, but the marriage was
a loveless one, and was annulled in 1613. A
second marriage was equally unfortunate. In
1621 he saw some service in the Palatinate, and
two years later was vice admiral in a naval ex-
pedition against Cadiz. In 1626 he refused pay-
ment of the forced loan and joined the parlia-
mentary opposition to Charles I, and remained
faithful to the cause of popular government in
spite of the many favors heaped upon him by
the King, who hoped to win him over to his
side. In 1639 he was lieutenant general in the
army sent against the Scottish Covenanters.
Three years later, after the open breach between
Parliament and the King, he was made com-
mander of tho parliamentary forces. He fought
the indecisive battle of Edgehill in 1642, captured
Reading in the following year, and relieved
Gloucester, which was besieged by Charles I.
On his march from Gloucester to London he was
intercepted by the royal army and fought the
first battle of Ncwbury. In 1644 he invaded
Cornwall, but met with ill success, and, owing,
it is said, to his unwillingness to fight against
the King in person, the greater part of his army
wns forced to capitulate at Lostwithiel. Before
this he had become embroiled with the House
of Commons, because of the appointment of
other generals to independent commands in the
parliamentary army, and in 1645 he took ad-
vantage of the passing of the Self-denying Ordi-
nance to resign his commisssion.

ESSEX, THE. A United States frigate of 860
tons, in service during the War of 1812 under
the command of David Porter. Farragut was
a midshipman on the ship on her first expedi-
tion. She captured the Alert in 1812, and after
operations in the Pacific surrendered to the
riwlw and Cherub in Valparaiso harbor on
Miirch 28, 1814.

ESSEX, THOMAS CBOMWELL, EARL OF. See
CRcmwm,, THOMAS.

ESSEX, WALTER DEVEREUX, first EARL or (in
the Devevenx line) (1541-76). An English ad-
venturer. He assisted in suppressing the north-
ern rebellion under the earls of Northumberland
and Westmoreland and in 1572 was made a
knight of the Garter and Earl of Essex. In the
following year Queen Elizabeth accepted his
offer to subdue and colonize the Province of
Ulster in Ireland. After landing in that country
his forces were diminished by sickness, death,
and desertion to about 200 men, and he was
obliged to confine his efforts to petty raids —
burning tho corn stacks and fields of the O'Neill
elan. In 1574 he captured by treachery Sir
Brian MaoPhelim, leader of the O'NeilU, and
executed him, his wife, and his brother at Dub-
lin. He also massacred several hundred fol*

103

ESSLINGEN

lowers, chiefly women and children, of Sorley
Boy McDonnell on the Isle of Rathlin. He was
recalled in 1575, but returned to Ireland in tho
following year as Earl Marshal.

ESSEX HOG. See HOG and Plate of HOGS.

ESSEX JUNCTION. A village in Chitten-
den Co., Vt., 8 miles east of Burlington, on the
Central Vermont Railroad (Map: Vermont, B
3). The village contains a United States gov-
einment post and Fort Ethan Allen. It is sit-
uated in a rich farming region and has a corn-
canning factory, brickyards, grain and lumber
mills, and a butter factory. The water works
are owned by the municipality. Pop., 1900,
1141; 1910, 1245.

ESSEX JUNTO. A term used for the first
time by a Colonial governor of Massachusetts
to designate a body of men from Essex County,
who had arrayed themselves against his policy.
It was next employed by Governor Hancock in
1781, against the chief supporters of James
Bowdoin, nominated for Governor as the repre-
sentative of the traditional, as opposed to the
popular, politics of the day. The term entered
national politics about 1798, as applied oppro-
1 briously to the Federalist leaders in Massachu-
setts, who opposed Adams and his policy towards
France. Among these were Timothy Pickering,
Theophilus Parsons, Fisher Ames, George Cabot,
Stephen Higginson, and the Lowells, mostly Es-
sex County men. Adams charged that they were
allied with England, but the combination seems
not/t,to have had any treasonable intent. Later
these same men were prominent in opposition
to the Embargo and to the War of 1812, were
party chiefs of the extreme Federalists, and
were prime movers of the measures which cul-
minated in the Hartford Convention ( q.v. ) , so
that the name became a synonym for New Eng-
land Federalism. Consult Lodge, Life and Let-
ters of George Oabot (Boston, 1878).

ESSEX SKTOL. See MAN, ANCIENT TYPES.

ESSIPOPF, Ss'sS-p6f, ANNETTE (1851- ).
A Russian pianist, born in St. Petersburg. She
was one of Leschetitzky's most brilliant pupils.
She made her de"but in St. Petersburg in 1874;
then entered upon artistic travels which brought
her in 1876 to the United States, where her
playing was greatly admired. In 1880 she mar-
ried Leschetitzky, but they were divorced. From
1893 to 1908 she was professor of pianoforte at
the St. Petersburg Conservatory.

ESS1JNG, or ESS'LING-EN. A village in
Lower Austria, 7 miles east of Vienna.. Between
it and the village of Aspern a bloody battle was
fought between the French and the Auatrians
on May 21-22, 1809. This engagement is gen-
erally known as the battle of Aspern and Ess-
ling. See ASPBJEN.

ESSLI3STGEN, fishing-en. A town in the
Kingdom of Wtirttemberg, Germany, situated on
the Neckar, in the centre of a fertile district,
7 miles east-southeast of Stuttgart (Map: Ger-
many, C 4). The river is here crossed by a
bridge constructed in the thirteenth century
and restored in 1838. Esslingen consists of
aevernl suburbs, and of the inner town, which
is partly surrounded by walls, dating from 1216.
Throe of its churches are worthy of notice: the
Liebfrauenkirche, a handsome Gothixs structure
of the fifteenth century; the church of St. Diony-
flius, a basilica in the transition stylo, founded
in the eleventh century; and that of St. Paul,
in tho early Gothic style, dating from 1268. In
addition may bo montioned the old and the

ESSON

104

ESTAMPES

Rathaus and the castle of Perfried. The in-
dustries include the largest machine works in
Wiirttemberg (employing 2200 men), large rail-
way shops, fiie manufacture of gold, silver, and
plated ware, worsted, lithographed work, gloves,
lacquer ware, gelatin, and buttons; it has alao
cotton mills and beer breweries. Esslingen is
famous for its sparkling Neckar wine known as
Esslingen champagne. Pop., 1900, 27,107; 1910,
32,364. Esslingen was founded in the eighth
century, and originally belonged to the Duchy of
Swabia. In 1209 it was made a free Imperial
city. The Swabian League was formed at Ess-
lingen in 1488. In 1802 the town came into the
possession of Wtirttemberg.

ES'SOtf, WHXIAM (1838-1916). A British
mathematician, educated at the Inverness Royal
Academy and at St. John's College, Oxford
(M.A.). From 1860 to 1897 he was a fellow
of Merton College, where he served as bur-
sar, and he was also fellow of New College. He
was deputy Savilian professor at Oxford Uni-
versity from 1894 to 1897, and thereafter full
profesFtor. Elected a fellow of the Royal Society,
he published in the society's Transactions "The
Laws of Connection between the Conditions of
Chemical Change and its Amounts" (1864, 1866,
and 1895) and "Variations with Temperature
of Rate of Chemical Change" (1912).
ES'SOWITE. See GARNET.
ESSONTTES, eVstitf'. A town in the Depart-
ment of Seine-et-Oise, France, a suburban mu-
nicipality 1 mile southwest of Corbeil, and 19
miles southeast of Paris (Map: France, N.,
J 3). It has iron foundries, machinery, linen,
ar<l notable paper factories. Pop. (commune),
1P01, 9374; 1911, 9348.

ESTAB'LISHMEITTS, ECCLESIASTICAL.
Those religious bodies which in various coun-
tms have definite legal relations to the state,
involving special privileges and duties. The
origin of such a connection usually dates back
to a period when the inhabitants of the country
were practically unanimous in their religious
views. When a sovereign was moved to take
definite steps in support of religion, it could
naturally be only of that type of religion which
was to him and his subjects the normal and rec-
ognized type. In some cases, notably that of
England, the idea grew up with the country and
antedates any possibility of formal legislation.
In England the term "by law established" first
occurs in the canons of convocation in 1604,
but the relation itself was far earlier. (See
ENGLAND, CHUBCH OF.) When, at the Reforma-
tion, the bulk of the population of any country
transferred its allegiance from one religion to
another, the privileges of an establishment
were usually transferred in the same manner.
The case of Ireland was peculiar; the connec-
tion of the Protestant church of that country
with the Church of England allowed it to main-
tain its .position as a privileged body, though
in a hopeless minority, until the Disestablish-
ment Act of 1870 was passed by Mr. Gladstone.
The connection between church and state may
operate in various ways — by the sovereign as-
suming to nominate the chief ministers of the
religious body (see GAIXICAN CHUBOH; CON-
CORDAT) ; by taxation on the part of the state,
or indirectly with its sanction, for the support
of the clergy and of public worship j by a regu-
lation of the uses of property devoted to re-
ligious purposes and of the procedure and ritual
of the church; by the maintenance of ecclesias-

tical courts for the enforcement of canonical
laws; by the provision of a system of education
under ecclesiastical supervision, and in some
cases by the prohibition of dissenting worship.
(See TOLERATION; NONCONFORMISTS.) In Prot-
eatant countries the sovereign is usually con-
sidered the head of the established church;
Queen Victoria used punctiliously to mark her
sense of the requirements of this position by
always attending the services of the Presby-
terian church in Scotland and of the Anglican
in England. Tims, also, in Russia, the C/ar
practically occupies a similar position. The
restrictions upon ecclesiastical freedom insepa-
rable from such a position have caused many
devoted churchmen to feel that the advantages
were more than outweighed by the drawbacks;
and thus in England such men have been found,
in the last 50 years, in the ranks of the advo-
cates of disestablishment. The movement there
has, however, been chiefly supported by Non-
conformists of a political type, who maintain
the view that the modern free state has no right
to discriminate in lawful tilings between various
classes of its subjects. The agitation became
strong about 1870-80. England, Russia, Greece,
Sweden, Norway, Prussia, and some other Ger-
man states have established churches. ( See CIVIL
CHUBCH LAW, AMERICAN.) For the details of
the subject applying to various countries, see
the articles on those countries.

ESTAIWG, fta-tax', CIEABLES HECTOR, COUNT
p' (1729-94). A French admiral. After serving
in India under Lally-Tollendal and suffering im-
prisonment at the hands of the English, he en-
tered the royal navy and was made lieutenant
general in 1763 and vice admiral in 1777. In
1778 he commanded the fleet sent to aid the
United States against Great Britain, bringing
with him Gerard, the first French Ambassador
to the United States. He planned with the
American generals a combined land and naval
attack on Newport and forced the British to
burn a number of vessels in the harbor. Ad-
miral Howe came, with an English fleet, to re-
lieve Newport, and D'Estaing put to sea to
engage him. A sudden storm separated the
fleets, and D'Estaing put into Boston to repair
his shattered ships. In November he sailed to
the West Indies, where he captured St. Vincent
and Grenada. With 22 ships he cooperated
Oct. 9, 1779, in the unsuccessful attack on Sa-
vannah and was himself wounded. The follow-
ing year he returned to France and was in com-
mand of the French and Spanish fleet before
Cadiz when the treaty of peace was signed in
1783. He was in favor of the principles of the
French Revolution in their more moderate form,
and was elected to the Assembly of Notables in
1787. In 1789 he commanded the National
Guard. In 1792 the Legislative Assembly chose
him admiral. In 1793' he bore testimony in
favor of Marie Antoinette, but without deserting
his constitutional principles. The following
year, in spite of his work for the Revolution, he
was charged as a noble, tried, condemned, and
executed, April 28, 1794. He wrote some poetry,
a work on the colonies, and a tragedy, Les
Thermopyles (1789).

ESTAMPES, ft'taNi/, or ETAMPES, ANNE
DE PISSELEU, DUCHESSE D* (1508-C.1585). A
mistress of Francis I of France. She was maid
of honor to his mother, Louise of Savoy, and
the King fell in love with her upon his return
from Spain in 1526. In 1536 she entered into

ESTATE

105

ESTATE

a formal marriage with Jean de Brosse and was
created Duchess of Estampes. She is said to
have been beautiful, witty, and highly educated,
and to have exercised great influence over the
King. She had a rival in Diane de Poitiers
(q.v.), mistress of the Dauphin Henry, who suc-
ceeded to the throne in 1547. Political parties
centred about the persons of the two women
till the accession of Henry in 1547, when the
Duchess was banished to her estates, became a
Protestant, and lent important services to the
Huguenot cause. Consult Paulin Paris, Etudes
aur Francois Icr (Paris, 1885).

ESTATE (OF. cstat, Fr. etal, from Lat.
status, state, condition, from, stare, Gk. lardvai,
histanai, Skt. stha, to stand). The technical
term of the common law for property interests
in land. Land is not, in our legal system, like
goods and chattels, capable of absolute ownei-
sliip by a subject. The feudal system, under
whose influence our law of real property was
developed, vested the ultimate ownership of all
land in the King, all private owners being
deemed to be merely tenants, holding their lands
in subordination to the paramount rights of
the crown. The interest of such a tenant was
described as his estate in the laud, i.e., his
status with reference to it; and this estate, how-
ever complete and unqualified it might be, was
always regarded as something less than abso-
lute ownership, and as leaving a reversionary
interest in the superior lord, some portion of
the ownership undisposed of by him. The term
"estate" was originally applied only to those
interests in land technically known as freeholds,
which were classified as real property; but it
has in course of time been extended by analogy
to include other interests, such as leaseholds,
the interests of mortgagees, and certain credi-
tors* rights in land, all of which are in our law
classified as personal property. All of these
interests have this element in common, that
they exist in subordination to a paramount
or underlying title, in which they may ulti-
mately be absorbed, and which no act of the
"tenant" or temporary owner can effect. Thin
is not true, however, of most forms of personal
property, as goods, etc. These are held by the
owner absolutely, free from any superior pro-
prietorship or lordship, and accordingly his own-
ership cannot be described as a tenancy or an
estate. Hence the expression "personal estate,"
sometimes employed by analogy with "real es-
tate," is, strictly speaking, inaccurately used as
a substitute for "personal property."

The primary classification of estates, follow-
ing the line of cleavage above indicated, is into
estates of freehold and estates not of freehold.
Tn the former are included the three great forms
of freehold tenure — the fee simple, fee tail, and
life estates, the two former of which are further
described as estates of inheritance, and the last
as an estate not of inheritance. Estates not
of freehold are more commonly described simply
as tenancies — as tenancies for years (leasehold
estates), tenancies at will, and tenancies at
sufferance — the term "estate" not being usually
applied to the last two of these. Intermediate
between the leasehold estate and the tenancy at
will there has been developed a new form of
tenure known as an estate or tenancy from
year to year, which, though usually classified
with the latter, shares many of the characteris-
tics of both. All of these forms of estate, will
be described under their appropriate, titles.

The most striking fact in connection with this
classification of estates is its definiteness and
rigidity. The several varieties of estates are
sharply differentiated from one another. Each
class has its characteristic features or incidents
which mark it off distinctly from every other
class, and every tenure or holding of land must
conform to one or another of them. There are
no intermediate estates, nor can the qualities
of one be attached at will to another. No one
can create a freehold which is not either a fee
simple, a fee tail, or a life estate, and no one
can create a fee simple which has the limited
heritability of a fee tail, nor an inheritable life
estate, nor a leasehold estate which shall descend
to the heir instead of passing to the executor
or administrator of the owner upon his death.
Neither is it possible to attach novel incidents
to an estate, nor, usually, to deprive it of those
which belong to it. Thus, in a devise or con-
veyance of Uind to A and his heirs, a proviso
that it shall be inalienable, or that the inheri-
tance shall be confined to male heirs, will be
disregarded as incompatible with the nature of
a fee simple; and, there being no intermediate
estate such as the one described, i.e., an inheri-
table estate which is inalienable or in which
the inheritance is limited to males, the deviae
is treated as an ordinary fee simple with the
usual incidents of such an estate.

Apparent exceptions to this rule are afforded
by the fee-tail estate, in which inheritance is
confined to the issue of the tenant, and may be
still further limited to his male or his female
issue, etc., and by the tenancy from year to
year. But these are themselves ancient forms
of tenure, and not mere variations of the fee
simple and the tenancy at will from which they
were respectively derived, and have long since
crystallized into forms as definite and invariable
as those of the older estates. While the inci-
dents of these time-honored forms of landhold-
ing have sustained great changes through legis-
lation and the process of judicial decision, no
new forms or varieties of estate have come into
existence for upward of two and one-half cen-
turies, and no additions to the list seem likely
to be made in the near future. The sporadic
revival of the aneient qualified or limited fee
will be referred to in connection with the fee
simple (q.v.). For the employment of the term
"estate" in connection with equitable interests
in land, see EQTTTTABLE ESTATE. See also HEAL
PKOPERTY; TENURE; and the authorities there
referred to.

ESTATE* Tn a political sense, a distinct class
or order in society. The three estate* under the
feudal system were the noblep, the clergy, and
the commons. The feudal theory was that the
basis of all power was property in land, and the
clergy held their position in the feudal order by
virtue of their landed proprietorship. As the
lay rulers grew stronger, the temporal authority
of* the clergy declined, until at the present time
they form a corporation rather than a class.
The history of the later Middle Ages is a record
of the rise of the third eatate. They were the
representatives of the merchant class, the "bour-
geoisie. Thoy first arose to prominence in the
free cities of Italy and of the Hanseatic League,
Tn Spain and England, especially, the absolute
power of the crown was the product of the
alliance, of the King and the IMrd estate against
the nobles. Before the Unioju (1707) the term
"Estates of the Realm" was used in Scotland

ESTATE 106

as equivalent to Parliament. The Legislative
Assembly of Holland was also known as the
States General. The States General of France,
composed of the three estates, was first con-
vened at the beginning of the fourteenth cen-
tury. The last meeting previous to the Revolu-
tion of 1780 was in 1614-15. At the outbreak
of the Revolution the summoning of this body
was resorted to when all other expedients failed.
The old established custom was to vote by
orders, but as the third estate (tiers-Stat) would
thus have been outvoted in the new Assembly,
its members determined to introduce the new
principle of voting individually. In this they
succeeded, and, with their success and the or-
ganization of the National Assembly, the French
Revolution may be said to have begun. The
term "fourth estate" is often applied to the
press. Its first use in that sense is attributed
by Carlyle to Edmund Burke, who pointed to
the reporters' gallery in the House as con-
taining a fourth estate more powerful than the
other three.

ESTATE, SEPABATE. See SEPARATE ESTATE.

ESTATE DUTY. See DEATH DUTIES.

ESTE, Ss'ta (Lat. JEste). A city of Padua,
north Italy, 19 miles southwest of Padua (Map:
Italy, 02). The ancient house of Este (q.v.)
held control of it from 961 to 1288, followed in
turn by the Carrara, Scaliger, and Visconti
families. Here are the ruins of the ancestral
castle. In the city museum are Roman inscrip-
tions, in the Euganeo Preistorico Museum is an
important collection of antiquities. The manu-
factures are ironware and earthenware and cord-
age. Pop. (commune), 1901, 10,962; 1911,
11,704. Consult Nuvolato, Storia d'Este (Este,
1850).

ESTE, eVtft, HOUSE OF. One of the oldest and
most illustrious families of Italy. It owed its
origin to one of the petty princes who governed
Tuscany in the times of the Carolingians, and
who wore in all probability of Lombard extrac-
tion.— The first whose figure is more than a
mere shadow is ADALBERT, or OBEBTO, Marquis
of Este, one of the Italian nobles who offered
the crown of Italy to Otho of Saxony. He is
afterward styled Comes 8acri Palatii and ap-
pears to have been one of the greatest personages
in the realm; he married a daughter of Otho,
and died about 972 A.D. His family divided at
an early period into two branches, the German
and the Italian. The former was, founded by Welf
or Guelfo IV, who received the investiture of
the Duchy of Bavaria from the Emperor Henry
IV in 1070; the latter by his brother Fulco I
(1060-1135). The houses of Brunswick and
Hanover, and consequently the present sover-
eigns of Great Britain, also called Este-G-uelphs,
are descended from the German branch. (See
BRUNSWICK, HOUSE OF,) In the twelfth and
thirteenth centuries the history of the Italian
family, as heads of the Guelph party, is in-
terwoven with the destinies of the other ruling
families and small republics of northern Italy.
During this period they gained permanent pos-
session of Ferrara and the March of Ancona
(1276) and afterward of Modena and Reggio
(1288-90). They were widely celebrated as pa-
trons of art and literature. One of the most
illustrious was Azzo VTI (1205-64), who en-
couraged Provencal troubadours to settle at his
court at Ferrara and also founded schools in
that city. — ALFONSO I (1486-1534) was equally
distinguished as a soldier and a statesman and

EST^BANEZ CALDEBON

was celebrated by all the poets of his time, par-
ticularly by Ariosto. His second wife was
Lucrezia Borgia (q.v.). His quarrel with the
Popes Julius II, Leo X, and Clement VII was
unfortunate, as an interdict was laid upon him
for his adherence to the League of C-ambrai, and
his papal fiefs were declared forfeited. After
the capture of Rome, in 1527, the Duke was
restored to his former possessions by Charles
V. — His successor, EBCOLE II (1508-50), mar-
ried Kenata, daughter of Louis XII of France,
and attached himself to Charles V. "He and his
brother, a dignitary of the Catholic church, wore
also liberal patrons of art and sciences; the
latter erected the magnificent Villa d' Kste at
Tivoli. — ALFONSO II (died 1597) was fonder of
luxury and splendor than of art and literature.
He it was who persecuted the poet Tasso. He
was also an unsuccessful aspirant for the Polish
crown. — ALFOXSO IV, who lived in the latter
half of the seventeenth century, was a lover of
the fine arts, and founded the Este Gallery of
Paintings at Modena. His daughter, Mary of
Modena, married James II of "England. — TCi-
NALDO (1655-1737), by his marriage with the
daughter of the Duke of Brunswick-Lunolmrg,
united the German and Italian houses, separated
since 1070. Like his predecessors he was a
faithful ally of Austria, although his son took
the part of Spain against Maria Theresa. The
male line of the house of Este in Italy became
extinct on the death of his grandson, Ercole III,
in 1803, his possessions having been previously
seized by the French invaders and annexed to
the Cisalpine Republic. His only daughter mar-
ried the Archduke Ferdinand of Austria and
founded the Austrian house of Este which lasted
till 1875. Their eldest son, Francis IV, cousin
of the Emperor Francis, was placed on the
throne of Modena by the Congress of Vienna,
1814, and on his mother's death obtained the
duchies of Massa and Carrara. He was sue-
ceeded by his son, Francis V, in 1840. The
family of Este was pro-Austrian in sympathy,
the result of which proved fatal. Tn 185f>
Charles V was forced to resign his territories
to Victor Emmanuel. He died in retirement
in 1875, the last representative of the Rate
family, the title passing to the Archduke Fran-
cis Ferdinand, heir to the Austrian throne. A
History of the House of Este was published
anonymously in London in 1681. Consult also:
Symonds, The Renaissance in Italy (London,
187f>-86) ; Browning, Ouclfs and GhihcWncfi
(ib.,, 1893); Sismondi, Italian Republics (Eng.
trans., ib., 1832); Ciscato, Storia d'Jflste
dalle origini al 1889 (Este, 1800)? Campori
and Rolcrti, £iri£t, Luorezia e Leonora cT Este
(Turin, 1888); Solerti, Ferrara e la corte
cstense (Castello, 1891) ; Muratori, Dclle anti-
chita estensi ed italiane (3 vols., Modena, 1717) ;
Gardner, Princes and Poets of Ferrara (London,
1904) ; Noyes, The Story of Fcrrara (ib., 1004) ;
Litta, Famiglie Cclclri Italiane (Milan, 1808)*
ESTfiBANBZ CA£DE»6N, as-tf/Bil-ntUh
kal'di-run', DON SratArtN (1799-1807). A
Spanish poet and novelist. He was born in
Malaga, studied law at the University of Gra-
nada, and in 1822 was made professor* of poetry
and rhetoric there. In 1830 he went to Madrid,
where he published anonymously his only vol-
ume of poems tinder the title El solitario
(1831). He also wrote several articles on An-
dalusian manners for the Cartas Espaftolas, the

E STELLA

107

ESTERS

only literary journal at that period in Spain.
In 1834, during the first Carlist War, he was
appointed auditor general of the Legitimatist
army in the north. In 1836 he was appointed
Jefe- Politico of LogroSo, but an accident
obliged him to return to Madrid, where he de-
voted himself to collecting manuscripts of the
old national literature, to be the basis of a great
critical edition of the Cancioneros and Roman-
ceros. In 1838 he was appointed Jefe-Politico
of Seville. He served repeatedly as deputy and
from 1856 was a member of the Council of
State. Estebanez Culderon wrote also a fine
novel, Cristianos y Moriscos (1838). His Es-
cenas andalusas (1847) are a series of lively
sketches of Andalusian life and form a trust-
worthy account of customs that have largely
disappeared. At his death ho left a work on
the Expediciones y aventura? de los Espanolcs
en Africa. The Spanish government purchased
his valuable library. Consult Cflnovas del Cas-
tillo, El solitario y su tiempo, etc. (2 vols.,
Madrid, 1883).

ESTELLA, ft-stalya. A town in the Province
of Navarre, Spain, situated on the Rio Ega,
about 20 miles southwest of Pamplona (Map:
Spain, D 1). It has a picturesque situation
and one of considerable military importance, is
well built, with fine streets and squares, and
contains several interesting churches. The town
is surrounded by a fertile region and is a place
of some trade 'and manufactures. Pop., 1900,
5766; 1010, 5658. Ebtella is a town of great
antiquity, perhaps the ancient Gebala. It played
a prominent part in the Carlist uprisings. In
1835 the Carlists took possession of the town,
and here in 1830 occurred the execution by the
Carlist loader Maroto of five brother generals.
During 1873-76 Estella was the main strong-
hold of Don Carlos and was the scene of several
conflicts. Its surrender in February, 1876, oc-
casioned a complete downfall of the Pretender's
cause.

ESTEPA, a-stil'pa. A town in the Province
of Seville, Spain, situated in a hilly region, about
60 miles cast of the city of Seville (Map: Spain,
C 4). It has broad and level streets and is de-
fended by an old Moorish castle. The parish,
church of Santa Maria la Mayor is an imposing
structure in Gothic style with three naves. The
chief industries are agriculture and stock rais-
ing, and the manufacture of oil, soap, etc. There
are jasper quarries in the vicinity. Pop., 1000,
8773; 1010, 8234. Estepa is identified with the
ancient Astapa, which became celebrated in the
Second Punic War. After an heroic resistance
against the Roman besiegers its inhabitants
chose death by fire rather than surrender. The
Romans subsequently colonized the place. In
1240 it was recovered from the Moors by Ferdi-
nand III.

ESTEPONA, a'sta-p5'na, A maritime town
in the Province of Malaga, Spain, on the Medi-
terranean, about 25 miles northeast of Gibraltar
(Map: Spain, C 4). It is laid out with gen-
erally wide but sloping streets, and has a parish
church, dating from 1474, which is in ruins.
The town is in a fertile region, producing groin,
wine, fruits, and vegetables, and has consider-
able coasting trade, though the harbor lacks
shipping facilities. There are also fisheries and
fish-curing interests, and manufactures of
liquors, leather, rope, corks, brick, and tile. A
lighthouse stands on the Punta de la Doncella,
near by. Population, 1900, 0307; 1910, 9613.
VOL. VIII.— 8

ESTERHAZY, or ESZTEBHAZY, eVter-ha-z$.
The name of an ancient noble Hungarian family
which possesses immense domains in Hungary
and traces its descent from Paul Estoras, a
mythical descendant of Attila, baptized in the
tenth century. Two branches of the family,
Zerhizy and Illye'shazy, appear as early as
1238. The latter line became extinct in
1838. The titles of baron, count, and prince
were conferred in turn upon members of the
family. The iirst Estcrhazy to become cele-
brated was NICHOLAS (1582-1645), Palatine of
Hungary, an ardent supporter of the Counter
Reformation. Later members of tlw? family arc
PAUL IV (1635-1713), Prince Ksterhftzy of
Galtinta. As Austrian field marshal, lie dis-
tinguished himself in the wars against the
Turks, especially at St. Gotthard in 1064,
Vienna in 1683, and Buda in 1686. He was
made Palatine of Hungary in 16S1, and had a
share in the overthrowing of Tokolyi (q,v.)
and the consolidation of the Hapsburg power
in Hungary. He died a prince of the Empire.
— NICHOLAS JOSEPH (1714-00), Prince Ester-
hazy of Galdnta, Count of For chten stein, grand-
son of Paul IV, was Privy Councilor, field
marshal, and several times Ambassador. Tie
fought bravely in Silesia during the Seven
Years' War. He was a patron of the arts and
sciences and established a famous orchestra at
Eisenstadt, among whose members were Ployel
and Haydn.— -NICHOLAS IV (1765-1833), Prince
Esterhazy of Galtinta, grandson of Nicholas
Joseph, traveled widely in hia youth; then
entered the army, rose to the rank of general,
and became prominent in diplomatic affairs.
Possessed of an inherited love for the arts, he
spent an immense fortune on his collections of
pictures and engravings, now at the Museum
of Vienna. In 1800 Nicholas refused Napoleon's
offer of the crown of Hungary. Haydn found
in him a most generous patron. — PAUL AN-
TON (1786-1866), Prince Estcrhazy of Galanta,
son of Nicholas IV, was Austrian Ambassador
at Dresden in 1800, at Rome in 1814, and at
London from 1815 to 1842. He wits Minister
in the Hungarian cabinet of 1848. In 1840
lie retired from public life, but was present as
Austrian Ambassador at the coronation of
Alexander II at Moscow in 1856. Another
prominent member of tlie family was Moritz,
Count Esterhazy . (1807-90), diplomat and
statesman. Consult Count Janos Esterh&iy,
Description of the Estcrhdvy Family (Budapest,
1901).

ESTEB.'IFICATION'. See ESTERS.

ESTERS (arbitrary variant of ether), or
ETHEBEAL SALTS, sometimes inaptly spoken of
as "compound ethers." A class of carbon com-
pounds formed by the union of acids and al-
cohols. Thus, when ordinary alcohol and strong
hydrochloric acid are mixed together and
heated, they combine according to the following
equation:

CAGE + HC1 = C3HBC1 + JEW)
Ethyl alcohol Hydrochloric Ethyl chloride Water
acid (an ester)

By analogous reactions the ester called ethyl
nitrate may be obtained from ordinary alcohol
and nitric acid; the ester called ethyl acetate,
from ordinary alcohol and acetic acid, etc.

Another method of preparing esters, often
used in the case of organic acids, is to employ
not the acid itself, but its chloride. Thus,

ESTERS

108

ESTERS

ethyl acetic c&ter (ethyl acetate) may bo pre-
pared by the action of ordinary alcohol upon
acetyl chloride, CH3COC1, which is the chloride
of acetic acid. The reaction is as follows:

CHaCOCl + C2HBOH = CHjCOOaH, + HC1

Aoetyl Alcohol Ethyl acotic Hydrochloric

chloride eater acid

Still anotlier important method of making
eaters consists in causing the silver salts of
acids to react with halogen (usually iodine)
derivatives of hydrocarbons. Thus, ethyl acetic
ester may be prepared from silver acetate and
ethyl iodide (the latter itself made from ethyl
alcohol), according to the following equation:

CH3COOAg + CLHfil = CHiCOOCA + Agl
Silver acotate Ethyl Ethyl acetic Silver

iodide ester iodide

The esters of organic acids, such as ethyl acetic
ester, are, as a rule, colorless, pleasant-smelling,
more or less volatile liquids. Some occur ready
formed in the vegetable world, imparting their
odor to fruits and flowers. Artificially pre-
pared esters, therefore, serve to flavor candy,
pastry, and perfumes, and are sold under the
names of pear oil, apple oil, pineapple oil, etc.
Other esters occur ready formed, both in the
vegetable and in the animal worlds, and are
known as oils and fats (qq.v.).

By the action of water esters are broken up
into their components (i.e., into alcohols and
acids) — a reaction which is greatly furthered
by the presence of acids. Thus, ethyl acetic
ester is broken up into ordinary acetic acid
and ethyl alcohol according to the following
equation :

CH:;COOC2H3 + H30 = CHaCOOH + aHBOH
Ethyl acetic Water Acetic acid Ethyl

alcohol

Alkalies have the same effect on esters, but
much more pronounced. Thus, potassium hy-
droxide (raustin potash) decomposes ethyl
acetic ester as follows:

CH5COOCaHs + KOH = CH8COOK + C3HBOH
Potassium
acetate

Esterification and Saponification. The con-
version of an acid into tin cater is termed eater-
ification. The decomposition of an ester into
its constituents is sometimes termed saponifica-
tion (the reason for using this term is stated
in the article FATS). When the saponification
of an ester is effected by water alone, or with
the aid of acids, but not* of metallic hydroxides,
the ester is said to be ''hydrolyzcd."

The processes of ewterification and saponifica-
tion have furnished a considerable portion of
the material up.on which certain very important
theories of modern chemistry have* been tested
and verified. The theories themselves are ex-
plained in some detail in the article REACTION,
CHEMICAL, A brief account of their bearing on
the processes of esterification and saponification
may, however, not be out of place in the present
sketch.

It was stated above that ethyl acetic ester
may be formed by the action of ethyl alcohol
upon acetic acid. This reaction takes place
according to the following equation:

CaHaOH + CH3COOH = GH3COOC2H0 + HaO
Ethyl Acetic acid Ethyl acetic Water

alcohol eater

The reaction evidently involves the simultane-
ous formation of water and of ethyl acetic ester.

On the other hand, it was also stated above that
water decomposes ethyl acetic ester into its
components. Therefore, even while the ester is
being formed from its components, it is broken
up again by the action of the water formed
along with it. In other words, two opposite re-
actions take place simultaneously, one being a
process of esterification, the other a process of
saponification. If the two processes took place
with equal rapidity from the very beginning,
neither could evidently make any progress; so
that, whether we should mix alcohol and acetic
acid, or water and ethyl acetic ester, no change
at all would ensue. In reality, however, this is
not the case, one of the reasons being as fol-
lows: All chemical reactions take place ac-
cording to the law of mass action. By this
law, the rapidity with which two given sub-
stances react with each othor at a given
temperature is proportional to the amounts of
those substances contained in unit volume. The
greater the amounts present, the moro rapid
the reaction. When alcohol and acetic acid are
mixed together, a reaction starts in with con-
siderable rapidity. During the reaction both
substances gradually disappear as such. Their
amounts present in every unit of volume, there-
fore, gradually diminish, and hence the reaction
(i.e., the ewterification) becomes gradually
slower and slower. On the other hand, since the
reaction produces ester and water, the amounts
of these gradually increase, and hence the re-
action between them (i.e., the saponification)
gradually becomes more and more rapid. The
velocities with which the two opposite reactions
take place, therefore, tend to become equal, and
when this "equilibrium" is finally readied the
composition of the mixture ceases to change.
Not that all reaction has then entirely ccawd.
Both of the opposite reactions undoubtedly con-
tinue to take place as before. Only for' every
amount esterified, an exactly equivalent amount
is now saponified, and hence no change can bo
observed. In other words, a "dynamic" (not
a "static") equilibrium is established in the
mixture, which is now composed of four sub-
stances— acid, alcohol, ester, and water. This
equilibrium can be reached in two ways: (1)
by starting with a mixture of alcohol anrl
acid, or (2) by starting with a mixture of
ester and water. Thus, when 40 grams of
alcohol are mixed with 60 grams of acetic acid
(46 and 60 arc the relative reacting weight* of
alcohol and acetic acid), a process of enter! flea-
tion ensues, and continues until the composi-
tion of the mixture- becomes as follown: ]#*•»
grams of alcohol, 20 grams of acetic acid, 58 ?«
grams of ethyl acetic ester, and 12 grams of
water. In this mixture no further change can
take place. But a mixture of precisely the
same composition is finally obtained if, to' start
with, 88 grams of ethyl acetic ester and 18
grams of water (88 and 18 are the relative re-
acting weights of the ester and of water) have
been allowed to react upon each other.

All this holds good, of course, only in case
none of the products of the reaction is elimi-
nated. For if, e.g., we were to remove the water
produced by the esterification, the counteracting
process (i.e., the saponification) could not take
place, and hence the esterification would proceed
unchecked until all the alcohol and acid had
combined. As a matter of fact, this is the case
when some dehydrating agent (such as sul-
phuric axsid, zinc chloride, etc.) is added to a

ESTERS

109

ESTES

mixture of alcohol and acid, the esteriflcation
being then practically complete.

The saponifying action of bases has long been
comparatively well understood, at least in a
formal, mathematically descriptive way; it is
explained by the law of mass action already
mentioned in this sketch, with the aid of the
theory of electrolytic dissociation. (See DISSO-
CIATION.) The saponifying action of a base is
due to its electro-negative hydroxyl ions (OH).
Since, according to the law of mass action, the
rapidity of any reaction in general depends on
the amounts of the active substances contained
in unit volume, the rapidity of a saponification
must depend on the amount of ester and on
the amount of the hydroxyl ions present in
every unit of volume. The stronger the base
the greater the number of hydroxyl ions in its
solution, and hence the greater its saponifying
pOAver. If the base is weak (like ammonium
hydroxide), its small number of hydroxyl ions
is still further (and very considerably) dimin-
ished by the presence of one of its salts; hence
the presence of such salts lias a retarding effect
on the process of saponification, especially in
case the base is weak. Further, since a salt
necessarily forms during the saponification (see,
e.g., the equation representing, above, the sapon-
ification of ethyl acetic ester by caustic potash) ,
the rate of saponification must be diminished
not only by the disappearance of the ester and
base as such, but also by the formation of the
salt and free alcohol, the products of the re-
action. The mathematical application of these
principles leads to a method of calculating the
rapidity with which a saponification may take
place, if the amounts of ester and base and
the strength of the latter are given. The re-
sults thus obtained on a purely theoretical basis
have, in a large number of cases, been verified
by actual experiment, and the agreement of
the theoretical and experimental figures has
been found good throughout.

The hastening (see CATALYSIS) of esterifica-
tion and of ester hydrolysis by acids has boon
the subject of numerous investigations; but
its mechanism is not yet clearly understood.
The "stronger" a given acid is found to be when
examined with regard to its power of conduct-
ing the electric current in aqueous solution,
the greater is also found to be its catalytic
effect upon the formation and hydrolysis of
esters. From this it has been concluded that
it is not the acid as a whole, but its free hydro-
gen ions that hasten the reaction. But nothing is
positively known as to how hydrogen ions can
hasten a reaction. Furthermore, the interven-
tion of other factors is indicated by the fact
that the observed reaction velocity is by no
means directly proportional to the number of
hydrogen ions present.

The phenomena of so-called "direct esterifica-
tion" (i.e., esterification as it takes place be-
tween an organic acid and an alcohol in the
absence of a strong foreign catalyzing acid)
have been closely investigated by Rosanoff with
several collaborators. Here, too, the reaction is
catalyzed, but the catalytic agent is the esteri-
fying acid itself; the absence of a foreign
catalyzer simplifies the problem and permits
of gaining deeper insight into the mechanism
of the reaction. The acid principally employed
in these studies was benzoic acid, which was
esterified with ethyl alcohol, the reacting mix-

ture being dissolved in acetone and kept for
definite periods of time, in sealed tubelets, at
the temperature of boiling aniline (183° C.).
The results have shown that under these condi-
tions three molecules take part in the reaction :
tico of the acid and one of alcohol. Previous
to these investigations it was generally believed
that the reaction proper takes place between
one molecule of alcohol and one molecule of acid,
as would be indicated by the ordinary chemical
equation:

C,,H5COOH + C^OH = CeH3COOC2H8 + H20
Beazoic acid Ethyl alcohol Ethyl benzoio Water

ester
The true equation is:

2f TT OOOTT — I- f TT OTT ~~ f TT OOOf TT I TT r\
VCoH^COOH

Tlie "catalyzing" part of the acid thus takes
part in the reaction as well as the "esterifying"
part, as is shown by the fact that the two parts
obey the law of mass action equally well. (See
CATALYSIS.) Moreover, Rosanoff and his col-
laborators have succeeded in showing that the
three reacting molecules first form one triple
molecule, which subsequently breaks down with
formation of single molecules of ester, water,
and acid (the three substances shown to the
right of the equality sign in the last equation
above). But the same triple molecule can also
be formed by the union of single molecules of
ester, water, and acid, and it can also break
down into two molecules of acid and one mole-
cule of alcohol (the substances formulated to
the left of the equality sign in the true equa-
tion of the process). Accordingly the reaction
takes place in two stages: in the first the
triple molecule is formed, in the second it is
decomposed; and it is reversible because the
intermediate triple molecule can both be formed
from, and decomposed into, the two sets of
single molecules involved, so that the same
state of equilibrium must ultimately be pro-
duced whether we start with two molecules of
benzoic acid and one of alcohol, or with single
molecules of ester, water, and acid.

All the known facts in the case, which space
does not permit of discussing in the present
article, point to the following formula as rep-
resenting the structure of the intermediate
triple molecule:

H
-0--

CJEUO

-E

6CC6H6

The dotted lines here denote half valencies,
whose rupture constitutes the last stage of the
reaction (i.e., the stage! following the formation
of the complex molecule itself). However, this
structural formula, .while interesting as a faith-
ful summary of a variety of facts, is never-
theless hypothetical, as such formulae must re-
main in the present state of chemical science.
ESTES, DANA (1840-1909). An American

Eublisher, born at Gorham, Me., and educated
i the public schools. He worked several years
as a clerk, and served in the Federal army in
the Civil War until disabled by wounds. He
became a member of the publishing firm of

BSTBVAN no

Degen, Estes & Co., subsequently was with
Lee and Shepard, and in 1872 became a part-
ner in the house of Estes and Lauriat. This
latter firm was succeeded in 1898 by Dana
Estes & Co. As a traveler, Estes was the first
American to explore the Nile country to Uganda,
and the Congo Free State. He also organized
and was first secretary of the International
Copyright Association. He compiled Chimes for
Childhood (1868) and Spectrum Analysis Ex-
plained (1872) and edited Half -Hour Recrea-
tions in Popular Science (1874; 2d cd., 1879).

ESTEVAN", eVtS-van. A town in Assiniboia
District, Saskatchewan, Canada, on the Souris
Ifiver, and on the Canadian Pacific Railway,
14o mites southeast (direct) of Moosejaw and
about 295 miles southwest (direct) of Winnipeg
(Map: Saskatchewan, H 8). Among the manu-
facturing industries are lumber and brick yards
and flour mills. There are grain elevators and
implement-distributing warehouses, and a gov-
ernment coal-testing plant. The town is an im-
portant shipping centre for coal and brick.
There is a municipal electric-light plant. Pop.,
1901, 181; 1911, 1981; 1914 (local eat), 4000.

ESTHER, gs'tSr (Heb. Ester; cf. Babylonian
Ishtar, and late Bab. Estra), or HADASSAH
(Heb., myrtle). A biblical character who has
given her name to the Book of Esther, which
forms part of the collection of the Old Testa-
ment. According to this book, Esther is a
Jewess of the tribe of Benjamin. She is rep-
resented as the daughter of Abihail, orphaned
in early life, and brought up by her cousin
Mordecai (Esther ii. 7, 15) in Susa, the Persian
capital (ii. 5). When the King of Persia,
Ahasucrus (Xerxes, 485-465 B.C.), angered at
the refusal of his Queen, Vashti, to unveil
herself publicly at a banquet, desired a new
queen (i-ii. 4), Esther was brought to the palace
and was chosen in Vashti's place (ii. 8-20).
As Queen, she accomplished that for which she
has since been famous — the deliverance of her
nation from the cruelty of Haman, the King's
vizier, and also brought about the overthrow
of Haman himself (iii-ix). In commemoration
of this deliverance the Jews celebrate the Feast
of Purim. See PURIM.

There are several difficulties involved in sup-
posing Esther to have actually been the Queen
of Xerxes. Herodotus mentions Amestris as the
only Queen of Xerxes, and what we know of her
does not at all agree with the story of Esther.
Moreover, the Persian kings chose their wives
from the principal Persian families or from the
daughters of foreign potentates. Hence it has
been supposed that Esther was in reality merely
the favorite of the King's harem. But even this
is unlikely; and many scholars now hold that
she is an entirely mythical character, identical
with Ishtar, the Babylonian goddess. See

ESTHEB, BOOK OF.

ESTHEB. 1. A drama by Racine, written at
the suggestion of Madame de Maintenon, and
founded on the life of the Old Testament person-
age of the same name. It waa written for the
pupils of Saint-Cyr, and was performed by them
before Louis XIV in 1689. 2. An oratorio, the
words by Humphreys, based on Racine's play,
and the music by Handel. Its first performance
took place in 1720.

ESTHER, BOOK OF. One of the very latest of
the canonical books of the Old Testament, be-
longing to the third division, of the collection
known as the Hagiographa. It contains the

ESTHEB

story of the deliverance of the Jews of Persia
from a destruction planned for them by Haman,
the Grand Vizier of Ahasuerus (Xerxes, 485-405
B.C. ) . The heroine of the book is a Jewess whose
original name is Hadassah, but who appears as
Esther. The scene is laid at the court of Aha-
suerus, in Susa. The King, who has deposed his
Queen, Vashti, for refusing to obey his orders
that she show her beauty to the revelers at the
King's banquet, gives direction to seek for a
beautiful woman to take Vashti's place. Esther,
a Jewess, is selected as the fairest of maidens
and meets with the favor of the King. She is
the cousin of Mordecai, a Jew of the tribe of
Benjamin, by whom she has been brought up;
but shortly after Esther's elevation a gu\it
disaster threatens her people through the refusal
of Mordecai to pay homage to Haman, the Grand
Vizier, and who is a descendant of Agag, Kins
of Amalek (1 Sam. xv). Haman in great anger
proceeds to Ahasuerus and, accusing all the
Jewish subjects of disloyalty, offers to put 10,000
talents of silver into the royal treasury as the
proceeds of the permission to pillage the Jews.
The King consents and issues an edict for the
extermination of the Jews and the confiscation
of their property. At this moment Esther,
urged on by Mordecai, intervenes. Uninvited,
she enters the presence of the King to intercede
on behalf of her people. The King receives
her graciously and accepts her imitation to dine
with her on two consecutive nights. On the
night preceding the second banquet, at which
Esther intended to make known her request, the
King learns from the royal archives of the
services rendered by Mordecai in discovering a
conspiracy against Ahasuerus* life, for which
he had never been rewarded. Haman, too, comes
to the banquet, and the King, having in mind
Mordecai, asks Haman what should be done with
the man whom the King delighteth to honor.
Haman replies, and endures the humility of
himself leading Mordecai in triumph through
the streets. At the second banquet Esther dirt-
closes her nationality and exposes the designs
of Haman, who is 'seized and ordered to ho
executed on a gallows which he had prepared for
Mordecai. The latter is raised to the vacant
post of honor, and the Jews are given permission
to defend themselves against the carrying out
of the order for their extermination, which, in
accordance with the customs of the Medes and
Persians, could not be revoked. A great dread
falls upon the people, and on the day set for the
extermination of the Jews the latter slay 500
men in Susa, and 7ef>,000 of their enemies in
the Persian Empire. Esther then makes a
further request that the Jews be permitted to
slay their enemies in Susa the following day.
and this is granted, 300 more being killed on
the 14th of Adar. Jn commemoration of the
deliverance the Feaat of Purim was instituted.
The Book of Esther, as is now generally recog-
nized by scholars, is a romance, which may, how-
ever, contain an historical kernel, bein# based
on some persecution endured by the Jews of
Susa. Mordecai and Hainan, as descendants of
Benjamin and Agag, typify the old feud between
Hebrews and Amalekitcs. It is also probable
that a Babylonian legend or myth has guided
the author of the book in some of the situations
of the dramatic tale. Mordceai is a derivative
of Marduk, the chief god of Babylonia; Esther
is a form of the Babylonian goddess Tshtar;
while Haman and Vashti are names analogous

ESTHER

III

ESTHER VILLE

to those borne by Elamitic deities.

the conflict between Babylonian

The story

thus represents the conflict between Babylonian
and Elamitic gods. The Feast of Purim also
presents analogies to the Babylonian New Year's
Festival.

The language of the book, as well as the cir-
cumstance that the Persian Empire is treated as
a thing of the past, favor a late date for the
composition. It was probably written in the
second century B.C. The Greek translation was
introduced in Egypt in the fourth year of
Ptolemy and Cleopatra, probably 114 B.C.; and as
its purpose was to urge the Egyptian Jews to
observe the Purim festival, the book is not likely
to have been written long before this date. It
seems to have been written originally as a plea
for the general observance of a festival which
appears at one time to have been limited to the
Jews of Babylonia and Persia. See PUBIM.

Consult, besides the commentaries on the Book
of Esther by Wildeboer (Freiburg, 1898), Sieg-
fried (GSttingen, 1901), Paton (New York,
1008), the introductions to the Old Testament
( see EXEGESIS ) , and the articles of Toy, "Esther
as a Babylonian Goddess," in The New World,
vol. vi (Boston, 1897) ; Zimmern, in Zeitschrift
•jur Alttestamenthche Wissen&cliaft, vol. x (Gics-
sen, 1891) ; Jensen, in Wiener ZeitscJirift fur die
Kunde des Morgenlandes, vol. vi (Vienna, 1892) ;
Krbt, Die Puriinsage in der Bi'bel (Berlin, 1900) ;
Paul Haupt, in Beitrdge ssur Assyriologie (Leip-
zig, 1900), and in American Journal of Semitic
Languages and Literatures (Chicago, 1908).

ESTHER, DEUTEROCANONICAL FBAGMENTS IN
BOOK OF. In the Greek translations of the Book
of Esther there arc seven somewhat extensive
passages not found in the Hebrew text. They
are regarded by many Roman Catholic scholars
as parts of the original text which were removed
from the Hebrew, perhaps in order that the name
of God — used in these passages, but not in the
rest of the book — might not be dishonored
when the roll was read during the rather secular
festival of Purim. Most Protestant scholars
regard them as interpolations, intended to sup-
plement and amplify the story, which became
a favorite with the Jews. The late Greek origin
of these additions seems to be indicated by such
a detail as the representation of Haman as a
Macedonian who attempted to transfer the
sovereignty from the Persians to the Mace-
donians, and by the contradictions between them
and the Hebrew text. These additions, which
are therefore supposed to be the work of Hellen-
istic writers, were all put by Jerome, in his
Latin translation of the Bible, at the end of
the book, together with notes to show where
other additions to the Hebrew occur in the
Greek. This relegation of the additions to an
appendix was unfortunate, as it obscured the re-
lation to the chapters in which they were origi-
nally inserted. In English versions they are
embodied in the Apocrypha under the title "The
Rest of the Chapters of the Book of Esther."
They consist of (1) Mordecai's dream and the
conspiracy of the two eunuchs (precedes Esther
i. ]); (2) the King's edict commanding the
destruction of the Jews (follows iii. 13); (3)
Mordecai's exhortation of Esther (follows iv.
8) ; (4) prayer of Mordecai and prayer of
Esther (follows iv. 17); (5) Esther's appear-
ance before the King (amplification of v. 1, 2) ;
(6) the King's second edict, in favor of the
Jews (follows viii. 12) ; (7) interpretation of
Mordecai's dream (follows x. 3). They are

supposed by many scholars to have been written
in the first century B.C. In the Aramaic para-
phrases of Esther, of which there are two, known
as the first and second Targums to Esther,
there are similar embellishments, independent
of the Greek additions. See DEUTEBOCANONICAL
BOOKS. Consult: Bissell, The Apocrypha of
the Old Testament (New York, 1880); Fuller,
in Wace, The Apocrypha (ib., 1888) ; Kaulcn,
Einleitung in das Alte Testament (4th ed., Leip-
zig, 1912) ; Scholz, Kowmentar itber das Buch
Esther mit seinen Zusateen (Wtirzburg, 1892) ;
Comely, Introductio in, T, T. Lilros Macros, ii,
1 (Paris, 1897); Ryssel, in Kautzsch, Die Apo-
kryphcn und Pseudepigi aphen des Alten 7'c<?
taments (Tubingen, 1000); Andre, Les Apo-
hryphcs de VAncien Testament (Florence, 1903) ;
Jahn, Das Buch Esther nach der Septuagmta
hergestellt (Leiden, 1901); Streanc, The Book
of Esther (New York, 1907) ; Paton, The Book
of Esther (ib., 1908) ; Gregg, in Charles, The
Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testa-
ment (Oxford, 1913).

ESTHER, QUEEN. An Indian Chieftainess.
See MONTOUR.

ESTHE11IA (Neo-Lat., anagram of St.
Theresa). A bivalve phyllopod crustacean of
the order Branchiopoda, found in a fossil state
in deposits of fresh and brackish water origin,
from the Devonian to the Pleistocene. The ani-
mal is not well segmented and is able to with-
draw itself wholly within its shell. (For its
anatomical characters, see the articles on CRUS-
TACEA and PIIYLLOPODA.) Tlie shell varies in
size from % to 1 inch in length and is of
rounded, flattened form, with moderately promi-
nent beaks near the hinge line. In texture it
is thin and membranaceous, and the surface is
usually marked by concentric folds or imbricat-
ing ridges between which arc trellised or anas-
tomosing lines. This latter character serves to
distinguish Estheria shells froni the shells of
small pelocypods such as Posidonomya. One
species (Estheria wembranacea) is found in the
Old Red Sandstone of the British Devonian, in
equivalent beds of Germany, and in the contem-
poraneous formations of the Oneonta-Catskill
group of New York State. About 24 living
species of Estheria, and about an equal number
of fossil species, are known from widely dis-
tributed regions. Allied genera are Limnadia
and Linmetis, each represented by a few species,
and the fossil genus Leaia, found in the Car-
boniferous and Permian formations, which differs
from Estheria in the presence of diagonal ridges
that run from the umbones to the ventral mar-
gins of the shell.

Consult: Jones, "A Monograph of the Fossil
Estherioe," Monographs of the Palccontographical
Society (London, 1802); "On Fossil Esthevto
and their Distribution," Quarterly Journal of
the Geological Society of London, vol. xix
(ib., 1863). See also CRUSTACEA; PIIYLLOPODA;
and, for illustration, see Plate of PIIYLLQPODA.

ESTHEBVHiLE, eVter-vIl. A city and the
county seat of Emmet Co., Iowa, about 140
miles (direct) northwest of PCS Moines, on the
Des Moines River, and on the Chicago, Rock Is-
land and Pacific and the Minneapolis and St.
Louis railroads (Map: Iowa, C 1). The city
contains a Carnegie library and a fine high-
school building. It is situated in an agricultural
and stock-raising district and has grain eleva-
tors, flouring mills, railroad machine shops,
creameries, a tub factory, cement-products works,

ESTHONIA

112

ESTOPPEL

musical instrument and cigar factories, etc.
The wholesale interests are considerable. The
\vater works and electric-light plant are owned
Dy the municipality. Pop., 1900, 3237; 1910,
3404.

ESTHONIA (Esthonian Esti-ma, Esthland).
A province of the old Rubsian Empire which be-
came an independent state on Feb. 2, 1920. Be-
nidea the old province of Esthonia it includes the
northern part of Livonia, the islands of Hoon
Sound, and a small pait of the government of
Petrograd. The estimated area is about 20,000
square miles, and the population 1,000,000, of
\vhich more than 00 per cent are Ksthonian.
The language is Esthonian, but German and
Russian are generally spoken and understood.
A great majority of 'the people are Lutherans.
Elementary education is compulsory. Tlie Uni-
versity of Dorj>at is now under Esthonian
auspices. Reval is the chief seaport and capital.
The chief occupation of the people is agri-
culture. In 1919 a movement \van begun to
divide up the large estates. The chief crops are-
rye, oats, barley, and potatoes. In 1020 the yield
of potatoes was 21,232,005 bushels, outs 5,319,-
471, winter rye, 3.788,035, and barley U 14,555.
In the same year there were 155,489 horses,
414,955 cattle, 497,838 sheep, and 244,912 pigs.
The live stock decreased largely dining the war.
The chief industries are textiles, shipbuilding,
metal works, mining, and chemicals. During
and after the war (1914-18) the industries al-
most came to a standstill largely because of
inability to get raw materials. Before the war
50,000 'people were employed in industry, but
after it less than one-fifth that number.

In 1920 the exports amounted to ,$17,544,278
and the imports to $19,931,218. The chief ex-
ports were flax, paper, spirits, and timber. Tho
chief imports were coal, fertilizers, fish, salt,
and petroleum. The budget expenditures pro-
posed for 1922 were 5,600,000,000 marks. After
the war the finances were in a deplorable state
The Esthonian mark greatly depreciated

The form of government was provided by the
constitution which went into effect Dec. 20/1920.
The executive power is vested in a state head
and a ministry chosen by the assembly, and the
legislative power in an assembly of 1 00 members
elected for three years by universal, direct, equal
and secret suffrage, on the basis of proportional
representation.

History. After the Russian Revolution in
1917, Esthonia claimed its independence. It was
recognized by Great Britain on Feb. 4, 191 8. Sub-
sequently other nations recognized it. Franco and
the United States refused to do so on the "rounds
that it was a part of the old Russian Empire.
The Bolsheviks recognized its independence on
Feb. 2, 1920. See RUSSIA and VOLUME XXIV.
ESTHS. See ESTHONIA.
ESTIENTTE, A'tySn'. See STEPHAJSTDS.
ESTIVAIi. See .^STIVAL.
ES'TIV A'TION". See HIBERNATION AND ES-
TIVATION.

ESTLANDEB, Sstland-Sr, CARL G-USTAF
(1834-1910). A Finnish writer on art history.
He was appointed professor of aesthetics at the
University of Helaingfors in 1868. He founded
and became editor of the Fmla/nd Review in 1876
and wrote a number of valuable works which
have contributed to the industrial and artistic
progress of his country. Among his works are:
The History of the Plastic Arts from the Middle
of the Eighteenth Century until our oion Time

(1S07); The Development Past and Future of
the Art and Industry of Finland (1871) ; Rich-
ard Ofrnr de Lion in History and Poetry ( 1858) ;
The Robin Hood Ballads (1889); and some re-
soar ches into the romance of Tristan, in French
(1866).

ES'TOC (OF., from OHG., MHG. stoc, Ger.
Ntock, Eng. stock). A small dagger worn at the
girdle and called in Elizabethan times a "tuckle."

ESTOILE, es-toil or 6s-twal> (OF., star), or
STAB. A bearing in heraldry. It differs from
the mullet (q.v.) in having six waved rays, the
mullet consisting of five plain ones.

ES'TON". A town in the North Riding of
Yorkshire, England, about 4 miles east-southeast
of Middlesbrough. Its chief industry is the
maiiufuctuie of sLeel rails. Pop., 1901, 11,200;
1911. lL\02<>.

ESTOP'PEL (from estop, from OF. estoper,
citonpcr, Kr. ttouper, from ML. stopparc, Lat.
fitupitaie, stupare, to stuff with tow, cram, from
sluppa, stupu, t-Jk. ffTVTnrri, styppv, CT^TTIJ, 8typey
oakum). A legal impediment or bar which pre-
cludes a portion from alleging or denying a fact
because of his previous conduct. Estoppels are
divided into three classes, which will be con-
si dercd sep ai ate ly :

1. By Record.' This class includes not only
the formal and 'final judgment in a judicial
proceeding, but the pleadings of the parties and
nil oilier papers or orders which go to make up
the record of the case. If any mistake hart been
made in the record, the party injuriously af-
fected by it must obtain relief by an application
to the court to correct it or by an appeal to a
higher court. When the record is allowed to
stand, it is conclusive evidence of its truth. If
the judgment is one in rcm, i.e., if it is ar.
adjudication as to the status of a person or
thinjr, it is conclusive against the whole world.
Every one is estopped from setting up the truth
at variance with the judgment. If A is duly
adjudged a bankrupt, no one is allowed, while
mi oh judgment stands, to dispute his condition
of bankruptcy. If tlie judgment is in personam
na a judgment for a sum of money, it is con-
clusive upon the parties, but not upon strangers.

2. By Deed. Where a person lias entered
into a solemn engagement by deed, i.e., by
\\ritten instrument under seal, he is not allowed,
while the deed remains unimpeached, to deny the
truth of any assertion which he has made
therein. If the grantor of land recites in his
deed that he is the owner of it, ho will be pre-
cluded from showing that he was not.

3. In Pals, or by Conduct. At present, this
is by far the most extensive of the three classes
of estoppel, although in Lord Coke's time it was
limited to estates in land acquired by livery of
seisin, by entry, by acceptance of rent, and by
acceptance of an estate.

Estoppels by record and estoppels by deed are
often spoken of as "odious," because, being of a
technical character, they operate harshly at
times. Estoppels in pais* do not rest upon con-
siderations of general policy, such as have led
to the establishment of the other classes, but
upon the doctrine that where one by his conduct
causes another to believe the existence of a
certain state of things, and induces him to act
on that belief so as to alter his previous
position, the former is precluded from averring,
as against the latter, that a different state of
things existed at the time in question. These
estoppels are treated with favor by the courts,

ESTOtJRlffKLLES DE CONST Atftf i:

and their scope ia increasing constantly. They
are known also as "equitable estoppels" and
have their foundation in fraud. But while the
conduct which produces an estoppel in pais is
generally fraudulent, it is not always nor neces-
sarily of that character. An example is afforded
by one who withdraws from a partnership. He
must give notice of his withdrawal or he will
be estopped from showing that he has ceased to
be a member as against one who has become
creditor of the firm upon the assumption that he
was still a member. Nor will it be any defense
that his former partner agreed to give the
proper notice of dissolution. It is his duty to
be active in the matter; to see that such notice
is given as will in the ordinary course of busi-
ness protect third persons from trusting the
firm on the assumption that he is still a partner.

The modern American doctrine of title ly
estoppel has more in common with the estoppel
in pais than with that by deed. It arises where
an interest in land is purported to be conveyed
by deed and the deed contains a covenant of war-
ranty or equivalent covenant of title. Such a
deed, though made by one having no estate to
convey, vests the title by anticipation in the
grantee, which becomes a valid and effectual title
if at any time thereafter the land should come to
the grantor, no further conveyance being neces-
sary to divest the title of the grantor or to con-
firm that of the grantee. (See FEOFFMEXT;
WARBANTY.) Consult: Blackstone, Commenta-
ries (London, 1886) ; Bigelow, Treatise on the
Law of Estoppel (5th ed., Boston, 1890) ; Ewart,
An Exposition of the Principles of Estoppel "by
Misrepresentation (Toronto, 1900) ; Black, Trea-
tise on the Law of Judgments including the
Doctrine of Res Adjudicata (2 ed., St. Paul,
1902).

ESTOURNELLES (fis'toor'nSl') DE CON-
STANT, PAUL HENBI BENJAMIN, BARON D'
(1852- ). A French publicist, born in La
Fleche, Sarthe, He was a grandnephew of Ben-
jamin Constant and was educated at the Lyce"e
Louis-lc-Grand, Paris, and at the School of Ori-
ental Languages. He entered the diplomatic serv-
ice, was secretary of the commission for the
delimitation of Montenegro, and later was
charge* d'affaires in Montenegro, and, after service
in Tunis, at The Hague and (1890-95) in
London. He was a deputy from Sarthe in 1895—
1904 and then was elected senator. An ardent
advocate of international peace, he was a mem-
ber of The Hague conferences and of The Hague
Court, and did much to calm and check angry
feeling between France and Germany. He re-
ceived the Nobel prize for peace in 1909. He
wrote for French, English, and American reviews;
published a volume on modern Greece and trans-
lations from modern Greek drama; reports of
The Hague conferences; papers for tlie Inter-
parliamentary Union and the Universal Races
conference; a volume on aviation; Les oongrt-
gations r&igieuses oh&s les Arabes (1887); La
politique francaise en Tunisie (1891, winning
the Prix Therouanne) ; and Les Etats Unis
d'Am&rique (1913), based on his visits to the
United States in 1902, 1907, 1911, and (for the
Champlain Celebration) in 1912.

ESTCXVER (OF. estovert estouvier, need,
necessity, from estorer, estuvoi, to furnish). An
ancient term of the common law, used originally
of any necessary supplies to which a person was
entitled out of the estate of another, but now
limited to the right of a tenant to take neces-

3 ESTRAY

sary firewood and wood for repairs from the de-
mised premises. In the former sense it was once
employed to describe the alimony, or sustenance,
to which a woman divorced from her husband
a wensa ct thoro was entitled. In the latter
sense it is by English writers more frequently
known by the Anglo-Saxon term bote, as house
bote, a right of wood for fuel and the repair
of the house; plow bote, wood for plows and
carts; and hay botc, wood for repairing hedges
and fences. The right of estover is an incident
of the usual forms of subordinate tenancy — for
life, for years, from year to year, and at will —
and is fully recognized in the United States as
well as in England. See LANDLOBD AND TENANT ;
and cf. WASTE.

ESTRADA, €s-tra'Da, LA. A town in the
Province of Pontevcdra, Spain, 15 miles south
by east of Santiago de Compostela on the Rio
Ulla. It is situated in a populous mountain
region and is engaged in farming and stock
raising, lumbering, and the manufacture of
wooden and linen goods. There are mineral
springs here. Pop., 1900 (commune), 20,838;
1910, 27,898.

ESTRADA CABRERA, us-tra'na ka-brZL'ra,
MANUEL ( 1857- ) . A Central American pol-
itician, and a president of Guatemala, born at
Quezaltenango. After completing his studies in
philosophy and law, he devoted liimself to legal
practice, rising to be a district judge, and a jus-
tice of the Supreme Court; and in 1885 he
actively entered politics as a representative in
the National Assembly. In 1892 he was ap-
pointed Secretary of State; in February, 1898,
upon the assassination of President Barrios, he
became acting executive; in September of that
year he was elected President; and he was re-
elected for the term 1905-11. He consistently
advocated important measures for the progress
of the country: the putting of the currency on a
sound basis; the aiding of public works, espe-
cially in agricultural and industrial lines; the
expansion of the budget for public instruction;
in short, anything that would aid the cultural
development of the country. Despite all this,
he gained bitter enemies, and several attesmpts
were made on his life. In March, 1911, he was
again reflected for the term 1911-17.

ESTRADES, gs'trad', GODEFEOI, COMTE D'
(1007-88). A Frencli soldier, born at Agfin.
He was a page of Louis XIII, went on a mission
to Holland in 1646, became colonel of infantry,
and marshal de camp in 1647. In 1661 he was
made Ambassador Extraordinary to England,
and conducted the negotiations on the cession
of Dunkirk to the French, lie was Ambassador
to Holland in 1646-68, and then in the cam-
paign that followed received the baton of mar-
shal (1675) for gallantry at Wesel, Maestricht,
and Liege. He represented his country in the
congress that arranged the Peace of Nymwegcn
(1678). Lettrest m4moires et negotiations (9
vols., Paris, 1758; and a supplementary vol. in
London, 1763) were published posthumously.
Consult Philippe Lauzun, Le Marfohal d'Es-
traaes (A#$n, 1896).

ESTRAY' (OF. estrayer, estraier, to stray,
from estree, stree, Prov. estrade, street, from Lat.
strata, street, from sternerc, to strew; according
to another etymology from ML. cnrtravagari, to
wander beyond, from Lat. eatra, beyond + va-
gari, to wander). Any animal, the subject of
property and not feres natures, or wild, which Is
found without apparent owner at large in a pub-

ESTREAT 114

lie place or on the land of any one not the owner.
If trespassing on private land, an estray may, in
England and generally in the United States, be
impounded at the cost of the owner reclaiming it,
and in some jurisdictions may be distrained
damage feasant. In England, if found within
the limits of the royal demesnes or of a manor
where it does not belong, an estray becomes sub-
ject to the lordship of the King or lord of the
manor, who acquires a qualified property therein.
This right of property becomes absolute if the
animal be not reclaimed by the owner within
a year and a day after due proclamation made
by the lord of the manor. This doctrine is a
peculiar exception to the general rule of law,
which protects the title of the loser of goods
until his claim becomes barred by the Statute
of Limitations. It does not obtain in the United
States, where the status of estrays and the
rights of their owners are for the most part
regulated by statute. In some States the finder
of a strayed animal may, after a reasonable
time and due advertisement, sell it at public
or private sale and pass a good title to the
purchaser. The proceeds of the sale, after pay-
ing the reasonable charges of the vendor, are
usually paid into the treasury of the town,
county, or State. Consult Burn, Justice of the
Peace and Parish Officer (30th ed., London,
18G9), and Scriven, Treatise on Oopyhold, Cus-
tomary Freehold, etc. (ib.).

ESTREAT' (OF. estret, es trait, Fr. extrait,
extract, from OF. estraire, Fr. extraire, to draw
out, from Lat. extrtihere, to draw out, from eat,
out + trailer e, to draw) . In English law, a true
extract, copy, or note of some original writing
or record, and specially of fines or amercements,
as entered in the rolls of a court, to be levied
by bailiffs or other officers. When applied to a
recognizance (q.v.), it signifies that the recog-
nizance itself is estreated, or taken out from
among the other records, and sent to the ex-
chequer for enforcement. If the condition of a
recognizance be broken, the recognizance is for-
feited; and on its being estreated the parties
become debtors to the crown for the sums in
which they are bound. Under the present prac-
tice in England the King's Remembrancer issues
process for the enforcement of estreats, subject
to the supervisory power of the King's Bench
Division of the High Court of Justice.

ESTBOEES, a'stra', GABBIELLE DJ (c.1573-99).
The favorite of Henry IV of France. She was
the daughter of Marquis Antoine d'Estr6es, Gov-
ernor of the Isle de France. In* her father's
absence she received Henry IV at her father's
castle at Cccuvres in 1590 and inspired him with
a violent passion. To avoid scandal, her father
forced her to marry M. d'Amerval de Liancourt,
but Henry had the marriage dissolved and sum-
moned her to court. She bore Henry several
children and was created by him Marchioness
of Monceaux and Duchess of Beaufort. Her
amiable and sweet disposition endeared her to
all. She was shown every mark of favor by the
King, was given many rich presents, a splendid
domain, and a great income. So great was his
infatuation that he stood ready to divorce his
wife Marguerite de Valois and to marry Gabri-
elle, and it was only her sudden death in 1599
that prevented the step. Consult Desclozeaux,
Qabrielle d'Estrees (Paris, 1889), and Loiseleur,
Questions historiques du XVUe siecle.

ESTBELLA DE SEVIIXA, a-stralya da sa-
ve^lya, LA* A comedy by Lope de Vega, abound-

ESTBEPEMEWT

ing in strong situations, and considered by many
to be Lope's masterpiece.

ESTBEMADTJBA, eVtra-ma-doo'ra. A prov-
ince of Portugal bounded by Beira on the north,
by Alemtejo on the east and south, and by the
Atlantic Ocean on the west (Map: Portugal, A
3). Area, 6711 square miles. The surface is
generally mountainous except in the south. The
chief river is the Tagus, which divides the prov-
ince into two parts. The climate is temperate
and healthful; earthquakes occasionally occur.
There are extensive forests, and the soil in cer-
tain sections yields good crops of grain and
fruit. The population is sparse, and the prov-
ince is in a generally backward condition. For
administrative purposes Estremadura is divided
into the three districts of Lisbon, Leiria, and
Santarem. Pop., 1890, 1,083,290; 1900, 1,231,-
418; 1911, 1,438,726.

ESTREMADURA., os'tra-ma-Dou'ra. ' An old
province of Spain, situated in the southwestern
part of the country, and bounded on the north
by Le6n, on the south by Andalusia, on the west
by Portugal, and on the east by New Castile
(Map: Spain, B 3). It is divided into the two
provinces of Badajoz and Cdceres. Area, 10,102
square miles. Although a continuation of the
high table-land of New Castile, Estremadura
differs somewhat in the formation of its surface.
Its northern part is occupied by the lofty and
well-wooded Sierra de Credos and Sierra de Gata.
The Sierra de Guadalupe forms the watershed
between the Tagus and Guadiana, the chief rivers
of Estremadura. It is less elevated and has a
sandy soil. South of the Guadiana the country
becomes more sterile and contains little agricul-
tural land. But even in the fertile portion
of Upper Estremadura agriculture is in a state
of neglect, more attention being paid to the
breeding of domestic animals. Estrcmefio pork,
bacon, and hams vie in celebrity and flavor
with those of Westphalia. Copper, lead, silver,
and coal are found, but arc only slightly ex-
ploited. The chief articles of commerce are
animal products, which are largely smu^led
into Portugal. Pop., 1887, 821,300;* 1S97, 853,-
438; 1900, 882,410; 1910, 900,990. The inhab-
itants are poor and illiterate and from want of
roads are isolated from the rest of Spain. They
make excellent soldiers, however, having pro-
duced a series of conquistadorcs and generals,
o.g., Cortes and Pizarro, to mention only the
two who were most celebrated.

ESTBEMOZ, es'tril-m6s'. A town in the Prov-
ince of Alemtejo, Portugal, situated about 32
miles by rail northeast of Evora (Map: Portu-
gal, B 3). It is built at an altitude of over
1500 feet and is defended by two half -ruined
forts. Estremoz is famous for its earthenware
of porous clay, which is in use all over the penin-
sula. In the neighborhood is quarried marble
of different colors, and the town exports fine
wool. Pop., 1800, 7)07; 1900, 7857.

ESTBEPE'MEN'T (OF. estrepement, from es-
treper, to waste, from Lat. eatirpare, to uproot,
from as, out + rttVpa, trunk of a tree). 1.
Waste or spoliation of lands, committed by a
tenant for life or years. Used in this sense, 'the
term has become obsolete, having been sup-
planted by the term "waste" (q.v.). 2. An an-
cient writ or process of the common law insti-
tuted to restrain or prevent the commission of
waste. With the development of the jurisdic-
tion of courts of equity in the prevention of
waste, the common-law remedy has become

ESTBOTP

115

ETAWAH

obsolete. In Pennsylvania, where there are no
courts of equity, the writ of estrepement is still
in use for the purpose of preventing waste.

ES'TRITP, JACOB BRONNUM (1825-1913). A
Danish statesman, born at Soro. He took his
seat in the Landsthing in 1864, was leader of the
Agrarians, and active in the revision of the con-
stitution in 1866. As Minister of the Interior
in 1865-69, lie furthered the railway service of
the kingdom. In 1875 he became President of
the Council and Minister of Finance. He was
continually involved in difficulties with the
Folkething, which disapproved the conservative
policy of strengthening the defenses of Copen-
hagen. Estrup made use of the royal power of
issuing provisional acts, even finance acts after
1877, and from 1885 to 1894 carried on the
government by a provisional budget. His res-
ignation in 1894 marked the transfer of power
from the crown and the Landsthing to the
Folkething. He opposed the sale of the Danish
West Indies in 1902, but afterward had little
influence except with a small part of the Right ;
and in 1908 his opposition to the electoral and
tax reforms was unsuccessful.

ES'TTJABY (from Lat, asstuarwrn, estuary,
from (Bstus, tide). The widened channel at the
mouth of a river, in which there is marked tidal
action. An estuary is usually formed by sub-
mergence or "drowning" of the river valley,
which then is subjected to the erosive action of
tides and waves. The channels of estuaries are
genorally shoal and arc obstructed by shifting
bars. During the flow of the tide the sand and
mud brought down by the river is carried up
the estuary and partially deposited, while a
portion is borne down again by the ebb. This
continual oscillation of sediment is evidenced by
the turbidity of the waters. In many estuaries
the tides rise very rapidly, advancing against
the river current in the form of a huge wave,
a phenomenon commonly called "bore" (q.v.).
Good examples of estuaries are found at the
mouth of the Delaware, St. Lawrence, La Plata;
the Thames and Severn in England; the Elbe
in Germany; and the Gironde in France. See
BIVEB.

ESZfSK, Ss'ak (Ger. Esseg, Croat. Osjek).
A royal free city of Croatia-Slavonia, Kingdom
of Hungary, the chief industrial and commercial
centre of Slavonia, capital of the County of Viro-
vitica (Map: Hungary, F 4). It is situated on
the Drave, which is navigable to the Danube. The
city consists of the fortress, the upper town, the
lower town, and the new town. Its chief public
edifices are the residence of the commandant of
the fort, the town hall, the county building, a
Capuchin and a Franciscan monastery, and the
casino with theatre. It has a gymnasium and
two teachers' colleges. The manufactures in-
clude notably flour, leather, silk goods, and glass-
ware. It has a large river trade in grain, meat,
wood, oak, staves, fruit, honey. Esze"k was the
Mursa or Mursia of the Romans. During the
Hungarian revolution the town was at first held
by Count Batthyanyi, but shortly capitulated
to the Austrian general, Baron Trebersberg.
Population, mostly Germans, 1900, 24,930;
1910, 31,388.

ESZTEBG-03MC, e"s'tSr-g6m, or GRAN, gran
(Hung. Essstergom, Lat. Strigonwm). A royal
free town of Hungary and capital of the county
of the same name, on the right bank of the
Danube, 25 miles northwest of Budapest (Map:
Hungary, F 3). It consists of the town proper,

the archiepiscopal or "water" town, and two sub-
urbs; and is the seat of the Prince Primate of
Hungary and an archbishop. The most striking
building is the large cathedral (1821-56), in
the Italian Renaissance style, with an imposing
dome like that of St. Peter's in Rome. TLe
church is 348 feet long, and is the most beauti-
ful in the kingdom. The centre is arched over
by a dome 230 feet high, supported by 24 pillars.
Ihe interior is adorned with fine paintings,
monuments, and chapels, and contains a fine
organ by Moser. There are also the church of
Sfc. Anne, the old and the new archiepiscopal
palaces of the Primate ; the seminary for priests,
the museum, gymnasium, Catholic girls' school,
the county building, and the town hall. The
cathedral has a library of 113,000 volumes and
many valuable manuscripts. The suburbs are
attractively laid out, and have handsome resi-
dences. Agriculture is the chief industry, and
wine the principal article of commerce. Iron-
ware and bricks are ' manufactured. Several
warm saline and sulphur springs afford medici-
nal baths. Pop., 1900, 17,909; 1910, 17,881.
Esztcrgom, which is one of the oldest towns of
Hungary, was the residence of the Hungarian
Prince Gejza; and here was born his son, St.
Stephen, first King of Hungary, who was con-
verted to Christianity in 1000, and established
the see of Esztergom in 1001. The town was a
great commercial centre, but was destroyed by
the Tatars in 1241 and never regained its for-
mer importance. Between 1543 and 1683 it was
held by the Turks.

ESZTEB.HAZY. See ESTERH£ZY.

ETA, a'ta. See AJETA.

ETAMPES, a'taNj/ (Lat. Stamps). The
capital of an arrondissement in the Department
of Seine-et-Oise, France, 32 miles south-south-
west of Paris (Map: France, N., H 4). It con-
tains a number of churches dating from the
twelfth and sixteenth centuries, the ruins of a
mediaeval castle, and an old town hall. It has
a college, manufactures woolen fabrics, leather,
machinery, and embroidery, and carries on a
considerable trade in grain and garden produce.
Pop. (commune), 1901, 9001; 1911, 9454.

ijJTAMPES, ANNE DE PISSELETJ, DUCHESSB D*.
See ESTAMPES.

DE BEB.RE, i'tiiN' de bar. A salt
lagoon, or e"tang, on the south coast of France,
situated in the Department of Bouehes-du-Rlionc,
and communicating with the Mediterranean
through the Gulf do Foz by a narrow channel,
called the Passe des Marti gucs. It covers an
area of about 80 square miles, and its depth
varies from 10 to 30 foot. It has important salt
works and is of strategic value.

ETAWAH, 5-til'wii. The capital of the dis-
trict of the same name in the United Provinces,
British India, on the left bank of the Jumna,
70 miles below Agra (Map: India, D 3). It
is picturesquely situated in a well-wooded dis-
trict and has some fine streets, a handsome pub-
lic square, and i*eniains of the Jama Mas j id
(great mosque), several ghats, or flights of
stairs, down to the river for sacred ablution, a
groat mound, and a ruined fort. It has small
manufactures of cotton cloth. It carries on an
important trade in ghi, grain, cotton, and oil-
seed, and owes its prosperity chiefly to its posi-
tion at the junction of the two roads which lead
to Agra from Cawnpore and Kalpi. Pop., 1901.
42,570; 1911, 45,350,

ETCHEMIN 116

ETCHEMrN", Fr. pron. a.eh'maN'. See MALE-
CITE.

ETCH'nTG- (from etch, from Dutch etsen,
from Ger. atzen, to etch, from MHG. eteen, OHG.
oreew, to give to eat, from evan, Ger. essen, Goth,
tfam, AS. eta-nt Eng. ea£/ connected with Tr. **/*,
OChurch Slav, yawl, I eat, Lat. edtere, Gk. fterfac,
edcsthai, Skt. ad, to eat) . The art and the proc-
ess of engraving by means of acid which eats
lines in the surface. Etching may bo on glass,
in which case the line is hard and invariable,
and this process is used chiefly by artists who
seek character drawing or book illustration in
which but little light and shade is desired. It
may be done on zinc, which is thought to give a
peculiarly rich "color" — i.e., a black and white
effect of unusual brilliancy— and for this pur-
pose it is preferred by some modern etcheis of
landscape subjects. Etchings are known to have
been made by Albert Diirer and others on iron,
and in modern times on steel, but by far the
greater number of plates etched for printing
are of copper.

In order that the acid may attack only the
parts desired, something which resists the action
of the acid must be spread over the plate at the
beginning. This is called the ground; it is usu-
ally varnish of some kind, laid on in a coat
thick enough to guarantee its uniformity, so
that no small openings will allow a little of the
acid to pass through and permit a dot or small
blur on the surface. Many special grounds have
been used, and one recommended by Hamerton is
made of wax, gum ina&tic, and asphaltum. It is
customary then to smoke the surface of this
ground, but this is unessential, as its purpose is
merely to aid the etcher by allowing him to see
his lines as he cuts them, by the contrast of the
brilliant metal against the dead black ground of
the smoked varnish. The tool by which the linos
are drawn may be anything with a reasonably
sharp point. J. M. W. Turner used a prong of
an old steel fork, which he claimed was as good
a tool as any. By far the most usual form of
etching needle, however, is a steel bar weighing
from one to three ounces, of which the point is
made sharp,- sometimes both ends are sharpened
to points of different fineness. It is to be
noted, however, that the needle does not cut the
• metal at all, but merely scratches through the
surface of the varnish so as to expose the metal.

The drawing once made in this manner, the
plate is plunged into the acid bath, usually made
with nitric acid, diluted by about its own
volume of water. The action of this acid is very
rapid; it eats the copper away on either side o'f
the line drawn through the ground by the
needle, and even hollows out the metal below the
surface, leaving sharp, thin edges which break
down with great facility. To prevent this and
to keep the lines of the width desired, what is
called the Dutch mordant was introduced about
1870 and strongly advocated by Hamerton and
others. This mordant is composed of chlorate of
potash 20 grams, hydrochloric acid 100 grams,
water 180 grams. The universal testimony of
practitioners is that the bath should be large and
deep and contain a considerable quantity of the
mordant. Before the plate is put into the
mordant it should be brushed with, a feather or
something of the kind, to clear away from the
lines little scraps of the varnish which may have
collected there. When it has been laid in the
bath, it must still be watched, as bubbles arise
that must be removed by a feather or similar

ETCHING

moans, because they may prevent the free access
of the acid to the metal. If. now, it is desired
to have a line bitten much deeper than others,
it must be exposed for a greater length of time
to the acid. For this purpose the process of
stopping out is employed. The plate is with-
drawn from the bath and washed. Varnish is
then applied with a brush, filling up ("stop-
ping") those lines which have been bitten suffi-
ciently deep, while the others are once more
exposed to the acid. In this way a single plate
may be withdrawn several times, more and more
of the lines stopped out, and those that remain
bitten more deeply. It may aho be necessary
to rebite the whole plate, as when it is thought,
or found on actual trial, that the plate is feeble
in effect. For this purpose it is necessary to
clean the plate thoroughly and then to put the
resistant ground on the plate afresh. This must
be done with great care, so as not to fill up the
lines already cut by the etching, and then care-
ful examination must be made to see that those
thin and shallow lines which have received some
part of the ground are cleaned before the re-
varnished plate is put into the acid bath. Small
parts of the plate may, however, be rebitten by
the simple means of covering the rest of the
plate completely with the ground.

It is not to be forgotten that the dry-point
(q.v.) process affords a perfectly retuly means of
reinforcing the etching without the use of acid.
The bur, which is thought to make the special
charm of dry point, is not essential, because it
can be scraped away with a burnisher so that
the lines cut or deepened by the dry point may
produce an effect exactly similar to the etched
line, and a plate may have been worked all
over with the dry point while yet the impressions
taken from it do not betray the fact.

When plates arc to be finished entirely with
etching, or with etching and dry point together,
the attention of the artist will be strongly fixed
upon the necessity of deepening and strengthen-
ing certain parts of his composition. It is for
this purpose that stopping out and rebiting and
dry-point work are used. When, however, tho
line engraver uses etching merely as a first
preparation for his work, as to lay in the mnin
masses and leading lines of tho composition, this
etching is usually slight and thin, and as tho
lines are not intended to show in any published
prints, but only in proofs taken for the engraver's
use, they may be all of uniform and very slight
depth and breadth. The use of etching as a
part only of the complete design, the rest being
done by the burin, leads to the singularly
puzzling style of art which is best seen in the
famous plates of Charles Meryon (died 3808) —
plates which are usually claused as etching*, but
where there arc strong evidences of burin work.
The recent engravings of the OJialcoffraphie dti
Louvre, reproducing important modern paint-
ings, and auch celebrated and admired work as
that of Ferdinand Oaillard (died 1887), are in-
stances of work in which the tolerably well-
practiced collector can hardly say how much
burin work appears.

History. Although etching for purposes of
printing appeared in the later fifteenth century,
and was practiced by Dtlrer and others in the
sixteenth, it did not attain great importance
until the seventeenth. Tho chief of etchers, so
ranked by almost universal admission of those
modern artists who have given attention to the
matter, is Rembrandt (q.v.). This position he

ETCHING

117

ETEOGLES

gains not only by superior skill in the techni-
calities of the art, but even more by the great-
ness of his design — a design which is, neverthe-
less, adapted to the medium employed. Among
other Dutch painters distinguished in etching
were Adriaen van Ostade, Jacob Ruysdael, and
Paul Potter. Among Flemish masters Van
Dyck excelled especially in portrait heads. In
the German school Wenceslas Hollar is one of
the greatest masters in etching of the simplest
form, with lines of nearly uniform thickness and
laid in the simplest manner. Among French
masters of the seventeenth century Claude Lor-
rain etched masterly landscapes, which had a
wide influence upon the art, and Jacques Callot
excelled especially in genre subjects. Etching
declined from the eighteenth century, and in
the early nineteenth its chief use was as an aid
to engraving. About the middle of the century
the revival began. Societies of artists for the
publication of etchings were formed in the prin-
cipal European cities, and an important activity
developed, especially in France and in England.
The two greatest etchers of the nineteenth cen-
tury were probably Charles M6ryon, whose ro-
mantic rendition of architectural subjects never
loses its charm, and J. A. M. Whistler, an
American of French training, long resident in
London. His work is perhaps as important for
the nineteenth century as was Rembrandt's in
the seventeenth, and as a master of line he is
said even to equal the latter. In Great Britain
Sir Francis Seymour Haden, who confined him-
self to landscapes, and Alphonse Legros, a
Frenchman, exercised a wide influence. Other
important etchers are Sir Charles Holroyd,
William Strang, D. Y. Cameron, Frank Bran-
gwyn, and Muirhead Bone, an artist of great
power and originality. The number of prac-
ticing etchers in France is much larger than in
England. It includes such names as Maxime
Lalanne, Jules Jacqucmart (died 1880), Adolphe
Appian, Charles Francois Daubigny, Paul Rajon,
Felix Bracquemond, Martial (Adolphe Martial
Potemont), and Paul Helleu; besides many of
the prominent painters like Millet, Jacques, Tis-
sot, Besnard, and Raffaclli. In France especially
etching was much used in the later nineteenth
century for purposes of reproduction, by Fla-
meng and others. Among important modern
Belgian etchers was Rops; among Dutch, Gong-
kind and Storm van's Gravcsande. The art also
flourishes in Germany and Austria.

In the United States etching has a compara-
tively recent development. Little was done be-
fore the foundation in 1877 of the New York
Etching Club, which was followed by similar
societies in Cincinnati and Philadelphia in 1880
and in Boston in 1881. A number of the prin-
cipal painters practiced also as etchers. Owing
to the flooding of the market with cheap prints,
the interest waned about 1892; but good work
continued to be produced, and during the pres-
ent century there has been a marked revival.
Instruction in etching is offered in the principal
art schools of the country. The etchers of the
Middle West are grouped about the Chicago So-
ciety of Etchers. Among the most prominent
American etchers are Joseph Pennell, Charles A.
Platt, Mrs. Mary Nimmo Moran, Otto Bacher,
Herman A. Webster, Ernest P. Roth, Stephen
Parrish, and Cadwalladev Washburn.

Bibliography. The works of P. G. Hamerton,
himself a practical etcher, were of great influence
in promoting the art in England; especially his

Etching and Etchers (London, 1868), repub-
lished with photogravure illustrations of great
merit (ib., 1880), and in a cheaper edition (ib.,
1875). Consult also: Lalanne, Traite de la
gravure a Veau -forte (Paiis, 1806) ; Hamerton,
Etcher's Handbook (London, 1881); Haden,
About Etching (ib., 1881); Koehler, Etching:
An Outline of its Processes and Histoty (New
York, 1886) ; Hitchcock, Etching in Avn erica (ib.,
1886) ; Herkomer, Etching and Mezzotint En-
graving (ib., 1892); Ltitzow, Die vcrvielfaltifjen
Kunste der Gegentcart, vol. ill, Die Radierung
(Vienna, 1893) ; Wedmdre, Etching in England
(New York, 1895) ; Singer and Strang, Etching,
Engraving, and Other Methods of Printing Pic-
tures (ib., 1897) ; Holme, Modern Etching and
Engraving (London, 1902) ; Roller, Die Technik
der Rafaerkunst (Vienna, 1903); Singer, Dor
Kupferstich (Bielefeld, 1904) ; Struck, Die
Kunst des Radierens (Berlin, 1908) 3 Preissig,
%ur Technik der farbigen Radierung und des
Faroen-Eupferstichs (Leipzig, 1909) ; Wedmore,
Etchings (London, 1911). The subject is also
treated, sometimes at length, in the general
treatises cited in the bibliography of ENGRAVING.
See SOFT-QBOTJND ETCHING.

ETCHMIADZIN, Sch'm6-ad-zen'. A famous
Armenian monastery, situated in the District of
Etchmiadzin in the Tranacaucasian Province of
Erivan, 12 miles west of Erivan, adjacent to tho
village of Vagarshapat ( Vagharshapad ) . It con-
sists of a number of buildings, divided into
three parts, each surrounded by a strong brick
wall, which gives them the appearance of
fortresses. The church of Shoghakath, whose
foundation Is attributed to St. Gregory, is a
cruciform edifice, with a Byzantine cupola and
mural decorations in Persian style. Other note-
worthy churches are those of St. Ripsime and
St. Gaine. Besides the churches there are at-
tached to the monastery a theological academy,
a printing press, and a library with valuable
Armenian manuscripts.

The monastery has been the seat of the
Armenian Primate since 1441, and is now also
the seat of the Armenian Holy Synod organized
since the Russian occupation. The site of Vagar-
shapat was occupied by the famous town of
Etchmiadzin, founded, according to local tradi-
tion, by King Eruand I in the sixth century B.C.
It was fortified by King Vagharsh in the second
century AJ>. and became the capital of a prov-
ince. The monastery was founded in the sixth
century; the church of Shoghakath, however,
dates from the fourth century. In 1827, during
the Russo-Persian War, the monastery was
occupied by the Russians, and by the Treaty of
Turkmantchai (1828) it was formally ceded to
Russia.

ETE'OCLES and POLTMT'CES (Lat., from
Gk. 'Ereo/cXijs, of true fame, from ^Te6s, eteos, true
4- -KXijs, -Ides, from /eX&>$, fame; IIoXi/jW/c^s, of
much strife, from iroXfa, polys, much + VUKOS,
neikos, strife). Sons of (Edipus (Q.v.) and
Jocaste. Cursed by their father for unnlial con-
duct, they quarreled over tlio inheritance, and
Eteocles drove Polynices from Thebes. Accord-
ing to ono version they agreed to reign in alter-
nate years, but at the end of the first year Ete-
ocles refused to resign his power. Polynices, re-
solved on revenge, fled to tho court of Adrastus,
King of Argos, whose daughter he married, and
whom ho induced to join him in a war against
Thebes. The war that followed is known as that
of the "Seven against Thebes" and played a

ETERNAL CITY 118

part in the early Greek epic second only to that
played by the Siege of Troy. The names of the
lk Seven" were Adrastus, Amphiaraus, Tydeus,
Parthenopaeus, Capaneus, Polynices, and either
Mecisteus or Hippomcdon. In the battle before
Thebes the brothers met and killed each othei.
Eteocles was buried with honor, but Polynices'
body was left unburied until the last rites were
performed by his sister Antigone (q.v.). The
story forms the basis of The tieven against
Thebes by ^Eschylus and of the Phcenissa by
Euripides. It is "also noticed in the (Edipus at
Colwius of Sophocles and in the Suppliants of
Euripides. Consult Bethe, Thebanische Helden-
Ueder (Leipzig, 1891). See also AMPHIABATTS;
EPIGONI.

ETEK/NAL CITY, THE. A term applied to
Rome, which was known even in antiquity as
Roma Immortahs. Also the title of a novel by
Hall Caine (1901). Consult F. G. Moore, "On
Urbs ceterna and Urbs sacra" in Transactions
American Philosophical Association, vol. xxv
(1894).

ETERNAL PTTMTSHMEKT. See HELL.
ETERNITY, CAPE. See CAPE ETERNITY.
ETESIAN (S-te'zhan) WINDS (Gk. ^T^crtos,
ete&ios, annual, from Sros, etos, year, Lat. vetus,
old, Skt. vatsara, year). The north and north-
east winds that prevail in southern Europe in
the summer season, apparently due principally
to an indraft towards the heated portion of the
African Sahara. They extend across the Medi-
terranean towards North Africa and are strong-
est in July and August.

£TEX, a'teW, ANTOINE (1808-88) . A French
sculptor and painter, born in Paris/ He studied
painting under Ingres, sculpture under Dupaty
and Pradier, and architecture under Duban.
After exhibiting in 1839 the remarkable group
"Cain and his Race Cursed by God" (now in
Lyons), which excels his later works in boldness
and simplicity, he received the order for the two
groups of "Peace" and "Resistance" on the Arc
de PEtoile. Though his versatility led him into
other lines of art, he gained celebrity only as a
sculptor. His works, which are in the classical
style of David's school, are bold and startling
in composition, but lacking in harmony, exag-
gerated in action. The best-known paintings are
•'Eurydice," which was in the Luxembourg
Gallery, and "The Glory of the United States,"
in the City Hall, New York. The most noted
of his funeral monuments is that of the painter
Ge*ricault in the cemetery of Pere-Lachaise,
Paris, which in 1841 brought him the cross of
the Legion of Honor. He wrote: La Qrece
tragigue (1847), with 44 etched plates; Oours
elementaire de dessin (1855-59), with 50 litho-
graphed plates; and various notices on painters
for reviews.

ETHANE, gth'an (from ether), 0^. A
gaseous compound of carbon and hydrogen, simi-
lar to marsh gas. It is one of the "constituents
of the natural gas rising from the earth in
petroleum districts. Like marsh gas, it is color-
less and odorless, and insoluble in water. It is
found dissolved in crude petroleum. It burns
with a pale flame, having greater luminosity,
however, than the marsh-gas Same, owing mainly
to the fact that ethane contains a greater per-
centage of carbon than ma rah gas. Ethane can
be more readily liquefied than marsh gas. A
mixture of ethane and air is highly explosive;
especially if the amount of air present is just
sufficient to burn up all of the organic gas, By

ETHELBERT

gradually substituting chlorine, bromine, or
iodine for the hydrogen of ethane, the so-called
halogen derivatives of this hydrocarbon may be
obtained. One of these — viz., ethyl iodide
(C3H51) — is used for the preparation of pure
ethane, according to the following reaction:

CJiJ + 2H = C2Ho + HI
Ethyl iodide Nascent Ethane Hydriodic
hydrogen acid

Another method of preparing ethane consists in
causing metallic sodium to act upon methyl
iodide, the products being ethane and sodium
iodide.

ETHlS, a'te (KARL) HERMANN (1844- ).
A German Orientalist, born in Stralsund, grand-
son of the Pomeranian poet Karl Lappe. He
was educated at the universities of Greifswald
and Leipzig and became in 1807 privatdocent of
Arabic, Turkish, and Persian at Munich. In
1872 he went to Oxford University to catalogue
various Oriental manuscripts in* the Bodleian
Library (first volume published in 1889) ; and
in 1875 he was called to University College,
Aberystwyth, Wales, as professor of German and
Oriental languages. He catalogued Persian
manuscripts in the India office library (vol. i,
1903), edited a critical text of Ferdausi's
Y&suf and Zatthhd, (1908), and wrote on Persian
literature and related topics for the Athenceum,
the Encyolopcedia Britannica, and the Strass-
burg Grundnss der iranischen Philologie.

ETEPELBALD, or -ffiTHELBALD ( ?-757 ) .
King of the Mercians (716-757), a son of Alweo.
He succeeded Ceolred in 716, and in 731 was
acknowledged as overlord by all the kings and
peoples of southern and central England as far
as the Humber. He ravaged Northumbria in 740
and waged a successful war against the Welsh in
743, but was defeated by Cuthred, the West
Saxon King, at the battle of Burford in 752.
He was probably killed by his own guards.

ETHELBALD, or JETHELBALD (?-8GO).
A king of the West Saxons, lie was the son
of Ethel wulf (q.v.) and a brother of Alfred the
Great. He is said by Asser to have formed a
conspiracy to seize his father's throne in S5U
and to have dispossessed him of Wesscx. After
Ethelwulf's death (858) Ethelbald married his
young stepmother, Judith. His reign was peace-
ful and uneventful. Consult Oman, England be-
fore tlie "Norman Conquest (New York. 1910).

ETB/ELBERT, or ^ETHELBEBHT (c.552-
616 ) . King of Kent from 500 to 616. After the
death of Ceawlin, King of the West Saxons, in
593, Ethelbert established his supremacy over all
the English south of the Humber and was ac-
knowledged as Bretwalda. Ethelbert married
Bertha, daughter of Charibert, King of the
Franks, who was a Christian, and who stipulated
that his daughter should be allowed to practice
her own religion. The conversion of Ethelbert
was effected by St. Augustine (q.v.) in 597.
After his conversion and baptism he founded the
bishopric of Rochester, and iu concert with his
nephew, Saeberht, Kincj of Essex, who also had
been converted, erected the church of St. * Paul
in London. He died Feb. 24, 616. Ethelbert is
also known as the author of the first written
Saxon laws. Consult: Haddan and Stubbs,
Councils and Ecclesiastical Documents Relating
to Great Britain and Ireland, vol. Hi (Oxford,
1871) ; Oman, England before the Norman Con-
quest (New York, 1910) ; Hodgkin, History of
England to the Norman Conquest (ib., 1906).

ETHELBEBT ]

ETHELBEBT, or 2BTHELBEBT (?-866).
King of Wessex and of Kent. He was the third
son of Ethelwuif, King of the West Saxons, and
about 855 became Underking of Kent, succeeding
to the throne of Wessex in 860. During Ethel-
bert's reign the southern coasts of England were
ravaged by the Danes and by pirates from Gaul,
Winchester being sacked by the former.

ETHELFLEDA, eth'el-fle'da, or A'ETHEL-
FLA'ED, ath'el-flad ( ?-A.D. 917), The eldest
daughter of Alfred the Great, called the Lady
of the Mercians. She married Ethelred, Earl of
Mercia, about 880, and the two exercised almost
royal power in their territories. They conducted
various expeditions against the Norwegians and
other pagans who threatened their realms. After
the death of her husband in 911, or 912, she sent
an expedition against the Welsh in 916 and
captured Derby (917) and Leicester (918) from
the Danes. Consult Green, Conquest of England
(New York, 1884).

ETH/ELBED, or JETHELBED, I (?-871).
A king of the West Saxons and of the men of
Kent. He succeeded his brother Ethelbert in
8G6. His reign was greatly disturbed by the
invasions of the Northmen, who now began to
found kingdoms instead of making merely pirati-
cal forays. Many indecisive battles were fought
by Ethelred, aided by his brother Alfred the
Great (q.v.).

ETHELBED, or -ffiTHELBED, II (c.968-
1016). King of the English from 978 to 1016,
known as the Unready. He was the son of
Edgar and Elfrida. In the beginning of his
reign he showed himself by no means slothful
or incapable, the surname "Unready" referring
to his lack of rede, or counsel. His reign was
marked by almost continuous warfare with the
Northmen. In 980 the Danes began to plunder
the coasts; in 991 they forced Ethelred to pur-
chase peace, and in 994, aided by Olaf, King of
Norway, they laid siege to London. The city
was saved, however, through the valor of its
inhabitants. The Danes then attacked the south-
ern coasts, but they were hindered by the de-
fection of Olaf, who embraced Christianity and
became Ethelred's ally. In the last three years
of the tenth century the Danes ravaged Kent,
Sussex, and Wessex. In 1000 the Anglo-Saxon
King invaded Normandy and was disastrously
defeated; but he made a treaty with Duke
Richard II and married his sister Emma. In
the spring he concluded a treaty with the Danes;
but, on the pretext that they were plotting
treachery, he ordered, in 1002, the murder of
till the Danes in England on the same day —
November 13. Among the victims was probably
Gunhild, sister of Sweyn, King of Denmark.
Sweyn was swift in his revenge, and for four
years his army ravaged in England almost at
pleasure. In 1007 Ethelred bought peace for a
large sum of money. In 1009 he collected a
lar^e fleet, but it was almost wholly^ destroyed
Ly a storm; the Danes renewed their ravages,
and the English suffered many defeats, until
another peace was purchased for money in 1012.
The next year Sweyn, with the largest fleet he
had ever collected, sailed up the Humber and
marched towards London ; but he met with such
strong resistance that he gave up the plan of
attacking the city and turned off to Bath, where
he was proclaimed King of England by the
people, who were weary of Ethelred's incompe-
tency and exactions. London soon acknowledged
Sweyn, and Ethelred fled to Normandy. Sweyn

29 ETHER

died in the spring of 1014, and Ethelred was re-
called on promising to rule better in the future.
In the same year he defeated Canute (q.v.), son
of Sweyn, but in 1015 Canute returned from
Denmark, ravaged a large territory, and was
about to attack London when Ethelred died.
Ethelred married Emma, daughter of Richard
the Fearless of Normandy; their oldest son was
Edward the Confessor. Consult: Freeman, The
Norman Conquest, vol. i (New York, 1873) ;
Hodgkin, History of England to the Norman
Conquest (ib., 1906); Oman, England before
the Norman Conquest (ib., 1910).

ETH'ELBE'DA, SAINT, or -ffiTHEL-
THBYTH (c.600-679). A princess of EatsL
Anglia, canonized for her saintly virtue. Slis
was born at Exning, or Oxning, Suffolk, the
daughter of Anna, King of East Anglia. She
was twice married, but each time refused to
consider the marriage as more than nominal.
She finally became a nun and abbess of Ely,
where she died June 23, 679. Her name was
popularly abbreviated or corrupted into St.
Audrey.

ETH'ELWUUF, or JETHELWUXF ( ?-
858). King of the West Saxons and -of the
men of Kent. He was the son of Egbert ( q.v. ) ,
whom he succeeded about 839. During his roign
the Danes repeatedly attacked the coasts of
Wessex and Kent, but Ethelwuif left the defense
usually to his officers. In 855 Ethelwuif made a
journey to Rome, where he remained about a
year. On his homeward journey he married
Judith, daughter of Charles the Bald of France.
On arriving in England he found that his son
Ethelbald (q.v.) had usurped the throne of
Wessex. Ethelwuif made no attempt to recover
the crown, but remained content with the king-
ship of Kent which his son left to him. The
youngest of his five children was Alfred the
Great (q.v.).

E'THEB (Lat. cether, Gk. a#i}p, dither, upper
air, from atOew, aithevn, to glow, Skt. idh} to
kindle). It may be regarded as proved that the
sensation light is due to wave motion, and that
all the thermal effects attributed to "radiation1'
are due to the absorption of waves. A train of
waves is the advance into a medium of a peri-
odic disturbance; and therefore a medium is
required for the waves which produce luminou'
and thermal effects. This medium is called the
"Imniniferous ether," or, more simply, "the
ether." The medium which was imagined by
Faraday as a necessary part of his theory of
electric and magnetic actions lias also been iden-
tified by Maxwell with the ether. The fact that
the ether is distinct from ordinary matter afl
known to us is shown by the transmission of
radiation through interstellar space and through
vacua, as well as by the magnitude of the
velocity of such waves — 3 X I010 centimeters, or
about 186,000 miles, per second — which is greater
than would be possible with any matter of
properties comparable with ordinary matter.
The ether has inertia, because time is required
for the propagation of waves; but there is no
evidence that it has weight. In fact, the passage
of radiation through all bodies, to a greater or
less degree, proves that the ether is a medium
permeating all space, and that portions of ordi-
nary matter, i.e., molecules and atoms, are im-
mersed in it, as particles of dust float in the
air, or small solid particles exist in water. The
lengths of ether waves may he measured by
suitable means (see LIGHT) ; and those that

120

appeal to physical instruments are found to vary
from many miles to less than two-millionths of
a millimeter. If waves as short as these last
are propagated in a medium, it shows that the
structure of that medium must be extremely
minute, its portions — if there are any — being
much smaller than the smallest wave length
known; otherwise waves as short as these could
not be produced. Nothing of the actual struc-
ture of the ether is known; but from analogy
with matter its "elasticity" and "density" are
spoken of, simply meaning those properties of
restitution and inertia by virtue of which waves
may be transmitted. These waves are trans-
verse, meaning that, whatever the disturbance is,
it is perpendicular to the direction of propaga-
tion. This shows that the ether must have
properties analogous to the material properties
of an elastic jelly, because the only form of
matter which can carry transverse waves is one
with rigidity. It should be observed that some
forms of matter behave like solids for sudden
forces, but like fluids for slow ones; thus, shoe-
maker's wax is brittle for quick blows, but a
piece of lead put on top of the wax will in the
course of time pass through, the wax flowing
around it.

Waves in the ether are produced by electric
oscillations, and they are emitted also by all
forms and conditions of matter (see RADIATION) ;
and the statement that these waves have identi-
cal properties — except as to wave number — is
the so-called "electromagnetic theory" of light.
The phenomena of radiation and absorption prove
that if a minute portion of matter — an electron
— is vibrating extremely rapidly, it produces
waves in the ether. This establishes the fact
that there is some connection between ether and
ordinary matter in this case. Whether a large
piece of matter moving with motion of transla-
tion drags the ether with it, or simply allows
the ether to pass through it — like wind through
a tree — is still to a certain extent an open ques-
tion. There is, however, no decisive experimental
fact in favor of the idea that the ether is
dragged along, except in the experiments of
Michelson and Morley to be referred to later.
The accepted theory is that the ether is not
affected by the passage of matter through it un-
less the matter is electrically charged.

It has been shown by Fizeau and by Michelson
and Morley that a beam of light is accelerated
by its passage through a current of water mov-
ing in the direction of the beam and retarded by
an opposing current. This can be explained on
the hypothesis of Fresnel that, in addition to the
free ether which exists equally everywhere, there
is in any transparent body an amount of ether
n2 — 1 times that of the free ether occupying
the same volume, n being the index of refraction,
and that this extra amount of ether is attached
to the body and moves with it. On this hy-
pothesis the density of the ether in the body is
therefore n* times that of the ether in free space,
meaning by density that property of the medium
which measures its inertia. On the other hand,
Lorenz has explained the observed facts on a
simple theory of a stationary ether.

Tlie phenomena of stellar aberration (q.v.)
seem to prove that the ether near the earth
must be independent of the earth's motion, or
at least that there should not be produced in it
what is called in hydrodynamics "rotational"
motion. On the other hand, Michelson and
Morley have shown that the ether near the sur-

face of the earth moves with at least very nearly
the velocity of the earth, assuming that their
apparatus is not affected by the motion. Lodge,
however, has performed most careful experiments
from which he concludes that the velocity of
light between two steel plates moving together
in their own planes an inch apart is not altered
by an appreciable quantity. It is extremely diffi-
cult to reconcile these experimental results; and
there are many others, equally confusing. Fitz-
gerald and Lorenz have shown that, in order to
explain them, it is necessary to assume that the
dimensions of solids change as they move through
the ether.

It is thus seen that, in order to connect the
phenomena of mechanics, light, and electricity,
the assumption of the existence of the ether has
been made. Upon this is based the modern
mathematical theory of physics; and, combining
this with the hypothesis of Fitzgerald and Lo-
renz referred to above, a system of equations
has been deduced which is, on the whole, in
wonderful agreement with observed facts. It
should be noted, however, that within recent
years a school of mathematicians, headed by
A. Einstein, has shown that starting with a
few hypotheses — not themselves based upon ex-
periments— it is possible to deduce the same, or
equivalent, equations which are in accord with
actual observations. This theory of "relativity,"
as it is called, does not postulate the existence
of the ether.

The fundamental differences between the two
points of view of nature lies in this: the classi-
cal authorities explain phenomena in terms of
ideas which are connected with our senses and
with our ordinary conception of matter; the
followers of Einstein, on the other hand, have
developed equations which are founded upon
purely mathematical postulates.

Bibliography. The subject of the ether is one
that presents many difficulties; and while much
lias been written in this connection, it is not al-
ways in a shape to be of assistance to the aver-
age reader. Consult, however: Larmor, JEthcr
and Matter (London, 1901); Lodge, "Aberra-
tion Problems," in Philosophical Transactions
(ib., 1892-03); id., in Philosophical Transac-
tions (ib., 1807); Larmor, "Dynamical Theory
of the Electric and Luminiferous Ether," in
Philosophical Transactions (ib., 1894, 1898) ;
Michelson and Morley, in Philosophical Maga-
zine, vol. xxiv (ib,, 1887) ; Lorenz, VersucU einer
Thcorie der elektrischcn und optischcn Hrwhri-
mtngen in leicetjtcn Korpern (Leyden, 1873) ;
Wien, Rcfcrat, 70. Vcrsammlunt/ dent seller Na-
turforschcr und Aerste in Dilsscldorf ( Diisseldorf ,
1898) ; Mie, Molefaile, Atomc, Weltather (Leip-
zig, 1904) ; Ames, The Constitution of Matter,
(Boston, 1913). For papers on relativity, con-
sult papers by Einstein in Annalen der Physik,
(1904-14). See ENEBGETICS.

ETHER, or more properly DI-ETIIYL-ETHER,
(CaHB)20, also called ''sulphuric ether." A sub-
stance composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxy-
gen. At ordinary temperatures it is liquid; if
chemically pure, it boils somewhere between
34.4° and 35.0° C. (93.9° and 95.0° F.), and
its specific gravity at 0° C. is 0.736. The critical
temperature and pressure of ether may be found
under CBITICAL POINT. Ether is sparingly solu-
ble in water, but mixes in all proportions with
alcohol, chloroform, acetone, carbon di sulphide,
and other organic liquids. It is an excellent
solvent for fata, oils, resins, many alkaloids,

ETHER

221

ETHERECKE

Sulphuric
acid

and certain organic salts, including mercuric
chloride (corrosive sublimate* ) and the chlorides
of iron and copper. The collodion used in
photography is a solution of certain nitrates
of cellulose in a mixture of alcohol and ether.
Ether is also used in the preparation of fats and
in determining the amount of fat in samples
suhmittecl for analysis (see FATS) ; it is likewise
employed for removing grease spots. Its vapors
are extremely inflammable, and therefore it
should under no circumstances be used in the
neighborhood of artificial lights. It is very vola-
tile and has a characteristic pleasant odor and
a burning sweetish taste. Ether is made on a
large scale by the action of strong sulphuric acid
on ordinary alcohol. The chemical transforma-
tion takes place in two steps: first ethyl-hydro-
gen sulphate, CaHBHS04, is formed:

CJIBOH = H20 + CJISHS04
Alcohol Water Ethyl-hydrogen
sulphate

Ethyl-hydrogen sulphate is then converted into
ether by the further action of alcohol, according
to the following chemical equation:

CaH8HSO, + CJIfiOH = (C2H5)20 + H2SO<
Ethyl-hydrogen Alcohol Ether Sulphuric

sulphate acid

Sulphuric acid is evidently regenerated in this
transformation, and therefore the addition of
acid for the production of a new quantity of
ether would seem unnecessary, and ether might
be said to be manufactured by a continuous
process, a given quantity of sulphuric acid being
capable of transforming an indefinite amount of
alcohol. In reality, however, the acid must he
rejected after the operation has been carried on
for a certain length of time, owing to the forma-
tion of water and sulphurous acid during the
process. The distillation is carried out in ap-
propriate apparatus, the distilling reservoir
being kept at a temperature of 140° to 150° C.
At higher temperatures much ethylene gas is pro-
duced, and also, the higher the temperature, the
greater the proportion of alcohol altogether car-
bonized by the .sulphuric acid. The crude ether
obtained at first contains more or less alcohol
and sulphurous acid. It is purified by shaking
with a solution of Home in water, the water tak-
ing up the alcohol, while the lime combines with
the acid impurity. The ether is then dried with
anhydrous calcium chloride and redistilled. By
the use of metallic sodium, or perhaps prefer-
ably of phosphorus pentoxide, ether may be
rendered absolutely free from water; sodium
frees it also from alcohol. Chemically ether is
a rather indifferent compound; with certain sub-
stances, however, it reacts very energetically;
thus, if brought into contact with chlorine, it
is rapidly decomposed with formation of alde-
hyde, chloral, hydrochloric acid, etc., the ether
often taking fire during the reaction.

The ether used for surgical purposes contains
a small amount of water and alcohol; its specific
gravity varies between 0.725 and 0.728. The
preparation known as Hoffmann's anodyne is
composed xaainly of ether and alcohol. In medi-
cine ether is sometimes used as a local anaes-
thetic, producing intense cold when evaporated;
if injected subcutaneously, it rapidly acts as
a stimulant on the heart and respiration, and is
therefore highly valuable in fainting. In Amer-
ica it is esteemed a safer general anaesthetic than
chloroform and is therefore extensively used in
surgery. Its action is similar to that of chloro-

form, the highest functions of the organism being
affected first, the lowest lust (law of dissolu-
tion). The stage of stimulation, however, lasts
considerably longer than in chloroform anaesthe-
sia. The administration of ether is somewl'at
more difficult than that of chloroform, and it is
liable to have an irritating effect on the kidneys
and to increase bronchitis in patients suffering
from it. Within recent years the practice has
been introduced of using a certain amount of
laughing gas immediately before inducing com-
plete anaesthesia by means of ether. In this
manner certain disagreeable after effects of ether
anaesthesia may be completely abolished. To
make the administration of ether safer and less
disagreeable various expedients have beeii prac-
ticed. The quantity necessary for a given anaes-
thesia can be materially reduced by giving a
preliminary hypodermic injection of morphine,
or morphine and scopolomine. The nauseating
effects of the drug are sometimes lessened by
flavoring it with oil of orange or other pleasant-
smelling aromatic oil. Another method, more
favored hy European than American surgeons,
is transfusing ether, largely diluted with nor-
mal saline solution, directly into the veins. It
has also been injected into the muscles. The
latest expedient to be tried in this country is
the oil and ether rectal method, by which the
anaesthetic, mixed with olive oil, is given as a
high enema into the lower bowel. Intratracheal
insufflation, in which small quantities of ether
are sprayed directly into the trachea, is a diffi-
cult but useful method. (See ANESTHETIC.) On
the other hand, the after effects of ether arc
said not to appear at all, if the anaesthetic is
only thoroughly freed from its usual impurities.
Ether is the earliest-known anaesthetic and was
extensively used in Europe before the introduc-
tion of chloroform. It was discovered probably
as far back as the thirteenth century. For a
long time it was supposed to contain sulphur,
and hence the name "sulphuric ether" was applied
to it. Its true composition was established by
Saussure (1807) and by Gay-Lussac (1815).
Later Williamson explained its formation and
chemical constitution. Since the middle of the
nineteenth century it lias, unfortunately, been
used in Ireland and elsewhere as an intoxicant.
The effects are somewhat similar to those of
opium: digestion is impaired, the heart becomes
irregular, and gradually nervous exhaustion and
general weakness are produced; the weakness
of the bodv is followed by weakness of the will,
hallucinations, and mental confusion.
ETHEREAL SALTS. See ESTEBS.
ETHOEREGE, or ETHRT0G, GEORGE. An
English classical scholar, born in Osfordshiie.
He was educated at Corpus Christi College,
Oxford, where he was professor of Greek from
1547 to 1550 and from 1554 to 1550. Ho also
received the title of bachelor of medicine and
was licensed to practice, and this profession
he followed after the loss of his professorship,
due to his Catholic sympathies, soon after the
accession of Elizabeth. He was the author of
a translation of certain of the works of Justin
Martyr, a Greek poom on the deeds of Henry
VIII, and a volume of Latin poems; and he set
to music the Psalms of David, in the original
Hebrew.

ETHBBEG-E, Snt GEOBGE (?1635-cJ601).
An English dramatist, born in Oxfordshire.
There is some reason to suppose that he spent
a short time at Cambridge and traveled subse-.

ETHEBIDGE I

quently on the Continent, where he acquired a
gentleman's knowledge of French. His first
comedy, The Comical Revenge, or Love in a Tub,
was produced in 1664, with remarkable success,
and gained its author the patronage of the
court. In 1C67 came She Would if she Could,
which also achieved success and was followed
in 1676 by Etherege's last play, The Man of
Mode, or Sir Fopling Flutter. The play owed
its favorable reception, in the main, to the fact
that its characters were faithfully drawn from
well-known men of the time. Etherege was one
of the best-known libertines of the day and a
boon companion of the notorious Sir Charles
Sedley. After receiving knighthood he was
given a diplomatic charge on the Continent,
and in 1685 was English representative at
Regensburg, where he aroused intense dissatis-
faction by his licentious conduct. He died in
Paris. Editions of his plays appeared in 1704,
3715, and 1735. His works were edited, with
an introduction, by Verity (1888). Consult an
essay by Gosse in Seventeenth Century Studies
(London, 1805) and Cambridge History of Eng-
lish Literature (New York, 1007-13).

ETH'EBIDGE, JOHN WESLEY (1804-66). An
English -Wesley an. Methodist clergyman and
scholar, born on the Isle of Wight. Entering
the ministry in 1827, he occupied Brighton and
Cornwall circuits, and for several years was
pastor of a church at Boulogne, France. He
became a noted Hebrew and Syriac scholar.
His works include: The Apostolic Ministry and
the Question of its Restoration Considered
(1836) ; Misericordia, or Contemplations of the
Mercy of God (1842) ; Jlorce Aramaicce (1843) ;
The Syrian Churches: Their Early History,
Liturgies, and Literature (1846) ; The Apos-
tohcal Acts and Epistles from the Peschitto, or
Ancient Syriao, to which are Added the Re-
maining Epistles and Boole of Revelation from
a Later Syriac Text (1849); Jerusalem and
Tiberias; 8ora and Cordova: A Survey of the
Religious and Scholastic Learning of the Jews
(1856); The Life of Thomas Coke, D.C.L.
(I860) ; The Targums of Onkelos and Jonathan
len Ussssiel on the Pentateuch; with the Frag-
ments of the Jerusalem Tar gum (2 vols., 1862,
1863); The Life of the JRev. Adam Clarke
( 1858) . Consult the Memoir by Thornley Smith
(London, 1871).

ETHEBEDGffi, ROBERT (1819-1903). An
English paleontologist, born at Ross, Hereford-
shire. In 1850 he was appointed curator of
the museum of the Bristol Philosophical Insti-
tution. He became assistant paleontologist in
1857 and paleontologist in 1863 of the Geologi-
cal Survey. Prom 1881 to 1891 he was as-
sistant keeper in geology of the British Mu-
seum, and from 1865 to his death he was an
assistant editor of the Geological Magazine.
He became a fellow of the Royal Society in
1871 and served as president of the Geological
Society in 1881-82. Besides publishing several
important essays and a Catalogue of Fossils in
the Museum of Practical Geology, with Huxley
(1865), and revising the second edition of part
ii of Phillip's Manual of Geology (1887), he
prepared an elaborate catalogue of the Fossils
of the British Islands, Stratigraphically and
Zoologically Arranged, of which only vol. i was
published (1888).

ETHEBS. An important class of carbon
compounds related to the alcohols (q.v.). Their
relation to the alcohols is analogous to the rela-

Sl ETHICS

tion of the metallic oxides (like K20) to the
metallic hydroxides (like KOH). Thus, while
the composition of ordinary ether (the liquid
used for anaesthesia during surgical operations)
is represented by the formula (CjH%).>0, the
composition of ordinary alcohol is CaH3OH.
While, therefore, an alcohol may be defined as
a hydroxide of a hydrocarbon radicle (like
methyl, CH3, or ethyl,' C.jHG), an ether may be
defined as an osoide of such radicles. The close
relationship existing between ethers and alco-
hols is shown by the readiness with which the
former may be prepared from the latter. Thus,
ordinary ether is usually made by the action
of sulphuric acid upon alcohol. (See ETHER.)
Another method by which ethers may be pre-
pared is very ingenious and serves to demon-
strate clearly their chemical constitution. It
consists in treating a halogiin derivative of a
hydrocarbon, such as ethyl chloride, ethyl bro-
mide, or ethyl iodide, with the sodium com-
pound of an alcohol. Ethyl iodide is repre-
sented by the formula CoH5I ; sodium alcoholate,
by the formula NaOCjHr,. Since sodium (Na)
has a great affinity for iodine (I), the iodido
and the alcoholate will, on being mixed, readily
ontor into chemical reaction, by virtue of which
a transformation will take place that can be
represented only by the following scheme, which
loaves no doubt as to the constitution of the
ether molecule:

C,,H3I + NaOCA = Nal + C2H5 . 0 . CaH3
Ethyl iodide Sodium Sodium Di-ethyl ether
alcoholate iodide

Ethers are usually subdivided into simple and
mixed. The two hydrocarbon radicles in a sim-
ple ether are identical; in a mixed ether they
are different. Thus, ordinary ethor is a simple
other, its formula being (Q,HB)aO. On the con-
trary, methyl-ethyl ether, represented by the
formula CH3.0.C2H5, is a mixed ether. Mixed
others may be prepared by the same methods as
simple others. Thus, methyl-ethyl ether may be
obtained cither by treating a mixture of methyl
alcohol (wood alcohol) and ordinary (ethyl)
alcohol with sulphuric acid, or, preferably, ' by
treating sodium methylate (NaOCH^) 'with
ethyl iodide (CaUsI).

The ethors are, as a rule, very stable com-
pounds, not readily affected either by dilute
alkalies or acids. Most of them are light, vola-
tile, inflammable liquids, insoluble in water, but
roadily soluble in the alcohols. The most typi-
cal and useful compound of the class is ordinary
other. The chemical constitution of the ethers
was first elucidated by Williamson in 1855.

The term compound ethers is sometimes ap-
plied to another class of compounds, which are,
however, at present usually termed esters, or
ethereal salts. See ESTEBS.

ETHICAL CULTURE SOCIETY. See So-

CTETFES FOR ETHICAL CULTURE.

ETHICS (Gk. T* WIK&, ta ethika, or ^ WIKJ,
h$ ethikg, ethical science, from %8os, ethos, cus-
tom, habit). The science of morality. The
term "ethics" is frequently used in popular speech
as the synonym of morality or of a particular
moral code current in some circle or profes-
sion, as when we speak of medical ethics. But
it is preferable to confine the term "ethics" to
the description of a theory of morality. Moral-
ity is an art; i.e., it is a way of living and of
doing. Ethics is the attempt scientifically to
understand this way of living and acting. In

ETHICS

123

ETHICS

the definition given above the subject matter
of ethics is stated to be morality. It is im-
portant to notice that ethics does not presume
to construct morality out of whole cloth. Like
any other science, it deals with actual phenom-
ena that exist before the science comes into
being. If there were no such thing as morality
in the world, if men had not a consciousness of
obligation, did not feel the attractive power of
moral ideals, and did not find satisfaction in
the realization of these ideals, there would be
no ethics, any more than there would be min-
eralogy in a nonmineral world. But since mo-
rality is as indubitable a fact as crystalliza-
tion, it piques curiosity to the comprehension
of it. Among the questions that arise are the
following: What is morality? Is it explicable
as a result of evolution? When thoroughly un-
derstood in its fundamental features and in its
historical development, is it seen to be a reason-
able fact, or is it a prejudice to be outgrown
or an infantile way of behaving, to be put away
with many other childish things, when once we
arrive at the age of discretion? If it is some-
thing of permanent value, is there any way in
which its value may be enhanced?

It is necessary to be on our guard when we
come to ask what morality is. The question is
often confused with that other question, What
ought morality to be? This latter question,
however, cannot be answered till the former is
answered, any more than the question what
ought a hoalthy man to be can be answered till
we know what actual health really is. The
morality of a certain man, or of a certain peo-
ple, or of a certain time, is itself amenable to
a higher standard of morality only in the sense
that actual empirical healthfumess is amenable
to a higher standard, idealized from experienced
health. But what is that standard? Here we
come to a point concerning which there is a
fundamental difference of opinion. Some say the
standard is God's will (theological volunta-
rism) ; some that it is pure reason (rational-
ism) ; some that it is pleasure, either of the
individual or of a community of individuals
(hodonism, egoistic and universalistic ) 5 some
that it is perfect biological adaptation to the
environment (biologism) ; some that it is per-
f<*ction, variously defined, of the individual or
of the race (perfectionism, the ethics of self-
realization ) . In view of this difference of opin-
ion, it seems impossible to answer offhand the
question what morality ought to be. But the
question what morality is and has been is more
hopeful. Although the moral consciousness is
anything but simple, still it is open to study
and description.

In the first place, the form or type of moral
consciousness we are best acquainted with is
one that is capable of appreciating an antago-
nism between two or more motives. If there
were never a- competing desire standing out
against the course eventually adopted, or, to
use the language of religious experience, if
there were no temptations, there would be no
morality such as we know. This feature will
be discussed below.

The second characteristic of mature moral
consciousness is that without the capacity for
self-consciousness it could not exist. The mo-
tives in the moral consciousness are not merely
desires for this and that object, but desires
which may be consider ed by the agent as in-
dicating his own character. The significance of
VOL. VIII.— 9

this feature of morality can be brought out
better by comparing the consciousness of a
presumably nonmoral being with that of a moral
being. A cat may desire a warm berth on a
bed and may be averse to the slapping that
comes to her when caught on the bed. But, so
far as we know, while the cat has desires and
aversions, she does not think of lierself as a
being whose conduct can be discriminated from
that of other beings. Her attention is turned
upon the things she wants; it is not directed
upon herself as wanting these things. Though
she has a distinctive nature, for herself this
nature is not an object of contemplation, as
man's own nature becomes for him at times a
character reflected upon.

A third characteristic of moral consciousness
is that the idea of self as doing or being has
an emotional and motive value. It attracts or
repels. Not only does the moral agent have at
times the idea of himself as doing this thing
or not doing it, but he likes or dislikes himself
when he thinks of himself as doing or not doing
some particular thing. Such an idea of self
which attracts the agent to realize it in act is
called an ideal self.

The definition of a moral agent, as an agent
with an ideal self as an end which excites de-
sire, and enters into competition with other
ends, leaves out of account the social nature
of morality, the fourth characteristic to be
mentioned. The ideal, to be ethical, must be a
social ideal. That is, the idea of self which is
the end of action is in morality and immorality
the idea of a self in essential relation to other
selves. Man, as Aristotle wisely observed, is
by nature a social animal, and human morality
is social to the core. Whether any othei morality
is possible is not here in question. In all prob-
ability self-consciousness develops only as a
reflection from the consciousness that others
have of us. Our attention is directed to our-
selves only after we have observed others
paying attention to us. And the self we thus
reflect upon takes its emotional coloring and
motive value from the attitude our fellows
take towards us. Because, then, the moral agent
is a self-conscious being in a social environ-
ment, morality is social; and when we say that
it is social, we say that it is not a matter of
the individual's arbitrary construction. He
docs not choose his ideal entirely at his good
pleasure. He finds a general ideal in the so-
ciety into which he is born and in which he is
reared, and this ideal forms at least the point
of departure for his own mature ideal. There
are certain things expected of a member of
society, and this expectation forms a nucleus
around which the individual ethical develop-
ment proceeds. The moral man docs not break
away completely from these traditions. The
moral man is one who is "centred in the sphere
of common duties."

Another feature of morality needing mention
is that those common duties have in most cases
a real or assumed reference to the welfare of
the community. The obvious reason for the con-
demnation of murder, adultery, rape, theft, ly-
ing, cowardice, and intemperance, to mention
some of the most prominent objects of moral
judgment, is that these acts are injurious to
society. The murderer, the adulterer, the rav-
isher, the thief, the liar, the coward, and the
intemperate are common enemies, and the dis-
approval they receive is, at least in part, the

ETHICS

124

ETHICS

natural reaction of society against its foes.
That in great measure morality is action really
or supposedly conducive to social welfare, and
immorality is action really or supposedly con-
ducive to social degeneration, is proved by the
fact that actions once regarded as ethically
indifferent come to be regarded as moral or im-
moral when the general opinion comes to re-
gard them as socially^ beneficial or injurious.
The gradual change in the moral status of
slavery, of concubinage, of general sexual laxity
in men, of the duel and the vendetta, is histori-
cally traceable to growing insight into the social
consequences of these practices. The process of
the moralization of formerly ethically indiffer-
ent acts is observable in our own day. In many
places lynching is morally justified by the com-
munity at large. The mob law exercised on
some dastardly criminal is considered moral
because it not "only "serves him right," but also
is supposed to protect society against future
outrages. But when it is seen that such protec-
tion does not protect, but tends to undermine
the very foundation of law and thus render so-
ciety insecure, a sentiment grows that lynching
is morally wrong. The sentiment lags behind
the insight, but it follows it, even though at
some distance. Not only is it true that ob-
viously injurious actions are morally condemned,
but supposedly injurious actions are likewise
condemned. It is thus patent that real or
presumed relation to social welfare is a con-
stituent element in morality. It should be re-
marked here that nothing has been said of the
size of the community with whose welfare
morality is bound up. In primitive communi-
ties moral obligation has no reference to any-
thing outside of the family, the clan, or the
tribe. Even at the present day many a man
who would not think of swindling a neighbor
may have no scruples when it comes to taking
advantage of a foreigner, especially if the for-
eigner be of a nationality utterly alien to his
own. But the community within which moral
relations are recognized need not be in any sonse
one of blood relationship. It may be ono of
trade or calling, or it may be some quite arti-
ficial fraternity. All this goes to show that
actual morality is not catholic and cosmopoli-
tan, but is apt to be cliquish and clannish, and
the size of the community involved is deter-
mined by various causes. But these facts do
not make against the statement that moral
consciousness, wherever found, is the conscious-
ness of social import, or of an ideal self who
takes delight in and works for the welfare of
some fellow beings organized together in some
way.

We have as yet left out of account what prob-
ably many would regard as the most distinctive
feature of morality — the consciousness of ob-
ligation. Thus, it is alleged, however erratic
from our point of view modes of conduct ap-
proved in foreign lands and in, past ages may
be, some definite course of conduct has always
been regarded as binding. The fact of the ob-
ligation of some act or another, it is asserted,
is, and has always been, recognized by every
human being. There is the form of imperative-
ness, so the contention runs, in all human con-
sciousness; this constitutes the framework of
morality. The content, the matter, of morality
varies indefinitely; the form is immutable.
Some such thought as this controlled the mind
of Socrateb in his attempt to disprove the doc-

trine of relativity (q.v.), as applied by the
Sophists (q.v.) to the ethical life. Plato hy-
postatized this immutable essence of morality
into the eternal supreme "form of the good,"
the authoritative pontiff, as it were, within a
hierarchy of ideal essences. Aristotle, doing
justice to another type of moral experience,
found morality to consist in certain obligations
imposed by the desire to secure certain ends.
Christian theology, following St. Paul, construes
it as God's law of righteousness — "that which
may be known of God" and "is manifest even
in the Gentiles, for God manifested it unto
them" (Rom. i). "For when the Gentiles,
which have not the law, do by nature the things
contained in the law, these having not the law
are a law unto themselves; which shew the
work of the law written in their hearts, their
conscience also bearing witness, and their
thoughts the meanwhile accusing or else ex-
cusing one another" (Rom. ii. 14, 15). Ethical
intuitionism (q.v.) takes its cue from tradi-
tional theology, and finds a "faculty" of con-
science in every man; a faculty which may
become atrophied in those who stiff-ncckedly
refuse to give it play, but which is an always
present element in the original equipment of
faculties possessed by every man. Ethical ra-
tionalists (see RATIONALISM:), of whom Kant
is the great protagonist, ascribe to pure reason
an invariable mandatory activity, which oper-
ates in every rational being to the production
of a recognized obligation to do certain things
and to leave certain things undone, just be-
cause this doing and this leaving undone is
pure reasonableness. In Kant tins demand of
pure reason is formulated in the principle, uAct
only on that maxim wherebv thou canst at the
same time will that it should become a uni-
versal law." This he calls the "one categorical
imperative." This "law contains no conditions
restricting it," it "is objectively necessary in
itself without reference to any purpose." It
has its seat and origin completely a priori
(q.v.) in the reason, and that, moreover, in
the commonest reason just as truly as in that
which is in the highest degree speculative; "it
is just the purity of" its "origin that makes'*
it "worthy to serve as our supreme practical
principle." "There is no genuine supreme prin-
ciple of morality but" this which rests "simply
on pure reason, independent of all experience."
Hedonism (q.v.) roots the universal, unvarying
form of morality in the desire of every sentient
being to secure pleasure. In what is called the
psychological form of hedonism the view is held
that "on the occasion of every act he exercises,
every human being is led to pursue that line of
conduct which, according to his view of the
case, taken by him at the moment, will be in
the highest degree contributory to his own
greatest happiness." (Bentham.) In the ethi-
cal form of hedonism it is conceded that "men
often, from infirmity of character, make their
election for the nearer good, though they know
it to be the less valuable; and this no les*
when the choice is between two bodily pleasured
than, when it is between bodily and mental.
But while men thus do choose the less valuable
pleasure, "it may be questioned whether any
one who has remained equally susceptible to
both classes of pleasure ever knowingly and
calmly preferred the lower." Happiness is
"the rational purpose of human life and action.**
(J. S. Mill.) The happiness which reason

ETHICS

125

ETHICS

prescribes as the proper end of life may be
conceived as one's own happiness (egoistic ethi-
cal hedonism), or it may be the happiness of
all sentient creatures (universalistic ethical
hedonism ) , or it may be something intermediate.
But however narrowly or broadly conceived,
reason is said to demand an effort to secure it
and thus to impose an obligation. Perfection-
ists claim that what is demanded is not happi-
ness, but the full, harmonious development of
one's nature and of the nature of one's fellows,
until we all attain unto the stature of the
perfect man. Certain evolutionists consider the
supreme end which imposes obligation to consist
in improvement of "the social tissue." (Leslie
Stephen.) In all these views it will be seen
there is an insistence upon the fact that ob-
ligatoriness is an essential mark of morality.
Though they differ widely as to the source of
obligation, they all agree that coextensive with
morality is the phenomenon of obligation.

On the other hand, we find some writers who
maintain that obligation is only an accident
of morality. Herbert Spencer, in his Data of
Ethics, comes to the "conclusion, which will be
to most very startling, that the sense of duty
or moral obligation is transitory and will di-
minish as fast as moralization increases." "With
complete adaptation to the social state, that
element in the moral consciousness which is
expressed by the word 'obligation* will disap-
pear. The higher actions, required for the har-
monious carrying on of life, will be as much
matters of course as are these lower actions
which the simple desires prompt. In their
proper times and places and proportions the
moral sentiments will guide men just as spon-
taneously and adequately as now do the sen-
sations." Among the poets this view is by no
means rare.

These two opposing interpretations of moral-
ity— the one that regards the consciousness of
obligation as indispensable to morality, and
the one that regards it as a transitory feature
which will be outlived — are each in part true
and in part false. The facts warrant us in
saying that it is not necessary to the morality
of an act that the agent should regard it as
obligatory. Many actions which, except upon
some preconceived theory, no one would hesi-
tate to pronounce moral, are spontaneous or
habitual. A cup of cold water, even when not
given "in the name of a disciple," or of the
giver's or the recipient's "pleasure," or of "the
greatest happiness of the greatest number," or
of "the social tissue," or of somebody's "per-
fection," or of "the moral sense," or of "a uni-
versal law of Nature," may yet change hands in
an unquestionably moral act. What is required
to make the gift moral is that it should be
made by one who is capable of the consciousness
of obligation, and that it should not be regarded
by him as a contravention of moral obligation.
Not necessarily the presence of the conscious-
ness of moral obligation in each moral act, nor
even the absence of the consciousness of dis-
loyalty to a moral obligation, but the suscep-
tibility of the agent to a feeling of obligation,
is a universal feature of moral conduct. While
susceptibility to obligation marks the moral
agent as distinguished from the nowmoral doer
of acts, a moral act as distinguished from an
immoral act may be performed against a felt
obligation. £TDhe uneasy consciousness of dis^J
loyalty to a traditionally recognized moral ob-J

ligation is compatible with morality, provided
the agent has come to recognize an obligation
superior to the traditional; for his habitual
reverence for the old law and the knowledge
that he is drawing on himself the opprobrium
of its adherents may fill him with vague mis-
givings at the very time when his conduct is
prompted by fealty to the new order. He acts ,
against the feeling, while acting in harmony
with the knowledge, of moral obligation. Such t
action, instead of being immoral, or even non- j
amoral, is a supreme instance of moral heroism^j
But when the path of duty has been worn
smooth by habit, the wayfarer thereon is none
the less moral because for the most part he for-
gets the manner of path he is treading. In the
soldier who has been through severe discipline
habituated to obedience, the sense of coercive-
ness has disappeared. The soldier may no
longer be explicitly conscious that some other
person exacts of him a certain mode of be-
havior. In general, he may no longer exact this
of himself. It has become his nature to do this,
and that is all there is to it. But often, again,
that is not all. There come times when his
nature does not prompt him without hesitation.
Then the question arises, "What ought I to do?"
This need not mean, "What must I do to escape
the guardhouse?" There may no longer be a
consciousness of subordination to some external
authority, in the sense of some person or some
organization that actually demands compliance
with certain rules. And yet there is not the
sense of license to do anything one may like.
Something still ought to be done, and something
ought not to be done. If, however, habit should
have altogether become blind second nature, if
the agent should have outlived the ability to
think in terms of obligation, his action would
have lost that one distinguishing mark which
differentiates morality from what appears to be
the nonbenevolent cooperative beneficence of
ants. If morality is to be a term having any
specific meaning, it must be saved from applica-
tion to a condition of affairs in which an idea of
obligation is never present any more than are
"the evils of starvation at a time when a healthy
appetite is being satisfied by a meal." ( Spencer. )
Our conclusion, therefore, is that acts not recog-
nized as obligatory may be moral if performed
by beings capable, on due occasion, of recogniz-
ing them as obligatory.

But what is the consciousness of obligation?
In how many forms does the consciousness of
obligation appear? What gives rise to these
various forms? How does moral obligation
differ from other obligations? All these ques-
tions demand answer in a systematic ethical
discussion.

Let us answer the first question by saying
that no single definition can be given of obliga-
tion. Rather is it true that there are at least
two quite different types of the consciousness of
obligation, each of which must be described in
its own way. Following Kant, we may call these
two types the categorical and the hypothetical.
In the latter case a person is conscious that he
ought to dp a thing if he wants to secure a cer-
tain end; in the other he judges that he ought
to do a thing, without being able to assign any
end, as the necessary means of obtaining which
the action is obligatory.

Taking up first the consciousness of condi-
tional obligation, which is called the hypotheti-
cal imperative, we find that the experience in

ETHICS

126

ETHICS

•which it appears can be described aa fallows:
"I want a certain result; and a certain act is
indispensable if I am to secure that result.
Therefore in so far as I am motived by the
desire and directed by my judgment I must
in consistency perform the act." The fact that
\vhf_oi a certain desire and a certain judgment
respecting the means of satisfying this desire
are present in experience a certain act is felt
to be required for consistency's sake, is the fact
of hypothetical or teleological obligation. When
1 ex'puiicncc that requirement in my conscious-
ness, I say that I ought to do that act. Man as
desiring and as not securing a certain object is
man at odds with his environment. Man as de-
siring and yet as not doing what he knows to be
necessary to secure a certain object is man at
odds with himself. He is inconsistent. His ac-
tion does not comport with his desire, and be-
cause he knows that there is this incompatibility
his action does not comport with his knowledge.
It is unintelligent and irrational. The irration-
ality of the act is concrete and not abstract. It
consists in incongruousness with a known definite
situation. Vary the situation, and the demand of
reason or the obligation varies likewise. The
obligation is contingent, because reason itself
alone cannot create it. But given a desire and a
knowledge of some means to gratify it, there
always is in a thinking being, just so far as he
reflects, the consciousness of the incompatibility
between the existence of the desire and a failure
to perform the act known to be a necessary
means of satisfying the desire. In case there are
two desires, and the necessary measures to be
taken to appease them cannot both be taken,
there arises a conflict of obligation. This con-
flict is adjusted only when one desire has be-
come a preference. Then its corresponding ob-
ligation overrides the other. "Practical reason"
is just the acquiescence in the ascendancy of
this deaire, and the decision in favor of that
conduct which this desire imposes. Often the
part played by "reason" in the conflict of obliga-
tions is different, for it often happens that the
relative strength of a desire is modified by
knowledge of the results that follow its gratifi-
cation. The gaining of this knowledge introduces
a new situation, and the desidcrative attitude
taken towards the foreseen consequences modi-
fies the previous desire, strengthening, diminish-
ing, or counteracting it as the case may be.
The former object may still appeal, but its
appeal is overborne. In such a case we arc said
to do what we reasonably ought to do. The
teleological obligation is, then, the control of
present conduct by an idea of a future good as
opposed to the solicitation of some more im-
mediate good.

But there are obligations which are categori-
cal. Often we do not say to ourselves, "Do this
because you want that," but merely, "Do this."
There arises in consciousness a command saying
"Thou shalt" or ''Thou shalt not," and often
this commandment is recognized as having right-
ful authority. How does this command arise?

To some extent, without question, it arises by
reason of an economical tendency to abbrevia-
tion, characteristic of all mental processes. We
begin by saying to ourselves, "Do this because \
you want that," and we end by saying shortly,
"Do this," And not only may we fail to give a
reason, but, as often happens in other reasoned
processes, we may come to forget that we have
had a reason. Then the command appears as

self-evidently reasonable. That this process
actually takes place cannot be denied. Bat it is
perhaps not the strongest influence at work in
producing categorical imperatives. For this we
must perhaps look to another principle well
recognized in psychology, though not often ap-
plied to explain the consciousness of uncon-
ditional obligation.

The principle in its simplest form appears in
hypnotism (q.v.). It is well known that a hyp-
notic subject feels constrained to follow almost
all the commands of his hypnotisser. Ordinarily
lie unhesitatingly obeys, and does not question
the latter's right to issue orders. He may be-
gin to do something else, but feels a restraining
force. If he stops short of full performance, he
will say to himself, as one of Ohoromcz's
patients is recorded to have wind, "I Jmve some-
thing yet to do." (Ochorowicz, Mental Rugftes-
tion, Eng. trans., p. 63, New York, 1801.) This
susceptibility to the word of command is not
peculiar to hypnosis. We all know how strong
is often the impulsion to do what a, man with
"strong personality" orders us to do. Wo Buy
he has "personal' magnetism" and can make
everybody do what he wants. We are also com-
ing to say sometimes that he hypnotizes us.

Now, if we reflect that there are certain com-
mands that have been issued to us from our in-
fancy up, by those who in our childhood imposed
themselves upon our will; if we remember that
every time we were caught disobeying them we
were made to feel the inexorable resolution in all
our friends to hold us up to the law laid down-,
if we consider how our countertendoncies were
sternly checked while the "suggestive" force of
the command was allowed free swing — can we
wonder that, in presence of such a constant,
uninterrupted imposition of commands upon us.
oven the most stubborn of us have comti to fool,
when we fail to live up to those laws, as the
hypnotic subject above alluded to felt — that we
"have something yet to do"? Gradually the very
thought of acts contrary to these command's
calls up in our consciousness the momentous
words "Thou shalt not," and tlio long habit of
acknowledging their authority accords them,
when thus revived, the Mime recognition of
rightful claim over us as they had when enforced
by parent and teacher and preacher and exact inp
neighbor. The outer law of man becomes now
the inner law of "conscience," and under the in-
fluence of current conceptions may be referred
to some daimon, as by Socrates, or to some
ministering angel, or to God's voice in man's
soul. All these explanations are but attempts
to explain the fact, easily explicable by psycho-
logical laws, that "when Duty whispers low
'Thou must/" Duty is only a reverberating
echo of old commands indtfatigably inculcated
on us by all the personal agencies that have
taken part in our moral education. Reason
may have no part to play in this process. The
most absurd commands nuiy be imposed and be
loyally accepted as unconditionally binding, as
the history of morals shows.

But a time comes in the history of some indi-
viduals when the spell of the word of command
is broken. They begin to ask, "Why must 1 be
moral?" They challenge the authority of ar-
bitrary demands and seek a reason for the
moral law. This is a critical moment, big with
possibilities of progress or downfall. In default
of wide experience a man may at such a juncture
devote himself to what he calls pleasure seeking.

ETHICS i:

If, however, it can be shown him that the law
did not enter that offense might abound, but, in
large measure, that invaluable human ends
might be realized, the desire he may naturally
have for these ends may turn into conditional,
teleological imperatives the obligations hereto-
fore blindly accepted but now questioned. Open-
eyed submission may take the place of the blind
hypnotic control, now spurned; and "in the con-
fidence of reason" he may conic to yield himself
a loyal subject to the law as a law of liberty.
Categorical morality, the morality of code, gives
place to reasonable morality, a moral of insight
into values. Law as a rule-of-thumb gives place
to law sis an intelligent principle of conduct.

Whon the change takes place, it must be ex-
pected that the contents of the law will not re-
main wholly unchanged. Of the many exactions
made in the name of morality, it would be
strange if some are not found "useless or even
mischievous. In the nature of the case this
discovery can never in its completeness be the
work of any one man or age. The problem is
too complex, and the complexity is increased
by a constant shifting of values. (Nietzsche's
Unnrertung.) A teleological morality is that
system of conduct that most completely meets
human needs and realizes human aspirations.
As needs and aspirations vary, so teleological
morality must vary. Thus, the partial solution
of the moral problem of one age means a change
in the terms of the problem for the next; for
every partial solution creates a new situation
giving a new outlook, and the exact attitude of
now beings to a new situation with a now out-
look can never be foretold by human prophecy.
This, however, is no reason for despair; for only
those who look forward with ecstasy to stagna-
tion could wish to have the problem of morality
definitely solved with one flash of insight. But
while the problem is never solved definitely, it is
progressively solved. Modifying Hegel's famous
dictum, we may say, Die SittcngeschicJite ist das
KittengericJit (the history of morals is the judg-
ment of morals). But whatever may be the
form which the solution takes at any particular
time, this form is now imposed categorically
upon the young and immature, so that what is
teleologically obligatory for the man of insight
becomes categorically obligatory for the unso-
phisticated.

We thus see that moral obligation can be
described in terms of neither the categorical
form alone nor of the hypothetical form alone,
but those two forms of obligation represent
different stages of morality. Teleological ethics
and duty ethics each leaves, therefore, out of
account a large part of the moral phenomena.
The rival schools ought to join hands in recog-
nizing that each is true to certain facts of the
moral life, while neglecting others upon which
its rival has concentrated its attention. But it
is not enough to know that morality tends to
become teleological, as men become more in-
telligent. Men have desired to know what end
it comes to recognize as imposing the obligation
to be moral. Is there any single object the
desire for which is supreme in all human beings
who know what they are about?

Hedonism (q.v.) attempts to furnish an an-
swer to the question. It maintains that we
ought to be moral, i.e., to do the acts and have
the dispositions ordinarily described as moral,
because we desire to obtain the greatest amount
of pleasure possible or the least possible amount

17 ETHICS

of pain, whether the pleasure and pain be the
agent's or some one else's, and because morality
is the course which we must pursue in order to
obtain this end, which for brevity we shall call
the hedonic end. For the hedonist moral actions
are obligatory because the plan of human lives,
as involving the pursuit of a maximum of
pleasure or a minimum of pain, imposes this
obligation as a means to the realization of the
hedonic plan. But questions arise now as to
the hedonic plan on which morality as an
obligation is said to rest. Is this plan an actual
plan in all rational human lives? If not, are
those who do not adopt it exempt from morality?
If they are not exempt, is this because they
ought to adopt the hedonic plan? If they
ought to adopt it, what imposes this obligation?
On these points hedonists differ, and it cannot
he said that any answers given are satisfactory.
Bentham and others maintain that the hedonic
end is the actual end of every human being, and
for this reason it ought so to be. This doctrine
is called psychological hedonism. But Sidgwirk
(q.v.), another hedonist, says with point that if
an end is an actual end of conduct in every case,
there is no propriety in saying that it ought to
be; and that the hedonic plan is not the actual
plan of all, or even of most, human lives. Most
persons pursue such ends as the acquisition of
wealth, of knowledge, of reputation; they do not
seek pleasure pure and simple. Nor is it truo
that they seek wealth, knowledge, and reputation
merely because they regard these as means to
future pleasure, any more than the normal man
eats merely or predominantly for the sake of
the pleasure that comes from the stimulation
of his palate by food or from a full stomach.
The ordinary man eats his three meals a day,
for the most part, either because he is hungry
or because he has a three-meal habit; it is true
that the expectation of pleasure from his meal
often has a part to play in the matter; but
careful introspection will perhaps show that it
fs not often a very influential factor in deter-
mining his eating.

Most of the things we do are not done, then,
for the sake of the pleasure we expect to get
from the doing. If, now, it is the hedonic plan
that imposes moral obligation, what about the
large number of persons to whom the hedonic
end is not a supreme end? Are they exempt
from moral obligation? It would be a rash
hedonist who should say Yes, in face of the
fact that these very persons who do not pursue
a, hedonic end yet admit moral obligation. Many
hedonists, therefore, prefer to say that the pur-
suit of pleasure is not always, but always ought
to be, the supreme end of life. This doctrine is
called ethical hedonism. But if it ought to Lf,
what imposes the obligation? The answer given
by ethical hedonists is that the obligation is
self-evident: every reasonable man will upon
reflection recognize that pleasure is the only end
worth striving for. But unfortunately such a
statement is not true; too many intellfgent per-
sons who have understood clearly the terms of
the proposition have denied it point-blank; and
a proposition denied by an expert may indeed be
true, but it is not sc7/-evidcnt. How, then, prove
that every one ought to pursue pleasure? What
plan of life is there that can impose such an ob-
ligation? To this question several answers haw
been given. Just one answer need be cited here.
Some say that reason requires that one should
pursue pleasure. Thus, Bidgwick in the last

ETHICS

130

ETHICS

insensible to the ordinary moral ideas of the
time, because these ideas are incompatible with
ideas they have long held. Perhaps the in-
sensibility has become chronic; perhaps it is
still remediable. Only experiment can determine.
These persons are not moral idiots, i.e., not non-
moral. They are moral unfortunates; they may
not even be seriously immoral in the sense of
coming far short of meeting such moral obliga-
tions as they have come to recognize. Still
other persons have begun life with the normal
ideals, but for one reason or another they have
not lived up to these ideals, and have gone so
far as to give up the ideals entirely. All these
differences must be taken into consideration when
one is asking whether a particular departure
from ordinarily recognized morality means im-
morality or nonmorality. It is immorality only
when the moral obligation, practically ignored,
is still recognized as binding.

But this leads to other questions. Of two dif-
ferent moral standards, can one be said to
be more moral than the other? Is there a
standard for testing the relative excellence of
actual moral standards? Is the actually ex-
istent morality subject to evaluation by com-
parison with a morality which ought to be? If
so, what is this standard? How is it ascer-
tained? What imposes it as a standard upon
actual morality? These questions have often
been thought to be absolutely unanswerable by
any science of ethics, for it has been said that
science describes, but does not prescribe; that a
science of ethics, in the sense of a systematic
presentation of actual moral judgments, can in-
deed be constructed, but not a science which
shall criticize actual morality and suggest im-
provements. Such a statement as to the limi-
tations of science is inadequate. It is perfectly
true that no science directly prescribes. The
science of geometry does not prescribe surveying,
nor does the science of electricity prescribe elec-
tric lighting. What a science can do is to de-
scribe the conditions which must be met before
a given aim can be attained ; and among several
means to the attainment of an end, it can point
out that which involves tho least effort or that
which is the best under given circumstances.
Every so-called practical science is a more or
less systematic knowledge of the conditions
which must be met before a certain result can
be obtained; but it cannot be accurately said
to prescribe the result. The result is prescribed
by some need and the means to its attainment
is described by the science. Now, ethics is a
practical science. It makes no absolute pre-
scriptions. All it does is to study the facts of
the moral life, and as a result it may be more
or less able to describe the conditions that must
be fulfilled before any accepted end of the moral
life can be realized. This study does reveal
many imperfections in actual morality, but these
imperfections which we now have to mend are
imperfections of means and not of ultimate end.
This discussion will enable us to answer the
questions placed at the beginning of the para-
graph. Of two moral standards, in the sense
of moral rules prescribed for the attainment of
a certain accepted moral end, one may be more
moral than another, in the sense of being better
adapted to attain the moral end. The standard
by which two such differing moral standards may
be tested is that of conduciveness to the moral
end. The existing morality, in so far as it
consists of such rules, may easily be defective,

and a more adequate knowledge of all the perti-
nent facts may result in the discovery of a
morality that ought to replace the actual mo-
rality. This discovery is the business of science ;
the acceptance of the obligation to forsake ac-
tually observed rules and to adopt the newly
discovered rules of action is tlie work of the
moral agent as a person with a supreme plan
reasonably pursued. Thus, it appears that while
ethics is concerned with the morality that is, it
may also discover conditions formerly unknown;
and this discovery may react on the morality
that is, making it more like what it ought to be ;
i.e., it may make moral action more commensu-
rate with the moral end.

Scientific ethics might conceivably do even
more. Supposing for the present that actual
moralities have had no single ultimate end
consciously arrived at, but different ends sot
up in different communities and at different
times, ethics might also discover how it came
about that there was thus a multiplicity of
ends, and it might even discover that there was
a way of harmonizing these various ends. It
might be able to describe an end which, if
realized, would include the realization of all,
or of the larger number, of these historical ends.
But here, again, a science could not as a science
prescribe this inclusive end. Unless the end, as
inclusive, appealed to men, ethics could not
force it on them. It would occupy a position
similar to the science of telegraphy. When it
was discovered that it was possible to send a
message over long distances with great rapidity,
this bit of scientific knowledge did not prescribe
to men the adoption of the means of transmis-
sion. It was only human needs that imposed
the obligation to adopt telegraphy. This in-
ability of science to impose new ends constitute*,
part of the tragedy of scientific inventions.
Many a man has devoted his life to making
possible the attainment of a new end, only to
find when his labors were done that the end was
not desired by mankind at large.

Now, as a matter of fact, it can be said that
ethics has discovered a multiplicity of ends
among men. As we have seen, sometimes it is
social welfare, sometimes it is individual wel-
fare, that men make their supreme end. Again,
both social and individual welfare are very dif-
ferently conceived in different times and places.
Sometimes social welfare is thought to consist
in military strength; sometimes in economic
conditions; sometimes in artistic productive-
ness, and so forth. So also individual welfare
is sometimes thought to consist in the possession
of abundance of means of sensual enjoyment, or
in physical prowess, or in intellectual power, or
in social prestige, or in religious mil, or what
not. With regard to all these various ends,
ethics can discover or attempt to discover, with
the help of other sciences, whether when attained
they have given permanent sati&f action; whether
rather the attainment of many of these ends has
not, as a rule, brought in its train misery which
could have been avoided had the ends riot been
sought; whether such disappointment was due
to accidental circumstances, or whether, human
nature and human environment being what 'they
are, such disappointment was inevitable; whether,
if the latter alternative be true, any other end
could have been pursued with reasonable chances
of better success. But suppose all these ques-
tions answered and an end discovered which
promises, when attained, to give satisfaction.

ETHICS r.

Even then it would be only the desire of men
for such an end that could impose upon them
the obligation to adopt the course of action
necessary to attain it. Again, suppose such an
end were a social end, and could not be realized
within the lifetime of any now living, but could
be attained in, say, 500 years. Whether the
pursuit of that end would be undertaken or not
would depend upon the relative strength of the
desire for that future consummation and the
desire for other objects that would necessarily be
sacrificed in order to work for that consummation.

There is, however, another question that must
be answered here ; Is there no difference between
what is actually desired and what is really de-
sirable? Take the last case supposed. Granting
that mankind at large did, when such an end
was presented to it, reject it as too remote and
too quixotically altruistic, and did set about to
realize some other end, could it not be said that,
in spite of the fact that the end is not deshcd,
it is desirable? Or shall we have to say, with
J. S. Mill, that "the sole evidence it is possible
to produce that anything is desirable is that
people actually desire it"? In answer it must
be said that desired and desirable are different
conceptions; 'that people often actually do desire
what is undesirable; so that Mill's statement
cannot be accepted as it stands. But there is a
profound truth which the statement perhaps at-
tempts, but fails to express. The statement
must be -amended. Nothing is desirable that is
not desired, or would not be desired if adequately
known. Thus, I may desire a certain fruit I
see for the first time. Its color is tempting, its
whole appearance makes a strong appeal to me
to pluck it and eat it. But in spite of this the
fruit may not be desirable. It may be deadly,
or it may be extremely sour or astringent; or it
may have a nauseating smell, which as yet I
have not perceived. It would be desirable if I
knew all about it and still desired it. It is a
common experience that things eagerly desired
are found afterward to be undesirable, and are
then judged to have been undesirable all the
time we were longing and striving for them.
Thus, the measure of desirability is not the
strength of the actual desire which persons have,
but the desire they would have if they only knew
the real bearing of these desires upon other
things they are interested in.

Among the things that should bo adequately
known ajre the character and tendency of our
future desires. A blind man may have no desire
for fine paintings in his room. But if he knew
that within a few years his blindness would be
cured, and that then he would crave beautiful
objects of sight, the knowledge would tend to
make him now desire to have the pictures.
Now, apply this answer to the supposed case
that called forth the question. The welfare of
society 500 years hence would have no value to
men who were not genuinely unselfish, i.e., who
desired only their own pleasures. But men do
actually desire other things than pleasure, even
when they know that these things cannot
possibly bring them pleasure in the future. Many
a disbeliever in immortality has earnestly de-
sired and worked for some end which he knew
could not be accomplished until long after his
death. It is true that he would not have so
worked for it if he had not at the time taken
pleasure in the end; but he did not work for
the sake of a future pleasure to come from a
future realization of his plan. If the welfare

it ETHICS

of humanity 500 years hence, when the idea of
that welfare is clearly presented to now living
men with all its bearings upon all their desires,
did not arouse a desire to realize it, that welfare
would not be desirable for these men. This
difference thus described between the desired and
the desirable also holds good between the pre-
ferred and the preferable. The preferable for
any man is what he would prefer if he actually
had all the information that was necessary for
an intelligent preference. So also, finally, the
supreme end, or summum bonum, for any man
is that end which is for him preferable to any
other. The nature of all his desires in their
true interrelation and in their relation to the
actual world in which he lives, determines the
summum bonum, but he may not know what
that summum bonum is, because he may not
understand thoroughly either the world in its
relations to the system of his desires, or the
interrelation of his desires. In the sense that
a science of ethics may, conceivably at least,
throw light upon these questions, it may dis-
cover the summum bonum; but it cannot impose
upon any man a summum bonum which is
irrespective of his actual nature as a being with
quite definite desires.

If the question is now asked whether ethicists
have as yet come to any agreement as to the
nature of the summum bonum, the answer must
be No. However, the following description of
the summum bonum is given, because it seems
to do justice to all the determining factors of
the problem. The summum bonum of any moral
man is not any one single object. It is rather
a progression of objects. The summum bonum
is a serial system of ends which are, each in its
turn, the most desirable ends capable of pursuit.
An element in its desirability is that it shall fix
favorable conditions for further pursuit of
further desirable ends as well as give pleasure
in the ends already attained. Again, because
the normal man is a social man and thus in-
terested in seeing at least some of his fellows
obtain what is desirable for them, there is found
among the ends included in the summum bonum
the welfare of these fellowmen. By welfare is
meant the progressive realization of the pro-
gressive summum bonum of each of these fellow-
men. Now, the fact that the summum bonum
of each normal man includes within itself the
welfare of some other men constitutes a com-
munity of welfare. The question how many
persons shall be included in the community of
welfare is determined partly by objective con-
ditions and partly by the actual reach of the
benevolent emotions: by objective conditions,
because no matter what may be my affectional
attitude towards another man, it may be the
case that unless he has his welfare lie will be an
impediment to my obtaining my welfare; by the
actual reach of the benevolent emotions, as is
proved by history, which shows that as men have
become larger-hearted, the community of in-
terests is shared in by a larger number of in-
dividuals. It must be borne in mind that the
summum bonum thus described is not imposed
upon any individual by any obligation. Unless
an individual is so constituted that he finds such
an end the most desirable of all ends, it is not
his summum bonum. All that has been at-
tempted is to describe in very general terms an
end that it is believed will be found to be most
desirable by normal human beings. Abnormal
human beings, who have no liking for their kind,

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or who are rabidly monomaniacal, or who in
some other essential features vary from the
kindly race of men, are not taken into account.
Their siimma, bona, are radically different, and
because this is so there is apparently no possi-
bility of welfare for them consistent with wel-
fare for normal men. They are not included
directly in the community of human interests.
All that can be demanded for them is so much
of welfare as is consistent with the welfare of
mankind in general.

But though ethics as a science cannot impose
an end on man, man individually and collectively
can impose ends upon man to a certain extent.
It is a fact, as we have already seen, that what
a person shall desire is to a large extent deter-
mined by what other persons desire. A com-
munity or an individual with a definite concep-
tion of a supreme end can do much to influence
a child or even an adult to desire that same end;
and this makes moral training possible. Moral
training and the teaching of ethical science are
two quite distinct operations, although they may,
and often do, go hand in hand. Moral training
consists in an attempt to habituate a person to
actions and dispositions such as are desired by
the trainer. It is the process of initiating a
person into a communion of ends with another
person or with a group of persons. Ethical
teaching is the process of bringing a person to
see and understand the facts of the moral life.
The former is an attempt to develop apprecia-
tions, the latter to develop insight. An ap-
preciation without insight is blind; insight
without appreciation is ineffective.

Moral training, however, is a fact in the moral
life, and as such the investigation of it has a
place in ethics as a science of the moral life.
Ethics studies the facts of moral training and
discovers whether the method adopted secures
in the most effective way the end desired. It
may ascertain, -e.g., the fact that an actual
particular kind of punishment is evil; that
is, that instead of preventing crime it aggravates
and multiplies it. Ethics may discover that
other methods would avert these evil conse-
quences and produce advantageous results, and
it may discover the best means to the securing
of these ends. All this is a matter of descrip-
tive science, not in the least directly prescrip-
tive. The beneficial ends are prescribed to men
by their desire; the means are discovered by
experience and experiment. A study of moral
training shows that it is a very complex affair,
and into its complexities we cannot here enter.
Example and precept, admonition and chastise-
ment, reward and "pious fraud," threats, actual
infiiction of pain, appeals to nascent desires and
aversions, are all employed more or less fre-
quently. All these instruments of moral train-
ing have their characteristic effect, and these
must be experimentally ascertained. And again,
not only moral training, but vengeance, is a
phenomenon of the moral life. It aims at the
infliction of pain on an offender to appease by
his suffering the suffering of his victim or of the
sympathizers of his victim. It has its charac-
teristic results. These are studied by ethics.
The results of this study may, as a fact do,
secure general condemnation of such vengeful
punishment; but this, again, is because the out-
come of a vengeful policy is undesirable.

But there is a limit to what ethics as a science
can do in securing acceptance of a common end.
As we have seen, all that science can accom-

plish in this respect is to set forth different ends,
the means to their attainment, and the conse-
quences that would come from their attainment.
Now, the fact is that different persons react
differently to these proposed ends. Some want
one realized, and some want another. Conse-
quences that to some are revolting are desired by
others. In such a case no amount of knowledge
can decide the issue. We have here a conflict
of ultimate ideals, and such a conflict can be
decided only as all conflicts between unsympa-
thetic interests are decided, viz., by struggle and
the eventual victory of one over the other. In
sucli a struggle argument does not play the de-
cisive rOle. The appeal is to another tribunal,
the tribunal of force. The force employed is not
necessarily physical, although often it culmi-
nates in that. In a stable society the conflict is
usually carried on by the use of such instru-
mentalities as persuasion, praise, and blame.
Persuasion as opposed to argument is the proc-
ess of arousing desires which shall supplant
previous desires. Our desiderative natures are
not something static, something we inherit and
keep without change. Our desires are more or
less pliable. We are liable to conversion, i.e.,
to a change in the whole bent of our longings.
A powerful personality can incalculably modify
the sentiments of a community. Thus, a
struggle between antagonistic ideals is often a
test of personal strength between its adherents,
and more especially between the leaders. The
cause that secures a magnetic leader has won
half the battle. In persuasion praise and blame
are employed. The desire for the approval of
some outstanding personality is a mighty force
in securing the adoption of a new ideal. The
fear of such a man's blame will bring the
vacillating into the fold. Once in, the followers
become habituated to the new ideal and inculcate
it upon their children. In this way, radiating
from some one central person, a new ideal may
sweep a nation or a continent. Of course, the
social and the economic conditions must be ripe
for the exercise of this personal influence, but
in the last resort it is the personal influence
that wins the battle. The moral ideals con-
nected with the great historical religions secured
their footing by such a process. Buddhism,
Christianity, and Mohammedanism, as moral
ideals, owe their ascendancy in large measure to
the magnetism of their founders. Their spread
was a personal victory.

But often resort is had to physical force. This
is clearly instanced in the great change that
took place when the practice of blood feud was
replaced by the now current dispensation of
justice by the state. In England, when the
central government first took the control of
criminal law into its hands, public sentiment
was against the usurpation. The clan system
had been in vogue for countless generations, and
what thus had the sanction of immemorial
usage was naturally regarded as just and moral.
The encroachments of the crown were resented
as unwarranted interference, and a struggle was
precipitated. It was the physical strength of
the crown as compared with the growing weak-
ness of the clan that gave victory to the prin-
ciple of state control. The will of the physically
stronger formed the basis of the newer justice.
In the course of time the sentiments of the com-
munity became adjusted to the new order of
things, ideas of what was right came to be
molded upon the practice which thus came to

ETHICS

133

ETHICS

prevail, and what a short time before was fought
as an intolerable infringement is now regarded
by most people as a self-evidencing right. The
might of the state brought about the right of
governmental penal control. The course of his-
tory is full of instances where victory in war
established new moral ideals among the con-
quered. Even the moral ideals of many of the
great religions have used physical force in their
propaganda. Mohammedanism and Christianity
have spread into many places by the agency of
the sword; when established by might, time
brought prescription, and subsequent genera-
tions accept loyally what their ancestors fought.

It is a great mistake to suppose that morality
is a matter of pure intelligence. It is an ex-
ceedingly complex interest, and in the making of
it all sorts of factors have played their part.
For this reason moral history can never be pre-
dicted. European moral ideals owe their present
existence to numerous battles that once hung in
the balance, to economic changes unforeseen, to
personal leaders whose advent was unheralded.
Might—the might of personality, the might of
economic conditions, the might of legions and
battalions — has established the ideals which are
now current and are regarded by their devotees
as the expression of eternal right.

Few would perhaps question that such might
has been instrumental in establishing ideals, but
a distinction would be urged between the validity
and the establishment of an ideal. Validity, it
is often argued, is something that has its roots
in the ultimate nature of reality, while the
establishment of an ideal is a mere matter of
history and subject to changing historical con-
ditions. But such a distinction overlooks the
fact that an ideal is in its very nature an appeal
to inclination, to preferences, to loyalty. And
the character of the persons to whom the ap-
peal is made is integral to the constitution of
the ideal as ideal. And character is not some-
thing that is immutable, but is subject to his-
torical influences, so that the essence of an ideal
as ideal is relative to the historical factors that
determine character. The validity of an ideal is
just its acceptance as an ideal, and its accept-
ance is its establishment where accepted. The
only question, then, as to the validity of an ideal
is its generality, i.e., the number of persons
whom it engages in its service, and its durability,
i.e., the length of time during which it succeeds
in securing and keeping the loyalty of adherents.

This view of the relativity of ideals to his-
torical conditions is often objected to on the
ground that it is dangerous in practice. It
tends, so it is urged, to take away from the
moral ideal the stamp of finality, without which
it could not pass current. It deprives it of the
categorical authoritative character without
which it could not maintain itself against per-
sonal inclination. The objection would hold
good if morality were something independent of
human interests, if the moral life were life in
accordance with some standard not based on
human desires and human satisfaction. The
argument, in other words, begs the whole ques-
tion. Those who hold to the relativity of
morality necessarily must regard as humanly
moral only what is humanly valuable, and a
value does not lose its value for any one because
it is recognized as what he with his particular
emotional equipment holds dear. The dynamic
of values is given to them by the very appeal
they make to our interests, and so long as these

interests obtain the values remain values. Ideals
would lose their grip on men who believe in the
relativity of ideals only when these men also
lose their interest in these ideals. So long as
interests continue, the ideals that are con-
structed out of them will attract and control.
And when interests die out, the allegation of the
independence of an ideal will not bring them to
life. The vigor of an ideal is fed, not by a
theory of its origin, but by the experience of the
effects of its operation or by the authority of
those who impose it.

The possibility of the evolution of morality out
of nonmoral conditions was some years ago
seriously contested on metaphysical and theolog-
ical grounds. The theological grounds do not
concern us. The metaphysical grounds of objec-
tion are invalid. The strongest argument of the
opponents of evolutionistic ethics is based on the
necessity of self-consciousness for morality and
on the alleged impossibility of the evolution of
self-consciousness. The fallacy of this argu-
ment has been often pointed out. The "tirneless-
ness" of self-consciousness does not consist in the
fact that the self has not a place in time as an
event, but in the fact that the objects of that
self's knowledge are not confined to the sensa-
tions of the present moment. The assertion
that a consciousness in time cannot know time is
an unfounded dogmatic dictum, and yet only on
the supposition that this statement is true* can
it be maintained that consciousness and self-
consciousness are in their nature incapable of
explanation by evolution. The exact course
taken in the evolution of morality from the non-
moral is still an open question ; but the truth of
the statement that morality is an evolved prod-
uct stands or falls with the general truth of the
evolution of man from the nonmoral animals.

The only other question that can be discussed
here is that of free will in its bearing on moral-
ity. Can there be moral responsibility if the
will is determined, i.e., if the volitions of man
are events which find their complete causal
explanations in previous events? In the light
of what has been said it must be maintained
that, unless human volitions were determined,
responsibility would be impossible. Ethical re-
sponsibility is primarily the liability of a person
to answer for his conduct before the bar of pub-
lic opinion, whether that opinion be expressed in
custom, religion, or law. A man commits an
act and is hold responsible. This means that he
is subject to the demand of his fellows to prove
that his act is in accord with the generally
accepted plan of life, or that hia variant plan is
the right plan. Given an accepted plan, in-
telligent experience can determine the relation
of an act to the realization of that plan. A
reasonable person who adopts that plan may
be constantly called upon to justify the means
he takes to realize that end. Condemnation of
an act in such a case means that it is recognized
as not conducive to that end and that it is dis-
liked as having that tendency. Approval means
that it is recognized as conducive to that end and
is liked as having that tendency. Or again, in-
stead of raising a question of means to an end,
there may be a question about the end. We have
seen that, though the actual supreme end pursued
is not imposed by reason, yet knowledge of the
bearing of the attained end upon actual desires
may lead to change of ends. Moral responsi-
bility may mean the liability of a person to
justify his supreme end, i.e., to show that it is

ETHICS

134

ETHIOPIA

desirable as well as desired. Approval or con-
demnation of the end is a recognition of its de-
sirableness 01 undosirableness, and the resulting
atfechonal tone. It of course carries with it ap-
proval or disapproval of the means leading up to
it. In ordinary life the supreme end is unre-
fleetively pursued, and the means to it taken for
grunted as presented in some moral code. The
only function of conscience in such cases is the
approval or disapproval of an act as conforming
to the moral code. In any case the whole ac-
tivity of conscience is useless unless the judg-
ments and feelings involved determine future
conduct. Not only so, but also the past conduct
judged, if conceived as wholly or in part the
pure chance product of some blind arbitrary
agent called "will," is not a means to any end,
and therefore neither approvable nor condemnable
as such. Now, free will, cither in the sense of a
liberty of indifference or a liberty of alternative
choice, in so far as it is undetermined, is pure
chance, as is conceded by Professor James, one
of the most prominent supporters of indeter-
minism. Responsibility does not therefore pre-
suppose indeterminism of the will, but it does
presuppose that the will can be determined
either by the knowledge of the conduciveness of
a means to an end, or by the knowledge of the
adaptedness of an end to satisfy a desire. A
person who can by rational means be brought to
see the inadequacy of Ms acts to the supreme
moral end, or the inadequacy of his supreme
moral end to his whole nature as a being with
definite needs, is responsible; i.e., in case his acts
or his ends are undesirable, lie can be convinced
of their undesirability and be led to condemn
them. In other words, he has a conscience.
When society holds a man responsible, it brings
pressure to bear upon him to bring him or to
keep him in accord with the socially recognized
plan of life. Responsibility is, then, a means
employed to maintain an organized society.

But we sometimes speak of a person as holding
himself responsible. This happens when a person
treats himself as subject to self-condemnation
and self-approval. The social restraints and re-
quirements are then not regarded as imposed
by others, but rather as accepted loyally by
himself, and in the light of this fealty freely
given he judges his individual acts as self-
justified or self-condemned. To hold oneself re-
sponsible is thus the attitude of a man who has
risen to the level of freedom in social service.
See DETERMINISM 5 FBEE WILL; CUSTOM.

Bibliography. For the history of ethics, con-
sult: Ziegler, GescJvichte der Ethik (Bonn, 1881-
86) ; Ktfstlin, Geschichte der Ethik, vol. i (Tu-
bingen, 1887) ; Jodl, Geschichte der Ethik in dcr
ncuern Philosophic (Stuttgart, 1882-80) ; Sidg-
wick, History of Ethics (5th ed., London, 1902) ;
Albee, History of English Utilitarianism (ib.,
1902). For ethical theories, Aristotle, Nico-
machean Ethics, trans, by Peters (ib., 1881)
and by Welldon (ib., 1897) ;• Plato, Republic,
trans, by Davies and Vaughn (ib., 1881) and
by Jowett (3d ed., ib., 1893) ; Hobbes, Human
Nature (1650), Leviathan (1651), De Corpore
Politico (1650); Spinoza, Ethics, trans, by
White (London, 1883); Selby-Bigge, British
Moralists: Bevng Selections from Writers Prin-
cipally of the Eighteenth Century (Oxford,
1897) ; Hume, Treatise of Human Nature (1739-
40) and Enquiry Concerning the Principles of
Morals (1751); Kant, Critique on Practical
Reason, and other Worfts on the Theory of

Ethics, trans, by Abbott (5th cd., London,
1S96) ; Bentham, Introduction to Uic Principles
of Morals and Legislation (1789), and Deontol-
ogy, or the Science of Morality; llegel, Philoso-
phy of Mind, trans, by Wallace (Oxfoid, 1S94) ;
Philosophy of Rights, trans, by Dydc (London,
1896); Sidgwick, The Methods of Ethics (5th
ed., ib., 1893) ; Bradley, Ethical Studies (ib.,
1876); Spencer, Principles of Ethics (ib.,
1879-93), which includes the celebrated Data of
Etlncs; Stephen, The Science of Ethics (ib.,
1882); Green, Prolegomena to Ethics (Oxford,
1883) ; Alexander, Mwal Order and Progress
(London, 1899) ; Paulson, System of Ethica
(Eng. trans., New York, 1899) ; Wundt, EtJncs
(Eng. trans., London, 1897-1901) ; Martinciiu,
Types of Ethical Theory (3d ed., Oxford, 1S98) ;
Hoffdmg, Ethil (Ger. trans., Leipzig, l!)0l) ;
Caird, The Critical Philosophy of Kant, vol. ii
(Glasgow, 1889) ; Simmel, Emlcitung in die Mo-
ral icissenschaft (Berlin, 1892-93); Seth, JL
Study of Ethical Principles (6th ed., Edinburgh,
1902); Ehrenfels, System der Werlthcorie
(Leipzig, 1897-98) ; Sutherland, Origin and
(Jroicth of the Moral Instinct (London, 1898) ;
Mezes, Ethics, Descriptive and Explanatory
(New York, 1901) ; Taylor, The Problem of Con-
duct (London, 1901); Palmer, The Mature of
Goodness (Boston, 1903); Lipps, Die EtJnsclicn
Qrundfragen (Hamburg, 1905) ; Wester marck,
Origin and Development of Moral Ideas (Lon-
don, 1906-08); Hobhouse, Moials in E rotation
(New York, 1906) ; Perry, The Moral Economy
(ib., 1909); Dewcy and Tufts, Ethics (ib.,
1908); Wright, Self -Realisation: an Outline of
Ethics (ib., 1913) ; Santayana, The Life of
Reason, vol. ii: Reason in Society (ib., 1905) ;
Dickinson, The Meaning of Good: A Dialogue
(ib., 1906) ; L4vy-Bruhl, Le Moral et la fteicnco
des Macurs (Paris, 1907) ; Mooro, Pnncipia
Ethica (Cambridge, 1903) ; Rashdall, The Theory
of Good and Evil (Oxford, 1907); Rickaby,
Moral Philosophy; or Ethics and Natural Law
(London, 1908) ; Royce, The Philosophy of
Loyalty (New York, 1908) ; Sorlcy, Keccnt Ten-
dencies -in Ethics (Edinburgh, 1901). The 1 in-
ternational Journal of Ethics is devoted to
articles on ethics and correlated subjects.

E'THIOTIA (Gk. AWtoiria, Aithio'pia). The
name given by the Greeks to a country south of
Egypt variously conceived as including only
Nubia (^Ethiopia JEgtipti), or Nubia, Sonnar,
Kordofan, and Abyssinia, or a region extending
indefinitely east and west from the upper Nile,
but applied after the fall of Meroe more par-
ticularly to Abyssinia. The vagueness of the
term is largely due to the significance attached
to it by the Greeks, who seem to have derived
it from aWew, ait hem, to burn, and &$, dps, face,
and explained it as tho country of sunburnt
faces. Some scholars regard AWioircs as an
original Greek designation of the negroes.
Others prefer to look upon it as an attempt by
Greek folk etymology to extract a suitable sense
from an unintelligible native name. It has been
plausibly suggested by G laser that this name
may have been Atyubyan, incense gatherers,
from tayib, pi. atyub, aromatics, and that this
was the equivalent of Habashat, the Egyptian
3bst, the modern Habesh, or Abyssinia. In
common use the name is given ,to the West
African peoples of Nubia and Abyssinia (Ithio-
piavian). Deniker (Races of Man, London,
1900) applies it to the third of his 29 human
races, including Bejas and Gallas modified by

ETHIOPIA

135

ETHIOPIA

Arab blood among the Somalis. Abyssinians,
etc., and by negro blood among the Zandeh and
Fulbe. Keane (Ethnology, Cambridge, 1896),
while relegating the Ethiopians to their proper

Slace in the Hamitic section of the Caucasic
ivision of man, names the generalized negro
Homo .mthiopicits. At least since the middle
of the second millennium B.C. Eretria and the
Somali coast were not unknown to the Egyp-
tians. Through the expeditions of Queen Hat-
shepset (c.1500 B.C.) down the Red Sea to Punt,
the lands on both sides of Bab cl Mandeb be-
came more familiar than the territory on the
upper Nile. Punt was looked upon as the land
of the gods; while the products brought from
there caused many a marvelous tale to be told
of that country. That the people of Punt were
not negroes, but belonged to the Mediterranean
race, is quite evident from the pictorial repre-
sentations. From accounts of them the Greeks
may have derived their earliest notions of the
men who lived in the farthest south. In the
Homeric poems (Odyssey, i, 23 et seq.; Iliad,
i, 423, xxiii, 206) the Ethiopians are represented
as dwelling at the utmost limits of the earth
and enjoying personal intercourse with the gods.
This ideal picture is regarded by some scholars,
not as an echo of the popular Egyptian con-
ception of Punt or "the divine land," but as
a reflection of the admiration felt in priestly
circles in Egypt for the theocratic regime in-
troduced by the Ammon priesthood in Napata
during the Twenty-second Dynasty (960-774
B.C.). In Hesiod the term seems 'to be used
vaguely of a territory south of Egypt and
Libya. Herodotus (iii, 114) describes the
Ethiopians as /Aa/cp6j8wt, long-lived, and regards
their coimtry as extending to the Southern
Sea. This apparently implies that he includes
Abyssinia, Eretria, and Somaliland. Later Greek
writers use the term sometimes as a designation
of Nxilna, sometimes in a much wider sense.
Historically there are three distinct kingdoms
known as Ethiopia — those of Napata, Heroe",
and Aksum. There is no definite evidence that
either of these included at any time all the terri-
tory between the southern border of Egypt and
Bab cl Mandeb. Only the Kingdom of Aksum
seems to have claimed the name Ethiopia; in
the case of the others it was apparently a Greek
and Roman designation solely.

Kingdom of Napata. For a description of
that part of the Nile valley which was ruled
from Napata, see NTTBTA, and for the city itself,
see BARKAL and NAPATA. Already in predynas-
tic times a certain civilization seems to have
existed in Nubia. Keisner has recently dis-
covered that the culture of Nagada and Abydos
(see EGYPT) extended a considerable distance,
beyond the "First Cataract. The Egyptians of
the Old Empire had relations with their south-
ern neighbors. From the forests of Nubia
(Knst) they obtained a largo proportion of
their timber, and the city of Yeb (Elephantine)
derived its name from the ivory which found
its way to this place from the interior of Africa.
King Unas (c.3200-3200 B.C.) employed war-
riors belonging to six Nubian tribes in his war
upon tho Bedouins. The early pictorial repre-
sentations of Nubian archers do not suggest that
they were negroes. A regular conquest of the
country south of Syene (see ASSUATT) ap-

Emtiy was not undertaken until the Twelfth
asty (c.2522~2323). The most powerful
ian people at this time was Kash or Kosh,

the Hebrew Gush (q.v.). The ethnic relations
of this people cannot be determined with cer-
tainty. But it is probable bhat the stock was
originally Hamitic, though in course of time
it absorbed various Negritic tribes. Kosh is
first found on a stele of Scsostris 1. Sesostris
TTI established his frontier north of the Second
Cataract, and Imilt for its protection two forts
at Scmneh and Kumnieli on opposite sides of
the river. Whether the Hyksos kings ever held
possession of this territory is doubtful. At
any rate, it had to Le reorganised by Aahmes
(1575-53), the founder of tho Eighteenth Dy-
nasty, and his successors. Napnta prolnbly lv,id
been the capital of the independent kingdom,
since it was made the residence of the viceroy,
entitled "Prince of Kosh," who governed the
new Egyptian province. In the time of Ramses
II (1310-1244) there may have been an unsuc-
cessful rebellion. The high priest of Ammon-
ite in Thebes, Hcrihor, in the beginning of the
eleventh century, proclaimed himself "King Of
Upper and Lower Egypt." This his successors
in the pontificate were not able to do, but seem
to have recognized the Tanitic Dynasty. But
a branch of the family established itself at
Napata, probably at the end of that dynasty
( c.l 000). In the Twcnty-seeond Dynasty' (960-
774) these kings threatened the border of
Egypt. One of them, Pianchi I, who seems to
have reigned in Napata after 777, availed him-
self of the weakness of Egypt a^ tue 011^ °f tnc
reign of Uasarken III (c.762-756) to make an
invasion of Egypt. He defeated 20 petty rulers
and made a treaty with Tefnncht of 'Sais in
756 B.C. After his death (746) Kashta (c.746-
734) and Pianchi II (c.734-715) were appar-
ently not capable of maintaining any control
of Egypt. But the grandson of Pianchi I, Sha-
baka (715-703), united all Egypt with Ethiopia
under one crown. Whether this King is iden-
tical with flo, the ally of Hosea of Israel, is
still doubtful. His successor, Shnbataka (703-
691), was dethroned by Taharka (691-604). Tn
his time Esarhadclon of Assyria invaded Egypt
in 673 and again in 670, when Memphis was
taken. On a stele found at Zenjirli in northern
Syria Esarhaddon's triumph over Taharka is
represented. Taharka was driven back into
Ethiopia. Tandamane, or Tanuat Ammon (064-
663), tried in vain to reconquer Egypt, where,
on the decline of the Assyrian power, Psam-
metichus T (003-010) made himself ruler. Dur-
ing the reign of this Egyptian King, Herodotus
states, a largo number of dissatisfied soldiers
emigrated into Ethiopia. The place where they
settled eannot be determined with certainty,
though it lias been siiggested that the island
of Morog may have received many of them, ami
their number (240,000) has, no doubt, been
exaggerated by Herodotus (ii, 30). An in-
vasion of Ethiopia was probably made by
Psammotichus II (594-588), referred to in the
Greek inscriptions of Abu Simbel. From the
native inscriptions which are now being de-
ciphered it may be inferred that Tandamane
continued to reign in Napata until 650. Later
monarchs were Asperta (c.630-000), PancMrer
(600-560), Harsiotf (560-525), and Nastasen
(525-500). TLe stele of Harsiotf shows that
this King conquered several provinces south of
Merog and built many temples. CambyRes in-
vaded the country in 524; but the stele of Nas-
tasen tells of his destroying Cambyses' fleet.
The capital was moved to MeroS, but Napata

ETHIOPIA

136

ETHIOPIA

continued to be an important religious centre.
Many temples have been discovered by recent
explorers in the territory of this kingdom. See
SUDAN.

Kingdom of Meroe. On the capital of the
new kingdom that gradually arose in the south,
see MEROE, and for a description of territories
that at one time or another formed a part of
it, see SENNAB and KOBDOFAN. The Achscme-
nian monarchs received tribute from kings who
seem to have made Meroe their capital. Some
of these kings seem to have been of the old line.
It is possible that Nastasen's successors made
conquests in northwestern Abyssinia. While the
theocratic constitution described by Greek writ-
ers no doubt had developed already in Napata,
the subordination of the King to the priesthood
seems to point to a new regime, in which the
King was a mere tool in the hands of the clergy.
While the suzerainty of the Ptolemies seems
to have been recognized for religious reasons,
King Ergamenes, by putting to death the priests
who had demanded that he should abdicate in
the time of Ptolemy IV Philopator (221-204),
paved the way for independence. Ptolemy V
Epiphanes (204-181) was able to resist his at-
tack upon Egypt, but not to prevent his asser-
tion of sovereignty in Ethiopia. Queen Candace
seems to have extended her power in the north,
and 25 provinces are said to have been tributary
to her. But her invasion of Egypt was success-
fully resisted by Caius Petronius in 24 B.C.
Napata, that had been rebuilt, was destroyed
by the Romans. Another Queen Candace is men-
tioned in Acts viii. The name of Candace has beim
found on a pyramid at Meroe*. But gradually
Meroe itself fell into ruins. To guard against
invasion by the Blemmyans, a people akin to
the Bugaita, the modern Beja, Diocletian moved
the Nobatse, negro tribes of the same stock as
the population of Kordofan, from the oasis of
Khargeh into the Nile valley. In the sixth cen-
tury A.D. the Christian Kingdom of Dongola
(q.v.) was founded. See NUBIA.

Kingdom of Aksum. The mountain region
of Abyssinia was probably inhabited in very
early times by Semites as well as by Hamites.
Whether the original home of the former
was in Africa or in Arabia (see SEMITES),
the overflow of population would naturally
set in the direction of this Alpine country.
As the native name shows, the Semitic Ethio-
pians were still in the nomadic state when
they entered this territory, priding themselves
on being '^wanderers" roaming freely wherever
they liked. (See GEEZ.) There were evidently
successive waves of immigration. If the Egyp-
tian Hbst is of Semitic origin, as can scarcely
be doubted, there were apparently kinsmen of
the Yemenites in Eretria and on the Somali
coast c.1500 B.C. Sabsean inscriptions found in
Yeha, the ancient Awa, may be as old as the
seventh century B.O. Names of places such as
Aiwa, Daro, Sant, Harar, Hasak, and Awa are
manifestly of South Arabian origin and seem to
indicate a trade route between Yemen and Merog
lined with Semitic settlements long before the
Christian era. As long as the Ptolemies domi-
nated the Erythrean coast from Adulis, Bere-
nice, and ArsinBe, a strong Abyssinian kingdom
could not well develop. But in the reign of
Augustus, when the Romans suffered serious
reverses in Arabia and were occupied in Africa
with Queen Candace, while the Arsacid conquests
in eastern Arabia forced the Yemenite states

to seek compensation for their losses elsewhere,
the Semitic element in Ethiopia seems to have
been ree'nforced, and the Kingdom of Aksuni
founded. The Periplus Maria Erythrcei, possi-
bly written by Basiles between 56 and 67 A.D.,
refers to a king of Aksum by the name of
Zoscales, who controlled the coast from Masso-
wah to Bab el Mandcb and was a friend of
Greek culture. It is possible that some of the
gold coins with Greek legends that have been
preserved should be assigned to the second and
third centuries A.D. Ten kings are known
through these coins, viz., Aphilas, Bachasa, Ger-
sem, Uzas, Nezana, or Aizana, Ulzcba, Azael,
Uchsas, and Esbaal, or Aicb. Those that have
the mark of the cross are clearly from the fourth
and following centuries, but those without such
a mark are probably earlier. On a marble
throne in Adulis, Cosmas Indicopleustes in 545
A.D. found and copied an inscription commemo-
rating the power of a great king whose name is
not given. He has been supposed by some schol-
ars to be the founder of the Aksumite kingdom,
but it is more probable that he reigned at the
end of the third century A.D. He possessed a
part of southwest Arabia and fought with the
Kasa (Cush) and the Buga (Beja). The Td£o.
%6vT) thfit he mentions as his subjects are prob-
ably the Agazi or Geoz tribes. King Aizana
is known to have reigned in the year 356 A.D.
A trilingual inscription (Greek, Sabacan, and
Geez) belongs to his pagan period; an inscrip-
tion in Geez comes from his Christian period.
For in his time Frumentius (q.v.) preached
Christianity in the country. The political re-
lations that had long existed between Aksum
and Rome were such as to favor his mission.
Ela Amida, his successor, who reigned before
378, still held control of parts of Yemen. One
of the two Rtippell inscriptions written in the
peculiar vocalized writing of the Gcez (see
ETHIOPIC WBITING) probably belongs to his
reign. In 378 Aksum was reduced to its Afri-
can territory. The names of some kings of the
next century may be represented on the coins.
Only a few can be deciphered with any degree
of certainty on the copper coins, viz., Mehigsen,
King of Aksum; Hatasu, King of Aksum; King
Elaats ; and King Zwasan. In 525 A.P. Elesbaha,
King of Aksum, with the aid of the Sabaean and
Hadramautian rulers, made an end to the Himya-
rite Kingdom of Dhu Nuwas, and Ethiopia again
controlled Arabian territory. Before the end of
the century, however, the Aksumites were driven
back to Africa and never again extended their
conquests to Arabia. In the seventh century
Abraha gave refuge to the followers of Moham-
med; and in 687 there was war between Aksum
and Nubia. According to a letter addressed
by a king of Aksum to a king of Nubia in the
time of the Patriarch Philotheus of Alexandria
(980-1002), preserved in a fourteenth-century
Life of the Patriarchs and in the Ethiopic
Synaxar, a woman who reigned over the Beni
el Hamuna had recently invaded the country,
burned churches and monasteries, and driven
him from place to place. Marianua Victor
(1552) speaks of this woman as the founder
of the Zague Dynasty and as having married a
ruler of the Province of Bugna. Later legends
made of her a Jewess. She was probably a
queen of the reigning family who married a
prince of the Beni el Baguna, a name afterward
corrupted into Beni el Zague. Eleven kings of
the so-called Zague Dynasty reigned until 1270. .

ETHIOPIA

The most famous of these is Lalibula (c.1200
AJ>.). In 1270 Yekuno Amlak restored the old
line. Yekuno Amlak removed his residence to
Tegalet in Shoa, but Aksum still remained the
city where the kings were crowned. His suc-
cessor was Wedem Raad (1291-1314). Amda
Sion (1314-44) was a powerful king who
fought bravely with his Muslim neighbors.
Saifa Arad (1344-72) carried on a successful
war in Upper Egypt against the Sultan on be-
half of the Patriarch of Alexandria. His suc-
cessors were Wedem Asfare (1372-82), and his
brother, Dawit I (1382-1411), Teodoros I (1411-
15), Yishak (1415-30), Andrias (1430), Takla
Maryam (1430-34). Zara Yakob (1434-68)
was a brave warrior and an able administrator.
He was followed by Baeda Maryam (1468-78)
and Eskander, or Alexander (1478-95), in whose
time Cavilham visited the country. Arada Sion
II (1495) and Naod (1495-1508) were of less
importance. But Dawit II, called Lebna Den-
gel, in his battles with Adal showed himself to
be a good soldier. Asnaf Sagad (1540-59) con-
quered Ahmed Granje, King of Adal, but in his
reign the Gallas invaded the country. After
the reign of Minas (1569-63) Sarsa Dengel
came upon the throne (1563-97). This monarch
destroyed Adal and fought successfully with
the G alias. In the time of his successors, Ya-
kob (1597-1603, 1604-07.), Za Dengel (1603-
04), Susneus (1607-32), and Fasiladas (1632-
67), religious difficulties occupied much atten-
tion. The power of the following kings was
greatly limited by the Galla chiefs that ruled
in many districts. They were: Johannes (1667-
82), Jasus I (1682-1706), Takla Haimanot I
( 1706-08 ),Theophilus ( 1708-1 1 ), Justus (1711-
16), Dawit III (1716-21), Bakafa (1721-30),
Jasus II (1730-55), Joas (1755-69), Johannes
II (1769), Takla Haimanot II (1769-77). On
the more recent history see ABYSSINIA.

Ethiopia Language. The earliest monu-
ments of Semitic speech in Ethiopia are the in-
scriptions found at Yeha. These are written
in the consonantal Sabsean script. But while
the presence of the article an appended to the
noun and a final m to show indetermination is
a sign of close affinity to the Sabscan, both syn-
tax and vocabulary indicate that the writers
used the lesana Gees, the language of Semitic
Ethiopia, possibly as early as the seventh cen-
tury B.C. The bilingual inscription (Greek and
Ettiiopic) exhibits essentially the same speech.
So far as the language is concerned, there is
not much difference between it and the Rftppell
inscriptions which are written in the syllabic
script characteristic of Ethiopic manuscripts.
These Aksum monuments present the same type
of language as the literary documents. Geez
probably continued to be spoken by the common
people until the Zague Dynasty came into power.
From that time the Amharic probably began to
gain upon the classical tongue. Yekuno Amlak,
in 1270, made the former the official language,
and Geez henceforth became the language of
books and of the church, and as such had a sec-
ond flourishing period. In its general structure
and vocabulary Geez is closer to the Sabaean
than to classical Arabic, but in some respects it
has features that are younger than the latter.
Thus the case ending^ have disappeared; the old
passive is lost; aspirated dentals are changed
into sibilants. Geez appears to have dropped
the article some time before our era. As a sub-
stitute anticipating suffixes are used as in Ara-

137

ETHIOPIA

maic, and also demonstrative pronouns. Of a
dual there are only a few remnants. The verb
has a simple stem, a causative formed by a pre-
fixed a,, a second causative in as, a reflexive in
ta, another in an, and a third in tan, and a
causative reflexive in ast, each of these permit-
ting flve vowel changes to indicate shades of
meaning. The indicative and the subjunctive
of the imperfect are strictly distinguished. The
vocabulary has been greatly enlarged by Ha-
mitic words. There are also some Greek and
Aramaic loan words. Geez is to-day represented
by two dialects, Tigre and Tigrai, or Tigrina.
The latter is spoken in Tigre and has been much
influenced by the Amharic; the former is spoken
in the districts north and northwest of Tigre
and shows greater similarity to the old Geez.
Amharic has developed many peculiarities not
found in any other Semitic language, but char-
acteristic of the Harnitic languages.

Ethiopic Literature. Reference has already
been made to the early inscriptions. On the
translation of the Bible, see under BIBLE, the
section on Versions. The Ethiopic Old Testa-
ment contains, in addition to the canonical
books, also the Apocrypha (except the Books of
Maccabees ) , and a number of works, such as the
Book of Enoch, the Ascension of Isaiah, the
Book of Jubilees, and the Apocalypse of Ezra.
These additions have all been published; but
many of the canonical books are extant only in
manuscripts. Several apocryphal books are also
appended to the New Testament, among them a
JSynodos, which includes canons of councils, an
exposition of the Nicene Creed, apostolic consti-
tutions, and other matter. , The remaining litera-
ture is mainly theological, and includes transla-
tions of Greek fathers, liturgies, lives of saints,
monastic rules, hymns, and the like. A so-
called Antiphonary contains a musical notation.
The Savasev are very imperfect studies of the
language. Catalogues of the principal collec-
tions have been published.

Consult: Erman, Aegypten und aegyptisches
Lcben im Alterthiim (Tubingen, 1885) ; W. M.
Mliller, Asien und Europa nach altagyptischcn
DenJtmalern (Leipzig, 1893); Maspero, Histoire
ancienne des peoples de V Orient classique( Paris,
1895-99); Breasted, History of Egypt (New
York, 1909) ; id., Temples of Lower Nulia (Chi-
cago, 1906) ; id., Monuments of Sudanese NuUa
(ib., 1908); Eeisner, Firth, Smith, and Jones,
in The Archaeological Survey of Nubia (London,
1907-10) ; Reports of the Cove Expedition by
Maclver, Woolley, Mileham, Griffith (ib., 1909
ct seq.) ; Ward, Our Sudan: Its Pyramids and
Progrew (ib., 1905) ; Budge, TJie Egyptian Su-
dan (ib., 1907); 'Ludolf, Historia &thiopica
(Frankfort, 1681); Tellez, Historia general
de Ethiopia (Coimbra, 1660) ; D'Almeida,
ffistoria de Ethiopia alta (ib., 1660) ; Bosset,
"Etudes sur TMstoire d'Ethiopie/* in Journal
Asiatique (Paris, 1881); Dillmann, Ueler die
Anfange des aaumitischen Reiches (Berlin,
1879) ; Perruchon, "Notes pour ITiistoire d'Ethi-
opie," in Revue Semitique (Paris, 1893) ; Glaser,
Die AbyftsMer in Arabien und Afrika (Munich,
1805) ; Bent, The Sacred Oity of the Ethiopians
(London, 1893); Bruce, Travels in A'byssinia
(Edinburgh, 1768-73) ; Hoskins, Travels m
Ethiopia (London, 1835) ; Dillmann, Qrammatik
tier fitMopisohen Sprache (Leipzig, 1859; 2d ed.,
by Bezold, 1899) ; Prsstorius, Die amharisohe
Spraohe (Halle, 1879) ; id., Grammatik der ti-
grina Sprache (1871); Schrieber, Manuel de la

ETHIOPIAN CHURCH

138

ETHNOLOGY

tigrai (Vienna, 1887); Goldschmidt,
Bibliotheca, ^thiopica (Leipzig, 1892); Fuma-
galli, BiUioyrafia Etiopica (Milano, 1893);
Rossini, in Rendiconti dell9 academia, del Lincei
(Home, 1S99); Beccari, Documenti inediti per
la storia d'Etiopia (Rome, 1903); Littmann,
DIG rlciitsche .Uc sum-Expedition (Berlin, 1913).
E'THIO'PIAN CHURCH. See ABYSSINIAN
CiniBcn.

E'THIO'PIANISM:. The name given to a
movement in South Africa which tinder the
guise of religious teaching preaches the over-
throw of white domination, or "Africa for the
Africans." It was started about 24 years
ago by two native ministers who seceded from
the Wesley an body and started the Church of
Ethiopia, exclusively for blacks. One of the
two, named Dwane, visited the United States
and obtained for his organization the recognition
of the powerful African Methodist Episcopal
church, the affiliation being confirmed when
Bishop Turner visited Africa in 1898 and or-
dained a large number of Kafir ministers.
Dwane subsequently approached the Archbishop
of Capetown, seeking some kind of affiliation
with the Anglican church, and from this grew an
obscure recognition of what is called the Order
of Ethiopia. To counteract this schism the
African Methodist Episcopal church in America
sent out Dr. Levi Coppin, of Philadelphia, as
Bishop of its South African branch, which
has become firmly established and is absorbing
the native converts of the English Methodist
missions. In addition the Transvaal mines, in
bringing together thousands of native laborers
from every part of Africa south of the Zambesi,
have served to further the sentiment of a com-
munity of interest among the Kafir population.
The Herero uprising of 1904 and the Zulu out-
break of 1906 in Natal are supposed to have
been influenced by Ethiopian agitators. Since
that time, however,, little or nothing has been
heard from this movement.

ETHIOPIAN1 PEPPER, See GUINEA PEP-
PEE.

ETHIOPIAN" REGION. In zoogeography,
Africa south of the Sahara, and including Mada-
gascar, i.e., the Paleotropical Region (q.v.).
See DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS.

E'THIOOPIC. See ETHIOPIA; ETHIOPIO LAN-
GUAGE; ETHIOPIO LITERATURE; ETHIOPIC WRIT-
ING.

E'THIOPIC VEBSION-. See BIBLE.
ETHIOPIC WBITI1TG. The language of the
Semitic Ethiopians, the lesana Qeez (see GEEZ),
was at first written in the same characters that
were used by the Minseans and Sabocans. The
origin of this South Arabian system of writing
is still obscure. While some epigraphists re-
gard it as a modification of the Phoenician al-
phabet, others are inclined to ascribe to it an
independent origin. ( See ALPHABET ; MIN^BANS. )
The earliest Ethiopia inscriptions are written
boustrophedon, i.e., as the ox plows — one line
running from right to left, the next from left
to right. Later the direction from left to right
prevailed, as in the Greek. Probably in the
fourth century the Sabsean alphabet was modi-
fied by the introduction of a peculiar method
of vowol notation. The various long or short
vowel sounds were indicated by a lengthening or
shortening of certain strokes or the addition of
a stroke, a hook, or a circle. The signs thus
became designations of syllables, and by 182
characters it was possible to express clearly the

pronunciation of each word. It has been sup-
posed by some scholars that this was an imita-
tion of the Syriac vowel system. But the date
of the Kiippell inscriptions renders it more prob-
ble that the changes were suggested by mis-
sionaries familiar with the Indian Irahma Upi
or karoshthi alphabets. Consult Dillrnann,
Grammatik der atJiiopischen Spraclie (2d ed.,
by Bezold, Leipzig, 1809).

ETHIOPS (Lat., from Gk. At6u>$, Aitliiops,
Ethiopian; so called from the color), or -33THI-
OPS. A term applied by alchemists to certain
black oxides and sulphides that were used in
medicine. Martial cthiops, or black oxide, a
ferrous and ferric oxide prepared by keeping
iron filings under water, was used as a tonic.
Mineral ethiops, mercuric sulphide with an ex-
cess of sulphur, was made by mixing too other
equal parts of mercury and sulphur in a stone-
ware mortar and was used us a vermifuge and
alterative. Ethiops per se was made by agitat-
ing mercury with access to the air. VctfctallG
ethiops, the plant bladder wrack heated in a
closed vessel until it became black, was used as
a remedy for scrofula and similar diseases.

ETHOffOID BOKTE (Gk. ^uoeifcjj, f'tlimociflea,
like a sieve, from ^B/j,6sf cthnios, sieve, from
$8ew9 ethein, to sift + elSos, eidos, form). One
of the eight bones which collectively form the
cavity of the cranium. It is of a somewhat
cubical form and is situated between the two
orbits of the eyes, at the root of the nose. Its
upper surface is perforated by a number of
small openings (whence its name), through
which the filaments of the olfactory nerve pass
downward from the interior of the skull to the
upper part of the nowe. It consists of two
lateral masses, attached on each side of a ver-
tical central plate, or lamella, which articulates
with the vomer and with the central fibro-
cartilage, and thus assists in forming the sep-
tum or partition between the two nostrils.
Each of the lateral masses is made up of two
scrolls (turbinates) and is so planned as to
give in a small space a very large amount of
surface, on which the filaments of tin* olfactory
nerve are spread. See NOSE; SMELL.

ETH1JTC PSYCHOLOGY. See PSYCHOLOGY,
ETHNIC.

ETECNTOGr'BAPHY (from Gk. eBvos, cthnos,
people -|- -7pa0la, -graphio,, description, from ypa-
<j>eiv, graphew, to write). That branch of an-
thropology which is concerned with the system-
atic description of races and peoples/ SEE
ETHNOLOGY.

ETHNOI/OGY (from Gk. Wvos, ethnoft, people
+ -\oyla, -loyia, account, from Keyciv, Ingcin, to
say). Though formerly ethnology and etlmog-
"raphy were two distinct sciences, the present
tendency in America is to use "ethnology" as
including all studies of living races, thus making
it one of the three main branches of anthro-
pology. "Ethnography" appears in literature
at the beginning of the last century as synony-
mous with a description of nations or peoples.
"Ethnology" seems to have first appeared in the
title of the Society of Ethnology of Paris in
1839, where it was used to include all studies of
living races. Both terms became current in
France, England, and Germany, where a distinc-
tion was finally made, "ethnography" being used
to designate the systematic descriptions of the
various groups of nonhistorical peoples, "eth-
nology" the synthetic and analytic uses of the
data so acquired to determine the classification

ETHNOLOGY

139

of peoples, the causes leading to changes of
culture, etc. According to this use of the two
terms, the physical or anatomical characters as
employed in the classification of races fell within
the domain of ethnology, as also classification
by languages. However, the specialized nature
and complexity of problems arising from the
study of man's physical characters soon brought
about a differentiation which ultimately led to
the recognition of physical anthropology as a
distinct science. In recent years for similar
reasons the study of languages has been recog-
nized as equally distinct. (See ANTHROPOLOGY.)
Hence American anthropologists now use the
term "ethnology" as the collective name for all
studies of living nonhistorical peoples exclusive
of language and anatomy. Yet these distinc-
tions are not absolute, for all are but the sub-
divisions of one science, anthropology.

The ethnology of a tribe should include full
descriptive data upon the following:

1. Habitat. Location, movements, geographi-
cal environment, and history.

2. Material Culture. Food, shelter, trans-
portation, dress, manufactures, and industrial
arts.

3. Art. Graphic art, decorations of all kinds,
symbolic interpretation of designs, religious
art.

4. Social and Political Organization. Mar-
riage customs, social groups, division of labor,
property, government, regulation of health, edu-
cation, social ideals, war, games and amuse-
ments, burial customs.

5. Religion and Ceremonies. Religious con-
cepts, ideas of the world, assumed supernatural
relations, shamanistic practices, enumeration,
and description of all ceremonies, songs (danc-
ing and music).

0. Mythology. Recorded folk tales and
sayings.

To this should be added a general compara-
tive statement showing the relation of the tribal
culture to the cultures of its neighbors and
such conclusions as the data warrant on the
origin and historic development of the most
important traits.

Certain general problems are the particular
concern of ethnologists, though all such are
likely to transcend the strict bounds of ethnol-
ogy and become truly anthropological prob-
lems; among these are the significance of clan
and other family systems, the existence or
noncxistence of important mental differences
among the various divisions of mankind, the
relation of culture to environment, and the
manner in which cultures evolve. See AN-
THROPOLOGY; MAN, SCIENCE OF. Consult: E. B.
Tylor, Primitive Culture (2 vols., New York,
1801) ; F. Ratzel, History of Mankind (3 vols.,
ib., 1904) ; J. Deniker, T7ie Races of Man
(London, 1900) ; A. H. Keane, Etlwology (2d
ed., New York, 1906) and Man Past and Pres-
ent (ib., 1900) ; F. Boas, TJie Mind of Primi-
tive Man (ib., 1911) ; for an extensive bibliog-
raphy, sec W. I. Thomas, Source Book for Social
Origins (Chicago, 1909). See the paragraphs
Ethnology under the names of countries.

ETHNOLOGY, BUBEA.U or AMERICAN. See
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

ETHOI/OGY. See BIONOMICS.

ETE/YL (from eth-er + -yl), C»H«. A radi-
cal, or group of atoms, often found in chemical
compounds of carbon, but incapable of inde-
pendent existence. See CHEMISTRY (section on
VOL. VIIL— JO

the History of Chemistry) and CABBON COM-
POUNDS.

ETH'YLAM/INE (from ethyl + -amine,
from am-monia + -ine) , CjK0NH,. An organic
base produced when a monohalogen substitution
prod act of the hydrocarbon ethane is heated with
a solution *of ammonia in alcohol. The most con-
venient method of preparing ethvtemine consists
in gently warming propion -amide ( CaH3CONJIji,
the amide of propionic acid) with bromine' and
an excess of caustic potash, the transformation
taking place in two steps, according to the fol-
lowing chemical equations :

1. Q,H5CONH3 + Bra + KOH =

Propionamide

C,H5CONHBr + KBr + H,0
Bromo-propionamide

2. C2H3CONHBr + 3KOH =
Bromo-propionamide

C J^NHa + KBr + KaC03 + 5,0

Ethylamine

Ethylamine is a colorless, inflammable liquid
boiling at 18.7°. It resembles ordinary am-
monia in odor and in other properties, combines
with acids to form crystalline salts, and forms
double salts with the chlorides of gold, plati-
num, etc. When treated with nitroua acid,
it is changed to alcohol; and -when warmod with
chloroform and caustic potash, it is converted
into ethyl isocyanide (a carbylamino having the
formula' C2H0ltfC), which may be readily recog-
nized by its extremely disagreeable odor. Soo
also AMINES.

ETEPYLEKTE (from ethyl + -ene) t or OLB-
FIANT GAS, CjHt. A gaseous compound of car-
bon and hydrogen having a peculiar sweetish
odor. It is colorless and but sparingly soluble
in water. In the presence of "platinum black"
(finely divided platinum), it combines with
hydrogen to form the hydrocarbon ethane.
Ethylene is formed in the dry distillation of
coal and is therefore one of the constituents of
ordinary illuminating gas, to whose liame it
imparts considerable luminosity. It is prepared
in chemical laboratories by heating a mixture
of strong alcohol and concentrated sulphuric
acid, the alcohol being thus broken up into
water and ethylene. Sendercns showed, in 1010,
that the yield of ethylene is materially increased
if some ahiminium sulphate is added to the
sulphuric acid.

Ethylene is one of those carbon compounds
that a*re capable of combining directly with the
halogens, forming "additive products"; thus,
with bromine it forms the compound CaHiBr...
It is therefore classed with the so-callecl uu-
saturated compounds, of which it is tho sim-
plest representative. It similarly combines
with hydrobromic acid (especially in the pros-
cnce of aluminium bromide), forming ethyl
bromide, CsHnBr, and with hydriodic acid, form-
ing ethyl iodide, C3HBI. See DUTCH LIQUID.

ETHYLI1TE BICHLORIDE. See DUTCH
LIQUID.

ETHYL NITRATE. See NITBQUS ETHER.
ft'tyfin'. See STEPHANUS.
CHABLES GUILLAUME (1778-

1845). A French playwright and journalist,
born near Saint-Dizier, Haute Marne, France.
During the Revolution he held several munic-
ipal offices. As secretary to Hugues Bernard
Maret, Due do' Bassana, he participated in Na-
poleon's campaigns in Italy, Germany, Poland.

DTT MOOT

and Austria. His comedy Le& deuv gendres
(1810) gained his election to the Academy in
1811, but it was also the subject of a bitter
controversy, for Etienne was charged with
plagiarism. He was editor in chief of the
Journal de I'Empire. His works include: Le
r$ve (1799); Bistoire du the&tre frangais (4
vols., 1802), with Alphonse Dieudonne" Mar-
tainville; La jcune femme (1804); Bnieys et
Palapwt (1807); Cendrillon (1810); Ulntri-
gante (1812); Joconde (1814).

iJTIENUTB DU MONT, a'ty&n' du mOw,
SAJ.VT (Fr., St. Stephen of the Mount). One
of the most beautiful churches of old Paris,
founded in 1220 and rebuilt from 1517, but not
completed till 1626. It has a beautiful carved
bridgelike choir screen in stone (end of six-
teenth century), a feature which is unique in
Paris. The church contains the shrine of St.
Genevieve, dating from the thirteenth century,
and is the burial place of Pascal and Racine.

ET'IOLA'TIOIT (from Fr. 6tioler, to blanch,
OF., estioler, from esteule, stubble, from Lat.
stipula,, straw). The change in appearance and
structure of the plant caused by growth in ab-
sence of light. Chlorophyll is lacking in etio-
lated dicotyls and monocotyls, and its absence
makes the yellow pigment carotin (q.v.) (for-
merly called etiolin) evident. The structural
modifications are of much more significance and
are marked by elongation of internodes and
petioles, reduction in size and differentiation of
the leaf blade, and by lack of development of me-
chanical tissue. The elongation of the internode
more commonly occurs in dicotyls and that of
the petiole in monocotyls; hence the two types
are termed respectively dicotyledonous and mono-
eotyledonous. Red light, free from blue or
violet rays, produces all the etiolation effects
except lack of chlorophyll. It is seen, then,
that the more refrangible portion of the spec-
trum is the important portion in determining
growth and structural modifications in plants.
Etiolation is not limited to monocotyls and
dicotyls, but appears in gymnosperms, ferns,
mosses, algse, and fungi.

ETIOLIN (from Fr. etioler, to blanch), A
name formerly given to the carotin (q.v.) ap-
pearing in etiolated plant structures.

ETIQUETTE, St^-kSt (OF. estiquette, eti-
quette, Fr. Etiquette, from OHG. stehh(m, Gcr.
stechen, to stick). Originally etiquette signi-
fied a slip of paper — ticket, label — affixed to a
bag or other object to indicate its contents.
The word came to possess the secondary mean-
ing which we now attach to it— of "prescribed
routine," or the various decorums observed in
the intercourse of life, more particularly on
state occasions — seemingly from the old custom
of delivering such tickets, instructing each per-
son who was to share in a ceremony as to the
part he or she was expected to play in it. The
cards on which the order of the dances is set
forth at balls and evening parties are of this
nature. The word is much used in certain
professions the members of which are in honor
bound to observe particular unwritten codes of
conduct upholding the dignity of their respec-
tive callings. Thus, we have "medical eti-
quette," ''legal etiquette," etc.

ETIQUETTE, a'te'ket', MADAME. The popu-
lar name applied to the Duchess de Noailles from
her rigid application of formalities as mistress
of ceremonies at Marie Antoinette's court.

140

ETNA

ETIVE, 6t1v. A sea loch in the north of
Argyllshire, Scotland, running inland from the
Firth of Lome (Map: Scotland, C 3). The
river Awe, the outlet of Loch Awe, and the
small river Etive flow into it. The loch abounds
in salmon. The scenery around the upper half
of the loch is mountainous and romantic. The
ruins of Ardchattan Priory and of Dunstaffnago
Castle add to its interest.

ETIjAB,, CAEIT. See BBOSBOLL, JOHAN GAEL
CHRIST FAN.

ETIffA, or MOWGIBELLO, mdn'jfc-bel'ia
(Lat. JEtna). The largest active volcano in
Europe. It is an isolated mountain on the east-
ern coast of Sicily near the city of Catania.
It is cut off from the surrounding mountains
on the north by the valley of the Alcantara and
on the south and southwest by the valley of the
Simento. Its eastern side rises directly from
the Mediterranean, which here has a depth of
5000 to 6000 feet. The base of the volcano
measures about 90 miles in circumference. The
ascent, gradual at first, leads with increasing
slope to the summit, about 10,758 feet above the
sea. The general appearance of Etna is that of
a massive lava cone, whose regularity of out-
line is broken by fissures and by numerous
subsidiary cones. Of the latter there are more
than 200 located at irregular intervals on the
mountain sides, some reaching a height of 700
feet. The cone occupied by the present princi-
pal crater rests upon a terrace which marka
the site of an ancient larger cone that was
probably destroyed by an explosion. On the
eastern slopo is a vast amphitheatre called the
Val del Bove, with precipitous sides nearly
3000 feet high, which was once the centre of
eruption and which affords a remarkable view
of the volcano's structure and its development
during the repeated eruptions. The summit of
Etna, except where covered with snow, presents
a dreary waste of dark lava, scorim, and ashcfl.
Lower down there is a stretch of woodland
with pine, oak, beech, and poplar. A varying
breadth of from 2 to 11 miles of cultivated re-
gion surrounds its base, producing grain, oil,
wine, fruit, and aromatic herbs. Snow persists
throughout the year in the fissures of the sum-
mits, and on the exposed portions for about
eight months. An observatory and a house for
the convenience of travelers have been erected
on the terrace just beneath the crater.

The eruptions of Etna are on a grander scale
than those of Vesuvius, but they are not of so
frequent occurrence. There are records of 11
eruptions previous to the Christian era, the first
occurring iiu 476 or 477 B.C. The most remark-
able in later times are the following: the erup-
tion of 1169 A.D., when Catania and 15,000 of
its inhabitants were destroyed; that of 1527,
when two villages were buried and many human
beings perished; that of 1669, when the flow of
lava was directed again towards Catania and is
said to have killed 20,000 people; and the erup-
tion of 1693, when a still larger number of
people are said to have been destroyed. A
violent eruption took place in 1852, and im-
mense quantities of volcanic dust fell over the
adjacent country. Great torrents of lava also
issued from two new fissures on the eastern
flank, one of which was nearly 2 miles in length.
The next outbreak, in 1864-65, was of trifling
importance. That of May, 1879, was much more
violent, the clouds of smoke and showers of
ashes being followed by the ejection of a stream

ETNA

141

ETBTJBIA

of lava which desolated a large tract of highly
cultivated land. Eruptions occurred in 1886
and 1892 and a violent outbreak in 1011, when
a stream of lava, one-third of a mile wide, flowed
down the northeastern slope towards the Al-
cantara valley. The last ciuption was accom-
panied by the formation of several new crater-
lets. See SICILY.

ET'NA. A borough in Allegheny Co., Pa., on
the Allegheny River, opposite Pittsburgh, and
on the Baltimore and Ohio and the Pennsyl-
vania railroads (Map: Pennsylvania, B 6). It
is a flourishing industrial centre and has roll-
ing mills, furnaces, steel mills, galvanized-pipe
works, and other manufactures. The water
works and electric-light plant are owned by the
borough. Pop., 1900, 5384; 1010, 5830.

E'TON". A town in Buckinghamshire, Eng-
land, in the parliamentary borough of Wind-
sor, on the left bank of the Thames, 42 miles
south-southeast of Buckingham and 22 miles
west of London (Map: London, El). It lies
opposite Windsor in Berkshire, with which it is
connected by a bridge over the Thames. Eton
chiefly consists of one long, well-paved street,
is lighted by electricity, and has a modernized
sewerage system. It derives its importance
from the ancient and famous Eton College
(q.v.). Pop., 1901, 3301, 1911, 3192.

E'TOINT COLLEGE. One of the oldest and
most famous public schools in England. It was
founded in 1440 by Henry VI as "The College
of the Blessed Mary of Eton beside Windsor."
The establishment was constituted for a prov-
ost, 10 priests, 4 clerks, 6 choristers, 25 poor
grammar scholars, a master, and 25 poor infirm
men, and was provided for out of the royal
demesne lands and the estates of certain alien
priories. The whole plan was modeled on that
of Winchester and contemplated a connection
between Eton and King's College (q.v.), Cam-
bridge, such as existed between Winchester and
New College, Oxford. In 1441 a supplementary
charter was granted to the new foundation, and
the college buildings were begun, but were not
entirely finished until 1523. The first head
master of the school, later one of its most mu-
nificent benefactors, was Bishop Waynflcte (q.v.) .
The college has had a long and honorable his-
tory. Its roll of worthies comprises many great
names, especially during the eighteenth century.
It includes Sir Robert Walpole, Robert Harley
(Earl of Oxford), Henry St. John (Viscount
Bolingbroke), the elder Pitt, Lord North,
Charles James Fox, Horace Walpole, the Duke
of Wellington, the poets Gray and Shelley, and
Gladstone. The increasing value of the estates
of the college, together with additional gifts,
has made it very wealthy. By the Public
Schools Act of 1868 the original foundation was
greatly modified. The governing body now con-
sists of a provost and 10 fellows, nominated by
an electorate, which includes such bodies as
Oxford and Cambridge universities. There are
a number of scholarships besides those on the
regular foundation, and the plan of connecting
Eton with King's College was so far carried
out that a number of scholarships at the Cam-
bridge college are exclusively for Eton men.
There are 72 scholars on the foundation. The
total number of pupils in the college in 1913
was 1019; the nonscholars, a class admitted
very early in the history of the institution, are
known as "oppidans," who may, and in a very
few cases do, live out of the college. There are

two schools, an upper for the older boys and a
lower for the younger, managed by a head mas-
ter and an assistant, or lower master. The
teaching force is large. Here, as at most Eng-
lish public schools, the education is largely
classical, though here, as elsewhere, natural sci-
ence, mathematics, history, the modern lan-
guages, and the like made places for them-
selves in the last half of the nineteenth century.
An army class provides special preparation for
those who are intending to take the army ex-
aminations. The buildings, which are very
beautiful, consist of two groups, of which the
older, containing the chapel, hall, and library,
the apartments of the provost, master, and fel-
lows, incloses two quadrangles. The boys' library
and sleeping apartments form the new buildings
attached to the northern side of the older group.
(Consult Gray, Ode on a Distant Prospect of
Eton College.) For worthies of Eton, consult
Creasy, Eminent Etonians (London, 1848), a
series of brief biographies of its principal mem-
bers, with a sketch of the college. For general
history of the school, consult Sir H. Maxwell-
Lyte, History of Eton College (London, 1904),
and Gust, History of Eton College, 1440-1898
(ib., 1899). See also MONTEM CUSTOM.

ETOItOFTT, &-tO'r6-foo, or ITUBrlTP, g'tou-
roop'. The largest of the Kurile Islands, belong-
ing to Japan, situated between the islands of
Kunashiri and Urupp and crossed by the me-
ridian 148° E. Area, about 1500 square miles.
It is of volcanic origin and contains an active
volcano. Pop., about 1350.

ETOSA LAKE. See KUWENE,

ETOTJRDI, a't<5oYdS'? L' (Fr., The Unmindful
One) . A five-act comedy by Moliere, produced at
Lyons in 1653.

iETBETAT, u'tre-ta'. A fashionable watering-
place in the Department of Seine-Infericure,
France, on the English Channel, 18 miles north-
east of Havre (Map: France, N., F 3). It is
picturesquely situated at the foot of high cliffs,
has a fine beach, casino, and bathing establish-
ment, a Romanesque church, several hotels, and
numerous attractive summer cottages. It is a
favorite resort for literary men and artists.
Pop. (commune), 1901, 1944; 1911, 1073.

ETBTJOtlA. The people called "by themselves
the Rasena, by ancient writers Tyrrheni and
Tusci, and in modern times Etruscans, are
among the mysteries of history. Though scat-
tered at one time over a larger part of Italy, the
centre of their power was in the region bordered
on the north by tho valley of the Arno, on
the east and south by the Apennines and the
Tiber. This was Etruria proper. There were
also two other regions colonized by the Etrus-
cans— the valley or the Po in the north and the
plains of Campania in the south. They formed
tho most advanced civilization in central Italy
before the dominion of Home.

Origin and History. Critics do not agree as
to the origin of the Etruscans. One school
makes them come by land across the Rhatian
Alps, with their earliest settlement in the north
and inland. A second school believes them to
have come by sea. Herodotus believed them to
be Lydians. Some modern writers connect them
with the Pelasgians or Hittites. They certainly
appear to have come from Asia Minor. Their
own legends place the beginning of their power
in Italy in 1044 B.C. The discoveries in the
necropolises of Etruria would place the rudest

ETRTTRIA

142

ETRTJRIA

of the early tombs at a period only slightly sub-
sequent to tli is date. For several centuries the
tribe remained stationary and retired, probably
in the region of Monte Amiata and the Cimin-
ian forest, though there may have been other
centres as well. Between the eighth and sixth
centuries B.C. the tribe embarked on a career
of conquest among the earlier nations of central
Italy. The earliest cities to be subdued were
those along the seaboard, such as Tarquinii and
Caere, and only quite late did inland cities like
Perusia and Arretium fall into their hands.
The Etruscans in many cases appear to have
found among the conquered a more advanced
civilization, but their superior organization and
vigor made them conquerors. They formed
probably the governing class, an aristocratic
oligarchy. For a time there were three separate
Etruscan confederacies, eacli composed of 12
cities or states. The southern confederacy
(Etruria Campaniana) included Capua and
Nola; the northern (Etruria Circumpadana)
Felsina, Mantua, Ravenna, and Hadria. The
central confederacy alone counts in history as
important and included many more important
cities than the necessary 12: Tarquinii, Cfere,
Veii, Vulci, Volsinii, Falerii, Nepete, Sutrium,
Populonia, Russella?, Clusium, Vetulonia, Vola-
ternc, Perusia, Cortona, Arretium were the
largest, and the 12 confederates are probably to
be found among them, the list varying at dif-
ferent times. Each separate state was governed
by magistrates annually elected, with the titles
of Lucunio (Lauchme), Porsena (Purtevana),
and Marunuch, chosen from the ranks of the
hereditary priestly nobles. Tn times of war a
single supreme chief was chosen — like Porsena
of Clusium — and his bodyguard consisted of 12
lictors, one from each city, as symbols of his
authority. This is another point of resemblance
with the Hittites, whose confederacy was simi-
larly organized. The laws, both religious and
civil, were embodied from early times in a
triple series of books (libri disciplines'), the first
being the libri haruspicini, treating of divina-
tion by sacrifice; the second, the Hlri fulgurates,
on divination by lightning; the third, the libri
jituales, of more general import, treating of the
founding and consecrating of cities and build-
ings, of the organization of the people, of the
army, and the state in times of peace and war.
Etruria was noted as a hotbed of superstition
and profligacy even after her downfall.

The Etruscans are closely connected with the
earliest history of Rome. According to an an-
cient tradition they formed the third con-
stituent tribe of Rome, the Luceres; but this is
no longer accepted by most authorities. It
seems more likely that the tradition of the Tar-
quin kings represents an Etruscan conquest of
Latium and Campania at some time before 600
B.C. After the expulsion of the Tarquins the
Etruscans sought to reestablish them by force
under the leadership of the Porsena of Clusium
(V509 B.C.). At this time the Etruscan cities
were great commercial centres ; those situated at
a little distance from the seaboard had their
special ports: Caere bad Pyrgi, Vetulonia had
Tclamon, Tarquinii had Graviscse. Their on-
ward march in companies was shown by their
attack on the Greeks of Cumce in 523 B.C. The
keen rivalry for commercial mastery then pend-
ing between the waning Phoenicians and the
Greeks led Carthage to seek an alliance with the
Etruscans, whose fleet must have been powerful

and in control of local commerce. The terms
of this treaty gave Corsica to the Etruscans and
Sardinia to the Carthaginians. At this time
the inland conquests of the Etruscans were sub-
stantially completed. Their first great defeat
came in 474, when Hiero of Syracuse punished
them for assisting the Athenians by practically
annihilating their sea power. Between this time
and the final destruction of their independence
by Rome, at the battle of the Vadimonian Lake
in 283 B.C., were two centuries of steady political
decay, marked by their defeat by the Gauls, who
overran Etruria Circumpadana; by the Um-
brians, who attacked on the east; by the Sam-
nites, who subjugated Etruria Campaniana, and
by the Romans, whose progressive stages of con-
quest were marked by the capture of Veii in
306 B.C. after 10 years' siege, and by that of
Falerii. But the practical nature of the Etrus-
cans seems to have shown itself by the easy
fashion in which they turned their downfall into
a further opportunity for a life of ease and
luxury without responsibility. But they felt
the influence of the far higher civilization of
Rome. Certainly up to the time of the Gracchi
Rome could not compare in magnificence or
wealth with any of the greater Etruscan cities.

Customs and Beligion. Judging from the
monuments, the Etruscans were a short and
thickset people, with heavy features, much given
to good living, games, and amusements. Danc-
ing, music, and the theatre flourished; festivals
were frequent and sumptuous. There was great
love of pomp and ceremony and of rich costumes.
The Roman use of the toga picta and palmata
and of the corona Etrusea in the triumph, the
lictors, the system of slavery and clientship, the
love of theatrical and amphitheatrical shows,
the organization into tribes, the system of divi-
nation, and many other important customs and
beliefs were derived by the Romans from Etruria.
The Etruscan pantheon, as we know it, is a late
piece of patchwork. The supreme trinity was
Tinia (Jupiter), Uni (Juno), and Menrfa (Min-
erva). Other principal deities were Sethlaus
( Vulcan ) , Turan ( Venus ) , Phuphlans ( Bacchus ) ,
and Turins (Mercury). Mantus was the ruler
of Hades with his consort Mania, assisted by
Charun and the Furise. These Dii consent rs
had above them a series of nameless deities,
inexorable as fate, probably the original Chtho-
nian divinities before Greek influence began.

Language. The obscurity of Etruscan history
is due largely to the absence of any literature
and to the present inability to decipher the
known inscriptions. The Etruscan language is
still a mystery. The alphabet is clear. It con-
tains 10 letters, derived from a Graco-Chalcidian
prototype, which was first adopted along the
southern seaboard. But critics have not yet even
determined to what family the language belongs ;
the two principal theories are that it is Aryan
or Semitic. Although about 6000 inscriptions
have been found, they are nearly all (four-fifths)
sepulchral and so short and largely composed of
proper names that only about 200 other words
have been detected. Only 15 inscriptions are
bilingual, and these are of little use. The
longest inscription, on the Perugia Cippus, con-
tains 40 lines. A great deal ia expected from
the study of the recently discovered linen
inuzumy cloths at Agram, containing over 200
lines of an Etruscan book. Ft was recognized
in 1891 by Professor Krall, of Vienna. Tn such
progress as has been made the stages have been,

ETZUTftlA

143

marked by Lepsius* study of tlie alphabet, "by
Corssen's first attempt at laying a scientific
basis for linguistic study (Die Sprache der
Etrwlt&r, Leipzig, 1874), and by the subsequent
studies of Pauli and Deecke, who hold opposite
theories. A few facts are known. The Etruscan
language expresses relationship both by separate
words und by suffixes; it possesses gender and
enclitics; it does not distinguish accusative from
nominative case; but has genitive (-s) and
dative (-si or -thi) as well as plural (-r or -1).
Archaeology and Art.— Architecture.— Tt is
through archaeological excavation that nearly
everything known about the Etruscans has been
discovered. More is known of Etruscan engineer-
ing than of architecture. The cities were care-
fully laid out on a quadrangular plan, with well-
fortified citadels and walls; the walls were
strengthened by towers and double gates. The
Etruscans themselves used tufa and other stones
squared and laid in horizontal courses, but there
is some dispute whether the polygonal and
irregular cyclopean masonry of some cities in
Etruria was built by them or another and earlier
race, perhaps the Pelasgians (q.v.). The city
of Marzabotto, in the Province of Bologna, is
the best instance of an Etruscan colony, laid out
in regular streets, with pavements, 'sidewalks,
and drainage. The Servian wall in Home is of
Etruscan construction. On the other hand,
Russellcc, Cosa, Vetulonia, Veii, and other cities
are built in the polygonal style. Almost nothing
of Etruscan temple architecture remains. From
Vitruvius, and the descriptions of the temple of
Jupiter Capitolinus in Rome, from remains at
Alatri, Satricum, Segni, Norba, and Falerii, it
is evident that the Etruscans, Latins, Volscians,
and other tribes adopted their temple from the
early Greeks, taking as form the early temple
in antis (not peristyle), with very deep portico.
The usual material was a wooden core, covered
with terra cotta, for columns, entablature,
gables, etc., while the cella walls were of brick
or stone. Hence their easy destruction by fire
and disintegration. Nearly all the remains con-
sist of the terra-cotta ornaments, such as antc-
fixos (see ANTEFIX) , sculptured friezes, and gablo
statuary. Marble sculpture, on account of its
weight, could never be used in connection with
these light wooden structures, but terra-cotta
sculpture was carried to great perfection between
the fifth and third centuries, as is shown by the
remains at Satricurn, Falerii, and Luni, which
are unique in plastic history and in some cases
purely Greek in style. The order employed was
a modification of the Doric, called the Tuscan,
the proportions of which, owing to the influence
of the material, were much lighter; they can
best be studied in Vitruvius and in early Roman
examples copied from Etruscan buildings. In
their tombs the Etruscans showed as much
genius as the Greeks. Throughout Etruria there
are large and early domical and vaulted tombs
for great chiefs, which remind one of the tombs
ot the Homeric heroes and of the Lydian Aly-
attes. Such are those at Vcii, Vetulonia, Vulii,
Clusium, discovered full of antiquities, mostly
imported from the East. These all date from the
eighth, seventh, and sixth centuries. To another
class, and certainly to the Etruscans themselves,
belong the flat-roofed tombs imitated from the
house, of which fine series exist at Caere and
Perugia, dating between the sixth and third
centuries B.O. These were often painted like the
Egyptian tombs, with frescoes, from which we

gain our principal knowledge, not only of Egyp-
tian funeral rites, but of their beliefs and daily
life. No remains of royal palaces or of public
buildings have come to light, to that there is
but a meagre remnant of Etruscan architecture.
Sculpture. — It is different with sculpture. In
character Etruscan sculpture lacks beauty of
style, poetry, and imagination. It is essentially
utilitarian and material. Stone, bronze, and
terra cotta were used at a very early date. It
is either in the tombs, as at Vetulonia, or above
them that the early stone sculptures aiv found,
in the form of statues or steles carved in relief
to mark the site. During this early stage (sev-
enth to sixth century), when Oriental inlluonce
dominated, there was a peculiar mixture of real-
ism and archaic style, as shown in Iho great
terra-cotta sarcophagi at the British Museum,
the Louvre, and the Papa Giulio Museum in
Rome, in which the husband and wife arc repre-
sented in life-size figures reclining on the funeral
couch in conversation, while scenes iu low relief
are carved on the faces of the sarcophagus.
Later, marble came into use for sarcophagi.
Sometimes it was painted, as in the wonderful
sarcophagus at Florence of the Hellenic period
(fourth century) ; but when the burial after
incineration became the rule the small carved
ash urns were produced in thousands. The
largest collections are in the Vatican, at Perugia,
Florence, Corneto, etc. Their scenes are very
instructive as to Etruscan mythology, but they
show a great and growing dependence on Greek
thought. Bronze sculpture was an Etruscan
specialty. Even the Greeks recognized this fact
and imported the Etruscan works. This was the
case not only with statues, like the Mars of
Todi and the Orator of Florence, with busts like
the Brutus in the Capitol, and with statuettes
innumerable, but with articles of furniture and
decoration, such as candelabra, jewel cases, the
famous tistce, and mirrors. The Ficoroni data,
with its exquisite engraved scenes, belongs to a
class not found elsewhere in the artistic world.
Many of the mirrors also are beautifully en-
graved with figured scenes. .

Minor Arts. — The Etruscan tombs, beginning
in the eighth century, are filled with a wealth of
objects unparalleled except in Egypt, and ex-
cavations do not seem to exhaust their riches.
Their contents, however, do not illustrate merely
Etruscan, but ancient Oriental and Greek, art as
well, especially in the cities of maritime and
southern Etruria. This is the case especially
with gold jewelry (q.v.) and vase painting. It
is now quite certain that a large part of what
has generally been called Etruscan jewelry came
to Etruria from Greece, and the great majority
of Attic and other Greek vases have been re-
covered in this way. The tombs of Orvicto
(Falerii) are especially rich in Greek vases,
many of them signed. It is easy to distinguish
the native Etruscan ware; not so easy the
jewelry. Of the jewelry, arms, and armor there
were two classes- — that for use and that made
as a votive olTering and for burial. The latter
class was extremely fragile and light. The
Etruscan women were famous for the amount
and richness of their jewelry wreaths and coro-
nets, pins, earrings, necklaces, fibulas, breast-
plates, armlets, bracelets, and rings. The great
use of jewelry, while commencing as early as the
seventh century, seems not to have reached its
climax until the fourth century. The Vatican
has a great deal of the early jewelry. The

ETRTTBIA

144

ETTMULLEB

Metropolitan Museum in New York has a fair
collection of the middle and later periods. But
by far the greatest in number and variety of
the objects found are the earthenware vases.
There is one class essentially Etruscan, with its
centre of manufacture at Chiusi (Clusium) ; it
is the black ware with raised ornamentation
called bucohero nero. There is the greatest and
most fantastic variety in form and figured orna-
ment in this class when compared to the sober
and limited shapes of painted vases of the Greek
class. The Etruscans had tried imitating Egyp-
tian and Phoenician ware, but, with the importa-
tion of Corinthian painted vases in the seventh
and sixth centuries and of Attic and other vases
in the succeeding period, Greek mastery became
supreme. The imitation is rarely perfect enough
to deceive, but it is even closer than Phoenician
imitations. One finds Etruscan echoes of all the
Greek periods and schools of vase painting down
to the third century, including imitation of the
schools of southern Italy. In all their work the
Etruscans seem to have followed simply com-
mercial instincts and love of luxury. They had
no artistic feeling. Whatever realism occasion-
ally gives interest to their sculpture is due to
the same regard for beliefs concerning the future
life as are found in Egypt, The Etruscans held
the pre-Hellenic attitude towards art as ex-
planatory, decorative, and useful, not serving a
higher purpose, or for its own sake as "beautiful.
Therefore they missed, in their imitations, the
true spirit of Greek art. It is certain that
Greek artists occasionally worked for and with
them. Demaratus, the father of Tarquin, is
said to have been a Greek artist from Corinth.
Some of the paintings at Csore and Corneto must
be by a Greek hand ; also some of the terra-cotta
temple sculptures. The artistic influence of
Etruria upon Rome was paramount from the
time of the Tarquins to the rise of Greek in-
fluence in the third century B.C. Even after that
time it still lingers in the sarcophagus reliefs
and statuary.

In two other branches the Etruscans produced
imitative works of no higher order — scarabs,
gems, and coins. The imitation of Egyptian and
Phoenician cut gems began at an early date, but
the material (paste, bone, etc.) was cheap and
the workmanship poor. During the fifth cen-
tury, however, archaic Greek gems were fairly
well imitated, but after this period little was
done. Coinage also, as in all central Italy, was
late in reaching the artistic stage. The Greek
silver standard (Attic standard of Solon) was
adopted late in the sixth century, but the work-
manship on the Etruscan coins remained infe-
rior. See EARRING; ROMAN ART.

Bibliography. Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries
of Etruria, (2 vols., London, 1878), gives the
best description of the sites and ruins of Etrus-
can cities and cemeteries. A popular treatment
of the same subject is by Seymour, Up Sill and
down Dale w> Ancient Etruria (New York,
1910). For an historical treatment, based on
literary authorities alone, consult K. 0. Milller,
Die Etrusker (Stuttgart, 1877), and for a dis-
cussion of the subject from an archaeological
standpoint, Helbig, Delia provenienza degli Etrus-
ohi (Rome, 1883). The inscriptions are best
consulted in Pauli, Corpus Inscriptionum Etrus-
oarum (Leipzig, 1893-1902) 5 supplemented by
Lattes, Corressioni al Corpus Insoripttonum Etrus-
carwm, (Florence, 1904). Other good trea-
tises are Pauli, Die Urvolker der Appenninen

Haloinsel, in Helmolt, Weltgescltichte, vol. iv
(Leipzig, 1910); Skutsch, "Etruskisch," in
Pauly-Wissowa, Real-Encyclopadie (Leipzig,
1908). Interesting philological studies are
those of Corsson. Deecke, and' Pauli. The his-
tory of art is treated in Martha, L'Art etrusque
(Paris, 1889) ; Seeman, Die Kunst der EtrusLer
(Dresden, 1890); Von Stryk, Studien uoer die
etruskisclien Eammergraler (Dorpat, 1910).
Collections of the sarcophagus reliefs are to be
found in Robert, Die antiken Sarkophayen-Itc-
liefs, published by the Deutsches Archaeologisches
Institut (Berlin, 1890-1904); and of the mir-
rors in Gerhard, Etruskischc Spicy 'd (5 vols.,
Berlin, 1843-67).

ETRURIA, KINGDOM OF. A kingdom estab-
lished in Italy by Napoleon I in 1801, formed
out of the Province of Tuscany and assigned by
him to the Bourbons of Parma. In 1808 it be-
came a part of the French Empire, and in 1809
Napoleon's sister, Elise Bacciocchi, was made
Grand Duchess of Tuscany. On the overthrow
of Napoleon in 1814, Tuscany reverted to Fer-
dinand III, brother of Francis I of Austria.
ETBTJS'CAN*. See ETBUBIA.
ETSCH, 6tsh. See ADIGE.
ETTIKTOSHATTSElSr, gt'tmgs-hou'zen, KON-
STANTIN, BARON VON (1826-97). An Austrian
geologist and botanist. He was born and edu-
cated at Vienna and in 1854 was appointed
professor of botany and of medical natural
history at the Josephsakademie in Vienna,
whence in 1871 he was called to Gratz. From
1878 to 1880 he was engaged by the British
Museum in researches concerning its collection
of fossil plants. To the study of nervation he
devoted many of his principal works. Among
them are: Physiotypia Plantarurn Austriacamm,
in collaboration with A. Pokorny (2 vols. of
text and 10 vols. of copperplate illustrations,
1856-73) ; PJiysiographis der Mcdteinalpflamen
(with 294 imprints from nature, 1862) ; Bei~
trage aur Erforschung der Phylogcnie der Pflan-
sscnarten (7 books, 1877-80).

ETTUWGEW, fitting-en. A town of the
Grand Duchy of Baden, Germany, on the Alb,
about 4 miles south of Karlsruhe (Mup: Ger-
many, C 4). Its ancient wall and moat is still
extant, but its only building of interest is the
castle, built about 1730, on the site of an ancient
Roman fortress. Educational institutions in-
clude a gymnasium and a Catholic teachers'
seminary. It has manufactures of machinery,
paper, cotton, shirtings, velvet, vinegar, and
parchment. Pop., 1900, 8040; 1910, 9407. Ett-
lingen derives its origin from a Roman settle-
ment. In 1227 it received municipal privileges
and came into possession of the margraves of
Baden. On July 9 and 10, 1796, it was the
scene of the victory of the French under Moreau
over Archduke Charles of Austria. The vicinity
of Ettlingen is rich in Roman remains.

ETTMttl/LER, e^'muller, ERNST MOBTTZ
LTTDWIG (1802-77). A German philologist. He
was born at Gersdorf, Saxony, studied at Leip-
zig from 1823 to 1826, and in 1830 began to
lecture at Jena on the German poets of the
Middle Ages. In 1833 he was called to the
gymnasium at Zurich, and in 1863 to the uni-
versity there, as professor of German literature.
He edited the literary remains of the Middle
High German and Old Low German dialects. In
1850 appeared, under his editorship, an Anglo-
Saxon chrestomathy, Engla and Seaama Scdpa*

ETTOB,

145

ETTTDE

and Bdceras, and in the following year Ms Lean-
oon Anglo-Sacoonicum. He also gave his atten-
tion to the old Norse literature, as is shown by
an edition of the Yauluspd (1830), translations,
and a Norse reading book, and wrote several
original poems. His Eandbuch der deutschen
Literaturgeschiohte (1847) includes treatments
of the Anglo-Saxon, the old Scandinavian, and
the Low German. Among his other works
worthy of mention are: Altnordischer Sagen-
schatz vn neun Bucliern libersetzt und erlautert
(1870); Herbstabende und Wwternachte, Ge-
sprache fiber deutsche Dichtungen und Dichter
(3 vols., 1865-67) ; and his translation of Beo-
wulf (1840).

ETTOB, JOSEPH J. (1886- ). An Ameri-
can leader of the Industrial Workers of the
World. He was a leader in labor disputes at
Paterson, N. J., Brooklyn, N. Y., McKee's Rocks,
Pa., and elsewhere; but he first attracted general
attention by his capable leadership in the
Lawrence (Mass.) textile mill strike in 1912, and
by his subsequent nine months' imprisonment
with Arturo M. Giovanitti (q.v.), when they
were charged with responsibility for the death
of a woman who was shot in a riot on Jan. 29,
1912. He was one of the leaders of the waiters'
strike in 1913 and of the barbers' strike in 1914,
both in New York City. He became a member
of the executive council of the Industrial
Workers of the World.

ETTEJCK. A valley in the south of Selkirk-
shire, Scotland, watered by the Ettrick River,
which rises near Ettrick Pen, 2223 feet high
(Map: Scotland, E 4). The river runs in a
northeasterly direction for 32 miles and empties
into the Tweed. Its chief affluent is the Yarrow,
which runs 25 miles from the west through a
beautiful and poetically celebrated vale. Ettrick
Forest, a royal hunting tract, swarming with
deer till the time of James V, included Selkirk-
shire and some tracts to the north. In Ettrick
Vale, at Tushielaw, dwelt the celebrated free-
booter or king of the border, Adam Scott, who
was summarily executed by James V in 1530.
James Hogg, the Scottish poet, known as "the
Ettrick Shepherd," was a shepherd in this part
of the country. Consult Craig-Brown, History
of Selkirkshire (Edinburgh, 1886).

ETTRICK: SHEPHERD, THE. See HOGG,

JAMES.

"ET TTT BRTT'TE!" (Lat., And thou also,
Brutus ! ) . The words commonly believed to have
been uttered by Julius Csesar when struck by the
hand of Brutus. There is, however, no ancient
Latin authority for attributing them to Caesar.
The strong popular belief in their authenticity
is a remarkable tribute to the genius of Shake-
speare, who puts them into Caesar's mouth at the
moment of his fall (JuUus Casar, III, i, 77).
The words occur in other Elizabethan writers.

ETTWEIN, St'vto (1721-1802). A Mora-
vian bishop. He was born of Waldensian an-
cestry at Freudenstadt, Wftrttemberg, June 29,
1721, joined the Moravians in 1739, was or-
dained in 1746, came to America as a traveling
evangelist and missionary to the Indians in
1754, and preached in 11 of the Colonies, travel-
ing to the present State of Ohio, and to 12
Indian tribes. During 1776 and 1777 he was
chaplain in the general hospital of the American
forces at Bethlehem, Pa. Later he negotiated
with Congress in behalf of the Christian Indians
and represented 'the Moravians in dealings with
the government. In 1784 he was consecrated a

bishop, with charge of the Moravian churches
in America; in 1787 he founded the Society of
the United Brethren for Propagating the Gospel
among the Heathen, which is still active. He
prepared a dictionary and phrase book of the
language* of the Delaware Indians and published
an account of their customs, traditions, etc.
He died at Bethlehem, Pa., Jan. 2, 1802.

ET'TY, WILLIAM (1787-1849). An English
figure and historical painter. He was born at
York, March 10, 1787. In accordance with the
wishes of his father he served seven years of ap-
prenticeship to a printer of Hull. He was, how-
ever, enabled to prosecute his studies in painting
through the generosity of his uncle, William
Etty, who in 1806 invited him to London. In
1807 he entered the Royal Academy School,
studying under Fuseli, and he also studied
privately for a year under Sir Thomas Lawrence,
whose influence for some time dominated his
art. He copied a great deal from the old
masters in the National Gallery and was a
constant student in the Life School of the
Academy, even after he had become an Acade-
mician. He paid a brief visit to Paris and
Florence in 1816, and in 1822 he took a longer
journey to Italy, spending most of his time in
Venice. From his studies of the Venetian mas-
ters he acquired that excellence in color for
which his works are chiefly known. On his re-
turn to England, in 1824, his "Pandora Crowned
by the Seasons" was much applauded, and he
was made a member of the Royal Academy in
1828. From this time he was very successful
and amassed a good competence. He resided in
London until 1848, but on account of failing
health he retired to York, where he died Nov.
13, 1849.

Etty painted very unequally. His work at its
best possesses great charm of color, especially
in the glowing, but thoroughly realistic, flesh
tints. The composition is good, but his draw-
ing is sometimes faulty, and his work usually
lacks life and originality. He often endeavored
to inculcate moral lessons by his pictures. He
himself considered his best works to be "The
Combat," the three "Judith" pictures, "Beniah,
David's Chief Captain" (all in the National
Gallery of Scotland, Edinburgh), "Ulysses and
the Sirens" (Manchester Gallery), and the three
pictures of "Joan of Arc." He is also- repre-
sented in the South Kensington Museum, at
Glasgow and in. English provincial museums,
and in the Metropolitan Museum, New York,
by "The Three Graces," considered by many Ms
masterpiece.

Consult: his "Autobiography," in Art Journal
(London, 1849) ; Gilchrist, Life of W. Etty
(ib., 1855) ; Cosmo Monkhouse, "Etty," Dic-
tionary of National Biography (ib., 1889).

ETUDE, a'tud' (Fr., a study). Originally a
composition for some instrument written for the
purpose of developing technical skill. The name
was first used by J. B. Cramer in his op. 50, the
famous 84 studies for pianoforte, published in
1810. Each study is built upon a single theme
and designed to develop some particular point,
such as staccato, arpeggio, trill, etc. Soon va-
rious composers recognized the possibilities of
this simple form and began to write studies for
concert performance. These contained not only
an accumulation of technical difficulties, but
frequently themes of rare beauty and power.
Such arc the famous £tudes of Liszt (Etudes

146

ETYMOLOGY

d'eceSeution iranscendante) , Schumann's Etudes
symphoniques, and Chopin's Etudes, op. 10 and
25, all of which are in the concert repertoires
of the greatest pianists and rank among the
greatest compositions for pianoforte. Of similar
works for the violin may be mentioned ijic e"tudes
of Kreutzer, Fiorillo, and Paganini. Some of
the more extended e*tudes introduce also a second
theme. See CHOPIX.

ETYMOLOaiCTTM 0-UDIANTTM. See ETY-
MOLOGIC UK MAGNUM.

ET'YMOLOGKCCTJM MAGKNTTM (Lat., great
etymological work). The name commonly given
to a Greek lexicon which dates from the early
part of the tenth century AJ>. The compiler is
unknown, but the work was based on a similar
work of the ninth century, which should properly
boar the title, and another lexicon similar to the
extant Etymologicum Gudianum. The ninth-
century etymologicum no longer exists uncon-
taminated by later additions, but it is clear
that it preserved in purest form the basis of the
numerous Byzantine etymologica which have
been transmitted to us. These all profess to
give the etymologies of the words contained in
them — hence the name. In spite of the fanciful
derivations they often contain much valuable
material, particularly from earlier writers. On
the whole subject, consult Pteitzenstein, Qe-
scliiclite der griecJiiscJien EJymologiJca (Leipzig,
1897), and Cohn, "Griechische Lexicographic/'
pp. 702, 703, of Brugmann-Thumb, Ch'iechische
Grammatik (4th ed., Munich, 1913). The best
edition of the Etymologicum Magnum is by
Gaisford (Oxford, 1848). The Etymologicum
Giidianum and others are edited by Sturz (Leip-
zig, 1816-20). See DICTIONARY.

ET'YMOI/OGY (Lat. etymologia, from Gk.
cTVfj,o\oyta, from grvjuoff, etyuios, true + -Xo7/a,
-logia, account, from \tyetv, legein, to say ) . That
branch of philology (q.v.) which deals with the
derivation of words and with their comparison in
different members of the same language group.
In its relation to the other great subdivisions of
linguistic science, phonology, morphology, and
syntax, etymology stands in closest association
with phonology. Without rigid scientific adher-
ence to phonetic law (q.v.) there can be no real
etymology. On the other hand, phonology in its
nonphysiological aspect is based on etymology.
The earliest of all the branches of linguistics to
attract attention was etymology. The word was
first used as a philosophical, not as a linguistic
term. The Greek Stoics, in their disputations
with the Skeptics, asserted that language existed
by nature, not by convention. Words were there-
fore real (Gk. eru/ws), and it was the task of
etymology, according to the Stoic view, to prove
this reality. It is, however, noteworthy that long
before the foundation of the Stoic school, Platb
(q.v.) made an approximation to the modern
method in his Gratylus. Not only docs he there
set forth for the first time the elemental divisions
of Greek phonology, but he intentionally ety-
mologizes. Thus he correctly connects yvirf,
woman, with 70*1), seed, and going a step fur-
ther declares that the words for fire (wup),
water (vSup), and dog (iciW) are almost the
same in Greek as in Phrygian, which we now
know to be related to the Armenian (cf.
Armenian 7wr, fire, get, water, wn, dog). In-
dependently of Greece, India developed a study
of language far more exact and thorough than
any other ancient people ever did. As in Greece
etymology had sprung from philosophy, in India

it had its basis in religion. The first formal
treatise on etymology in Sanskrit is Yaska's
Nirukta (literally, outspoken), which da tea per-
haps from as far back as the fifth century B.C.
The Nirukta, which ranks as one of the six
Vedangas, or members of the Veda, was com-
posed to explain hard words in the Rigveda.
The stress laid upon the source and meaning of
the words, both in India and in Greece, is highly
significant of the practical value of etymology.
It is safe to affirm that without etymology there
can be no exact orthoepy. Exactness in the use
of words is in direct proportion to the exactness
of knowledge of their meaning, and exactness of
knowledge of their meaning is in its turn in
large measure conditioned by exactness of knowl-
edge of their origin. Again, the attempt to
etymologize is found in the earliest literary rec-
ords. The Indian Yajur Veda (q.v.) abounds in
these primitive etymologies, many of which are
extremely naive and erroneous (as the story
that the deity Prajapati swelled up, axvayat,
and from this swelling £vayatha, came the horse,
a&ca), while others are still deemed correct (as
when by day, diva, Prajapati created the gods,
dfvas, "for that is their godhead/' dcvatvam) .
In the Bible Eve (Hebrew llawwa, Gen. iii. 20)
is popularly derived from hawd, to be, and in
Gen. ii. 23, ishsha, woman, is explained as a
derivative of Isli, man. This primitive kind of
etymology is still common and is known as
popular, or better as folk, etymology. It is
sometimes right and more frequently wrong.
Often among those who are unacquainted with
the history of words, there will be found attempts
to etymologize them as being related to others
to which they may have sonic phonetic or, less
commonly, some graphic resemblance. Examples
of this arc exceedingly numerous. Thus, Ger-
man Wahnwite, frenzy, is popularly associated
with wahnen, to think, especially to think in-
correctly, whereas it really signifies, as the Old
High German form wanaiotesi shows, witlessnotfK.
the first component being wana, without. Another
instance is Gorman Sund/lut, deluge, connected
popularly with sunden, to sin, but really tie-
rived from sinvluot, great flood. In English wo
have words like bridegroom (shortened also into
groom), really bride's man (Anglo-Saxon Irijd-
guma), associated with groom; island, properly
isle-land (Anglo-Saxon eg-lond), which has been
explained as land like an eye in the waters;
crayfish (French ecrevisse, crab), which is sup-
posed to bo a sort of fish, or asparagus (Greek
do"ir6fayos ) , which becomes sparrow grass in
rustic speech. Abortive as many of the popu-
lar etymologies are, they are none the less im-
portant as indicating the universal need, felt by
such as employ language, for some sort of ex-
planation of the meaning of the words they use.
With the discovery of the importance of
Sanskrit (q.v.) in linguistic investigation, and
the rise of the science of comparative linguistics
(see PHILOLOGY), etymology was placed on a
scientific foundation. Its history is connected
inseparably with the branch of learning of which
it forms a part, but its method may be briefly
outlined. First and foremost there must be a
strict adherence in all etymological investigation
to the principles of phonetic law (q.v.). The
etymology which fails to conform to these laws
must receive overwhelming confirmation from
other quarters before it can be regarded as even
possible. In the case of loan words phonetic
law is apparently violated, and it will frequently

ETYMOLOGY

147

ETYMOLOGY

happen that a language will have two or more
words derived from a single word, one being the
regular phonetic development and the other a
borrowed form. In this case the latter form,
known by the French term mot savant, is usually
differentiated in meaning from the former. Thus,
we have in French and English such words as
royal and regal, both from the Latin regalis,
kingly; the form regal being borrowed directly
from the Latin, while royal (cf. French roi,
king, from the Latin accusative regem) is the
phonetically correct form. Loan words may also
undergo the regular sound changes of the lan-
guage into which they have been adopted. Thus,
Latin pondus, pound, appears in Gothic and
Anglo-Saxon as pund, with unchanged conso-
nants, but in Old High German it is subject to
the action of Grimm's law (q.v.) and becomes
phunt. It is therefore evident that in etymology
attention must be paid to the history of words
and sometimes to the records of the tribes speak-
ing them. Thus, the English ivise is akin to the
Gothic unweis, unwise, Old High German wis,
New High German weise; but wise is also a
doublet of guise, which is the form assumed by
icis in the Romance languages, which borrowed
the word from the Germanic form. Tf it is
true that the same word may^ assume different
forms in the same language, it is equally true
that different words may become identical in
form in a given language. The large class of
homonyms in every language is sufficient proof of
this. An excellent English example of this
phenomenon is sound, which is a conglomerate
of four originally distinct words — viz., Anglo-
Saxon gesund, hearty, Anglo-Saxon sund, a
body of water, Latin sonus, noise, and Latin
subundare, to dive beneath the waves. It is
probable that many instances in which a word
shows extraordinary diversity of meanings
are to be traced to this process of conglomera-
tion rather than to semasiological developments.
(See SEMASIOLOGY.) It is, however, in the trac-
ing of words back through an entire group of
cognate languages to a hypothetical original
form, denoted conventionally by an asterisk ( * ) ,
that etymology finds its principal application.
The older etymologists made wild guesses in
their primitive investigations, and such etymolo-
gies are still made by untrained minds. Thus,
Latin deus, god, Old Latin dewos, akin to
Sanskrit dcva,, god, has been connected with the
English devil, from Greek 8i<£j8oXos, slanderer,
and English god, in addition to the old stock
comparison with good, with which the word has
no etymological relation, has been equated with
Sanskrit gfidha, hidden. It is true that many
etymologies "which are perfectly sound seem at
first sight impossible to those who are not ac-
quainted with phonetic laws and the principles
of word formation. It is also true that many
etymologies which are very plausible to students
of comparative linguistics are in reality doubtful
and accepted only provisionally. Such ety-
mologies may ultimately be discarded, just as
the provisional assumptions often accepted by
investigators in the exact sciences are discarded,
if further research shows them to be false.

Etymology may be confined to a specific group
of languages or dialects. We may thus speak
of Romance etymology, where words in the Ro-
mance languages are traced back for the most
part to folk-Latin originals (as French m8me,
nelf, Old French meisme, Provencal medesme,
Spanish wwroo, Italian medesww* from folk

Latin met + *ipsimus), Germanic, Celtic, Indo-
Iranian etymology, and the like. All those are
combined in Indo-Gcnnanic etymology. Simi-
larly we may have Semitic, Dravidian, Uralo-
Altaic, or Polynesian etymologies, but Indo-
Geraanic is the most thoroughly systematized
of all and serves as a model for the rest. It
must be borne in mind, however, that accidental
resemblance of sound is no proof of etymological
kinship. It is, consequently, unscientific to
compare, as some have done, Semitic or Dravid-
ian with Indo-Germanie words. The fact, e.g.,
that Latin tattrus sounds like Arabic thaur,
both meaning bull, or English sheriff (Anglo-
Saxon SGlr-gervfa, shire-reeve) resembles in
sound the Arabic sJiarif, exalted, also used of
an official of a city, implies no relationship.
Within a language group the same statement
holds true. Sanskrit s&pa, broth, has no con-
nection with English soup, nor are the English
verbs drag and draw akin. As an example of
etymological procedure, we may take the word
for ten in the Indo-Gcrmanic languages. Thus,
we have English ten, Anglo-Saxon ti/n, 03d
Saxon tehan, Icelandic tin, Gothic tafhun, Old
High German sehan, New High German schn,
Old Irish deich, Irish deag, Gaelic dong, Cor-
nish and Welsh dec, Breton 'dec, Latin decem
(whence the Romance group, Italian dirci,
Spanish diet, Old French dis, French rfior,
etc.), Umbrian desen-dnf for *deQem-duf, twelve
(ten -two), Greek &*a, Old Church Slavic
desett, Czech dcritfi, Polish daiesipty, Russian
dtsyatt, Lithuanian d&ssimtis, Lettish desmit,
Old Prussian dcsslmts, Armenian tasn, Albanian
fyete, Avesta, dasa, New Persian dah, Afghan
las, Shighni Sis, Us, Sanskrit da&an, Prakrit, Pali,
dasa, Hindi das, Marathi daha. A comparison
of all these forms, and more which might be
added to the list, results in the postulation of a
pre-Indo-Germanic form *de&wf) to which, in ac-
cordance with the sound laws governing the
various divisions of the Indo-Gcrmanic lan-
guages, and with reference to the principles of
word formation (as in the -ti- formation in Old
Church Slavic, Czech, Polish, Russian, Lithua-
nian, Lettish, and Old Prussian in the example
quoted), the various forms of the numeral ton
are referred as to a convenient formula. (See
PHILOLOGY.) The scope of etymology has been
immensely widened by the theories of root
determinativos and root extensions, and by the
doctrine of the dissyllabic base or root (see
PHILOLOGY), which have rendered possible the
explanation of many words whose derivation
had before beer unknown.

Consult: Pott, EtymologisoTie Forschungen
auf dem Oebiete der indogermanisclien Sprachcn
(Betmold, 1859-74) ; Fick, Vergleichendes TF6V-
terbuch der indogermaniscJien Sprachen (G(Jt-
tingen, 1890-94), especially Falk and Torp,
Wortsoltatz drr QermaniRohen flprachcinJicit
(ib., 1009), which forms the third part of the
preceding work; Paul, Prvnvipien der Rprach-
geschichte (4th ed., Halle, 1909); Finok, Die
Haupttypen des Sprachbaus (Leipzig, 1910) ;
Schrader, Spraohvergleichung und Urgeschichte
(3d ed., 2 vols., Jena, 1906-08); Gray, Jndo-
Tranian Phonology (New York, 1902); Uhlen-
beek, Kunsgefasstes etymologischcs 'Wortcrlitch
der altwdischen Spraohen (Amsterdam, 1808-
99) ; Leumann, Etymologisclieft IVbrtcrbuoh der
8an8krit-8prache (Leipzig, 1907); Monier-
Williams, Sanskrit-English Dictionary (Oxford,

ETYMOLOGY 148

1899 ) ; Thumb, Handbuch des Sanskrit mit
Texten und Glossar (Heidelberg, 1905) ; Bar-
tholomse, Altiranisches Worterbuch (Strassburg,
1904) ; Zum altiranischen Worterbuch, nachar-
beiten und voiarbeiten (ib., 1906) ; Htibsch-
mann, Etymologic und Lautlehre der ossetischen
Sprache (ib., 1887) ; Horn, Grundriss der neu-
persischen Etymologie (ib., 1893); Meyer,
Etymologisches Worterbuch der albanesischen
Spraohe (ib., 1891); Weigand, Albanesische
Grammatik im sudgegischen Dialekt (Leipzig,
1913); Hiibschmann, Armenische Grammatik,
vol. i (ib.3 1895) ; Curtius, Grundsilge der
griechischen Etymologie (5th ed., ib., 1879);
Prellwitz, Etymologisches Worterbuch der grie-
chischen Sprache (2d ed., Gottingen, 1905) ;
Meyer, Handbuch der griechischen Etymologie
(Leipzig, 1901 et seq.) ; Edwards, English-Greek
Lexicon (Cambridge, 1912); Boissaq, Diction-
naire Etymologique de la langue grccque (Heidel-
berg, 1907-13); Solmsen, Beitrage sur griechi-
schen Wortforschung (Strassburg, 1909- );
VaniSek, Etymologisches Worterbuch der latcini-
schen Spraohe (2d ed., Leipzig, 1881); Breal
and Bailly, Dictionnaire etymologique latin
(Paris, 1885); Walde, Lateinisches etymolo-
gisohes Wb'rterbuch (2d ed., Heidelberg, 1910) ;
Thomas, Studien zur lateinischen und griechi-
schen Sprachgeschichte (Berlin, 1912); Miklo-
sich, Etymologisches Worterbuch der slavischen
Sprachen (Vienna, 1886) ; Berneker, Slavisches
etymologisches Wdrterbuch (Heidelberg, 1908) ;
Vondrak, Vergleiohende slavische Grammatik
(2 vols., Gottingen, 1906-08); Uhlenbcck,
Kursgefasstes etymologisches Worterbuch der
gotischen Sprache (2d ed., Amsterdam, 1900) ;
Kluge, Etymologisches Worterbuch der deut-
schen Sprache (7th ed., Strassburg, 1910) ;
Hirt, Etymologie der neuhochdeutschen Sprache
(Munich, 1909) ; Franck, Etymologische woor-
denboek der nederlandsche taal (The Hague,
1884-92) ; Tamm, Etymologisk svensk otdbok
(Stockholm, 1891); Dietz, Etymologisches
Worterbuch der romanischen Sprachen (2d ed.,
Bonn, 1861-G2) ; Kiirting, Lateinisch-romani-
sches Wortcrbitch (3d ed., Paderborn, 1907);
Meyer-Ltibke, Romanisches etymologisches Wor-
terbuch (Heidelberg, 1911); Coelho, Diccionario
manual etymoUgico da lingua portugesa (Lisbon,
1890) ; Brachet, Dictionnaire Etymologique de la
langue fran^aise (2d ed., Paris, n.d.) ; Scheler,
Dictionnaire d'ttymologie frangaise (ib., 1880) ;
KSrting, Etymologisches Worterbuch der franzo-
sischen Sprache (Paderborn, 1908); Stappers,
Dictionnaire synoptique de la langue francaise,
donnant la derivation des mots usuels (Paris,
1911); Cle'dat, Dictionnaire Etymologique de la
langue frangaise (ib., 1912); Schwan-Behrens,
Grammaire de Vanoien frangais (2d FT. ed.,
Leipzig, 1913) ; Pianigiani, Vocabolario eti-
mologico della lingua italiana (Milan, 1907) ;
Wiese, Altitalienisches Elementarbuoh (Heidel-
berg, 1904) ; Calandrelli, Dicoionario filoldgioo-
comparado de la lengua castellana (8 vols.,
Buenos Aires, 1880-1910) ; Hanssen, Gramdtioa
histtirica de la lengua cafttellana (Halle, 1913) 5
Mtiller, Etymologisches Wdrterbuch der englir
schen Sprache (2d ed., 2 vols., Co-then, 1878) ;
Skeat, Principles of English Etymology (2 vols.,
Oxford, 1887-91 ) ; Etymological Dictionary of
the English Language (new ed., ib., 1910) ;
Bulbing, Altenglisches Elementarbuch (Heidel-
berg, 1902); Bradley, The Making of English
(London, 1904) ; Skeat, The Science of Etymol-
ogy (Oxford, 1912)-, Kaluza, Historisclie Grow

ETYMOLOGY

matik der englischen Sprache (2d ed., 2 vols.,
Berlin, 1906-07); J. and E. M. Wright, Old
English Grammar (London, 1908) ; Palmer,
Folk-Etymology (ib., 1882); Osthoff, Etymolo-
gisohe Parerga (Leipzig, 1901); Henry, Leanque
etymologique du breton moderne (Rennes,
1900) ; Pedersen, Vergleichende Grammatik der
keltischen Sprachen (2 vols., Gflttingen, 1909-
13).

ETYMOLOGY, FIGTJBES OF. Terms employed
in etymological discussions. They must be care-
fully distinguished from the figures of rhetoric
or speech, of prosody, and of syntax, although
there are instances in which the different classes
overlap. The most important figures of etymol-
ogy are as follows : Ablaut or vowel gradation is
the term given to such quantitative, qualitative,
or accentual differences of the sonantal element
of a root- or suffix-syllable, as were not called
forth by sound-laws which were in operation at
the time of the individual development of the
Tndo-Germanie languages, but had their origin
either directly or indirectly in primitive Indo-
Germanic differences. Eveiy such syllable,
whether a root or a suffix, may successively ex-
hibit three main grades of vocalism which are
denoted by the terms (1) "normal,9* (2) "weak1"
or "reduced," and (3) "deflected grade." Thus
if the primitive syllable contains an 3, it is kept
intact in the first grade; in the second, the e
vanishes entirely; and in the third, it is re-
placed by an o. Thus from the Indo-Germanic
root pet-, 'to fall or fly,' we have the Greek TT^T-
€s0cu, 'to fly* in the present; if reduced, we have
irr-tsBai in the aorist of the same verb; lastly, if
deflected, we have, Tror-do/wu, 'I flutter.' So also
Gk. 0^pu, (dl-)<pp-os and <pop-os; Gothic aufis-in,
auhs-n-e, and atihs-an-s, where the ablaut appears
in the sulTix. Aphceresis (Gk. &<f>alpe<rts, a taking
away) is the loss of the initial letter or syllable
of a word, as Sanskrit stha9 'ye are,' but Greek
<?<rr<?, Latin estis; Sanskrit kuddala, hoe, but
Singhalese udalu; English 'loio for allow. Apoc-
ope (Gk. diroKoir1/!, a cutting off) is the same
process at end of a word, as Greek ir<£p, 'be-
side,' beside rrapd (cf. Sanskrit par) ; Latin
fao, 'do,' beside face; French belf 'beautiful,' but
Latin bellum; Old High German hirti, 'shepherd,'
but German Hirt; Avesta raoyna, 'oil,' but Ka-
shani Persian r<5, beside ruyan. This phenome-
non is due in almost every case to the weakening
and ultimate disappearance of the final vowel or
syllable on account of the stress-accent in the
preceding part of the word. Assimilation (Lat.
assimilatio, similarity) is the change undergone
by sounds to make them harmpni2e with other
sounds in the same word, and it may be either
regressive, assimilating the second sound to the
first, as Greek /cAvrtiraTos, 'sweetest,* beside y\v-
KtraTos, Latin quinque, 'five,' but Greek TT&TC;
or progressive, assimilating the first sound to the
second, as Greek 6e'0t?, name of a sea-goddess,
beside 9£rts; Old Church Slavic mrainj/a, *ant,'
but Greek /A^P/AT/^. By compensatory lengthening
is meant the lengthening of a vowel of a syllable
due to the loss of a following consonant, as
Greek ir&ffa for Trdvo-a; %x°Vffl f°r ^xoyrt» Latin
equas for earlier *equans; totios for totiens;
French pate for Latin pasta. Contamination
(Lat. contammatio, defilement) is a composite
but not compound word, influenced by different
words, as German heischen, 'to demand,' which
is a contamination of Old High German eiscdn,
'to demand,' and heizzan (German heissen), 'to
call/ It is sometimes difficult to draw the line

ETYMOLOGY

149

between contamination and the far more fre-
quent phenomenon of analogy (q.v.). Contrac-
tion (Lat. contractio, a drawing together) is the
coalescence of two or more vowels into one, as
Greek rifiufiev, 'we honor/ for *TifjL&ofjLev} irifi$fjLi,
'1 should honor/ for "rijudot/u; Latin copia,
'abundance/ for *co-opia. Crasis (Gk. /epao-ts,
mixture) is the combination of two vowels into
one, this change being in most cases only an arti-
ficial subdivision of vowel contraction, as Greek
Qpovdos, Vanished/ for rpb 68ov; Latin cunctus,
'all/ for *coiunctus. Dissimilation (from Lat.
dissimilis, unlike) is the reverse of assimilation,
treated above, and is therefore the change under-
gone by sounds to make them different from other
sounds in the same word, either regressively, as
Greek ^Xiyrijp, 'hunter/ beside ^prjnjp; Italian
veleno, 'poison/ beside veneno; or progressively,
as Latin fraglo, 'I burn/ beside fragro; Old High
German turtult&ba, English turtle-dove, but
Latin turtur; dialectic Italian lumero, 'I count/
beside numero. Dissimilation often involves loss
of sounds, as Latin mamor, 'marble/ beside mar-
mor; Spanish cribo, 'sieve/ but Latin cribrum;
Sanskrit tis lhati, Tie stands/ but Avesta hiStaiti,
Latin sistit; Latin spondeo, 'I pledge/ but per-
fect spopondi. This tendency forms the basis of
Grassmann's law (q.v.). Epanthesis (Gk. tirtv-
0e«ris, insertion), or, more scientifically, anaptyxis
(Gk. avairrvtis, unfolding), is the insertion of a
letter or syllable, as Latin drachuma, from
Greek dp&xw, 'drachma/ fAetrrjuppta, midday, for
*fjt,effi]iJ,(e)pla; English umberella for umbrella.
Gemination (Lat. geminatio, a doubling) is a
doubling of consonants, as Greek I<rxupp6s, 'strong/
beside Jcrxvpfo; Latin cuppa, 'tub/ beside cupa;
German Jlimmel, 'heaven/ beside Middle High
German himel. It is normally accompanied by
the shortening of a preceding long vowel. Hap-
lology (from Gk. &ir\6os, simple, and \6yos, word)
or liaplolaly (from Gk. dirX6os, simple, and XaXfa,
speech) is the suppression of one of two homo-
phonous syllables in a word, as Greek d/*0opeiJy,
'pitcher/ for *d/<i0i0opet5s; Latin semodius, 'half-
pock/ for *semwiodius; English dynometer, be-
side dynamometer. Hiatus (Lat., gap) is the
juxtaposition of two or more vowels without con-
traction, as Greek irpo&yw, 'I lead forth'; Latin
ea, *she/ Gothic aiduk, 'I increased/ from aukan.
Metathesis (Gk. /terdfecrc?, transposition) is the
transposition of letters in a word, one of the
most frequent of all the figures of etymology, as
Greek /cdpros, 'strength/ beside Kpdros; -xyr&v*
'tunic/ beside xMv\ Latin stemo, 'I strew/ be-
side the perfect stravi; lerigio, 'religion/ beside
reUgio; coacla, 'sewer/ beside cloaca; Italian
crape*, 'goat/ beside capra; grolia, 'glory/ beside
gloria. As will be seen from the examples
quoted, metathesis affects especially the liquids
r and I, but we also have such changes as San-
skrit sakaja, 'stupid/ Pali kasata; Sanskrit fay-
ana, 'bed/ Singhalese yahana. Paragoge (Gk.
Ttapayuyh, addition) is the addition of one or
more inorganic letters to the end of a word.
In Greek the so-called 'mi movable' (Greek vv
i<t>e\icvffruc6v} , which is added especially to words
ending in -<n, and to verbs with the third person
in -e before vowels (as irdo-i SiStaffL ravra, 'he
gives these to all/ but irSuriv ZSUKW teelm, 'he
gave those to all'), perhaps may be placed here
superficially. An English example is the para-
gogic r in such words as lau>r. This phenomenon
is usually caused by the desire to avoid a hiatus,
but is often etymologically justified, as in the
cose of the French 0-MZ, 'has he?' beai^e il a,

'he has' (folk Latin habet-ille, beside ille habet).
Prothesis (Gk. 7rp60e<ris, a placing before) is the
prefixing of an inorganic sound to a word, as
Greek epv8p6s, 'red/ but Latin ruber; Armenian
erek, 'evening/ but Sanskrit rajas; Sanskrit
uldka, 'world/ beside I6ka; Avesta acSma,
'wrath/ but Persian Mm; Latin status, state,
but Spanish estado, Old French estat, French
ttat; Cockney English Hi for I. Simplification
(from Lat. simpler, simple, and facere, to make)
is the reverse of gemination, treated above, and
consists in the substitution of a single conso-
nant for a repeated or double one, as Greek
MTOS, 'middle/ beside nfoffos; Latin vacilo, 'I
waver/ beside vacillo; Old High German doufene,
'to dip/ beside doufenne. Syncope (Gk. ffvyKoir-fi,
abbreviation) is the omission of a letter or syl-
lable from the interior of a word, as Greek
ira,Tp6s, 'of a father/ beside warfyos ; Latin prccbeo,
'I offer/ for *prcehibeo, *prcehabeo; Provencal
anma, 'soul/ from Latin airimaj Sanskrit la $una,
'onion/ but Singhalese lunu; Anglo-Saxon nolde,
'would not/ for *ne wolde (cf. English mlly-
willy] i English wondious beside iconderous.
Syncretism is the tendency towards a reduction
of the number of case or tense forms. Thus the
Indo-Germanic Locative, Instrumental, and Ab-
lative cases have become united into the Abla-
tive Case in Latin; the relations expressed by
the same cases in Indo-Germanic, including the
Dative, have become confused into the Dative in
the early Germanic. Tmesis (Gk. T/w/o-ts, divi-
sion) is the separation of the parts of a word,
especially a compound, by another word. This
is properly only an apparent figure. It had its
origin in verbs compounded with prepositions,
and as prepositions are originally stereotyped
case-forms of nouns used adverbially (see PBEPO-
SITIONS), the union was at first only a very
loose one, as in English overbear beside bear over.
As examples may be cited Greek eirl /ev^as
•fl\0<-v, 'darkness came on/ for jcve^as &n?X0ev;
Latin s«Z> vos placo, 'I implore you/ for supplico
vos; and such a monstrosity as cere-comminuit-
brum, 'he dashed out his brains/ for cerebrum
comminuit. In German this tmesis is subject to
regular laws, as er fiihrte seinen Entscliluss aus,
'he carried out his resolution/ but icli sagte, dass
er seinen Entschluss ausfuhrte, 'I said that he
carried out his resolution.' Finally, Umlaut or
MetapLony, taking place principally in English
and German, indicates the mutations undergone
by a vowel, a, ef o, u, when immediately followed
by a syllable which contains an *, or the semi-
vowel /, under the influence of which it acquired
a slight t- sound, and altered accordingly. Thus
German mann but m&miliohj erde, irdisch;
buch, bucher; English man, men; brother,
brethren; goose, geese; foot, feet. As the an-
tiquity of the terms implies, the majority of the
figures of etymology were known to the classical
grammarians, although the full explanation of
them has been rendered possible only by the de-
velopment of comparative linguistics (see PHI-
LOLOGY), especially of that branch of it which
deals with etymology (q.v.).

ETZEL, et'sel. See ATTILA.

ETJ, 3 (ML. Auga, Augium). A town in the
Department of Seine-Inferieure, France, near the
mouth of the Bresle, 93 miles north-northwest of
Paris (Map: France, N., G 2). It is remarkable
for the fine twelfth-century Gothic church of
Saint-Laurent and for the Chateau d'Eu, a low
seventeenth-century building of red brick, with
high, tent-shaped roofs of slate, Louis Philippe

ETT

150

ETTBTJLTTS

expended large sums on the embellishment of
the chateau, its magnificent park and unique
portrait gallery. A large part of the chateau
\vas destroyed by fire in 1902. The harbor of
Ku connects through its own canal with the
,ea harbor of Le Tre*port. Eu manufactures
furniture, leather, sail cloth, ropes, soap, lace,
and silk. Pop. (commune), 1901, 5398; 1911,
3G51.

ETJ, PEINCE Louis PHILIPPE MABIE FERDI-
NAND GASTON D' OBLEANS, COMTE D' (1842-
1022). A Brazilian soldier. He was born in
France, the eldest son of the Due de Nemours
and the grandson of Louis Philippe. In 1864
lie was married to Isabel, heiress apparent to
the throne of Brazil. He was a marshal in the
Brazilian army and was commander in chief
of the allied forces in the war with Paraguay,
which he brought to a successful termination
in 1870. During Emperor Dom Pedro's long
visits to Europe the Comte d'Eu had the direc-
tion of Brazilian affairs, but he became very
unpopular, owing to his ultraclerical views, and,
after the proclamation of the Republic in 1889,
retired to France.

ETTA, a-oo'a, or EOA. One of the Tonga
(q.v.) or Friendly Islands, about 10 miles south-
east of Tongatabu, in lat. 21° 25' S., and long.
174° 50' W. It is about 10% miles long by 3
miles wide. Its surface is rugged; the highest
elevation reaches an altitude of 1078 feet. Area,
67 square miles. Pop., 350.

ETTAJPTHIUS. A Roman grammarian, who
died at Constantinople in 358 A.D. He wrote a
commentary on Terence which Donatus used
in his own commentary on Terence. Euan-
thius' treatise De ffabula appears, apparently in
full, in Donatus' work. Consult Wessner, Mli
Donati . . . Commentum Terenti, vol. i (Leip-
zig, 1902).

ETTBCE'A, MG7c. pron. ev'vl-fi. (Lat., from Gk.
Etf/9cua, Euloia,, rich in cattle, from etf, eu, well
+ /Sous, loiis, ox, cow; unofficial modern Gk. and
Turk. Egripoj It. Negroponte) . A long, narrow
island of Greece, stretching along the northeast
coast of Locris, Boeotia, and Attica, from which
it is separated by a narrow channel. The north-
western part of this is the Channel of Atalante
(the Euboean Sea of the ancients), at one point
less than 2 miles in width. At Chalcis the
island is separated from the mainland by a very
narrow strait, called the Euripus, but a few
rods in breadth. At the north the Channel
of Trikeri separates Eubroa from Thessaly, of
whose eastern mountains, Ossa and Pelion, the
Eubosan Range is a continuation. The extreme
length of the island is about 100 miles; its
breadth varies from 30 miles to about 4. Its
area is 1438 square miles. The island is inter-
sected by a chain of mountains running north-
west and southeast, and attaining in the centre,
in the range of Mount Delphi ( Gk. A^TJ, ancient
&t<ppvs), an elevation of about 5725 feet. In an-
cient times copper and iron were mined in the
island, and Carystus was the source for the
green and white Cipollino marble, much used in
ancient Rome. The mountains are still well
wooded, and in the north are hot sulphur
springs, much sought in ancient and modern
times for their medicinal qualities. There is
an abundance of good pasturage, and the val-
leys on the west coast are fertile, especially the
famous Lclantian Plain, between Chalcis and
Eretria; for this plain the two cities long
fought. The chief products are oil, wheat,

fruit, and honey. The inhabitants are chiefly
engaged in cattle breeding; they export wool,
hides, cheese, oil, and grain. The chief towns
are Chalcis (q.v.) on the Euripus and Carystus
on the south coast. Greek tradition told of
Abantes and Dry opes, immigrants from the
mainland of Greece, as the earliest inhabitants.
Later lonians from Attica founded the ancient
cities of Chalcis and Eretria, which sent colo-
nies to Italy, Sicily (see CUM^E; NAXOS; REGGIO
DE CALAJQEIA: this town was founded from
Cumse, via MESSINA), and especially to Chalcid-
ice, on the coast of Thrace. (See also ARTE-
MISIUM.) In 506 B.C. Chalcis was conquered by
the Athenians, and after the Persian wars the
whole island came under their control. (For
Euboaa and the Persian Wars, see ERETRTA;
GBEECE, History, Ancient History.) After the
Peloponesian War Euboea became independent
and was the scene of intrigues and fighting
between the Athenian, Theban, and Macedonian
parties, until the battle of Chspronea (338 B.C.)
brought it under the power of Macedon. Under
the Romans it had a nominal independence
from 194 to HG B.C., when it became part of
the Province of Macedonia. The conquest of
Constantinople by the Crusaders in 1204 A.D.
brought the seaports under the rule of the Vene-
tians, who after many petty wars became mas-
ters of the whole island in 1366; during Vene-
tian rule the island was highly prosperous. It
was taken by the Turks in 1470 and remained
in their possession until the Greek Revolution.
In 1830 it was made part of the new Greek
state, of which it now forms, with some minor
islands, a nomarchy. Area of nomarchy, 1621
square miles; pop. (1907), 116,003. Consult:
Baumeister, TopograpMsche Skivze dcr Jnsel
Euboia, (Liibeck, 1864) ; Bursian, GcograpJiie
von Griechenland, vol. ii (Leipzig, 1873) ;
Geyer, Typographic und Gcschichte dcr Insel
Euboia (Berlin, 1903); Baedeker's HandlooJc of
Greece (4th En#. ed., Leipzig, 1009).

ETTBTTLIDES, u-bull-dez (Lat., from Gk.
Ei>pov\i8i]s3 flubouUdCs), OF MILETUS. A Greek
philosopher of the Mcgarian school in the fourth
century n.o. He is credited with the invention
of several of the most false and captious syl-
logisms of his school. He was an opponent 'of
Aristotle, whose writings he repeatedly cen-
sured, and whose character he calumniated.
Demosthenes is said to have studied dialectics
under him. See MEGABA; EUCLID OF MEGARA.

EtrBtPTiITTS. See METHODIUS.

EUBtFLTTS (Lat., from Gk. Ety3ov\os, Eubou-
los). An Athenian orator and statesman, con-
temporary and opponent of Demosthenes. He
was of the peace party in Athens and became
administrator of the city finances. He was
succeeded in this office by Lycurgus. Eubulus
was the friend of JUschines (q.v.) and was
concerned in all the events of interest during
the middle of the fourth century. At first he
opposed the Macedonians, but later, won over
by Philip, he became a warm supporter of the
Macedonian cause. Consult: Beloch, Griechische
Geschichte, vol. ii (Strassburg, 1897) ; Good-
win's edition of Demosthenes' De Corona (Cam-
bridge, 1901) ; Francotte, Les finances des rite's
grecques (Liege, 1910).

EtTBtTLITS. A Greek poet of the Middle
Comedy, who flourished about 375 B.C. He is
said to have written 104 plays, mainly on myth-
ological subjects. Some of his works parodied
the early tragedies, particularly those of Eurip-

EUCAIHE— B Xj

ides. Fifty titles and the extant fragments of
his plays are collected in Meineke, Fragmenta
Comicorum Qrcecorum (Berlin, 1839-57), and
in Kock, Oomicorum Attioorum Fragmenta, vol.
ii (Leipzig, 1884).

EU'CAIMTE— B, QuHjttNOa, is a proprietary,
unofficial analogue of cocaine, much less toxic,
and used in the eye, on mucous surfaces or hypo-
dermically as a local anaesthetic. In the form
of Beta-eucaine-lactate the drug is more soluble
and has the same action. It is also used for
intraspinal anaesthesia.

EU'CALYPTOC'RINUS. An aberrant genus
of fossil Crinoidea, especially remarkable for
the fact that the 20 arms rest in deep vertical
compartments which are formed by 10 parti-
tions attached to the outer walls of the tegmen
and supported by the interbrachials and inter-
distichals. The genus is found in the Silurian
beds of Scotland and England and the Niag-
ara group of North America.

EU'CALYP'TUS (Neo-Lat., from Gk. rf, eu,
well + KaKvirrds, kalyptosf covered, from Ka\tir-
rew, Italy pi Gin, to cover). A genus of trees and
shrubs of the family Myrtacese, embracing about
150 species, all natives of Australia and Tas-
mania except four or five, which are found from
the Malay Peninsula southward through the
East Indies. The trees, of striking appearance,
arc quite characteristic of the Australian for-
ests. They have entire, leathery leaves that
contain considerable volatile oil. Upon the
young shoots of many species the leaves are
opposite and have their upper and lower sur-
faces disposed as in ordinary plants.

On the older twigs the leaves are arranged
alternately upon the stem; each leaf is unsym-
metrical with respect to its median vein and is
so placed on the stem as to present its edge
towards the sun — a protective device to pre-
vent excessive transpiration in the hot climate
in which the trees abound. Eucalyptus trees
are among the most valuable plants of the
Australian forests. Their timber is so varied
as to meet almost every requirement, some
kinds surpassing most timbers in their great
utility. On some species is noted the occur-
rence of considerable quantities of manna, a
hard, brittle, sweet substance containing a form
of sugar known as melitose. Many species yield
a kind of kino, an astringent resin, which is
used in medicine and various manufactures.
Tannin is a product of the bark of others, and
from the leaves an oil is distilled that has
many pharmaceutical and other uses, while from
still others, called "stringy barks/' are obtained
fibers used for cordage, paper manufacture, and
thatch for buildings. Eucalyptus trees have
attained a more or less deserved reputation for
planting in malarial districts. They are rapid-
growing and present a large leaf surface through
which enormous quantities of water are given off
to the air. It is probable that their beneficial
action is to be attributed to thoir drying the
soil in this way rather than to any volatile
substances given off by the leaves. Whatever
their action, these trees have been advanta-
geously introduced into the Roman Campagna,
Cape of Good Hope, the lake region of Algiers,
and elsewhere, in regions formerly noted for
the presence of malaria. The species first
planted with this object in view was Eucalyp-
tus globulus (for illustration, see Plate of EDEL-
WEISS), but Eucalyptus rolusta and Eucalyptus
urnigera are said to be better adapted to this

|i EUCALYPTUS

purpose. Among the more conspicuous of the
many timber trees belonging to this genus is
the Jarrah wood (Eucalyptus marginal). This
tree often attains a height of 80 feet without
lateral branches, and with a diameter at the
base of 5 feet. The timber is heavy, very hard,
and is especially adapted to wharf, ship, and
other marine uses, it being rated very highly
on account of its resistance to the attacks of
the shipworm and other borers. Its immunity
is believed to be due to the large amount of
astringent resin in the timber rather than to
the hardness of the wood. Eucalyptus amygda-
hna is perhaps the largest, or at least the tall-
est, tree known. Trees 400 feet tall are reported
as rather frequent, and one measured in south-
east Australia was 471 feet in height. Another
had a diameter of over 20 feet at the base,
which was considerably buttressed, 12 feet at
13 feet from the ground, and 5 feet at a height
of 210 feet. The timber of this species is ex-
tensively used in carpentry, as it is easily
worked and does not warp readily. The tree
is of rapid growth; specimens in southern
France attained a height of 50 feet in eight
years. The blue gum (Eucalyptus globuhis) is
a tree of rapid growth, attaining a height
of 350 feet, and furnishes timber equal to the
best oak or ash. It is extensively used for out- .
door carpentry, telegraph poles, railway ties,
etc. The Karri-Eucalypt (Eucalyptus dlve^si-
color] has been described as the king of the
Australian forests, and it certainly is the giant
tree of the southwestern part of the continent.
It is a graceful and grandly handsome vegetable
production, of a growth of exceeding straight-
ness, towering skywards, so that a forest of
them looks like avenues of gigantic candles.
On the Warren River the Karri gums attain an
extreme height of 300 feet, with over 180 feet
to the first limb, and arc from 20 feet to 30
feet in circumference at the base. Locally it is
known also as the white gum from its appear-
ance. The leaves of Eucalyptus globulus arc
extensively used for the oil they contain. It
is obtained by distillation, is a valuable anti-
septic, has a peculiar camphor-like odor, and
is extensively used in medicine and various
arts. The principal constituent of the oil is
eucalyptol, which is used as a diuretic, stimu-
lant, and antiseptic, being administered in cer-
tain forms of intermittent fevers and in the
dressing of wounds.

On account of their rapid growth and value
for many purposes in Australia, numerous at-
tempts have been made to introduce many of
the species of Eucalyptus into California, Ari-
zona, Florida, and elsewhere. Some of the
species that are most highly prized in Austra-
lia have proved failures in California, for va-
rious reasons. The more important species for
commercial planting in California are said to
be the blue gum (Eucalyptus globulus), the
sugar gum (Eucalyptus corynocalyx) , the gray
gum (Eucalyptus teretioorwis) , and the red gum
(Eucalyptus rostrata). In Arizona most of
these species have proved satisfactory when
planted in the lower valleys, and in addition
the desert gum (Eucalyptus rudis), the nar-
row-leaved ironbark (Eucalyptus crelra), and
the red box (Eucalyptus pclyanthcma) have
been found more resistant to cold and arid
conditions than other species tested. In Flor-
ida, while specimen trees of a number of .species
are common southward from the central part

EUCHARIST

152

EUCHRE

of the State, their value for commercial plant-
ing has not been determined.

Botany Bay Kino, a secretion of many of the
species of Eucalyptus, is used in medicine as a
substitute for kino (q.v.). It is a resin having
astringent and tonic properties. Eucalyptus
resinifera was formerly considered the species
which produced this substance, but a number of
other species are believed to yield kino in even
greater quantity. When the bark is wounded,
a red sap flows freely and hardens in the air
into irregular, inodorous, nearly black masses.
It is also found in cavities in the trunks of the
trees, is commonly called red gum, and is used
as a constituent in lozenges for affections of the
throat. In small, thin fragments it is of a ruby-
red color. It is said to contain eucalyptin, a
substance analogous to tannin. From a single
tree as much as 500 pounds of kino may be ob-
tained in a season. Eucalyptus citriodora is
frequently grown in pots in hothouses for its
lemon-scented leaves. The oil obtained by the
distillation of the leaves of this species is used
in perfumery.

For extended accounts of the various species
of Eucalyptus and their uses, see J. H. Maiden,
Native Useful Plants of Australia, and The De-
scriptive Atlas of the late Baron F. von Mueller,
-who has contributed more to the knowledge of
Eucalyptus than any other person. For the
status of the Eucalypts in the United States,
consult: Arizona Station Bulletin 60; California
Experiment Station Bulletin 196; U. 8. Dept. of
Agriculture, Forest Service Bulletins S5, 87.
ETJ'CHARIST. See LORD'S SUPPER.
ETTCHLO'KJHE (from Gk. e$, eu, well +
X\wp6s, chlGros, greenish yellow). A bright-yel-
low gas that is generated when potassium chlo-
rate is treated with hydrochloric acid. It was
first prepared by Sir Humphry Davy, who be-
lieved it to be a new oxide of chlorine, but
later investigations have shown it to be a mix-
ture of free chlorine and chlorine peroxide in
varying proportions. It is a more powerful
oxidizing agent than chlorine itself and is used
for bleaching purposes and as a disinfectant.

ETTCHRE, fi/kSr (apparently from Ger. Juchs,
joke, from the "joker" in the pack, from MHG.
juoh, ju9 an exclamation of joy). A game of
cards said to be of German origin, but now very
popular in the United States. Usually 32 cards
are used, the twos, threes, fours, fives, and
sixes being rejected, but sometimes sevens and
eights are also thrown out. Before the game is
started the players cut for deal, after which
the cards are cut by the person at the right
of the dealer. Five cards are dealt to each
player, by two at a time, and three at a time,
or vice versa. The dealer turns up the top
of the undealt cards for trumps. In suits not
trumps the cards rank as at whist, from ace
down; in the trump suit the knave (termed
the right bower) is the highest trump, and
the other knave of the same color, either black
or red (termed the left bower), is the next
highest, this card being, of course, omitted from
the suit to which it would otherwise belong.
The game is most enjoyable when played by
four persons ; but two, three, or even more than
four persons may play, if the rules be adapted
accordingly. In two-handed euchre the non-
dealer looks at his hand and decides whether
he will play it. If he be satisfied and think
he can make three tricks, he "orders it up/'
The dealer then discards his lowest and least

useful card, and takes the trump card into his
hand; in this case, however, the dealer must
succeed in taking three tricks, or he is
''euchred," and his opponent scores two points.
If the nondcaler be not satisfied with his hand,
he says "pass." The dealer then has the option
of taking up the trump as before, or of passing
also. If the trump be ordered up or taken up,
the play of the hand commences ; if both players
pass, the dealer places the trump card face up-
ward underneath the pack, called "turning it
down." The nondealer has then the privilege
of naming the suit which shall be trumps, which
must be another than that previously turned
up. If he "make" a trump, he must succeed
in taking three tricks or he is euchred; but
if he pass it again, the dealer has the option
of making it. If both pass a second time, the
hand is thrown up, and the other player deals.
When the card turned up is red, and the
trump is made red, it is called "making it
next"; the same with black. If the trump be
made a different color from the turn up, it is
called "crossing the suit." If the hand be
played, the nondealer leads; the dealer plays
to the card led. He must follow suit if able,
otherwise he may play any card he pleases.
The highest card of the suit led wins the trick;
trumps win other suits. The winner of the
trick leads to the next. If a player make all
five tricks, he scores a "march," equal to two
points; if he make three or four tricks, he
scores one point.

In three-handed euchre the option of playing
or passing goes to each in rotation, beginning
with the player to the dealer's left. The player
who orders up, takes up, or makes the trump,
plays against the other two, and if they succeed
in euchring him, each of them scores two points.
This is often termed "cut-throat euchre," be-
cause any one of the three players is liable to
be opposed by the other two.

Four-handed euchre is generally played with
partners, who are cut for and sit opposite each
other as at whist; if a player have a strong
hand, he can decide to "play alone" single-
handed against the two adversaries, and his
partner cannot object; a player cannot order
up his partner's trump unless he plays alone.
Should the lone player succeed in making a
march, he scores four; if he win three or four
tricks, he scores one; if he fail to win three
tricks, the opponent scores two. Sometimes, as
in railroad euchre, a blank card called "little
joker" or "the joker" is added, and is the high-
est card in the pack, the bowers following;
sometimes it is agreed upon to allow the player
who makes more than five points to carry the
surplus (called a lap) to the next game; or to
allow a "lone" player to call for his partner's
best card. In French euchre only 24 cards are
used, all below the nines being discarded.
Another French variety called "Napoleon" has
been very popular in England in recent years.
After the deal the players are called upon in
rotation to decla're how many tricks they can
take, the dealer last unless some other player
shall have declared he can take the whole five
tricks; if he does not, he is euchred; if he does,
he collects double chips from each player; if less
than five tricks is the highest bid, and he wins
the number he declares, he collects single chips
from each player.

Progressive Euchre. A popular form of the
game, in which a large number of players take

EUCALYPTUS

1 ><, '.-

^•f*r*.

Vr^^^v^.^

^M » .'*•!* '* ^ '

!; •%"
"^%-»

. ^

1, THE BLUE GUM (Eucalyptus globulus) showing its 2. AN AVENUE OF EUCALYPTUS TREES,

habit when growing ston». *

EtTCKEN

IS3

EUCLID

part, the players being seated at tables num-
bered consecutively from one upward to as many
as may be necessary. The players being seated,
four at each table, the games begin according to
the regular four-handed game. No. 1 is the head
or king table, and the players seated at this
govern the game as far as time is concerned.
The signal is given by ringing a bell at the head
table. Lone hands only count two points at this
table. If there is a tie at any of the other
tables, the winner is decided by cutting the cards
or dealing another hand. The progression con-
sists of the winners moving from a lower table
to the next higher, the losers remaining in their
seats. The game continues to revolve in this
fashion until the time fixed for the limit of the
game. Each player keeps tally of the games
won or lost individually. These games are then
summed up. To the two who have won the most
games the first prize is awarded.

ETTCKEN, oik'en, RUDOLF CHBISTOPII (1840-
1920). A German philosopher* He was born at
Aurich, East Friesland, and studied philology,
history, and philosophy at Go'ttingen and Berlin.
He was professor of philosophy at Basel from
1871 to 1874 and thereafter held the correspond-
ing chair in the University of Jena. He became
one of the leaders of the revolt in Germany
against the tendency to treat man and life from
the point of view solely of the physical and
biological sciences, and emphasized the spiritual
interests. His inspirational style has made him
very popular among a wide circle of readers.
He was awarded the Nobel prize for literature
in 1908 and received honorary degrees from
various foreign and American universities. In
1912-13 he was an exchange professor at Har-
vard University and in 1914 at the universities
of Tokio and Kioto, Japan. His works include:
GeschioJite und KritiJc der Qrundbegriffe der
Gegemcart (1878; 2d ed., 1893; Eng. trans., The
Fundamental Concepts of Modern Philosophic
Thought, 1880) ; Bdtrage sur Oesohichte der
neuern PMlosophiet vornehmlich der deutschen
(188C) ; Die PJiilosophie des Thomas von Aquino
und die Kultus der Neuzeit (1886) ; Die Einheit
des Geisteslebens (1888; Eng. trans., The Life of
the Spirit , 1909) ; Die Lebcnsanscliauiingen der
grossen Denker (1890; 3d ed., 1899; Eng. trans.,
The Problem of Human Life as Viewed ly the
Great TMnkers (1910); Der Kampf an eincn
geistigen Leben,sinhalt (1896); Qeistige 8tro-
mungen der Oegenwart (3d ed., 1904; Eng.
trans., Main Currents of Modern Thought,
1912); Orundlinien einer neuen Lebensanschau-
ung (1907; Eng. trans., Life's Basis and Life's
Ideal, 2d ed., 1912) ; Religion and Life (1911) ;
Can we Still be Christians f (1914). His Col-
lected Essays were translated and edited by
Meyrick Booth (London, 1914). Among his
articles which have been translated into English
are the following: "Liberty in Teaching in the
German Universities" (1897); "Are the Ger-
mans still a Nation of Thinkers?" (1898);
"Progress of Philosophy in the Nineteenth Cen-
tury" (1899); "The Finnish Question" (1899);
"The Philosophy of Friedrich Frocbel" (1900);
"The Present Status of Religion in Germany"
(1901). Consult: PcJhlmann, R. Euokens The-
ologie wit ihren philosopMschen Grundlagen
(Berlin, 1902) ; Siebert, ft. Euckens Weld und
Lebensansohauung (Langensalza, 1904) ; Gibson,
Rudolf Eucken's Philosophy of Life (New York,
1907).
ETT'CIiASE (from Ok. eif, eu, well 4- K\<£<TIS,

klasis, break, from K\av, klan, to break) . An alu-
minium and glucinum silicate that crystallizes
in the monoclinic system. It is a transparent,
pale-green, sometimes blue, mineral, found
chiefly in schistose rocks in Brazil, especially at
Villa Rica, and also in the southern UraL Its
great hardness and its capacity for taking a
polish make it of value as a gem stone, but its
rarity prevents its extensive use. It is also
called prismatic emerald.

EUCLID, uldld (Gk. Etf/cXei'fys, Eukleides).
The most famous of the Greek writers on geom-
etry. He flourished at Alexandria, but nothing
is known of his life except that Proclus tells us
that he lived in the time of Ptolemy I (who
reigned 306-283 B.C.). It is probable that the
period of his greatest activity was in the neigh-
borhood of 300 B.C. His fame was so great
among the Greeks that he was called 6 o-Totxe-iw-nfa,
'the author of the Elements,' and even to-day the
name Euclid is synonymous with elementary ge-
ometry. His Sro«x«a» or 'Elements,* were well
known to the Arabs, a portion having been trans-
lated in the time of Harun-al-Rashid, a second
(complete) translation being made under Al-Ma-
mun, and other translations appearing later. It
was translated from Arabic into Latin by Adelard
of Bath ( c.l 120) , from a copy obtained in Spain;
and tli is translation, or this one revised by Gio-
vanni Campano (1260), was printed in 1482 at
Venice. It was also translated, at least in part}
by other scholars of the twelfth century. Who it
was who first translated the work from the Arabic
is, however, quite unknown. There is internal
evidence to load to the belief that Plato of Tivoli,
Adelard, and Campano all had access to a com-
mon translation. Billingsley's translation from
the Latin into English appeared in 1570. The ex-
tant works unquestionably ascribed to Euclid are :
the Elements (Dro^x^a) ; the Data (AedofjtAva] ;
ihePhenotnena(&aiv6fjieva) ; the Optics ('OirriKd) ;
the Reflections CKaroirTpucA) ; the Division oj the
Scale (Kararofji^ K&VGVQS), and a work, De DM-
sionibus, known only through the Arabic. The
best editions of Euclid's works are: Heath, The
Thirteen Books of Eucliffs Elements (3 vols.,
Cambridge, 1908) ; Peyrard, Les owvres d3 Euclid
en grcc, en latin et en frangais (3 vols., Paris,
1814-18) ; Heiberg and Menge, Opera Omnia (7
vols., Leipzig, 1883-96). One of the best biog-
raphies of Euclid is that by De Morgan, in
Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biog-
raphy (under Eucleides). Consult also Gow,
History of Greek Mathematics (Cambridge,
1884), and the authorities referred to under
MATHEMATICS.

EUCLID, or ETJCLPDES, OF MEGABA (Gk.
Eti/cXe^s, Eucleides). A native of Megara (fifth
century B.C.), founder of the Megarian school of
philosophy. He was early influenced, apparently,
by the works of Parmenides (q.v.), from whom
he learned not only philosophy, but the art of
disputation. The fame of Socrates attracted
him to Athens, where he became a devoted fol-
lower of the great teacher (consult Aulus Gel-
lius, 7, 10). He established a school of his own
at Megara, the teaching of which was distin-
guished by its combination, of Socratic and
Eleatic principles. (See SOCEATES; ELEATIC
SCHOOL.) To Euclid, as to Socrates, virtue was
knowledge. Euclid held to the unity of Being,
as taught by Parmenides. This self-identical
Being, he taught, is the only reality and consti-
tutes the good; it is not sensuous but intellec-
tual being, i.e., reason, truth, which is for man

154

EUDOCIA

the Mtmrnum bonum. After Socrates' death
(399 B.C.) Plato and other disciples attached
themselves for a time to the Megarian School.
From Euclid Plato probably got the germs of his
doctrine of ideas (etfy), a technical term, which
Euclid introduced into philosophy. Euclid de-
voted himself especially to dialectics or logic.
In antiquity six dialogues were current under
Euclid's name, but their authenticity was
doubted; of these nothing but the titles has sur-
vived. See EUBUUDES.

Consult: Deychs, De Megaricorum Doctrina,
etc. (Bonn, 1827) ; Mallet, Histoire de Vecole do
Mt-yare (Paris, 1845); Hartenstein, "Ueber die
Bedeutung der Megarischen Schule/' in his ffis-
torisch-philosophische Abhandlungen (Leipzig,
1S70) ; Patter and Prcllcr, Histotia Philosophies
Greece (9th ed., Gotha, 1913) ; Zeller, Philoso-
phic dec Griechen, ii (Leipzig, 1889) ; Ueberweg,
History of Philosophy, trans., vol. i (New York,
1872) ; Gomperz, Greek Thinkers, vol. ii (ib.,
1005); \Vindelljand-Bonlie5ffer, GescMchte der
antiken Philosophic (Munich, 1912); Burnet,
Greek Philosophy, Part I (London, 1914).

ETJD^'MOlsriSM (Gk. e^daifjioviar^s, eudai-
womsmos, thinking one happy, from etf, eu, well
-f SalfLtav, dawioti, genius, spirit). The Aristo-
telian view that the chief end of human life is
happiness, and that happiness is not pleasure,
but an activity desirable not as a means to some
further end, but for its own sake. What this
activity is, is discoverable, according to Aris-
totle, by ascertaining what the distinctive func-
tion, of man is. The distinctive function of man
is an activity of the soul in accordance with
reason. Hence human happiness is the activity
of soul in accordance with virtue, virtue being
the mean between excess and defect as deter-
mined by reason. Pleasure is an essential ele-
ment in such a life, for "pleasure and life are
yoked together and dfo not admit of separa-
tion, as pleasure is impossible without activity
and activity is perfected by pleasure." See EN-
EBOISM.

EtTDEOinrS (Lat.T from Gk. EtfStyuos), off
RHODES. A Greek philosopher. He was a dis-
ciple and friend of Aristotle (q.v.). He com-
posed a number of works defending the doctrine
of his master and is probably the author of the
Eudemian Ethics, published with Aristotle's
writings, and in large part a reproduction of
Aristotle's own work, the so-called Nicomachean
Ethics. Eudeinus also wrote, among other
books, a history of mathematics and astronomy,
which, however, is not extant. A summary of it
appears, however, in a commentary on Euclid
the mathematician written by Proclus (c.410-
48(5 Aj).), and numerous extracts are found in
the works of later writers. Spengel collected the
fragments of these works that still exist (1866;
2d ed., 1870). Mullach also published them in
his Fragmenta Philosophorum Grcecorum, vol.
iii (1881). Consult also Gow, History of Greek
Mathematics (Cambridge, 1884), and Ueberweg-
Prilchter, Grundriss der Gesohichte der Phi-
losophie (10th ed.).
ETJDES. See ODO.

EUDES, §d (also called EUDON, EUDO, and
ODO), DUKE OF AQUITAINE (?-735 A.D.). He
was independent ruler of southern France from
the river Loire to the Pyrenees. In 721 he
signally defeated the Arabs under Es-Samah,
who had besieged his capital of Toulouse. A
treaty with Austrasia was broken in 731, and
Charles Martel began to harass northern Aqui-

taine. At this juncture the Arabs, commanded
by Abd-er-Rahman, reinvaded France. Eudes
appealed to Charles, and a joint army, directed
by the latter, won the decisive victory of Tours
(732, known in French history as the battle of
Poitiers ) . Consult Vic and Vaissctte, Histoire
generate de Langucdoc (new ed., 10 vols., Tou-
louse, 1872-1904).

ETTDES, gd, JEAX, VENERABLE ( 1601-80 ) . The
founder of the Eoman Catholic congregation of
the Eudists. He was born at Hi, France, Nov.
14, 1G01, educated at the Jesuit College at Caen,
entered the Congregation of the Oratory in
Paris (1G23), was ordained priest (1625), rose
to be. the superior of the Oratory at Caen
(1639), and then founded in 1G43 the Congre-
gation of the Mission Priests of Jesus and
Mary for the purpose of giving instruction to
priests in practical and missionary work. The
members are called, commonly, Eudists. They
resemble the Oratorians in that they are all
priests, take no vows, and are at liberty to
leave the congregation when they please. They
are under episcopal jurisdiction. Their rule
was approved by the Pope in 1674. They met
the rivalry and jealousy of the Oratorians, and
the more since the latter were more or k-ss
affected by Jansenism, which the Eudists re-
sisted. Seminaries were opened in various
places before the death of Eudes at Caen, Aug.
19, 1680. The congregation was in groat favor
under Louis XVI, fell in the confusion of the
time and was dissolved in 1794, but was re-
organized in 1826. The "Law of Associations"
suppressed the houses of the congregation in
France. In Canada in 1914 they had 15 es-
tablishments and about 150 priests. In 1641
Eudes founded the Order of Daughters of Our
Lady of Charity of the Hefuge, for the rescue
and restoration of fallen women, which under
slightly different names still exists. In 1903
Leo XIII bestowed on him the title "Author
of the liturgical worship of the Sacred Heart
of Jesus and the Holy Heart of Mary." The
miracles proposed for liis beatification wore ap-
proved in 1908. Consult Montzcy, Le pcre Eudes
et ses institute (Paris, 1809).

ETTDIOM'ETER (from Gk. etfSios, eitdios,
clear weather + n&pov, metron, measure). A
graduated glass tube used in the analysis of
gases. Joseph Priestley used such an apparatus
to determine the quantity of oxygon in atmos-
pheric air; and hence the name, which signifies
"measure of purity." A eudiometer may be
either straight, U or V shaped. Near its sealed
end it may be provided with platinum electrodes
fused into the glass; by means of these, gases
may be caused to combine in the tube under the
influence of electric sparks, and then the change
of volume caused by the reaction is directly
shown by the eudiometer.

EUDO'CIA (Lat., from Gk. EtfSo/cfo, Eudo-
kia) . The name of several Byzantine princesses,
of whom the most important, known at first as
Athenais, was later the wife of the Emperor
Theodosius II. She was born about 393, the
daughter of the sophist Leontius, or Leon, and
was educated by her father, especially in rhet-
oric and literature. Her accomplishments and
her singular beauty were reckoned by Leontius
a sufficient fortune, for at his death ho left all
his property to her two brothers. To get a
share of the property Eudocia appealed against
her brothers to the Emperor at Constantinople.
Pulcheria, the sister of Theodosius, was inter-

ETTDO DE STELLA

155

ETJGKENE

ested in the maiden and thought she would
make a suitable wife for the Emperor. She was
married to the Emperor in 421 A.D. For many
years, however, Pulcheria ruled in the Imperial
household and councils, Eudocia, according to
Nicephorus, "'submitting to her as mother and
Augusta"; but in 447 a quarrel broke out
between them in regard to the Eutychian heresy,
of which Eudocia had become a supporter.
(See EUTYCHES.) At first Eudocia was tri-
umphant, and Pulcheria was banished; but in a
short time the Emperor was reconciled to his
sister and treated Eudocia so harshly that she
retired to Jerusalem, where she died 460-61 A.D.
Her latter days were spent in works of piety
and charity. Through the influence of the
famous Simeon Stylites, she was induced to
renounce Eutychianism and become an orthodox
Catholic Christian. She wrote a poem in heroic
verse on the victory obtained by the troops of
Theodosius over the Persians, 421 or 422 A.D.; a
paraphrase of eight books of Scripture; a
paraphrase of Daniel and Zechariah; and a
poem in three books on the history and martyr-
dom of Cyprian and Justina. A work called
Homerocentones, composed of verses taken from
Homer, and so arranged as to give a history
of the fall of man and of his redemption by
Christ, has also (but without sufficient reason)
been attributed to her. Consult: Gregorovius,
AtJtcnnts (Leipzig, 1892) ; Ludwich, Eudodcc
A\i(just(D Garminum Reliquiae (Konigsberg,
1893); Cambridge Medieval History, vol. i
(New York, 1011).

EITDO DE STELLA. See EON.

EUDOX'IA FEODOBOVNA, fa'd-do-r&Vna
(1669-1731). A czarina of Russia. She was
the daughter of the Boyar Feodor Lopukhin,
and at the age of 19 was married to Peter the
Great, who was at that time 17. Her family
belonged to the Conservative party, and this fact
and her staid piety alienated Peter from her.
In 1698, apparently for refusing to agree to
a divorce, she was imprisoned in the convent
of SusdaL Upon the trial of her son Alexis
she was brought to Moscow (1718), and was
tried for adultery and forced to confess her
guilt; and upon the condemnation of Alexis
she was transferred to the monastery of Staraya
Lodoga, near Schlfisselburg. In 1728 the ac-
cession to the throne of her grandson, Peter II,
enabled her to return, to Moscow, where she died.

ETJDOXOTS (Lat, from Gk. EtfSofrs, Eu-
doxos) (c.408-355 B.C.). One of the most promi-
nent of the Greek mathematicians. He was
born in Cnidus, was a pupil of Archytas, who
was head of the Pythagorean school at Taren-
tum, and studied for a few months under Plato.
He founded a school at Cyzicus. Diogenes Laer-
tius speaks of him as an astronomer, physi-
cian, legislator, and geometer. It is thought
that Euclid, v, and xiii, 1-5, dealing with
proportion and the five regular polyhedra, is
largely due to him. He is said to have invented
a curve called the Iwow^ti (horse fetter), like
an 8 on its side.

ETTDOXTTS, OF CYZIOTTS. A Greek explorer,
who in the latter part of the second century
B.O. explored, for Ptolemy Euergetes, the Ara-
bian Sea. Later, working independently, he made
two voyages along the west coast of Africa.
Strabo made use of his discoveries. Consult
Bunbury, History of Ancient Geography, vol. ii
(London, 1879).

ETTFAU'LA. A city in Barbour Co., Ala.,
VOL. VIII.— 11

80 miles by rail east-southeast of Montgomery,
on the Chattahoochee River, and on the Central
of Georgia Railroad (Map: Alabama, D 4). It
is a shipping point of some importance and has
manufactures of cotton goods, cottonseed oil,
butfgiea, and fertilizers. The water works and
lighting plant are owned and operated by the
city. Pop., 1900, 4532; 1910, 4259.

ETJGA'WEAN' HILLS (named after the an-
cient Italic tribe of Eugaine) . A range of hills
in the "western part of the Province of Padua,
near Padua, north Italy (Map: Italy, F 2).
They are of volcanic formation and quite iso-
lated. The highest point, Monte Venda, has an
altitude of over 1900 feet. The range contains
a number of mineral springs and valuable stone
and marble quarries.

ETJGAinSL See EUGANEAN HILLS.

BUG-EN", oi-gan', FRIEDRICH: KARL, DUKE OF
WtiBTTEAEBERG (1788-1857). A Russian gen-
eral, born at Oels, Germany. His father's
sister was the wife of the Emperor Paul of
Russia. While still a child, he was created
major general. He participated in the campaign
of 1800-07 in Prussia and of 1810 in Turkey.
He was made lieutenant general after the battle
of Smolensk (Aug. 17, 1812) and distinguished
himself in the engagements at Borodino, Taru-
tino, Krasnoi, Ltttzen, Bautzen, Kulm, and Leip-
zig. He was commander of the Seventh Russian
Army Corps during the Russo-Turkish War of
1828 and retired from the service after the
Peace of Adrianople, devoting himself to study.
He composed some music, including Lieder,
symphonies, and an opera Die Geisterbraut,
which was produced in Breslau in 1830. His
principal works are Eriwnerungen aus detn
Feldsuge des Jahres 1812 in Rwssland (1846)
and Ulemoiren (1862), a volume of interesting
recollections.

EITGENE, il-jen'. A city and the county seat
of Lane Co., Oreg., 124 miles by rail south by
west of Portland, on the Willamette River, and
on the Southern Pacific, the Oregon Electric,
and the Portland, Eugene, and Eastern rail-
roads (Map: Oregon, B 3). The University of
Oregon, opened in 1876, and the Eugene Bible
University are situated here, and there is a
Carnegie library. The city is the commercial
centre for the fertile agricultural country of the
upper Willamette valley, which is noted for its
wealth of timber, and which also contains de-
posits of gold and silver. The industrial estab-
lishments include canneries, flouring, woolen,
saw, and planing mills, sash, door, furniture,
and excelsior factories, ironworks, and machine
shops, tanneries, brickyards, etc. Under a charter
of 1893 the government is vested in a may1'-,
elected biennially, and a municipal council. Eu-
gene was first settled in 1854 and was incorpo-
rated 10 years later. It owns its water works
and electric-light plant. Pop., 1900, 3236; 1910,
9009; 1914 (U. S. est.), 12,083; 1920, 10,593.

ETTG-SlNE, 3'zhan', FBANQOIS (1663-1736). A
celebrated Austrian general, best known as
Prince Eugene of Savoy, his full name being
Frangois-Eugene de Savoie-Carignan. He was
the son of Eugene Maurice, Count of Soissons
and of Olympia Mancini, a niece of Cardinal
Mazarin, and was born in Paris, Oct. 18, 1663.
The banishment of his mother to the .Low
Countries, by the order of Louis XIV, and the
refusal of the King to grant him a commission
in the army, so incensed Eugene against France

EUGENE

that lie indignantly renounced his country and
entered the service of the Emperor Leopold I as
a volunteer against the Turks. Though barely
20 years of age and without military training,
lie displayed extraordinary talents in war, es-
pecially at the famous siege of Vienna in 1683.
He soon rose to a high position in the army.
In the war of the Coalition against Louis XIV
(1GS9-97) he took an active part in the lighting
in Italy and in 1691 was raised to the command
of the Impel ial nrrny in Piedmont. It was about
this time that Louis XIV offered him the baton
of a marshal of France, the generalship of Cham-
pagne, and a large pension, but Eugene refused
all such advances. In 1693 he was made a field
marshal of Austria, and on his return to Vienna
he was placed at the head of the army of Hun-
gary and defeated the Turks, with immense
slaughter, in the famous battle of Zenta, Sept.
11, 1697. In 1701 the War of the Spanish
Succession broke out, and Eugene was put in
command of the army in Italy; but his forces
were too small for him to accomplish anything
of importance. In the year 1703, being ap-
pointed president of the council of war, he be-
came thenceforth the prime mover of every
military undertaking. He first took the com-
mand of the Imperial army in Germany, and
with Marlborough gained a brilliant victory at
Blenheim, Aug. 13, 1704, over the French and
Bavarians. Eugene afterward saved Turin, and
expelled the French from Italy in the year 1706.
He shared, too, with Marlborough the glory of
the fields of Oudenarde in 1708 and Malphiquet
in 1700; but, being crippled in his resources
by the retirement of Holland and England from
the contest, he was unable to withstand the
enemy on the Rhine. The defeat of his Dutch
allies by Villars at Dcnain, July 24, 1712, was
followed by other disasters, until the Peace of
Eastadt (1714) put an end to the war.

In 1716, on the renewal of the war against the
Turks, Eugene defeated an army of 180,000 men
at Petcrswardein, took Temesvilr, and in the year
1717, after a bloody battle, gained possession of
Belgrade. After the Peace of Passarowitz, which
was concluded in the following year, he returned
to Vienna, where during the succeeding years
of peace he labored with unwearied energies in
the cabinet. When the question of the succes-
sion to the throne of Poland brought on a now
war with France (1733-35), Eugene appeared
again on tho Rhine; but, being now advanced
in years and destitute of sufficient resources, he
was unable to accomplish anything of impor-
tance. After the peace he returned to Vienna,
where lie died April 21, 1736, leaving an im-
mense fortune to his niece, the Princess Vic-
toria of Savoy. In his later years he was a
patron of art and literature. Among the com-
mon people of Germany and Austria his fame
lives in songs, as "Prinz Eugen der edle Ritter" ;
his reputation as a great military leader is
firmly established.

Bibliography. The most elaborate work on
Prince Eugene is that of Arneth, Prins flugen
von 8avoyen (Vienna, 1858) ; for a popular
biography, consult Malleson, Prince Eugene of
Savoy (London, 1888). Other important works
are: Kausler, Das Leben dee Prinssen flngcn von
Savoycn, etc. (Freiburg, 1838-30) : Von Rybol,
Prmz Evgen von Savoyen (Munich, 1861) ; 'Hel-
ler, Militarific'he Correspondents der Prinsen fiit-
gen von Savoy en, etc. (Vienna, 1848) ; Von
Landmann, Die Begrtindung der GrossmacJitfitrJ-

156

EUGENICS

luuy Oe&terreicn-Uny units Pnws 13 u yen (Munich,
1905).

EUGENE ARAM, tt-jen' a'rom. A novel by
Bulwer Lytton, published in 1832. See AJBAM,
EUGENE.

EUGENE ONEGIN, oi'gan 6-na'gen. An
opera by Tschaikowski (q.v.), first produced in
Moscow, March 29, 1879; in the United States,
Fob. 2, 1008 (Now York, in concert form).

EUGE'NIA. Boo MYBTACELSI.

EUGEN'ICS (from Gk. efrye^s, eugenes, well
born). The science of the improvement of the
human race by better breeding. The modern
movement for the adoption of various eugenic
principles owes its inception as well as much
of its present status to the consistent efforts of
the late Sn Francis Galton, by whom the word
''eugenics" was first employed. Galton was in-
terested both in the scientific and in the prac-
tical aspects of the subject. On the scientific
side his thinking was much influenced by the
biological researches of his more famous cousin,
Charles Darwin. A number of the biological
principles upon which the science of eugenics
rests were known, however, much earlier th:in
Darwin's timo. By means of these principles ,
agriculturalists and stock breeders had long
been making innumerable improvements in the
quality of plants and animals. As Darwin him-
self pointed out, the principle of selection, the
most fundamental of all the principles empha-
sized by the eugenist, was known even to the
anciont' Chinese. Explicit rules of selection ap-
pear also in the works of some of the Eoman
classical writers. The principle of selection did
not attract much notice from scientists, how-
ever, until Darwin published his Origin of flpe-
rics (1850). This l)ook quickly drew attention
to the fact that man, like the lower animals,
has passed through a long evolution in which
his bodily and probably his mental characteris-
tics have been materially altered. The notion
that further modifications of a desirable sort
might be brought about in the race by purpo-
sive selection of innate traits inevitably followed.
Thus Darwin laid the theoretical ' basis for
eugenics It was the publication of Galton 'H
two famous articles on "Heredity, Talent and
Character" in Macmillari'ft Alagdsine for July
and August, ISO,'), however, that may be said
to have definitely inaiigurated the attempt to
apply biological theories to the practical prob-
lem of the improvement of the human race.
Impressed by the plasticity of tho physical
forms of animals under the breeders' selection,
Galton in theae articles announced his purpose
of showing more pointedly than had hitherto
been attempted that the mental qualities of men
are equally undcT control. His main tliofiis was
that inherited ability was the chief reason for
the recurrence of talent in distinguished fam-
ilies. This thorns he supported by a mass of
biographical evidence to show how strikingly
the frequent occurrence of able sons of able men
indicates that montal qualities quite n* much
as physical traits are subject to the principles
of natural inheritance. Tho practical conclusion
he expressed in cliaraptoTiflticallv striking fash-
ion. "How vafltly would the offspring bo im-
proved," he exclaims, "supposing distinguished
women to be commonly married to distinguished
men, generation after generation . . . accord-
ing to rules of which we are now ignorant, but
which a study of the subiect would be suro to
evolve." Four 'years later, in 1869, appeared Gal-

ton's monumental work Hereditary Genius. In
this — the classic of eugenic literature — Galton
not only reiterated his belief in eugenic princi-
ples, but with highly scientific precision at-
tempted to apply mathematical principles of
the law of deviation from an average to the
determination of the frequency with which the
occurrence of talented progeny from talented
ancestry might be expected normally. In this
same work was incorporated a chapter on ''In-
fluences that Affect the Natural Ability of Na-
tions." In this chapter are marshaled facts and
arguments to show how actual modifications of
human quality have occurred by means of in-
fluences that are or can be made subject to
man's own control. The sterilizing effect upon
the ability of subsequent generations produced
by the decimation of talented men during the
Spanish Inquisition is emphasized. In the same
work, also, is clearly stated the evident but
tremendously significant fact that, other things
being equal, the group or nation which, on the
average, has the least interval between genera-
tions and which possesses the highest average
fertility will, through the mere fact of superior-
ity in the rate of increase, eventually outnumber
and overcome competing groups or nations.

Such, then, were the beginnings of a science,
itself hardly yet beyond the period of infancy.

For many years after these beginnings little
was accomplished in the immediate field of eu-
genics. During the latter quarter of the nine-
teenth century, however, practically all biolo-
gists became convinced of the soundness of
Darwin's fundamental position. The public also
became less skeptical of biological doctrines.
When, therefore, in 1000 there occurred two
events of prime importance for eugenics, the
ground was prepared" for widespread interest in
the entire subject. The first of these two events
was a lecture on "National Life from the Stand-
point of Science," delivered at Newcastle, Eng-
land, by Prof. Karl Pearson, perhaps the most
ardent of all Galton's disciples. The other event
was the redisco^ry by four independent experi-
menters of the biological relationship now known
as the Mendelian laws of heredity. Pearson's
lecture abounded with such vigorous statements
as these: "Bear in mind that one-quarter only
of the married people of the country — say a
sixth to an eighth of the adult population —
produce 50 per cent of the next generation. You
will then see how essential it is for the main-
tenance of a physically and mentally fit race
that this one-sixth to one-eighth of our popula-
tion should be drawn from the best and not
from the worst stocks. A nation that begins
to tamper with its fertility may have changed
its national characteristics before two genera-
tions have passed." Coming, as it did, when
the English nation was wondering whether the
reverses it had sustained in South Africa might
not indicate a definite deterioration in the qual-
ity of the population of the country. Pearson's
lecture created a profound impression upon the
public mind. On the other hand, the rediscovery
of tho principles which had been announced by
Groffor Mondcl in 1866, but which had been for-
gotten, created an equally profound impres-
sion upon the biologists. The result was a re-
vival of interest in theories of heredity. More-
over, tho fact that the Mendelian laws were
discovered by the experimental method caused
tho enthusiastic adoption of this method, in
biology, by investigators throughout the world.

J7 EUGENICS

How significant for the science of eugenics
these developments have proved can be appre-
ciated only by those who thoroughly understand
the biological principles involved. For out of
the differences in the views of those who, like
Karl Pearson, have followed Gal ton's lead and
the views of those who, like Prof. Charles B.
Davenport, director of the Eugenics Laborti-
tory at Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y., have been
impressed chiefly with the importance of the
Mendelian laws and the results of the experi-
mental method, there has grown up a mass
of controversial literature that it would be
impossible to summarize here. The chief theo-
retical problems, however, may be indicated
briefly, and their importance for eugenics pointed
out. The controversial points are largely in
the field of the theory of heredity. Preliminary
to their discussion a short statement of certain
general biological and eugenic principles ac-
cepted by both schools will be advantageous.

The fundamental doctrine of eugenics, as be-
fore indicated, is that of selection. Selection,
in the biological and eugenic sense, occurs when
within a species one organic type differing- from
another in hereditary characteristics contributes
a larger proportion of progeny to the next gen-
eration than does the type from which it differs.
Thus, inasmuch as certain typos of feeble-
mindedness tend to be hereditary, selection will
operate to increase the proportion of feeble-
minded in the next generation if feeble-minded
persons have more progeny, on the average, than
do parents who are normal. Contrary to a
somewhat popular belief, however, selection in
tho biological sense does not occur, in all prob-
ability, if the differences in parental types are
merely due to training. Thus, e.g., there is
probably no selective effect when parents who
differ from others merely because- they are highly
educated contribute a greater or less propor-
tion of progeny to the next generation than do
uneducated parents. This is because education
is an acquired trait and is not transmitted by
heredity. If, however, it could be proved that
the educated classes are possessed, on the
average, of greater natural ability than are the
uneducated classes in any community, then a
selective effect would be shown to occur when-
ever one class is more fertile than another, pro-
vided, of course, the differences in natural
ability between the two classes tend to reap-
pear in the offspring. Neither Pearsonian nor
Mendelian doubts the fact that some classes of
persons are more fertile than other classes, and
that profound social and probably important
eugenic changes are the result of such differ-
ences.

The real problem is one of heredity and may
be stated as follows: first, do different classes
of men differ in important hereditary traits?
Second, if so, do they transmit their differences
in full force or in diminished intensity? Third,
is the transmission of significant traits to all of
the progeny or only to some? Fourth, if only
to some, what is the probability that a given pro-
portion of the progeny will inherit a given
amount of the characteristic? Fifth, can the
characteristics of progeny be predicted in the
case of individuals or only on the average for
large numbers? Sixth, are different traits in-
herited independently, or, if one characteristic
of an ancestor is shown to reappear in a way
capable of definite statement, do other charac-
teristics of the same ancestor reappear in ihe

EUGENICS 158

same way? An illustration of each point will
show the relation of each to the problem of
better breeding. First, it makes little difference
to the welfare of man whether blue-eyed parents
tend to produce blue-eyed children. It is of
profound importance if mentally gifted parents
have gifted children. Second, if the children
are gifted in a degree equal to that of their
parents, the stock will not deteriorate j if, how-
ever, there is a diminished intensity of the trait
inherited, the stock will become mediocre in a
few generations. Third, if all the children in-
herit a desirable trait, the desirable effect, upon
the next generation of the population, of a few
fertile marriages of persons of talent will be
greater than if only a portion of the children
do so. Fourth, if only a portion of the children
inherit the gift, the degree of effect upon the
next generation will depend upon the propor-
tionate number who do inherit the trait. Fifth,
unless the characteristics of the progeny of
particular individuals can bo predicted, practi-
cal efforts to increase or diminish the fertility
of particular individuals are useless. Average
results would confine practical measures entirely
to encouraging or discouraging the fertility
of large classes of men. Action against an in-
dividual who belonged to a class whose progeny
contained on the average a large proportion of
persons possessing undesirable innate traits
could profitably be taken only on the ground
that the probability of undesirable progeny was
so great that social expediency required the
suppression of the stockj in spite of the possi-
bility that the progeny of that particular in-
dividual might prove to be entirely normal.

In addition to the foregoing points there are,
of course, many other important questions in-
volved. Not the least among these is the determi-
nation in the case of a given individual whether
a given trait deemed desirable or undesirable
is, as a matter of fact, an hereditary trait or
whether it is a trait due merely to the peculiar
circumstances in which the individual's life has
been passed. From the foregoing it will appear
that the theoretical problems of eugenics aro
not simple. Thus far only a beginning has been
made towards their solution. With Galton, the
scientifically minded man must still confess ig-
norance, for the most part, of the particular
rules by which to render eugenic progress a
certainty. The reasons for this ignorance will
appear by briefly indicating the various posi-
tions that are held by scientists of repute on
some of the theoretical points just enumerated.
\Vith respect to the following statement, how-
ever it must be remembered that not only are
innumerable controversial details involved, but
also that frequent additions to knowledge aro
being made in the details of each subject. The
first of the enumerated points, of course, in-
volves the whole eugenic question. The eu-
genist holds that men differ greatly in impor-
tant hereditary mental as well as physical traits.
He has reputable opponents who hold the con-
trary. Pointing to the unity of all organic
life, tlie eugenist emphasizes the fact that bio-
logical laws which hold for animals and in many
instances are known to be true of man's physical
characteristics could hardly fail to hold true
of many of his mental traits. He thinks that
the known hereditary character of feeble-minded-
ness and of various forms of nervous diseases
is but one of the more readily detected instances.
He contends that the great frequency with which

EUGENICS

eminent men are the sons or near relatives of
eminent men — a fact of which there is abun-
dant evidence in the researches of Galton and
others — proves beyond a doubt that important
hereditary differences exist among individuals.
The extreme cugenist may even emphasize these
differences to the extent of holding that different
races of men are much superior in native men-
tal ability to others. Some scientists, on the
other hand, like the late Prof. Lester F. Ward
and the anthropologist Prof. Franz Boas, have
held that there is little if any difference in
average innate mental ability among different
races. These writers also contend that the
differences among individuals within any given
race are far greater than whatever differences
there may be among the races themselves. In
consequence these writers hold that some men
of every race are likely to show a high degree
of ability. They hold also that eminent men
have eminent progeny in large part because
they provide exceptional opportunities for their
offspring. Argument on these general grounds,
however, is not extremely fruitful. Better re
suits may be anticipated from the recording,
generation after generation, of the various men-
tal traits of individuals who arc related by
birth and deducing laws of heredity in man
from facts which, to some extent at least, can
be freed from the effects of environmental as
opposed to hereditary influences. Work of this
character has been started by Davenport at the
Eugenics Record Office in Cold Spring Harbor,
N. Y., and also under the direction of the Eu-
genics Laboratory in England. One of the most
hopeful developments in this field is the so-
called "Binet test," bjr means of which various
mental traits of individuals are measured with
some degree of accuracy. Another development
of importance is Professor Thorndike's syste-
matic studies, undertaken at Columbia Uni-
versity, to ascertain the degree of separability
among mental traits (i.e., whether mental abil-
ity is a general or a complex fact). On the
basis of such work as these men are doing it
may become possible eventually to state posi-
tively and in quantitative form the degree to
which men differ in innate traits rather than
merely to assume that they do differ.

With respect to the other five questions there
is a fundamental difference of approach within
the ranks of the eugenists. Those differences
in method yield differences in results. The five
questions require quantitative analysis, and both
schools present their results in statistical form.
The Pefirsoninn, however, is always staling
averages obtained from large numbers of ca*ea.
The Mendelian is always presenting the facts
gleaned from experiments upon individual lines
of inheritance. There have been many attempts
to reconcile the results of both schools, luif. none
have attained complete success. Other dif-
ferences in the results of the two school* arise,
however, from differences in underlying biologi-
cal assumptions. The Pearsonians — or Biornet-
ricians, as they are often called — assume that
the traits of individuals vary to a greater or
less extent from a normal or usual value. For
example, the average height of 683 upper mid-
dle-class English males was found by Galton to
be 60.215 centimeters. Some of the individuals,
of course, were taller and some were shorter —
there were variations from the average height.
The Mendelians, on the other hand, have studied
for the most part traits that are termed alter-

ETTOEETCS

159

EUGENICS

native. For example, a person is either blue-
eyed or he is not. It may ultimately prove that
the first assumption is true with, respect to
some traits, and that the second is true with
respect to others. The difference is a funda-
mental one. It is of great practical significance,
also, because under certain conditions an al-
ternative character which "Mendehzes" may
entirely disappear in a single generation from
certain lines of progeny. See HEBEDITY, section
on Mcndehan Laws, paragraph on "Segregation."
Under such circumstances, therefore, the com-
plete disappearance of an objectionable Men-
dclian trait could be brought about by selective
mating in a single generation. Another dif-
ference between the schools arises from the fact
that the Biometricians deal with traits as
simple which upon further investigation may
prove to be complex. Stature, conceivably, may
be the resultant of three "unit" characters — one
determining height of the cranium, another the
length of neck and trunk, and a third the length
of the legs. It may easily be proved that from
the standpoint of eugenics, as Davenport holds,
sitting height is more important than standing
height. And so also with other more signifi-
cant characteristics. If mental ability should
prove to be the resultant of many "unit" char-
acters, aa, from the Mendelian point of view,
seems probable, and if each of these "unit"
characters happens to follow different modes
of inheritance, as might also prove to be the
case, the problem of controlling the inheritance
of such a complex set of characters would evi-
dently be one of great difficulty. Up to the
present time examples of the operation of the
Mendelian laws, however, have been found
chiefly among the lower animals and plants.
In a small number of cases only have the traits
of man, thus far, been shown to follow these
laws. Eye color, brachydactylism, certain forms
of cataract, various affections of the skin and
hair, color blindness, and night blindness are
representative examples. The frequency of ab-
normalities in this list is due, probably, to the
fact that records for several generations are
required to demonstrate the law, and abnormali-
ties attract notice more than variations in nor-
mal traits. There is little doubt that many
other human traits of far more importance than
those will be shown, eventually, to follow the
Mondolian laws of inheritance. Until proof is
adduced, however, concerning the applicability
of the Mendelian laws to important mental
traits in man, it is evident that the practical
measures possible wherever these laws operate
niu at await further extension of knowledge.

From the foregoing it is apparent that the
problem of eugenics is essentially biological in
its nature. Its future development depends
upon the future of the biological sciences, and
no amount of popular agitation will hasten the
nttainmcnt of adequate biological knowledge.

These facts, however, in no wise militate
against the practical utilization of such knowl-
edge as is already possessed. Thus, the follow-
ing suggestions of Galton made in addresses to
the London Sociological Society can hardly be
dismissed as useless:

"1. Dissemination of a knowledge of the laws
of heredity so far as they are surely known,
and promotion of their farther study. Few
fleem to be aware how greatly the knowledge
of what may be termed the actuarial side of
heredity has advanced in recent years. . . »

"2. Historical inquiry into the rates with
which various classes of society (classified ac-
cording to civic usefulness) have contributed
to the population at various times, in ancient
and modern nations. There is strong reason
for believing that national rise and decline is
closely connected with this influence. It seems
to be the tendency of high civilization to check
fertility in the upper classes, through numerous
causes, some of which are well known, others
are inferred, and others again are wholly
obscure.

"3. Systematic collection of facts showing
the circumstances under which large and thriv-
ing families have most frequently originated;
in other words, the conditions of eugenics. . . .

"4. Influences affecting marriage. Social in-
fluences of all kinds have immense power in the
end, and they are very various. If unsuitable
marriages from the eugenic point of view were
banned socially, or even regarded with the un-
reasonable disfavor which some attach to cousin
marriages, verv few would be made. The mul-
titude of marriage restrictions that have proved
prohibitive among uncivilized people would re-
quire a volume to describe.

"5. Persistence in setting forth the national
importance of eugenics. There are three stages
to be passed through. First, it must be made
familiar as an academic question, until its exact
importance has been understood and accepted as
a fact; secondly, it must be recognized as a
subject whose practical development deserves
serious consideration; and, thirdly, it must be
introduced into the national conscience, like a
new religion. ... I see no impossibility in eu-
genics becoming a religious dogma among man-
kind, but its details must first be worked out
sedulously in the study. Overzeal leading to
hasty action would do harm.

"The first and main point is to secure the
general intellectual acceptance of eugenics as a
hopeful and most important study. Then let its
principles work into the heart of the nation, who
[sic] will gradually give practical effect to
them in ways that we may not wholly fore-
see." These suggestions, it will be noted, are
conservative. They emphasize the study of con-
ditions rather than hasty application of dog-
matic assumptions.

Some time after they were made Galton added
to them the idea that at some future time some
suitable authority might be established to issue
eugenic certificates to candidates excelling in
physique and in mental capacity. But for the
practical application of eugenic doctrine Galton
relied far more on the development of social
traditions in their favor than upon the enact-
ment of positive law. , The more enthusiastic
eugeniats have by no means been as conserva-
tive as was Galton. For example, more than
one writer has advocated rather extensive steril-
ization of criminals. Others have demanded
that various restrictions, supposed to safeguard
the character of progeny, be incorporated into
marriage laws. Experiments along these lines
have even been attempted in various common-
wealths of the United States. The most effec-
tive application of eugenic principles thus far,
however, has been the segregation of the feeble-
minded. No one can read the ancestral history
of some of the inmates of the Training School
for Feeble-minded Boys and Girls at Vineland,
N. J., as given in Director Goddard's The Kalli~
leak Family, without being impressed by the

DE MONTIJO 160 EUG^INIE-MABIE DE MOtfTIJO

frequency with which feeble-mindedness has ap-
peared in certain family lines. After perusal
the reader is likely to agree definitely with Dr.
Goddard that "feeble-mindedness is hereditary
and is transmitted as surely as is any other
character. We cannot successfully cope with
these conditions until we recognize feeble-
mindedness and its hereditary nature, recog-
nize it early and take care of it." Usually
feeble-minded persons are themselves far hap-
pier properly segregated and given suitable
training than if left at large in society to
add abnormal progeny to the population, and
there is likely to be little opposition, ex-
cept that based on financial grounds, to proj-
ects for their care. The proposition to incor-
porate eugenic measures in marriage laws is
far more likely to meet with determined oppo-
sition on the ground of improper interference
with individual liberty. Thus, the practical
application of eugenic doctrine is more likely
to proceed along the lines of Galton's sugges-
tions. The foundation of the research labora-
tories already mentioned and the establishment
of various journals such as the Eugenic Review
and Ploetz's ArcJiiv fur JRassen- iind Qesellschafts
Biologie for discussion of eugenic topics and the
dissemination of knowledge is quite in keeping
with those suggestions. In the judgment of
those who are best acquainted with the extent
of present scientific knowledge of the principles
upon which eugenics rests, however, the time
has not yet come for radical action. The better-
ment of* the race by means of better breeding
must, in the nature of the case, progress pari
passu with the extension of biological knowl-
edge. Only when the biologist has solved the
problems of heredity may the eugenist speak
with authority.

Bibliography. Francis Galton, Hereditary
Genius (London, 1869) ; id., Natural Inheritance
(New York, 1880) ; id., English Hen of Science:
Their Nature and Nurture (ib., 1895) ; Karl
Pearson, National Life from the Standpoint of
Science (ib., 1912) ; C. B. Davenport, Heredity
in Relation to Eugenics (ib., 1911) ; ,T. Thomp-
son, Darwinism and Human Life (ib., 1911);
W. Bateson, Mendel's Principles of Hwedity
(Cambridge, 1909) ; H. Ellis, A Study of British
GenwB (London, 1904); H. H. Goddard, The
KalUkak Family (New York, 1912) ; J. A Field,
"The Progress of Eugenics," in Quarterly Jour-
nal of Economics (Boston, 1911) ; A. A. Tenney,
Social Democracy and Population," in Columbia
University Studies in History, Economics, and
Public Law, vol. xxvi, No. 4 (New York, 1907) ;
Sociological Papers, vols. i, ii, and iii, published
for the London Sociological Society (London,
1905, 1906, and 1907); Eugenics Laboratory
Memoirs (ib., 1901- ); Eugenics Record
Office Memoirs (Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y.,
1912- ). JoTJBNALS: BiometriJca (London,
1902); The Eugenics Review, published by the
Eugenics Education Society (London, 1909) ;
A.rcJiiv fur Rassen- und Ge$el1schaft$ Biologie
(Berlin, 1904). See BIOLOGY; MENTAL TESTS;
GALTOW; HEBEDITY; HTBBIDITT; MENTAL DE-
FECTIVES; STERILIZATION; VITAL STATISTICS.

EU&&NIE-MABIE DE MONTIJO, £'zhi'n£'
ma'ri' de mfin-te/Hfl (1826-1920). Ex-Empress
of the French, wife of Napoleon ITT. She was
born at Ora-nada, in Spain, May 5, 1826, the sec-
ond daughter of the Count of Montijo and Maria
Manuela Fzizpatrick, whose father had been

United States Consul at Halaga and was a
Scotchman by birth and an American by resi-
dence. Eugenie was educated at the convent of
the Sacre* Ccem, near Paris, and after the age
of eight lived with her mother and sister in
Paris. They moved in French society, though
not in the most exclusive circles. Eugenie ap-
peared in society in Paris in 1851 and iasci-
iiated every one by her beauty and amiability,
Louis Napoleon, who had just been crowned
Emperor, not excepted. He conceived an ardent
passion for Mademoiselle dc Montijo — or the
Comtessc de Teba, as she was known — and after
the failure of his attempt to enter the circle
of European royalty through a dynastic mar-
riage, he decided upon a marriage of inclina-
tion, offered himself to Eugenie de Montijo,
and was accepted — a denouement that was
viewed by her enemies as the coup of a success-
ful adventuress paralleling Napoleon's own coup
d'etat. The marriage took place with great
pomp at Notre Dame on Jan. 30, 1833, and
Eugenie was installed as Empress at the Tuil-
eries. The birth of a son, the Prince Imperial,
in 1856 served to strengthen Napoleon's hold
upon his position. The frivolous nature of
Eugenie and the ambition of Napoleon for a
brilliant court made the Tuileries the model
for luxury and extravagance in Europe. But
Eugenie was the arbiter, not only of fashion,
but of politics, in spite of the intervals when
public policy forced Napoleon to escape from her
tutelage. Her Spanish traditions had imbued
her with a distrust for democracy and a devo-
tion to the church which dictated entirely the
direction of her political influence and that of
a powerful group which surrounded her. Na-
poleon's personal convictions were more liberal,
but policy as well as the influence of the Em-
press dictated to him an indulgent attitude
towards the church. Eugenie was deficient,
however, in political sagacity and failed in
most of her political ventures. She favored the
unfortunate Mexican expedition of Maximilian
and blocked Napoleon's plans for the liberation
of Italy so successfully that he was left with-
out the confidence of either clericals or Italians.
She discouraged all concessions to the demo-
cratic tide of opinion that had been swelling
during the Empire and thus helped to increase
the force of the Liberal opposition. Finally,
in 1870, with the idea that a successful war
would strengthen the dynastic prospects of her
son, she made her supreme political mistake in
urging Napoleon into the fatal conflict with
Prussia, and, as regent during his absence in the
war, she was unable to do anything to retrieve
the position and ilcd to England as a simple
traveler. She was joined there by Napoleon
after his release and the downfall of the Km-
pire, and after his death in 1873 devoted her-
self to the education of the Prince Imperial.
Her hopes for his future were blasted by his
death in Africa in the Zulu War in '1R70.
Thereafter she continued to reside in England
in strict retirement at Chislehurst.

Eugenie has been the subject of numerous biog-
raphies and memoirs, among them being those
of De Lano, TJie Empress Eugenie (London,
1894) ; Bouchat, Les eUgances du second em-
pire (Paris, 1896) ; Saint- Armand, Louis iVa-
poleon and Mile, de Montijo (Eng. trans, by
R 0. Mnrtin, New York, 1807): Tsclmtli,
Eugfnie, Empress of the French (trans, from
the Norwegian by E. M. Cope, London, 1899) ;

ETJGENTUS 161

Evans, Memoirs: Second French Empire (New
York, 190;; ) ; Emile Ollivier, L' 'Empire liberal
(12 vols., Paris, 1805) ; A. Thomas, Le Seconde
Empire (vol. x of Jaures's Histoire socialiste,
Paria, 1907) ; De Chambrier, Le cour et la
societe du seconde Empire (2 vols., Paris, 1902-
06); Daudet, L'lmperatnce Eugenie (ib.,
1911) ; Stoddart, The Life of the fimpiess Eu-
genie (New York, 1906). Consult also her
work, Home Recollections from- my Life (Lon-
don, 188o).

ETJGE'miJS. The name of four popes.— 1.
EuGENirs I, SAIKT. Pope from 634 to 657. He
was elected from the Roman clergy in a time of
strife between the East and the West over ques-
tions of doctrine and showed a spirit of com-
promise. He was charitable and gentle and is
reckoned as a saint. — 2. EUGENICTS II. A
Roman Pope from 824 to 827. The important
event of his pontificate was the adoption of the
Constitutio Romano, (824), which provided that
the choice of Pope should be taken from the
common people and given to the clergy and
nohles, his consecration, however, to be depend-
ent on confirmation by the Emperor and an
oath of homage from the newly chosen pontiff. —
3. EOTGENICTS III, BLESSED. Pope from 1143 to
1153. A disciple of Bernard of Clairvaux. Dur-
ing his pontificate occurred the Second Crusade
(1147-1149), which he proclaimed and Bernard
preached. He was three times driven from
Rome by the Republican party of Arnold of
Brescia. — 4. EuQExms IV. A Venetian, Pope
from 1431 to 1447. His pontificate wus a season
of discord, owing to the proceedings of the Coun-
cil of Basel and the attacks of enemies at Home.
The Council of Basel was convoked by his pred-
ecessor, Martin V, and showed a strong tend-
ency to insubordination. In 1434 Eugenius
was compelled to flee from Rome and remained
a refugee at Florence till 1443. In 1436 he at-
tempted to dissolve the council, and in 1438
opened a new council at Ferrara and issued a
bull of excommunication against the bishops
assembled at Basel. The latter deposed him
and set up an antipope, Felix V (1439). At
the Council of Florence, which succeeded that
of Ferrara (q.v.), and at which the Greek Em-
peror, John Paleologus II, and upward of 20
Greek bishops were present, a union was pro-
claimed between the Latin and Greek churches
(July, 1439). The efforts of Eugenius also met
with some success in effecting a temporary
reconciliation with the Armenian, Jacobite, and
Nestorian churches. In the midst of his troubles
he fostered a crusade, which set out in 1443,
only to meet disaster. He died at Rome, Fob.
23, 1447. See BASEL, COUNCIL OF; FEBBABA-
FLOBENCE, COUNCIL OF. Consult Pastor, His-
twy of the Popes (London, 1906-12).

ETJGKTP'PI'CrS, or ETJaYPPITTS (c.450-?).
An Italian monk, abbot of Lucullanum, near
Naples. He was born at Carthage, and after
studying at Rome became the pupil of St.
Severin at Fariana in Noricum. He wrote Vita
Rancti Severini (611 A.D.), an important con-
tribution to the church history of Germany, and
compiled Thesaurus Auynstinianeus, a collection
of excerpts from the works of St. Augustine.
There is a monastic rule which is ascribed to
Eugipphis, but it wan superseded by that of St.
Benedict, Consult the edition of the former
work by Knoell, vol. ix of the Corpus Scrip-
torum ' Ecolesiasticorwn Latinorum (Vienna,
1880-86).

ETJHEMERISM

EUGNATHUS, ug-na'thus (Neo-Lat., from
Gk. etf, eut well + 7?a0os, gnathos, jaw). One of
the precursors of the mudfish (Amia], fossil
remains of which have been found in the Liassic
rocks of England and the Jurassic rocks of Ba-
variti. The body was elongated, and covered
with ganoid scales, which were strengthened on
their inside surfaces with vertical ribs, and
many of which were fastened to each other by
peg-and-socket joints. There is a dorsal fin, a
pair each of pectoral and pelvic fins, an anal
fin, and a semiheteroceroal tail fin.

ETTGTTBINE TABLES (Lat., Talula Eu-
gulina*} . The name giA*en to seven bronze tab-
lets, the inscriptions on which present a com-
prehensive and very remarkable memorial of
the Umbrian language. (See UMBBIA.) They
were discovered in 1444 at Cubbio (the ancient
Iguvium or Euguvium, mediaeval Eugubium),
where they are still preserved, having been
bought by the to\vn. The characters on four of
the tablets are Urabrian, on two Latin, and
on one partly Latin and partly Umbrian. The
language resembles somewhat the older forms
of tho latter and also tlie Oacan dialects. The
subjects of the inscriptions are directions con-
cerning sacrificial usages and forms of prayer,
and they seem to belong to two periods — those
in Umbrian characters to the second ccntuiy
B.C. and those in Latin letters to the time of
Sulla. Philip Buonarotti first published them
in a complete form in Dempster's Etniria Re-
galis (Florence, 1723-24). The real decipher-
ment of the inscriptions was due to Karl Ott-
fried Miiller in his Die HJtrusker (Breslau,
1828) and Grotefend, and the final corrections
and improvements were made by Bilcheler ( q.v. )
and Lepsius in De Tabulis Eugubims (Berlin,
1833), and his text (1841). A good work on
the inscriptions is Br£al, Les tables cugulines
(Paris, 1875-78). Consult also: Newman, The
Iguvine Tables (London, 1864) ; Biicheler, Um~
"brica (Bonn, 1883) 5 Von Planta, Oskisch-um-
Irische Grammatik (Strassburg, 1892-97);
Buck, Grammar of Qfican and Umbrian (Boston,
1904) ; Conway, Italic Dialects (Cambridge,
1897). See ITALIC LANGUAGES ; LATIN LAN-
GUAGE.

ETTGITVIUM:. See GUBBIO.

EtrHE/MERISM. The name usually applied
to the theory which seeks to explain all my-
thology as distorted history. The name is de-
rived from Euhemerus (Eti^/*e/K>s) of Messana in
Sicily, who was a contemporary and friend of
Caflsandor of Macedon (311-298 B.C.). Sent by
the King on a voyage to the south, he utilized
his travels to bring his theory before the world.
In his Sacred Eecord (Gk. *!«/)£ 'Avaypa^) he
described the habits and the government found on
an (imaginary) island, Panchsea3 in the Indian
Ocean. This enabled him to set forth his view
of an ideal state. He endeavored to show that
the Greek gods were merely men, who had been
deified because of their power or services to
mankind. He was not the first to suggest this
interpretation, as it had already been applied
by such writers as Hecatseus and Ephorus to
various myths of the heroes connected with early
Grecian history; but he carried it far beyond
any previous writer in the universality of its
application even to the gods. Naturally, and
probably with full justice, the book brought upon
its author the name of Atheist, though, con-
sidering its obviously fictitious character, it is
hard to see why he should have been branded

EUHEMEHTJS

162

ETJLENBXTBG

as a deceiver. Ennius translated Euhemerus'
book. Many of the later writers adopted Ms
views, and to many of the early Christian apolo-
gists his work was a welcome storehouse of
material for use in their attacks upon the
heathen divinities. The theory has had defend-
ers from the days of its founder to the present
time. In the eighteenth century it was made
prominent by Earner's La mythologie et les
Cables expliquees par Vhistoire (Paris, 1738),
and with some admixture of the allegorizing tend-
ency is found in those writers who endeavored
to interpret Greek legends as a derivation from
the biblical narrative, as in the Area NOCB of
Athanasius Kircher and others — a method which
survived long, and is found even in 1893 in the
Revue d'exegese mythologiqae of the Abb6
Fourier. Some elements of euhemerism may
also be attributed to those theories which see
the origin of all mythologies, and even all re-
ligious emotions, in the worship of ancestors
and spirits of the dead. Consult: Sieroka, De
Euhcmero (KOnigsberg, 1868) ; Nemethy, Euhe-
meri Relliquice (Budapest, 1889) ; Susemihl,
Q-eschiohte der griechischen Litteratwr in der
Aleatandrinerzeit, vol. i (Leipzig, 1891); Christ-
Schmid, Geschichte der griechischen Litteratw,
vol. ii (5th ed., Munich, 1911).
EUHE'MEBTTS. See EUHEMEBISM.
ETTLACHON, u1a-k5n, or OOI/ACHAN.
See CANDLEFISH.

ETTLAOkrCTS. Antipope chosen in opposition
to Boniface I (q.v.) (418). The dispute occa-
sioned the first interference on -the part of the
temporal authorities in the choice of a pope.
The party of Boniface prevailed, and Eulalius
left Home and later resigned all pretensions.

EULENBEBG-, oilen-berK, HERMANN (1814-
1902). A German physician. He was born at
Muhlheim-on-the-Rhine and studied at Bonn and
Berlin. At Coblenz he founded the publication
entitled Eorrespondenzblatt der deutschen Gesell-
sohaft fur PsycMatrie und gerichtliche Medizvn,
and made investigations in. regard to the preva-
lence of cretinism and goitre in the District of
Coblenz (Beitr&ge sw pathologischen Anatomic
dea Kretinismus, in collaboration with Mar-
fels, 1857). He subsequently became govern-
ment counselor and medical counselor at
Cologne (1860-70) and was in 1870 appointed
counselor to the Ministry of Education (1870-
87). From 1870 to 1890 he edited the
VierteljahrsscJwrift fur geriohtlidhe Medi&in und
offentliches Sanitatswesen. His principal works,
which deal mainly with public hygiene, are the
following: Das Meditwnakvesen in Preussen
(1874); Handbuch der Qewerbetygiene (1876);
Hcmdbuch des offentUchen Gesundheitswesens
(in collaboration with other specialists, 2 vols.,
1881-82) ; Sohulgesiwidheitslehre (with Bach,
2ded., 1896).

EULENBURG, oilen-burK, AJLBEBT (1840-
). A German physician, born in Berlin
and educated at the universities of Berlin and
Bonn. As assistant in the University Hos-
pital at Greifswald, he published in 1864 the
important treatise entitled Die hypodermatisohe
Injection der Areneimittel (3d ed., 1875), for
which he received the prize awarded by the Hufe-
land Society of Berlin. In 1874 he was ap-
pointed professor of therapeutics and director of
the Pharmacological Institute at Greifswald. He
returned to Berlin in 1882 and devoted himself
to researches in neuropathology, on which sub-
ject he was soon a recognized authority. Be-

sides publishing the important works entitled
Sexuale Neuropathie (1895) and Lehrbuch der
Nervenkrankheiten (2d ed., 1878), he became
editor of the Real-JSncyklopddie der gesamten
Heilkunde (3d ed., 1893 et seq.). He was also
editor of the Enoycklopddische Jahrbucher der
gesamten Heilkunde (1891 et seq.), and, in
collaboration with J. Schwabe, of the Deutsche
medisimsche Wochenschrift.

EULENBTOG, BOTHO, COUNT (1831-1912).
A German statesman, a son of the Prussian
statesman Count Botho Heinrich Eulenburg
(1804-79). After studying law and holding a
position as government counselor, he was a
member of the Prussian Lower House in 1865-
70 and was elected to the North Geinian Reich-
stag as a Conservative in 1867. In 1878, as
Minister of the Interior, he formulated the So-
cialist law of October and vigorously prose-
cuted the work of administrative reform. Dif-
ferences arose between him and Bismarck over
what the Chancellor thought to be undue leni-
ency, and he was compelled to resign in 1881.
After the withdrawal of the Chancellor, Count
Caprivi, from the Prussian Premiership in 1892,
Eulenburg succeeded as President of the Minis-
try and in the same year became Minister of the
Interior. But his advocacy of strenuous meas-
ures against the social democracy was disap-
proved by Chancellor Caprivi, and the differ-
ences arising between the two men, especially
on an amendment to the criminal code, resulted
in the dismissal of both, Oct. 26, 1894. Eulen-
burg took his seat in the Prussian House of
Lords in 1899.

ETTLENBTTBG, FBEEDBICH ALBBEOHT, COUNT
(1815-81). A German statesman. He was an
assistant in the Department of the Interior from
1849 to 1852 and then was appointed Consul
General at Antwerp and (1858) at Warsaw. In
October, 1859, as head of the Eastern Asiatic
expedition of the Prussian government, he con-
ducted negotiations leading to commercial and
maritime treaties with China and Japan, which
were ratified on Jan. 24 and Sept. 2, 1861, re-
spectively. Upon his return he was appointed
by Bismarck Minister of the Interior (Dec. 8,
1862). After 1866 he energetically organized
the administration of the newly acquired prov-
inces of Prussia, consistently following a Con-
servative policy until 1878, when certain con-
cessions which he had made to the Liberal party
were opposed by Bismarck and led to his resig-
nation, March 30, 1878. His speeches and papers
were published under the title Zehn Jahre inncrc
Politik, lSB%-"t% (Berlin, 1872), and Prince
Philipp Eulenburg edited his 0$tasien 1860-1862
in Brief en (ib., 1900).

ETTLENBlT&a, PHILIPP, PBTNCB (1847-1921).
A German diplomat, born at KOnigsberg, Prussia.
He served in the wars with Austria and France
and studied law at Leipzig and Strassburg from
1872 to 1875. He was Prussian Ambassador to
Oldenburg from 1888 to 1890; at Stuttgart
(1890), Munich (1891), and German Ambassa-
dor to Vienna from 1894 to 1902, when his poor
health forced him to leave the diplomatic serv-
ice. In 1900 he was raised in rank from Graf
to Furst; Hertefeld was added to his title of
Eulenburg; and he was made a hereditary
member of the House of Lords. The attacks of
Harden in the ZuJcunft in 1907 on the Imperial
court and its intrigues were as unfortunate for
Prince Eulenburg as for Kuno Moltke and other
intimates of the Emperor. He wrote: Rosen-

163

ETJME1TES II

lieder (1886; 152d printing, 1903); Sltalden-
gesange (1892) ; Dichtungen (1892) ; Das Weih-
nachtsbuch (1892); Erich und Erika und an-
dere Ersahlungen fur Kinder (1893); Alen-
derzahlungen, Marchen und Traume (1894).

EULENSPIEGEL, oilen-shpe'gel, TILL or
TYLL (Ger., owlmirror). A German of clown-
ish wit, said to have lived in the first half of
the fourteenth century, whose clumsy and vul-
gar account of his own pranks made his life the
gathering point of popular tales of mischief. A
Low Saxon account of his pranks was written
iu 1483 and printed in 1519 in a High German
version, by some attributed to Thomas Murner.
It has often been edited, best by Lappenberg
(1854). It was soon rendered into Czech,
Polish, Italian, Danish, French, Latin, and into
English under the title Eoiole-Glass. It has
been adapted for modern German readers by
Simrock (1878). Its universal popularity is a
striking witness to the general debased taste
that prevailed at this period. It was afterward
adapted by both Reformers and Catholics to
their purposes. Fischart issued a metrical ver-
sion in 1571. Modern imitations are: Bottger,
Till Eulenspiegel : Modernes Heldengedicht
(1850); Wolff, Till Eulenspiegel Redivivus: ein
Schelmenlied (1875). A modern English edi-
tion, elaborately illustrated, appeared in 1860,
and a translation by Mackenzie in 1890. Con-
sult Roscoe, German Novelists (London, 1880),
or any good history of German literature.

ETJLER, oilSr, LEONHABD ( 1707-83 ) . A Swiss
mathematician, one of the most remarkable of
his century. He was born at Basel. Euler was
sent to the University of Basel so early and
was so proficient in his work that he received
the master's degree at the age of 16. He studied
mathematics under Johann Bernoulli at Basel
and also studied theology, the Oriental languages,
and medicine. In the course of his physiological
researches he wrote a treatise on the nature
and propagation of sound and also wrote an
essay on the masting of ships, which received a
prize of the French Academy of Sciences in 1727.
In that year Euler went to St. Petersburg upon
the invitation of Catharine I and became an
associate of the Academy of Sciences. In 1730
he was made professor of physics and in 1733
professor of higher mathematics. In 1740 he
became inspector of the geographical department
and in the following year was called to Berlin
by Frederick II to take the chair of mathematics
in the Academy of Sciences, from which he was
not long afterward advanced to the position of
director of the mathematical class. In 1766 he
was called back to St. Petersburg, where he
remained until his death. Euler lost one eye
as the result of a severe illness in 1735, and soon
after his return to Russia in 1766 he lost the
use of the other. This did not, however, hinder
his mental activity, and he contributed exten-
sively to the science of mathematics until the
day of his death.

The number no less than the value of Euler's
mathematical writings was very great. He wrote,
aside from his separate treatises, 473 memoirs
published during his life, 200 published soon
after his death, and 61 others of which the pub-
lication was undertaken by P. H. and 1ST. Fuss
in 1849. Of his more important treatises, the
following may be mentioned: Meohwica sive
Motus Sdentia Anatytice Evposita, (1736; 2d
ed., 1742) ; Tentamen Nova Theories Musicce
(1739); Emleitung in die Arithmetik (1742);

Methodus Inveniendi Lineas Ourvas Maosimi
Afinimive Proprietate Gaudentes (1744) ; Theoria
Motuum Planetarum et Gometarum (1744; Ger.
ed., 1781); Opuscula Varii Argument* (3 vols.,
1746-51) ; Gedanhen von den Elementen der
Koi-per (174C); Lettres d une princesse d'Alle-
mayne sur quelgues sujeta de physique et de
philosophic (1768-72; 2d ed. by Cournot, 1842;
Ger. ed., Stuttgait, 1853; Eng. ed., New York,
1833). His textbooks were relatively less im-
portant; they include the following: Introduclio
in Analysin Infinitorum (1748; Fr. ed., 1796-
97; Ger. ed., 1785-90); Institutions Calculi
Differentiates (1755; 2d ed., 1804; Ger. ed.,
1790-98); Institutiones Calculi Integrals (3
vols., 1768-70; 3d ed., 4 vols., 1824-45; Ger.
ed., 4 vols., 1828-40); Anleitung tsur Algebra,
(1771; 3d ed., 1821; Fr. ed., 1770, 2d ed. 1795,
and Paris, 1807; Eng. ed., 1818, 2d ed, 1821);
Dioptrica (3 vols., 1769-71); Theoria Motiiutn
Lunce Nova Methodo Pertractata (1772) ; Opus-
cula Analytioa (1783-85). For biography of
Euler, consult: Condorcet, Eloge, in Euler' s In-
stitutiones Calculi Differentialis and in his Let-
tres d, une princesse d'Allemagne; also Fuss,
Oorrespondance mathematique et physique (St.
Petersburg, 1843).

ETHSOE'trS (Lat., from Gk. Efy-acos, Eumaios) .
The faithful swineherd in the Odyssey, xv, who
recognizes Odysseus on his return and aids him
in destroying the suitors. See ULYSSES.

ETTMATHITTS. See EUSTATHIUS.

EUMENES, u'me'-nez (Lat., from Gk. Ev/^s)
(c.360-316 B.C.). A capable general of Alexander
the Great, born at Cardia in the Thracian Cher-
sonesus. He was private secretary of Philip of
Macedon and, after Philip's death, of Alexander,
under whom he was also commander of the
cavalry. On the death of Alexander, Eumenes
became Governor of Cappadocia, Paphlagonia,
and the seacoast of Pontus as far as Trapezus.
With Perdiccas as an ally, he defeated Craterus,
Neoptolemus, and Antipater in 321 B.C. In the
next year he was himself defeated by Antigonus
and retreated to Nora, on the borders of Lyca-
onia and Cappadocia, where he withstood a long
blockade (320-319 B.C.). He was finally be-
trayed by his soldiers into the hands of Antig--
onus, by whose orders he was put to death
(316 B.C.). With the death of Eumenes there
came to an end the last effort to hold together
the Macedonian Empire for the rightful heirs
of Alexander the Great. His life was written
by Cornelius Nepos and by Plutarch. Consult
Vczin, Eumenes von Karaia: ein Beitrag, &ur
Geschichte der Diadochenzeit (Miinster, 1907).

ETT3OI3TES U ( ?-159 B.C.). King of Per-
gamum (q.v.), and a, son of Attalus I. He be-
gan his reign in 197 B.C. and was a faithful ally
of the Romans in their war against Antiochus
(q.v.) the Great. He contributed largely to
the victory at Magnesia (190 B.C.) and received,
in recognition of his services, the provinces of
Mysia, Lydia, and Phrygia, so that he became
one of the most powerful rulers in Asia. By his
political sagacity in continuing friendly to Rome
he greatly increased the political prestige of his
realm, and his rule was marked by peace a*nd
prosperity. He was a liberal patron of the arts
and sciences and attracted many scholars to his
court. He completed the magnificent altar at
Pergamum (q.v.), and established a library
which is said to have rivaled that of Alexandria.
(See LIBRARIES.) He ruled until 159 B.C. and
was succeeded by his brother, Attalus II.

EUMENIDES

, A-mSu'l-de* (Lat., from Gk.
s, the gracious ones, from e$, ru, well +
ens, nienos. mind). The euphemistic name of
the Erinyes. Their Latin name was Furice or
Dircc. Mentioned by the earliest Greek poets,
they piny a prominent part in the writings of
the tragedians. They are representatives of the
mighty powers who punish those who offend
against the unwritten laws of conduct. Their
home is in the lower world, but their power
intends into this life, and they hunt the sinner
to his ruin. In the epic they punish perjury,
homicide, and such sins in the household as
neglect of parents and ill treatment of guests.
In the tragedies there are indications of a more
general conception of them as guardians of the
universal laws. They either take vengeance on
the living or carry off the sinner to the lower
\\orld, where others can punish him. They are
also the torturers of sinners in the other world.
As pursuers of criminals, they are represented
in the short tunic and boots of the huntress or
accompanied by hounds; as avengers, they bear
whips or burning torches; while the snake of
chthonic divinities appears in their hair or is
carried in their hands. At first their number is
not mentioned; Homer once uses the singular,
and a Demeter Erinys was worshiped at Thel-
pusa in Arcadia. JEachylus brought 15 on the
stage in the Eumenides, but in Euripides the
number is three, and later learning gave them
the names Alecto, Megscra, Tisiphone. Their
genealogy also was uncertain. Hesiod calls them
daughters of Ga»a ; JEschylus makes them daugh-
ters of Night. Such dread deities, however, are
terrible only to the sinner; to the devout wor-
shiper they are bribers of blessing and protec-
tion, and hence are rightly called Eumenides, or
at Athens Se/uvat, 'The Revered.' They were
honored at Sicyon, Argos, and elsewhere, but
we are best informed about Athens, where they
had a sanctuary near a cave on the east side
of the Areopagus, and a sacred inclosure at
Colonus. Consult: JEschylus, Eumenides; Soph-
ocles, CEdipiiK at Golonus; Fairbanks, A Hand-
look of Greek Religion (New York, 1910).

EtTME'NTCrS (c.260-311 A.D.). One of the
Homan panegyrists (q.v.), born at Augustodu-
num (modern Autun) in Gallia Lugdunensis.
After teaching rhetoric at Augustodunum, he
went with Constantius Chlorus on several cam-
paigns as his secretary. In 296, when Chlorus
resolved to restore the famous schools of Autun,
he appointed Eumenius to manage them. In
297 Eumenius delivered at Autun, in the forum,
an address Pro Restaurandis Scholis, in which
lie unfolded the steps necessary to restore the
efficiency of the schools. Out of 12 speeches
included in Baehrens's Panegyrici Latini (Leip-
zig, 1874), 4 have been attributed to Eumenius:
the speech named above; an address to Constan-
tius Chlorus, then Caesar, congratulating him
on his victories over Allectus and Carausius in
Britain (297 A.D.) ; a panegyric on Constantine
(310) ; and an address on the marriage of
Constantine and Fausta. Consult Teuffel, Qe-
schiohte der romischen Litteratur, vol. iii (6th
ed., Leipzig, 1013).
EtTHOL^PIIXZEL See EUMOLFTJS.
ETJMOI/PTJS (Lat., from Gk. Etf/wXTros, Eumol-
pos, the sweet singer, from e5, eu, well + 0o\7rij,
inolp$3 song, from p,4\irew, melpein, to sing). Tn
the later mythology of Greece, the son of Posei-
don and Chione, daughter of Boreas and Orei-
thyia. He was brought up in Ethiopia, whence

l&t

lie went to Thrace, and afterward passed into
Attica at the head of a body of Thracians, to
assist the Eleusinians (who had once shown him
hospitality) in their war against Erechtheus
(q.v.), King of Athens. Eumolpus fell in the
battle, and later the Eleusinians submitted to
the Athenians, only reserving to themselves the
celebration of the mysteries. Eumolpus also
appears as King of Eleusis, and it is to him
that Demetcr communicates the mysteries. To
him the hereditary priests of the goddess at
Eleusis, the Eumolpiflce, traced their descent.
(See ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES; ELEUSIS.) Other
legends made him a musician and connected him
with the mythical Thracian bard, Muaecus (q.v.),
as his pupil, his son, or even his father. To
endeavor to harmonize the many contradictory
stories about Eumolpus, some of the later my-
thographers distinguished three persons of this
name.

EUMYCETES, u'mi-se'tez. A name of con-
venience given to the Ascomycetea and Basidi-
omycetes as distinguished from the Phycomy-
cetes. The name indicates that the first two
groups are to be regarded as the true fungi,
and the last named as a group of fungi with
algal characters. See FTTXQT.

ETTiN'A'PrcrS (Lat., from Gk. JStivdinos)
(c.346-?). A Greek sophist and historian, born
at Sardis. He was a Neoplatonist, a believer in
the old religion, and a bitter enemy of Chris-
tianity. In his youth he was a pupil of the
Neoplatonist Cluyaanth ius. From 302 to 360
A.D. he was a stiident tit Athens, in the school
of Prosprcsius. In 360 he returned to his native
town and there set up a school for himself. His
death occurred not earlier than 414 A.I>. lie
wrote at the beginning of the fifth century a
work entitled Lives of the Philosophers and the
Sophisls, containing 23 biographies of represent-
ative Neoplatonists and Sophists; this was
edited by Boisaonade (Paris, 1S49). This work
is preserved. He was also the author of a con-
temporary history in 40 books, designed to be
a continuation of the history of Dexippus. It
included the years from 270 to 404 A.D. We
have only fragments of this history, to be found
in Mflller, Fragwcnta flistoriconini Grcccorum,
vol. iv (5 vols., Paris, 1841-73), but its wub-
stance is incorporated in the woik of Zosimus.

ETKKTICE (Lab., from Gk. EM/ci?, Eunike).
A Jewess of Lyatra, mentioned in the New Testa-
ment (Acts xvi. 1; 2 Tim. i. 5) as the mother
of Timothy. Her husband was a Greek (Acts
xvi. 1), in deference to whom probably she al-
lowed their son to remain uncircumcised (Acts
xvi. 3). But she had given him a religious
name (Tiiiiotheus, honoring God) and had faith-
fully trained him from early years in the Jew-
ish Scriptures. (2 Tim. iii.' 15). Aa she is re-
ferred to at the beginning of Paul's second mis-
sionary tour as a believer, it is likely that she
was one of the converts of his first missionary
work. See TIMOTHY.

ETJITO'MTCrS (Lat., from Gk. Efofywos) ( ?-
c.392). The founder of the once numerous
Arian sect of Eunomians, which disappeared in
the fifth century. He was born in the village
of Dacora in Cappadocin and was first a lawyer,
then a soldier, and ultimately took holy orders.
In 360 he was appointed Bishop of Cyzicus and
held his see till 364. In the great controversy
regarding the nature of the Trinity which raged
during the fourth century, Eunomius was con-
spicuous by his advocacy* of the extreme Arian

EtttttTCH 165

view that the Father alone was eternal and
supreme; that the Son was generated of Him;
and the Holy Spirit, again, of the Son. His
doctrine of the Trinity is sometimes called the
anomoian, 'dissimilar,' to distinguish it, on the
one hand, from the homoiousian, 'similar,' held
by the aemi-Arians, and, on the other, from the
homoousian, 'identical,' held by the Athanasian
or Trinitarian party. (See HOMOOUSION.) His
life was much checkered. His doctrines were
approved by synods at Antioch in 358 and 362,
but condemned at other synods. He was ban-
ished from one place to another, until at length
he obtained permission to retire to his native
village, where he died about 392. His writings
aie preserved only as fragments here and there
in the works of his adversaries. They are
published in Migne, Patrologia, cxv, and an Eng-
lish translation of the first Apology in Whiston,
Eunomianismus Redivivus. Consult Klose, Ge-
scliiclite und Lehre des Eunomius (Kiel, 1833),
and Harnack, History of Dogma (Boston, 1894-
1900).

ETJNTJCH, u'nuk (Lat. eunuchus, Gk. efoov-
X«s, from etfpij, eune, bed + fyeiv, eohein, to
have). In general, a castrated man; specifically,
such a man employed as keeper of a harem or
in a priestly capacity. Eunuchism is of pre-
historic origin and prevails in some form or
other among nearly all races and peoples.

ETJinrCHTJS, u-nuk'us (Lat., Eunuch). One
of the brightest and most successful comedies
of Terence, derived from the Eunuchus and the
Kolax of Mcnander. It was produced in 161 B.C.
It suggested Sir Charles Sedley's Bellamira,
Brueys's Le Aluet, and La Fontaine's L'Eunuque.

ETJOM/THALTJS. A fossil gastropod with
wide, depressed, spiral shell. Many species are
known from rocks of Silurian to Triassic age,
but they are most common in those of the Car-
boniferous period, especially in Europe. Allied
genera of importance are Ophileta and Haclurea
(qq.v.) of Ordovician age.

ETJON/YMTJS. See SPINDUE TREE.

ETTOKITITHES (Neo-Lat. nom. pL, from
Gk. eti, eu, well + tpns, ornis, bird). A prime
division of birds, embracing all except the
Archseopteryx (q.v.), which is hence regarded
as a representative of another and very different
ancient structural type of birds, the Archseor-
nithes. Equivalent terms are Neornithes and
Eurhipidurce, the latter meaning "fan-tailed"
(euornithic) as opposed to the arch-ornithic
Saururse, or "lizard-tailed" type.

ETTPAiLI'NTrS, OF MEG ABA. A Greek archi-
tect, builder of a famous aqueduct on the island
of Samos for Polycrates. This aqueduct, or
tunnel through a hill, still exists. (See AQUE-
DUCT.) Consult the article "Emissarium," in
Smith, A. Dictionary of Greek and Roman An-
tiquities (3d ed., London, 1890).

ETT'PATCKRIA. A seaport and district town
in the Russian Government of Taurida, situated
on the west coast of the Crimea, 38 miles
northwest of Simferopol (Map: Russia, D 5).
Its harbor, an inlet of the Black Sea, is unpro-
tected, but free from ice the entire year. The
city is picturesque in appearance, having an
Oriental character. Among its mosques the
most noteworthy is that built by Devlet-Ghiri
Khan in 1552, modeled after St. Sophia of
Constantinople. There are a number of Tatar
high schools, synagogues, Turkish baths, etc.
The town has tanneries, soap and candle facto-
ries, and there is a considerable trade in grain,

wool, and Bait. The salt lake of Saki, on which
Eupatoria is situated, is one of the best-fre-
quented bathing resorts in the Crimea on account
of its mud springs which arc credited with cura-
tive powers in cases of rheumatism and paralysis.
Pop. (1910), 30,432. Eupatoria was an im-
portant place tinder the Tatars. With its annex-
ation to Russia in 1783 it received its present
name from an old fort constructed about 100
B.C. in the reign of Mithridates Eupator. A
portion of the allied Anglo-French forces held
the town for four days, Sept. 14-18, 1854. The
town was also the scene of a battle between the
Russians and the Turks on Feb. 17, 1855, in
which the latter were victorious.

ETT'PATO^BITTM (Lat. eupatoria, Gk. evn-a-
Topio?, euvatoriou, the plant hemp agrimony;
named in honor of Mithridates Eupator). A
genus of plants of the family Compositor having
small flower heads in corymbs, with the florets
all tubular. The species, ' about 400 in number,
are mostly American, a few occurring in Europe
and Asia. One only is British, the common
hemp agrimony (Eupatoriiim cannabinum) , a
slightly aromatic perennial plant, growing
mostly in marshy places and on the banks of
streams. The root was formerly employed as a
purgative, and the plant was also used as a
diuretic and as a vulnerary. Thoroughwort, or
boneset (Eupatorium perfoliatum), a species
having the opposite loaves joined at the base, is
very common in low grounds in North America
and is a popular medicine often administered in
intermittent fevers, also as an emetic and purga-
tive and, in small doses, as a tonic. It con-
tains eupatorin (a bitter glucoside), a volatile
oil, tannin, etc. The whole plant is very bitter.
Other North American species possess similar
properties, and the root of one, known as gravel-
root, or joe-pye weed (Eupatorium purpureum),
is emplovcd as a diuretic for the relief of the
disease from which it derives its name. The
ayapana (Eupatorkim triplinerve) , a half-
shrubbv species, native of the north of Brazil,
has a high reputation in that country as a cure
for snake bites and has been introduced into the
East Indies. It is a very powerful sudorific and
is also diuretic. The Peruvian vulnerary,
matico, has been referred, but uncertainly, to a
shrubby species of this genus (fhipatoriwn glu-
tinosum). Guaco, or huaco, reputed in Peru as
a cure for snake bites, is supposed to belong to
the allied genus Hikania. For illustration, see
Plates of BONESET, GOLDENBOD, and BAMBOO.

EUPAT'RIDJE (Lat., from Gk. etiirarplSat,
eupatridai, nom. pi. of eflTrarp/Sijs, eupatrides,
having a noble father, from etf, eu, well + Tranjp,
pater, father). The old aristocracy of birth in
Athens, dwellers in the city itself. (See ATHENS,
History. ) At first they alone held the full citi-
zenship, constituted the governing class, and had
exclusive political rights and priestly functions,
of which they were deprived by the constitution
of Solon. (See ABOHON; AREOPAGUS.) Their
influence was, however, long preserved by their
territorial possessions. Consult Gilbert, The
Constitutional Antiquities of Sparta and Athens
(Eng. trans., London, 1895).

EtTPEN", oi'pen. A town of the Prussian
Rhine Province, situated in a beautiful valley,
within 2 miles of tho Belgian, frontier and about
10 miles south of Aix-la-Chapelle (Map: Prus-
sia, B 3). Eupen is known for its extensive
woolen and cloth mills, manufactures paper,
machinery, soap, felt, and has iron foundries,

166

EUPHRATES

tanneries, dye -works, stone quarries, and brew-
eries. Pop., 1900, 14,294; 1905, 13,600; 1910,
13,544.

EU'PHEMISM (Gk. etf077/iio7-i6s, euphemis-
mos, from ev^/u/few', euph&niizetn, to speak aus-
piciously, from ev<f>tjnosj eupJicmos3 auspicious,
from efl, eu, well + Q'hMi p/ieme, voice, from
<£ai/ai, phanai, to speak). A figure of rhetoric
by which an unpleasant or offensive matter is
designated in indirect and milder terms. Thus,
instead of directly calling up an unpleasant
image by the word died, we say, "He was gath-
ered to his fathers," and even the malicious elves
and fairies of modern superstition are spoken of
as "good people." See ANTEPJIEASIS.
ETFPHOB/BIA. SeeSruBGE; EUPHOBBIACE^E.
ETTPHOB/BIA'CE.® (Neo-Lat. nom. pi.,
from Lai. euphorbeum, euphorbea, Gk. eu06p-
jSioy, euphorbion, the plant spurge; named in
honor of Euphorbus, a celebrated Greek phyHi-
cian at the Mauretanian court). A veiy exten-
sive family of dicotyledonous plants, the * 'spurge
family," containing 220 genera and more than
4000 species — trees, shrubs, and herbs. They
abound chiefly in warm countries and most of
all in tropical America. The few species found
in the colder parts of the world are all herba-
ceous. The common box reaches a more north-
ern limit than any other shrubby species. The
species common to the United States are differ-
ent kinds of spurge (Euphorbia), croton, three-
seeded mercury, spurge nettle, and queen's de-
light. The Euphorbiacese usually abound in an
acrid and poisonous milky juice, although there
are species of which the juice is bland, or be-
comes bland through the application of heat, so
that their leaves may be used as food. The
leaves exhibit great diversities. The inflores-
cence is also various, nearly every type of in-
florescence being found. The flowers are always
monosporangiate and may be monoecious or
dioecious. In some species the perianth consists
of one or two whorls, in others it is wholly
absent; when present, it is usually five-parted.
The stamens are one to many and variously
united. The ovary is usually three-lobed, the
carpels splitting elastically and throwing the
seed to some distance. This is shown well in the
drying of castor beans. Among those remark-
able for the acridity of their juice are the man-
chineel (q.v.) and Eaxzcaria agallooha, an East
Indian tree, formerly supposed to yield one of
the kinds of aloes wood, the smoke from the
burning of which is extremely irritating to the
eyes. The juice of many of the spurges is also
very acrid. Many of the Euphorbiacece are
valued for their medicinal properties, different
parts of the plant being in some instances em-
ployed, and in some the resin and oils which
they contain. Many of them yield valuable
products — rubber, cassava, castor oil, croton oil,
euphorbia oil, candlenut, cascarilla, African
teak, etc. (See HEVEA; MANIHOT.) Others, such
as Croton and Codiceum, are often cultivated in
gardens and hothouses, more frequently for their
curious appearance than for their beauty; but
the large scarlet bracts of Euphorbia, pulcher-
rima, a native of Mexico, are very attractive.
See Plate of EDELWEISS.
ETTPHOB'BITrM. A gum resin. See GTTMS.
ETTPHOB'BtrS (Lat., from Gk. Efyop/Sos).
One of the bravest of the Trojan warriors, the
son of Panthotis and Phrontis. He first wounded
Patroelus when the latter was fighting in the
a-nnor of Achilles and was slain bv Menolau*

(Iliad, xvii, 1-CO). Pythagoras, who held the
doctrine of metempsychosis, claimed that his
soul had once inhabited the body of Euphorbus;
to prove this he picked out, in the temple of
Hera at Argos, the shield of Euphorbus. Con-
sult the editors on Horace, Cwmvna, 1, 28,
10-13.

ETJPHO'BION (Lat., from Gk. Etf0opW)
(27G-C.200 B.C.). A Greek poet and gram-
marian. He was born at Chalcis in Euboaa, but
studied at Athens, and became librarian to Anti-
ochns the Great about 220 B.C. His works,
which included historical and grammatical pro-
ductions in prose, mythological epics, elegies,
and epigrams, were censured by Cicero as
affectedly obscure. Among the Eomans of the
Augustan peiiod, however, he was very popular,
and his elegies are said to have been the models
for those of Gallus and of the Emperor Tiberius.
Fragments of his works are published in
Meincke's De Euphorionis Chatcidcnsis Vita et
Script is (Berlin, 1823) and Analecta Alexan-
dnna (Berlin, 1843), and in Kock's Fraymenta
Gomicorum Orcecorum (Leipzig, 1880). A new
fragment is discussed in Berliner Klassikertejctc,
vol. i (1907). (Consult Christ-Schmid, Ge-
schichte der griechischen, Littcratur, vol. ii, part
i, 5th ed., Munich, 1911.) The amours of
Euphorion with Nicia, the wife of King Alex-
ander of Euboea, are frequently alluded to in
the poems of the Greek Antliology.

ETJPHBA1TOB (Lat., from Gk. Ei50pe£vwp).
A sculptor and painter of Corinth, who lived in
the middle of the fourth century B.C. His most
celebrated painting was in the Stoa Basileios at
Athens. It represented the 12 gods, Theseus
with the People, and Democracy, and the charge
of the Athenian cavalry at Mantinea ( 3G2 B.C. ) .
Among his statues were an Apollo, a Paris, and
a Leto, with Apollo and Artemis in her arms,
fleeing from the serpent. In his statues he
adopted unusually slender forms, in reaction
against the solid, heavy figures portrayed by
Polyclitus. Furtwlingler (Meisterwcrke dcr
griechischcn Plastik, Berlin, 1893) has proposed
to identify a number of well-known statues with
ancient copies of the works of Euphranor, among
them the "Dionysos" from Tivoli and the
Athena Giustiniani of the Vatican. Consult
E. A. Gardner, A HandbooJt of Greek Sculpture
(London, 1911).

ETTPHBATES, u-fru'tez (Lat., from Gk.
E£0pdTT7s, OPers. Uf rates, Heb. Pertitli, Assvr.
Purattu, Ar. Purut, Turk. Frftt, from Suinerian
Pura-mun, great water). A river of Asia, form-
ing, with its tributary, the Tigris (q.v.), the
principal river system of the southwestern part
of the continent (Map: Turkey in Asia, E 4).
It has its source in the heart of Armenia, in
two brandies — the Kara Su, or Western Eu-
phrates, and the Murad Su, or Eastern Eu-
phrates, the former rising 25 miles northeast of
the town of Erzerum and flowing southwest to
a point below Seraijik, where it is mot by the
Murad Su, which rises on the south slope of
Ala-Dagh and flows west- southwest to the point
of confluence. From Seraijik the Euphrates
flows in a general southerly direction, inclining
at first to the east, but later with a tendency
westward towards the Mediterranean. In this
part of its course it breaks through the Anti-
Taurus, and flows among the mountains for 45
miles, emerging at Samsat, whence it continues
uninterrupted oy rapids to the sea, a distance
of 1200 miles. 'Before reaching Rum Kaleh it

EUPHR-ONIUS

167

ETTPOLIS

changes its direction and, flowing south, sepa-
rates for some distance Mesopotamia from Syria
and the deserts of Syrian Arabia. Curving to
the southeast, it flows on without receiving any
important tributaries for about 700 miles, until
it is joined at Kurna by the Tigris. From
Kurna the river takes the name of the Shat-el-
Arab, and continues to flow in a southeasterly
direction until, after being united by a canal
with the Karun from the east, it discharges its
waters through several arms into the Persian
Gulf, 90 miles below Kurna. The total length
of the Euphrates is over 1700 miles, while the
area of its basin is estimated at 200,000 square
milos.

Notwithstanding its size, the Euphrates is of
little commercial importance and has very little
influence on the economic life of the region
through which it flows. The Armenian high-
hinder to-day, as he did 2000 years ago, floats
down the stream on his skin or wood raft to
sell his goods and returns on foot to his high-
land home. It is navigable for light vessels from
Babylon to the sea, a distance of about 450
miles, but even the portion below the confluence
of the Tigris is not always of sufficient depth
for navigation. Aside from the Tigris, the chief
tributaries aro the Khabur and Nahr Belik from
the east; from the west are received the inter-
mittent waters of a number of wadi-like streams.
Originally the river emptied directly into the
Persian Gulf; the accretions to the soil, due to
deposits at the mouth, which, it is estimated,
proceed at the rate of one mile in 50 years,
have brought about the change and caused it to
unite with the Tigris at Kurna.

Historically the Euphrates is second in im-
portance to no river in the world. It flowed
west of Assyria and through Babylonia and is
closely connected with the early Oriental world
empires. In ancient times it carried consider-
able commerce and travel, being navigated by
means of boats of wickerwork smeared with
bitumen. The plains along its lower course were
intersected by an elaborate system of irrigation
canals, and, fertilized by the annual overflow,
which takes place from the beginning of March
to the end of May, were of great productiveness
and supported a teeming population. In the
Bible the Euphrates is "the river," or "the great
river" (cf. Gen. xv. 18; Dcut. i. 7). It was
one of the four rivers of Eden and the only one
mentioned without description (Gen. ii. 14).
In the dreams of the Hebrews concerning dp-
minion it represented the eastern limit of their
territory (cf. Deut. xi. 24; Josh. i. 4). In
exilic times the Hebrews became very familiar
with the river, and there are many allusions to
it in the prophets, particularly Jeremiah. For
centuries the river was the eastern limit of the
Roman power, and under the caliphs its banks
were lined with prosperous towns, where the arts
and literature flourished. Consult: Chesney,
The Expedition for the Survey of the Rivers
Euphrates and Tigris (London, 1850) ; Peters,
Nippur,' or, Explorations and Adventures on the
Euphrates (Now York, 1807); E. Sachan, Am
Euphrat und Tigris (Leipzig, 1900); H. V.
Geere, By Nilo and Euphrates (New York,
1904) ; Hugo Winckler, Die Euphrattander und
das Mittelmcrr (Leipzig, 1905). See BABYLONIA.

ETTPHBOinTrS (lit., from Gk. %ti<f>p6vtos) .
A great Greek vase painter, who worked at
Athens at the time of the Persian Wars. Ten
vases signed by him are known; they well illus-

trate the progress of contemporary vase paint-
ing. Some are archaic in style and stiff, others
show greater freedom from archaic tradition.
The themes are varied, and the groupings strik-
ing and original. Consult Fowler and Wheeler,
A Handbook of Greek Archcsology (New York,
1909), and P. Gardner, The Principles of Greek
Art (ik, 1014).

ETTPHROSYITE, ft-frGsl-nfe (Lat., from Gk.
Eu0po<yri*»ij, the personification of joy, from etf0pwv,
euphron, joyous, from e«5, cu, well + 0/oifc, phrcn,
mind). One of the three Graces.

EUPHTHALMISTE, Hf-thal'mm (from Gk.
etf, en, well -f 6</>0a\n6s, ophthalmos, eye). An
artificial alkaloid. Its hydrochlorate is used in
solution as a substitute for atropine and homat-
ropine for dilating the pupil in examinations
with the ophthalmoscope. Although it requires
about 30 minutes to produce complete dilatation,
it possesses the marked advantage that its
effect passes off in five hours or less. Homat-
ropine causes dilatation for 24 to 36 hours and
atropine for several days. While effectually
dilating- the pupil, euphthalmine has little effect
upon accommodation and can be used without
danger of causing glaucoma (q.v.).

ETJPHTTES, fi'fu-ez, or THE ANATOMY OF
WIT. A famous romance by John Lyly (1579).
It treats of the molding of English society
through Italian influences and of the right prin-
ciples of education. A sequel was published in
1580 under the title Euphucs and his England.

EmPHUTSM (from Gk. et<f>w/)s, euphycs,
clover, from ciS, eu, well + fat, phye, nature,
from (pveiv, phyein, to produce). A term used
in English literature to denote an affected style
of language, fashionable for a short period at
the court of Queen Elizabeth. The word was
formed from the title of the book which brought
the style into vogue, the Euphues of John Lyly
(1579). The stylo was imitated by Shakespeare
in Love's Labour's Lost, and caricatured by
Scott in The Monastery. See also LYLY, JOHN.

ETJ'PHTZXLOP'ODA. See BRANCHIOPODA.

ETTPOL'EMrCrS. A Jewish historical writer,
the author of a work entitled Concerning the
Kings of JWrra, of which excerpts made by
Alexander Polyhistor have been preserved by
Clement of Alexandria (Strom, i, 23, 153) and
Eusebius (Praspa/ratio evangelica, ix, 26, 30-
34, 39). He spoke of Moses as tho inventor of
the alphabet, from whom it passed to the Phoeni-
cians and the Greeks. He is generally supposed
to have written c.158 B.O., but the passage in
Clement (Strom, i, 21, 141) referring to him is
of doubtful interpretation, and Willrich main-
tains that he flourished in the lifetime of Alex-
ander Polyhistor (c.80-40 B.C.). The fragments
were published by Kuhlmey, Eupolemi Frag-
vnenta (Berlin, 1840), and Miiller, Fragmenta
Hifitoricorum tircecorum, iii, pp. 207 ff. (Leip-
zig, 1849). Consult also Willrich, Juden und
Oriechen ( GrOttingen, 1905), and Schiirer, Qe-
schichte des jiidisohen Volkes (4th ed., Leipzig,
1909).

ETT'POLIS (Lat., from Gk. HAroXu) (c.446-
411 B.C.). An Athenian poet of the Old Comedy,
ranking with Cratinus and Aristophanes. His
first play was produced in 429 B.C., when he
was but 17 years old. He produced in all 14,
or, according to Suidas, 17 pieces, of which
seven won the first prize. In the early part of
his caroer he was on terms of close friendship
and collaborated with Aristophanes, but later
the relation was changed so that each accused

EURAQUILO 168

the other of plagiarizing from his dramas. Eu-
polis died apparently in 411 B.C. in a naval
battle, in consequence of which misfortune it
is said the Athenians thereafter exempted poets
from military service. The fragments are
collected in Meineke, Fragmenta Comicorum
Grcccorum, vols. i, ii (Berlin, 1839-57), and
Kock, Comicorum Atticorum Fragments, vol. i
(Leipzig, 1880). Consult Christ-Schmid, Ge-
sclwclite der griechiscJien Litteratur, vol. i
(5th ed., Munich, 1908).

EURAQUILO, 1-rak'wMo (from Gk. Efyoy,
Euros, east wind + Lat. Aquilo, northeast wind,
i.e., an east-northeast wind) . The popular name,
given doubtless by sailors, for the wind which
struck the ship on which Paul was making his
voyage to Rome. The ship had left the shelter
of Cape Matala, on the south coast of Crete,
with the purpose of making the winter harbor
of Phenix (Authorized Version, Phenice), far-
ther westward on the same island (Acts xxvii.
13, 14). In the Authorized Version, following
inferior manuscript reading, it is called Euro-
clydon. It came evidently in a sudden change
from the mild south wind under which the ship
was sailing, and consisted in a violent gale de-
scending from the mountainous heights of the
island and accompanied with typhonic mani-
festations.

EURA'SIAETS (from Europe -f Asia). A
term of varied application. In India it has been
used for more than half a century to denote the
mixed offspring of European and Hindu parents.
Following the geological designation of the seem-
ing unity of the continents of Europe and Asia
as Eurasia, the word "Eurasians" came to be
used in an allied ethnographic and ethnological
sense. Thus, Keane (1896) finds the cradle land
of the Aryans in the Eurasian steppe, and
Deniker (1900) makes a Eurasian group, to
include such peoples (Ugrians, Turko-Tatars,
etc.) which have representatives in both conti-
nents. Sergi, in his Mediterranean Race (Lon-
don, 1901), applies the term "Eurasiatic'' to
that variety of man which "brought with it into
Europe [from Asia in the later Neolithic period]
flexional languages of Aryan or Indo-European
type."

ETJBE, e"r. A northwestern department of
Prance (Map: France, N., F 3), formed from
parts of the ancient Perche, Normandy, and the
Countship of Evreux. Area, 2331 square miles.
Pop., 1901, 334,781; 1911, 323,651. Its surface
is level, never rising above an altitude of 700
feet, and the soil is fertile. The principal river
is the Seine, which, entering the department
from the southeast, flows through it in a north-
westerly direction to Pont-de-FArche. The Eurc,
from which the department derives its name,
and the Bille, both affluents of the Seine, are
the only other important streams. The chief
products are grain, hemp, flax, vegetables, and
fruits, particularly apples and pears, from which
large quantities of cider and perry are made;
and lime, clay, stone, and marl are quarried.
The breeding of cattle, sheep, and the famous
Normandy horses is favored by extensive meadow
and pasture lands. There are extensive iron,
zinc, and copper works. Cotton goods, cloth,
linen, glass, nails, musical instruments, bricks,
sugar, pins, and stoneware are likewise manu-
factured. Capital, Evreux.

EURE. A river in the northwestern part of
France, and a tributary of the Seine (Map:
France, N., G 2) . It rises in the Department of

EUREKA

Orne, flows first southeast into the centre of the
Department of Eure-et-Loir, then north and
northwest through the departments of Eure-et-
Loir and Eure, joining the Seine above Pont-
de-FArche, after a course of about 112 miles,
for 50 of which it is navigable. On its banks
is the town of Chartres.

ETJBE, J. C., DUPONT DE L*. See DUPONT DE

L'EUEE.

EURE-ET-LOIR, e*r'-a-lwar/. A northern
department of France, formed from the ancient
provinces of Orleanais and Normandy (Map:
France, N., G 4). Area, 2293 square miles.
Pop., 1901, 275,433; 1911, 272,255. It is watered
mainly by the Eure in the north and the Loir
in the south, the two rivers from which it takes
its name. In the east is the fertile plain of
Beauce, while the west is a country of hill and
valley. The department is generally level. The
soil is fertile and wheat, oats, and apples are
largely produced. Manufactured products in-
clude textiles, farm implements, hats, shoes, and
paper. Capital, Chartres.

EUREKA (Gk. efipijKa, I have found). An
exclamation attributed to the philosopher Archi-
medes, who is said to have cried "Eureka! Eu-
reka!" upon discovering the principle of specific
gravity, whereby he was enabled to determine
what proportion of silver alloy was contained in
the golden crown of King Hiero of Syracuse.

EURE'KA. A city and the county scat of
Humboldt Co., Gal., 224 miles (direct) northwest
of San Francisco, on the Northwestern Pacific
Railroad, and on Humboldt Bay, connected with
Pacific coast ports by regular steamship lines
(Map: California, A 2). It possesses a fine
harbor which has been improved by the United
States government. Sequoia Park, a tract of
redwood forest of 40 acres, is still practically
in its virgin state. The noteworthy features are
the Carnegie library, Federal building, county
jail, hospital, city hall, and courthouse. An
extensive trade is carried on in redwood lumber,
shingles, butter, fish, apples, and wool, the ex-
ports in 1912 amounting to $10,900,000. There
are shingle mills, tobacco factories, bottling
works, sanh and door factories, marble and gran-
ite works, a tannery, iron foundry, woolen mill,
etc. The government, under a charter of LS95,
is vested in a mayor, elected biennially, and a
municipal council. First settled in 1850, Eureka
became the county seat and was incorporated
in 1850. Pop.. 1900, 7327; 1910, 11,845; 1914
(U. S. est.), 13,768; 1920, 12,923.

EUREKA. A city and the county seat of
Woodford Co., 111., 19 miles east by north of
Peoria, on the Toledo, Peoria, and Western and
the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe railroads
(Map: Illinois, F 4). Eureka College (ChriK-
tian), established in 1855, is situated here. The
city has a largo cannery. Eureka WHS incorpo-
rated as a town in 1850. The water works are *
owned by the municipality. Pop., 1900, 1601;
1910, 1525.

EUREKA. A city and the county seat of
Greenwood Co., Kans., about 90 miles (direct)
south-southwest of Topeka, on Fall River, and
on the Missouri Pacific and the Atcliison, Topeka,
and Santa Fe railroads (Map: Kansas, F 7).
The Southern Kansas Academy (Congregational)
is situated here, and there is a Carnegie library,
Cattle raising is the chief industry. Eureka
has adopted the commission form of government
and owns its water works. Pop., 1900, 2091;
1910, 2333.

ETJBEKA

169

EURIPIDES

ETJBEKA. A town and the county seat of
Eureka Co., Nev., about 75 miles (direct) east
of Austin, on the Eureka Nevada Railroad
(Map: Nevada, E 3). It was once a productive
gold, silver, and lead mining camp and had
smelting and refining plants. Eureka suffered
severely from fires in 1878 and 1879 and from
a washout in 1910. Pop., 1900, 877; 1910, 661.

EUREKA. A city in Juab Co., Utah, 90
miles south by west of Salt Lake City, on the
Rio Grande Western and the San Pedro, Los
Angeles, and Salt Lake railroads (Map: Utah,
B 3 ) . 1 1 is in a copper and silver mining region
and has smelters and quartz mills. The city
contains a Carnegie library. Pop., 1900, 3085;
1910,3416.

EUREKA SPRINGS. A city and one of
the county seats of Carroll Co., Ark., 150 miles
northwest of Little Rock, on the Missouri and
North Arkansas Railroad (Map: Arkansas, B
1). It is a noted health resort, popular for its
picturesque and elevated situation among the
Ozark Mountains, its healthful climate, and
its medicinal springs, 40 in number. In the
vicinity a fine grade of onyx is found. The city
contains the Crescent College for Girls, a Car-
negie library, and several hotels, and has fruit-
growing interests and manufactories of onyx
curios. The water works are owned by the city.
Pop., 1900, 3572; 1910, 3228.

EURIC. A king of the Visigoths. See
GOTHS ; VisiaoTns.

EURIWGER, oi'rmg-er, SEBASTIAN (1865-
). A German Semitic and biblical scholar,
born in Augsburg. He studied at Munich, Ox-
ford, Heidelberg, Freiburg, Strassburg, Jerusa-
lem (Ecole Bibliquo Pratique), and Tubingen.
He was ordained in 1887, preached for two years,
and thon traveled widely in Egypt and Palestine.
In 1894-1900 he was pastor of a church near
Augsburg and then became professor in the
Dillingon Lyceum. Among his books, all the more
valuable for his personal experiences, are: Der
Masorahtcxt des EoJielet (1890), Die Auffassung
tics Ho7ic.nl icdes lei den Alessiniem (1900) ; Die
Chronologic dor bibliscJien JJrgescMolite (1909) ;
Die Kunstjorm der altlielraischen Poesie(l9l2) ;
Em unJtanonischer Teat in der armenischen
Bibel (1913).

EURIPIDES, u-rlp'i-dez (Lat., from Gk.
EftpMrftp) (c.480-406 B.C.). The latest of the
three great Greek tragic poets. He was born,
tradition said, in Salamis on the day of the
great sea fight with the Persians. His parents,
Mnesarchides and Clito, were of humble station;
they lived at one time in banishment in Bcaotia,
and on their return to Athens are said to have
engaged in petty retail trade. Their sons how-
ever, had a good education. He produced his
first play, Tl\e Daughters of Peleus, at the age
of 25. From that time he devoted himself to
the tragic stage. His first play won but the
third place, aiid he gained t£e first prize only
after 14 years of disappointment. This distinc-
tion he enjoyed but five times in all (one author,
however, says he won 15 times). Euripides was
of a studious and speculative nature and was a
friend and disciple of Anaxagoras, Prodicua,
Protagoras, Socrates, and others, although he
attached himself to no particular philosophic
school. He possessed a gloomy temperament,
was morbidly sensitive, and apparently felt him-
self misunderstood by his fellow Athenians. He
took no part in politics, but lived in his library.
The latter part of Ms life he spent away from

Athens, first in Magnesia, then at the court of
Archelaus at Pella in Macedonia. He died in
the spring of 406 B.C. at Arethusa, near Amphip-
olis, and was buried not far from that city. At
Athens a cenotaph was erected to him, the epi-
taph of which declared that all Greece was his
monument, and that the earth of Macedon cov-
ered only his bones.

In sharp contrast to his two great predeces-
sors, JEschylus and Sophocles, Euripides repre-
sents the new moral, social, and political move-
ments which were, transforming Athens at the
end of the fifth century B.C. He is also distin-
guished from the earlier tragedians by the fact
that his interest lay in the thought and expe-
rience of the ordinary individual far more than
in the sufferings of legendary beings belonging
to the heroic past, so that, while he drew char-
acters from the old mythology, he treated them
in a thoroughly realistic fashion; they were no
longer ideal personages far removed from every-
day life, but contemporary Athenians repre-
senting every grade of society to be found in
Athens at his time. In fact, Euripides shifted
the tragic situation from a conflict between man
and the divine laws of the universe to man's
inner soul, where the straggle is between his
better impulses and the evil suggestions of his
baser self. Ho is, furthermore, the most modern
of all the Greek dramatists in his tenderness and
sentimentality; in some plays he appears as the
precursor of the modern romantic school. In his
lost Andromeda, of which the theme was Per-
seus's affection for the princess whose life he
had saved, lie produced the only known example
among the tragedies of antiquity of a plot based
on the favorite motive of the modern novel.

Euripides shared in the current skepticism of
the day as to the older religious beliefs, and
many passages in his tragedies betray his doubts.
His attitude not unnaturally brought down upon
his head the wrath of the conservatives, of whom
Aristophanes was the chief literary representa-
tive. In Euripides' language tho speech of com-
mon life had a considerable part, and his style
shows a remarkable smoothness and dexterity;
Aristophanes actually imitated it, and Aristotle
praised it, so that it was the model for the
writers of the later comedy. The structure of
his plays, however, is often dramatically defec-
tive, as many of them are made up of brilliant
detached episodes and do not form coherent
units through which the plots are gradually
developed. On the other hand, in other plays, as,
e.g., in the Medea, the plot is steadily developed
from beginning to end. Euripides has been
blamed for his use of the explanatory prologue,
in which he makes known to the spectators the
events which, precede the opening of the play
and oftentimes outlines coming events. But he
deserves censure, not for his employment of such
prologues, but for the manner in which he man-
aged them, for many of them are mechanical and
1 0 are burdened with long genealogies which de-
serve the ridicule that Aristophanes heaped upon
them. ITe also resorts too often to the "deus ex
machina" (q.v.) to solve his tragic situations,
and tho choral songs have frequently nothing
to do with his play. Yet with all allowances
for his defects, Euripides remains a great tragic
poet. His greatest strength lay, as was pointed
out in antiquity, in the representation of human
passion and in 'his recognition scenes. After the
beginning of the Peloponnesian War, Euripides
enjoyed great popularity, and his fame was not

EURIPIDES

170

ETJBOPA

confined to Attica alone. In the fourth century
he was read and presented almost to the ex-
clusion of the two older poets. His writings
exercised a profound influence on the Romans,
especially through Ennius. The vases from
southern Italy which have representations of
scenes from his work attest his fame there in
the fourth and third centuries B.C., and in the
Roman and Byzantine periods he was highly es-
teemed and imitated. In modern times he has
influenced English, German, and especially
French dramatists.

Euripides took his plots from the same gen-
eral sources as previous poets. A considerable
number of plays are based on the legends of
Thebes, Aigos, and the stories of Heracles; the
Trojan cycle had less charm for him, so that
only about a fifth of his plots can be traced to
that source, although 10 of the extant plays, in-
cluding the Rhesus, which popular taste has pre-
served to us, belong to this cycle. The myths
of his native Attica, however, had a strong
attraction for him, and he took pleasure in cele-
brating the Athenian heroes, J2geus, Theseus,
and Erechtheus. He also sought for subjects in
new fields, especially for themes which exhibited
violent passion or romantic adventures. Such
were the stories of Bellerophon, Cresphontes, and
PhaSthon, which he handled for the first time.
He also treated his mythology with great free-
dom, sometimes varying it in different plays, or
enlarging and developing a myth until it was
practically his own invention.

Tradition says that he left 92 plays in all.
Of these we possess but 18, and the Rhesus,
which is almost universally regarded as spurious.
The genuine plays are: Alcestis (438) ; Andro-
mache; Baccha; Hecuba; Helena (412); Elec-
traj Heracleidce ; Hercules Furens; Supplices;
Hippolytus (428) ; IpUgema Aulidensis; Iphi-
genia Taunca; Ion; Cyclops (the single satyr
drama extant); Medea (431); Orestes (408);
Troades (415) ; and Phcenissce. Only the dates
given are known with certainty; but the Bacchcs
and the Iphigenia Aulidensis were produced after
the poet's death. Consult Grace H. Macurdy,
The Chronology of the Extant Plays of Euripides
(Lancaster, Pa., 1905). Besides the above com-
plete plays, over 1100 fragments of the other
dramas have been preserved. Of the extant
plays, the Medea, Hippolytus, Bacchce, and Iphi-
genia Taurica are the best.

The best critical editions are by Kirchhoff
(Berlin, 1855); Nauck (Leipzig, 1871); Prinz
and Wecklein (ib., 1895-1905); a complete edi-
tion with English commentary by Paley (3 vols.,
London, 1858-60; vols. i and ii in 2d ed., 1872-
75) ; Murray (Oxford, 1901-13). For the frag-
ments, consult Nauek, Fragmented Tragicorum
Grcecorum (2d ed., Leipzig, 1889). For recently
discovered fragments, consult Von Arnim, Sup-
plementum Euripideum (Bonn, 1912) ; Hunt, Oxy-
rhynchus Papyri, vol. ix (London, 1898-1014).
Commentated editions of single plays are very
numerous; only a few of the best English edi-
tions can be named here: Aloestis, Earle (New
York, 1894), Haley (Boston, 1898); Bacohce,
Sandys (2d ed., Cambridge, 1885), Tyrrell (Lon-
don, 1892); Helena, Jerram (Oxford, 1881);
Heracles, Wilamowitz-Moellendorf (Berlin, 1889;
later ed. in 2 vols.) ; Heraoleidce, Beck (Cam-
bridge, 1882) ; Hippolytus, Harry (Boston,
1899); 7cm, Verrall (Cambridge, 1890); Iphi-
genia at Aulis, England (London, 1891 ) ; Iphi-
genia, among the Tawrians, England (ib., 1880) ;

Jerram (Oxford, 1885); Medea, Earle (New
York, 1904), Allen-Moore (Boston, 1901), Ver-
rall (Cambridge, 1883); Troades, Tyrrell (Lon-
don, 1897). The scholia are best edited by
Schwartz (Berlin, 1887-91). There is an ex-
cellent English translation in verse by Way
(London, 1894-98; rev. ed., ib., 1912); prose
translation by Coleridge (ib., 1885).

Consult: Wilamowitz-Moellendorf, Analecta
Euripidea (Berlin, 1875); Mahaffy, Introduction
to the Study of Euripides (London, 1879) ; De-
charme, Euripides and the Spirit of his Dramas
(New York, 1900); Verrall, Euripides the Ra-
tionalist (Cambridge, 1895); Haigh, Tragic
Drama of the Greeks (Oxford, 1896) ; England,
Euripides and the Attic Orators (London, 1898) ;
Nestle, Euripides, der Dichter der gr.iechischen
Aufkldrung (Stuttgart, 1901); Huddilston,
Greek Tragedy in the Light of Vase Paintings
(New York, 1898) ; translation of various plays
by Gilbert Murray (London, 1902 et seq.) ;
Verrall, Four Plays of Euripides (New York,
1905) ; Masqueray, Euripide et ses idees (Paris,
1908); Murray, Euripides and his Age (Now
York, 1913) ; Christ-Schmid, Qeschichtc tier grie-
chischen Litteratur, vol. i (5th ed., Munich,
1908) ; Steiger, Euripides; Seine Dichtung und
seine Perso'nlichkeit (Leipzig, 1912).

Etna/PITS (Lat., from Gk. BHUTTOS). The
narrowest part of the channel between the island
of Euboea and the mainland of Greece. Oppo-
site Chalcis the width of the strait is but a
little over 40 yards, and it is very shallow.
Here a rock in the channel facilitated the con-
struction of a bridge as early as 410 B.C. Ex-
ceedingly swift and variable currents exist in
the strait. The name is sometimes used in a
wider sense to designate the southeast portion
of the Etiboean Channel. See CHALCIS.
EUROOTiYDON". See EUBAQUILO.
EURO'PA, or ETTBO'PE (Lat., from Gk.
Etpdnn), Europe). In Greek legend, a daughter
of Phoenix, King of Phoenicia, or of Agenor. Her
beauty attracted the attention of Zeus, who ap-
peared in the form of a white bull and carried
her to Crete, where she became the mother of
Minos, Rhadamanthus, and Sarpedon. Zeus pre-
sented her with the bronze man, Talos, a dog
who never lost his prey, and a spear which never
missed its mark, and later gave her to King
Asterius of Crete, who adopted her sons. After
her death she was worshiped in Crete under the
surname Hellptia, or Hellotis. Modern mytholo-
gists are inclined to see in Europa a moon god-
dess, or else an earth goddess of fertility, like
Demcter. See also CADMUS. Consult Escher,
"Europe, i," in Pauly-Wissowa, Real-Encyclopa-
die der classischen Altertumsivissenscliaft, vol.
vi (Stuttgart, 1909).

ETJBOPA, THE RAPE OF. The subject of
several paintings. One by Titian (1562), rep-
resenting the Phoenician damsel borne through
the waters on the back of Zeus, metamorphosed
into a bull, and followed by three Cupids, one
being seated on a dolphin's back, is now at Cob-
ham Hall, England. The most celebrated ex-
ample is by Paul Veronese in the Ducal Palace,
Venice, in which Zeus in the form of a bull re-
clines under the trees, and Europa is assisted
to his back by her attendants. Two cupids
hover above with wreaths of flowers, and a third
holds a cord, attached, to a wreath around the
bull's horns. In the background are smaller
representations of the bull entering the water
and of the bull swimming. Claude Lorrain's

EUROPE

171

EUROPE

"Rape of Europa" (Buckingham Palace) is
rather a landscape than a figure painting.

EUROPE. The name is derived, according
to the researches of Kiepert, Egli, and other
scholars from the old Assyrian Irib or Ereb =
sunset or west, which was applied to Greece to
distinguish that region from Asia Minor, which
was designated as Assu = sunrise or east.
These names, in their later forms, were finally
extended — the one from Greece over all Europe,
and the other from Asia Minor over all Asia.

Europe is the smallest of the continents ex-
cepting Australia. Its area is about 3,796,000
square miles, or approximately one-fourth greater
than that of the United States exclusive of
Alaska. It includes, with its polar and other
islands, only 7.0 per cent of the land surface of
the world. It is surrounded on three sides by
the sea, but its eastern frontier for about 2000
miles joins that of Asia. The political bound-
ary in the east does not entirely conform with
the natural boundary. Tne line is carried to
the east of the central and southern Ural Moun-
tains, the natural boundary, in order to include
the rich mining districts, east of the mountains,
in Russia; to the south of the Ural Mountains
the Ural River is the boundary. Between the
Black and Caspian seas the main ridge of the
Caucasus is generally taken to be the boundary
between Europe and Asia. The natural bound-
ary in the southeast is, however, now consid-
ered by some geographers to be through the de-
pressions of the Sea of Azov and the East and
West Manitch rivers to the Caspian Sea, the
entire Russian possessions south of the Manitch
rivers (Ciscaucasia and Transcaucasia) being in
this way included in Asia. The continent ex-
tends west and east through nearly 75° of longi-
tude, from Cape Roca, near Lisbon, to the
Tobol River. Penetrating the polar ice zone
(North Cape, 71° 11' N.), its most southerly
point is Cape Tarifa, Spain, which is crossed by
the thirty-sixth parallel. In proportion to area
it has a much longer coast line than any other
continent — over 20,000 miles, including the more
important indentations, but double that length if
the entire shore line is closely followed. While
Europe is merely a peninsula of the great land
mass of Asia, the separation of Eurasia into two
continents has been so long followed-— a custom
which originated probably in the actual separa-
tion of the densely populated regions of both
by arid and semiarid expanses — it is natural to
treat it as a distinct subdivision of the earth's
surface.

The situation of Europe gives it a central
position in the land hemisphere. It is separated
from America by the comparatively narrow At-
lantic Ocean. Africa is plainly in view across
the Strait of Gibraltar, 9 miles wide; Europe
also closely approaches Africa at the strait be-
tween Sicily and Tunis.

Topography. Three phases of the topo-
graphic aspects of Europe are particularly note-
worthy: (1) the dissected, pointed, broken char-
acter of a large part of the coast line, giving it
relatively a greater coastal development than
any other continent possesses; (2) the predomi-
nance of low plains and the small area of high
table-lands inclosed by mountains, a character-
istic feature of inner Asia; (3) the absence of
deserts, Europe being the only continent without
desert areas.

On the Atlantic and the Mediterranean sides
are a rich island world and a number of very
VOL. VTIL— 12

large peninsulas, the islands and peninsulas em-
bracing about half as large an area as that of
the continental mass. Most of the Atlantic
islands rise from the continental shelf, were once
a part of the continent, and are now the ruins
of its former edge. The ocean far and wide
around them does not exceed 700 feet in depth.
These fragments, the more resistant rocks which
withstood the action of waves and ice or the
higher lands which were not submerged, are par-
ticularly numerous north of the fiftieth parallel.
Very conspicuous islands among many hundreds
are Nova Zembla, Vaigatch, and Kolguyev (on
the Arctic side) ;„ Zealand and §ther Danish
islands, Gothland, Osel, Dago, and Aland (in the
Baltic) ; and most important of all, the British
Isles, Shetlands, and Orkneys, composing the
British group; to these may be added the dis-
tinctive polar islands, Spitsbergen, Bear Island,
Jan Mayen, and Franz-Josef Land. The islands
in the ocean, including the Baltic, have an area
about six times as large as those of the Medi-
terranean, which include the Balearic group,
Sardinia, Corsica, Sicily, Crete, Cyprus, and the
numerous islands of the Grecian Archipelago in
the MgesLii Sea. Between the Scandinavian pen-
insula, the largest in Europe, and the Jutland
poninpula the deep sea is admitted into the con-
tinental mass. Here is the Mediterranean of the
north, the Baltic Sea with its three extensions,
the gulfs of Bothnia, Finland, and Riga. Only
one-fourth as salt as the ocean, and therefore
freezing more easily, most of this inland sea is
unavailable for navigation during the ice months.
The many large rivers emptying into the Baltic
and its narrow connection with the ocean account
for its small salinity. On the other hand, the
North Sea, between Great Britain and the
continent, is, in fact, a part of the Atlantic and
has the full- effect of its tides. Brittany is a
peninsular projection, which bounds the deep
recess of the Bay of Biscay on the north.

In the extreme south the continent possesses
three great peninsulas — the Iberian, the Italian,
and the Balkan. The northern part of the Med-
iterranean is divided by these peninsulas into
several sections: the ^gean Sea, between the
Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor, connected
with the inclosed basins of the Sea of Marmora
and the Black Sea by the narrow strait of the
Dardanelles and the Bosporus; the Ionian and
the Adriatic seas between the Balkan Peninsula
and Italy; and the Tyrrhenian Sea, in the tri-
angular space between Italy, and the three large
islands of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica; the
great bight north of Corsica is the Gulf of Genoa.

All the prominent forms of fiat and steep
coasts are represented on the shores of Europe.
The fiord coasts of Norway and western Scot-
land, the deep and comparatively wide indenta-
tions of the west coasts of England and Ireland,
Brittany, and northwest Spain provide a great
number of excellent natural harbors, which pro-
moted the sea trade of the Middle Ages, and
have stimulated the immense development of
ooean commerce in modern times. The most un-
favorable harbor conditions are found along the
flat, sandy coasts of the lowlands of the Nether-
lands and Belgium, northwest Germany, the west
side of Jutland, and the French coast on the
Bay of Biscay. Here, as also for the most
part on the east side of Great Britain, only river
mouths offer good harbors, The importance of
the sea trade here .depends upon flood tides and
favorable conditions at the river mouths, the

EUROPE 172

largest vessels being able to navigate the rivers
only at liigli tide. A large number of the Atlan-
tic cities are river ports, Hull and London, Ant-
werp, Rotterdam, and Amsterdam, Hamburg and
Bremen, Havre and Bordeaux, Oporto and Lis-
bon. River ports are also most numerous on the
Baltic, though shipping there does not have
tidal advantages. A peculiarity of the German
Baltic coast is the sand dunes parallel with the
shore which separate the coastal plain from
the tide-washed beach.

The conditions are very different on the Medi-
terranean shores, where high, steep coasts are
the prevalent feature, flat coasts and delta for-
mations being exceptional. The flow and ebb of
the tide are insignificant, the little rivers are un-
important for commerce, and there are no note-
worthy river ports, which reappear only on the
shores of the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov.
Many important ports on the Mediterranean
have developed without the advantages afforded
by navigable rivers.

Europe owes a large part of its commercial
supremacy to the remarkable development of
its coast line, lengthened as it is by many
islands, channels, and the deep penetration of
the sea into the land.

The three most conspicuous topographic forms
of the continental mass are the highland belt in
the south, the secondary mountains north of it,
and the lowlands. The highland belt is the
western member of the great mountain zone
that extends through the Old World from the
upper courses of the Yang-tse and Houng rivers
to the Atlantic. This high zone is extended into
Europe by the Caucasus Mountains (Elbruz,
about 18,500 feet) and the mountains of the
Crimea. It is then interrupted by the depres-
sions of the Black and ^Egean seas, 'beyond which
lies the Alp hie system. The Alpine system con-
sists of a series of long and connected mountain
chains of which the Alps are the heart, the high-
est and most prominent features. The Apen-
nines, the Balkan Mountains, and the Carpa-
thians, sweeping around the basin of the Danube
to the Balkans, are directly connected with the
Alps. The high mountains of the Pyrenees have
no superficial connection with the Alps; neither
(except as the return chain of the Apennine sys-
tem) has the Sierra Nevada of southern Spain,
which is regarded as the frontal range of the
Atlas Mountains of Africa. The highland belt
west of the Black Roa reaches its culmination in
the Alps (Mont Blanc, 15,782 feet), which are
at once the highest and most passable of all
these mountains. No other high mountains of
equal extent, except the Rocky Mountains in the
United States, have so many passes that are
easy to cross; the Alps, therefore, despite their
vast snow fields and numerous glaciers, offer
little or no impediment to commerce, while the
Pyrenees are practically impassable except
around their extreme ends.

The mountains to the north of the highland
belt are of a very different character. While
they include mountain ranges, they are much
shorter than in the highland belt. Mountain
chains, groups of mountains, isolated moun-
tains, and plateaus are intermingled in great
variety. With the exception of the Scandinavian
Mountains, they are all comparatively low, and
the Germans have therefore designated them as
the Mittelgebirge, intermediate or secondary
mountains. The groups of the northern moun-
tains are the mountains of southern Poland, the

EUROPE

mountains of south and cential Germany and
France (Jura, Vosges, Bohemian Forest, Erzege-
birge, Riesengebirge, Thuringian Forest, Harz,
Black Forest, etc.), the British mountains, and
the Scjindmavian-Finnish mountains. The high-
est are the mountains of Scandinavia, which
cover most of Norway and slope steeply to the
sea, but gradually into Sweden. Far to the east
and isolated from all other mountains of Europe
are the Urals, the longest mountain chain of the
continent, rising steeply from Asia, but sloping
very gradually to the plain on the European
side.

The continent of Europe has but a single ac-
tive volcano within its borders — Vesuvius. Etna
is on the island of Sicily. Other insular volca-
noes are Stromboli, the active parts of Santorin,
and Skaptar-Jokull in Iceland. Among the an-
cient volcanic regions may be mentioned the
Alban Mountains of Italv, the Tokay District
of northern Hungary, Auvergne in France, the-
Eifel region of Germany, and the northwest of
the British Isles (with the Giant's Causeway,
Fingal's Cave, etc.).

Two-thirds of the continental mass is lowland.
The vast low plain of north Asia, the tundra, in-
terrupted only by the Urals, is continued through
Russia, the northern half of Goruianv, and
through France to the Pyrenees. Smaller
plains, both high and low, are also found within
the mountain lands. The most important of
these high plains are those of Switzerland (be-
tween the Jura and the Alps), where mo-st of tho
people live, the plain being as densely populated
as Germany or France; the plains of south Ger-
many along the northern edge of the Alps; and
the two high plains of Castile in Spain. The
most important of the mountain-inclosed low-
lands are those of the Alpine streams ; the groat,
rich plain of the Po basin; the plains of the
upper Rhine; and the four great lowlands of
the Danube basin, including a large region
around Vienna, the upper and lower plains of
Hungary, a region of wheat and grazing, and
the Wallachian plain, one of the granaries of
Europe.

Generalizing these facts as to the topographic
forms of the continent, it may be said that
Europe is divided into two parts — the eastern
part Russia, and the western part the remainder
of the continent. The eastern part is an un-
broken lowland, mountains rising only on its
eastern and southern edges. The western part
has with its plains also the two forms of moun-
tain lands above mentioned. The eastern part
is broad, massive, little articulated ; or, in other
words, it is not made tip of connected ailment A.
It suggests north Asiti, from which it is pro-
jected. The western part is narrow, riflily
articulated, open everywhere to the influences of
the floa. The character of the eastern part is
uniformity; that of the western part, diversity.

Hydrography. The chief water parting of
the continent may be shown by a line drawn
from the central Urals, southwest across the
Carpathians, tlirouph the «ecomlary mountains
of Germany and France to the Iberian Peninsula.
All the rivers northwest of this line flow to the
Arctic Ocean, the Baltic and North seas, the
English Channel, or the Atlantic; all rivers
southeast of the line flow to the Mediterranean,
the Black, and the Caspian seas. The largest rivers
are on this southeastern slope. The arrange-
ment of tne rivers of the eastern part of Europe
(Russia) is simple. Tlu, Petchora, Dvina, Dlina,

D Longitude 10° East E fcom

ETJBOPE

173

EUROPE

and Niemen flow to the northwest, and the Ural,
Volga, Don., Dnieper, and Dniester to the south.
The distribution of rivers in the western part is
more complicated. Each of the five chief out-
lying members of the continent (the three south-
ern peninsulas, Scandinavia, and the British
Isles) has its own river , system. In the conti-
nental mass the slopes from the mountains to
the low plains north and south of them give
direction to the river courses. The Vistula, the
Oder, the Elbe, the Weser, the Rhine, the Seine,
the Loire, and the Gironde follow the slope to
the north and west; only the Rhine, of all these
rivers, comes out of the Alps. Three rivers are
exceptions to this rule; for the Danube, rising
in the German Mittelgebirge, the Po, and the
Rhone, rising in the Alps, do not flow directly
away from the mountains, like the northern
river, but along their edges or near them — the
Danube and Po to the east and the Rh6ne to the
west and south.

The rivers of Europe offer extraordinary ad-
vantages for commerce, although the two largest
of them, the Volga and the Danube, empty into
inland seas — the Volga into the Caspian, which
has no outlet, and the Danube into the Black
Sea; none of the great rivers is impeded by
cataracttt as in Africa, and their upper courses
are not situated on table-lands of enormous
height, unfavorable for development, as in Asia.
But the rivers are so grouped that it has. been
possible, with the aid of comparatively short and
easily dug canals connecting them, to make con-
tinuous waterways in various directions across
the continental mass. Thus, freight boats ply
through the land from Bordeaux to Cctte, from
Havre and Rotterdam to the mouth of the
RhOnc, from Amsterdam to the mouth of the
Danube, from Danzig and Riga to Kherson on
the Dnieper and thence to the Black Sea, from
St. Petersburg and Archangel to Astrakhan on
the Caspian. The longest river and canal routes
of Russia are those connecting the Caspian Sea
and the Arctic Ocean, the Caspian and the Bal-
tic, and the Black Sea and the Baltic. Boats
loaded on the Vistula in Russia may be sent
direct, by inland routes, to all the ports of north
Germany, and the Netherlands, Antwerp, and
Havre. The importance of the Volga and the
Danube, while very great locally, is diminished
by the fact that they flow towards Asia and
away from the great centres of commerce. Most
of the Mediterranean rivers are small and of
little co7nmcrcial importance; even the large
Rh6ne is too shallow for the highest usefulness.
The rivers of the Atlantic watershed, including
its tributary northern seas, are those that have
had a profound and far-reaching influence upon
the development of the world's ocean trade.

Fresh- water lakes are particularly numerous
in three regions — on the Swiss plain between
the Alps and the Jura, in the British Isles, and
in a wide territory bordering on the Baltic in
Scandinavia and northwestern Russia. The
largest are on the east and south, of the Scandi-
navian mountains, the Ladoga and Onega of
Russia being the greatest of Europe's sweet-water
lakes. The largest number are in Finland.
These northern lakes were formed by the ancient
glaciers, which left the marks of their passage
deeply graven in the surface of the land, form-
ing many lake basins. As the Swiss region has
also been extensively glaciated, the high valleys
still retaining the ice streams, it is one of the
important lake regions. Nearly all the larger

lakes are important in the inland systems of
transportation. There are salt lakes in that
part of Europe farthest from the sea, where the
evaporation is greater than the precipitation or
the river basins havo no outlet to the sea. On
the borders of European Russia and Asia is the
Caspian Sea, the largest salt-water lake in the
world.

Geology. Broadly speaking, Europe may be
divided into three principal regions: 1. To the
northeast of the Carpathians, the chief charac-
teristic of the geological structure of Russia is
the almost horizontal position of tlio sedimentary
beds. In other words, the plications and dislo-
cations of the rocks that mark the geology of
the south and west are for the most part lacking
in eastern Europe. 2. The south of Europe, in-
cluding the Alpine system, is a region of great
plications, relatively recent (the tertiary pe-
riod), with elevated mountains. 3. The rest of
Europe, from Bohemia to Spain and Scandina-
via, shows ancient massifs plicated in the Ar-
chflean epoch, whose inequalities of relief have
been largely modified by erosion. These primary
massifs are separated by large areas of xaesozoic
and tertiary beds (the low plains), that in gen-
eral are not plicated.

The geological structure of the mountain sys-
tems is varied and complicated. The Alps are
composed of a granite nucleus with stratified
beds, greatly faulted and folded, upon their
flanks. The Jura is composed mainly of lime-
stones, simply folded, with subsequent erosion.
The Pyrenees, on the north boundary of Spain,
are also of folded stratified rocks, as are many
of the ranges traversing the plateau of the Ibe-
rian peninsula. The Apennines, one of the most
recently formed ranges of Europe, is composed
largely of Tertiary beds, much folded, the folds
being arranged en Melon. In the south the
Carpathians and Balkans are composed of a cen-
tral nucleus of mctamorphic schists, with strati-
fied limestones upon their flanks. The Ural
Mountains are of crystalline rocks. The moun-
tains of the Scandinavian peninsula are of great
age, being in large part Archaean with granites
and schists, while down the slope towards the
Baltic more recent formations successively ap-
pear, and in the southeast Triassic, Jurassic,
and Cretaceous rocks are found. The great plain
of Europe is floored by Cretaceous and Tertiary
beds, except in Finland, where Archaean rocks,
stretching across from the Scandinavian penin-
sula, cover the land. The mountainous portions
of the British Isles are chiefly composed of gran-
ites and schists, while the lowlands are floored
in great part with Jurassic beds. The northern
half of Europe was in recent geologic time cov-
ered by a great ice sheet, which in its retreat
has covered the land with glacial deposits, be-
sides having by its erosion greatly modified the
surface, changing the courses of the streams and
scouring out lake basins. The soils of this por-
tion of Europe are in great part composed of
glacial silt and detritus, transported by this
great sheet of ice.

Carboniferous coal deposits have been found in
many parts of Europe between the parallels 40°
and '60° N.; in eastern, southern, and west cen-
tral Russia, Austria-Hungary, Germany, Bel-
gium, France, Spain, Scotland, England, and
Wales. Those of England and Wales are of
special value and importance; the proximity of
the English coal mines to the sea- and the lead-
ing coal-buying countries make England the

ETTK02E

175

EUBOMJ

regions. See ABCTIC REGION, section Arctic
Plants.

The intermediate temperate region, which ex-
tends from the southern fringe of the Arctic
region to the northern limit of the Mediter-
ranean-Caucasian, is characterized first by more
varied and numerous perennials which, as
the northern limit recedes, become taller, and
among which are both shrubs and trees also
increasing in size and height; and second, by
annual species which also increase in number
and variety southward. These species, of which
many appear to have migrated westward from
Asia, and which are very prolific of seed, quickly
lake possession of abandoned land, and, being of
fairly rapid growth, readily adapt themselves
to wide differences of climate, withstanding on
the one side the rigors of high latitudes and ele-
vations and on the other the droughts of arid
sections. In the western part forests are the
dominant feature; in the eastern, steppes.
Throughout the whole forest sections of this
region cone-bearing trees predominate. In the
far north they exclude all other species of trees,
but as the latitude of central Norway is ap-
proached, ash, birch, and alder appear. The
forest of southern Norway, the Baltic provinces
of Russia, and especially of Denmark, though
still largely coniferous, are liberally sprinkled
with oak and beech and the three deciduous
species mentioned. Throughout Germany and
adjoining Russia, France, and Austria, the lead-
ing trees are still the conifers (pine, larch, fir),
among which the others mentioned are found,
mingled with which are elm, maple, acacia, and
poplar.

The steppes, not unlike the great plains of
North America, are treeless plains that extend
across Russia. These steppes blend with the
tundras of the Arctic region, and on the south
with the more northerly forests of the Black
and the Caspian Sea districts. Since their
climate — long severe winter, short vernal season,
and protracted parching summer — largely pre-
cludes the growth of perennials except along
the river basins, which are often wooded, their
flora consists of annuals — grasses on the arable
soils, especially north of the Black Sea forests,
salt-loving plants in the saline sections north
of the Caspian Sea. In the northern part of
both forest and steppe districts Arctic species
mingle with the hardier temperate plants, in
addition to which mustards, parsleys, buttercups,
thistles, legumes, crowberries, brambles, bilber-
ries, and their allies are met with in increasing
frequency southward. In the southern part
these last-mentioned blend with gorse, shrubby
legumes, heaths, lobelias, dianthus, etc., which
are most numerous towards the west, while
mints, angelica, currants, rhubarb, and their
congeners are more abundant towards the east.
In addition this region embraces the great agri-
cultural sections of Europe-^the vast grain, flax,
and grazing areas of Russia; the cereal, root,
and hay fields of Germany, Norway, and Sweden ;
and the general farming sections of Germany,
Denmark, Holland, Belgium, the British Isles,
and northern France. Except on the remote
north border, grasses and legumes, the bases
of successful nusbandry, thrive remarkably
and materially influence the prosperity of the
residents.

The Mediterranean-Caucasian— the fruit, flower,
and vegetable — region, which extends from the
Atlantic Ocean to the Caspian Sea, thus includ-

ing all countries on the warm southern border
of the continent, is noted for the great diversity
and wide economic importance of its flora, which,
it is estimated, comprises 85 per cent of all
European species. Annuals and biennials ap-
pear in large numbers, the long season of growth
favoring their perfect development. The forests
are far more mixed than in the other two
regions, and contain in addition to the above-
mentioned species, which appear at greater or
less altitudes, evergreen and cork oak, chest-
nut, sycamore, mountain ash, plane, and cypress.
The tendency in this region is for forests to
give place to clumps of trees, and these, in turn,
to scantier vegetation. Of the plants valued
for their flowers may be found numerous rela-
tives of the rose, carnation, hibiscus, lilac, tube-
rose, crocus, lily, colchicum, iris, and many
others. In this region more than in either of
the others the flora is augmented by exotic spe-
cies, especially such as have been introduced by
man. With the migration of the human race
and the extension of commerce westward, useful
plants have been purposely carried, and useless
ones undesignedly transported, to regions far
distant from their homes. Of such antiquity
are many of the Asiatic and African contribu-
tions to this flora that many species have be-
come so settled in their new residences as to be
considered indigenous. Of these, perhaps the
best known are the fig, peach, apricot, walnut,
orange, olive, pomegranate, grape, quince, cherry,
mulberry, pistachio, melon, leek, onion, sugar
cane, cumin, and cotton. But south Europe has
been not merely a greedy absorber of introduced
species; it is a lavish distributer as well. Its
trees, fruits, vegetables, and flowers have been
carried to every quarter of the globe that Euro-
pean commerce has reached. Save only the
plants of Norway's west coast, few in number,
but of great adaptability to foreign climates,
the species of no other region compare with
those of south Europe as wanderers. So gen-
eral has been their distribution that no traveler
in any country visited by civilized man can go
far without meeting plant acquaintances; if
not among the useful species, then among the
weeds of this Mediterranean-Caucasian region.
See paragraphs on flora of the various countries;

also DlSTSIBUTION OF PLANTS.

Fauna. The whole of Europe belongs to the
Palearctic region of Wallace, but is divided into
two subregions — that of north Europe north of
the Pyrenees, Alps, and Balkans, and that of
the Mediterranean south of these mountains.
The richness of the fauna of central and north
Europe is due to the favorable climatic influences
in the west and centre, the topographic varia-
tion, and the rich vegetation, especially that of
the forests. On the other hand, the great den-
sity of population has much reduced the num-
bers of the larger animals and has even rendered
some species extinct. The characteristic mam-
mals are the bear, lynx, badger, wolf, fox, otter,
marten, ermine, polecat, squirrel, marmot, mole,
hedgehog, vole, shrew, dormouse, hare, and rab-
bit; the wild cattle have been almost wholly ex-
terminated by man. (See CATTLE.) Among
the species peculiar to this region are the des-
man and the chamois. The Mediterranean sub-
region possesses the richest fauna of the^ Euro-
pean Palearctic region, among the distinctive
mammals being the fallow deer, ibex, Alpine
marmot, and civet. This fauna extends also
along the south shore of the Mediterranean as

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176

EUROPE

far as the Atlas Mountains; and this northwest
corner of Africa and the JEgean Islands con-
tain a few species, like the wud sheep, not now
known in Europe, but properly a part of its
fauna.

The apes are not found in Europe save for a
species of macaque in the neighborhood of Gi-
braltar, which is more nearly allied to the Asiatic
simians than to the African. Bats, cats, dogs,
martens, deer, hares, and mice are found through-
out Europe. Hedgehogs are not found north
of lat. 60° except in Scandinavia, where they
range a few degrees farther north. Moles are
found between lat. 44° and 60° N., and also
range a little farther north in Scandinavia.
Otters and badger-like animals are found little
above the Arctic Circle. Bears are not found
in the extreme west, though formerly inhabiting
nearly the whole of France and the British Isles.
Dormice are found in western Europe as far
north as the 60th parallel, but in eastern Europe
not above lat. 50°. Squirrels are found through-
out Europe except at the extreme north, and
beavers south of lat. 65°, but not in the extreme
west and not below south of the Alpine region.
Swine are found south of 60°.

Of the birds, the most characteristic are the
thrushes, sylviine warblers, tits, pipits, wagtails,
finches, snow buntings, house sparrows, cross-
bills, linnets, magpies, choughs, kingfishers, goat-
suckers, wood pigeons, grouse, and ptarmigans.
Of the larger birds may be mentioned the eagles,
falcons, owls, and ravens. Many of the niiraer-
ous birds found in this region are annual mi-
grants from the south.

Eoptiles are comparatively scarce, there be-
ing found but 14 species of snakes and 12 of
lizards. Only one north European serpent is
venomous. Of the amphibians, several forms
are peculiar to this region, among which are the
eel-like proteus, the curious toad (Alytcs), the
male of which carries the eggs until they are
hatched, and the Pelodytes, a frog peculiar to
France. Frogs, toads, tree toads, and newts
are common.

The characteristic fresh-water fish are the
sticklebacks, perch, sheatfish, pike, carp, gud-
geon, roach, chub, dace, tench, bream, bleak,
loach; and among sea fish several species
not known on the American shores of the At-
lantic, of which the tunny and sole are most
conspicuous.

Insects are numerous, butterflies especially
being very abundant, and the species widely
spread, but no genera are peculiar to the region.
This region is also rich in beetles and other in-
sect forms.

HISTOEY

Earliest Population. Of the peoples that
have inhabited Europe since the dawn of his-
tory, some—and these the most important,
Greeks, Italians, Celts, Germans, and Slavs —
exhibit striking resemblances in language and in
their early religion and customs. Other peoples,
like the Iberians, who inhabited what is now
Spain, the Etruscans, who inhabited north Italy,
and the Lapps and Finns, who still occupy the
extreme north of the continent, apparently had
from the outset dissimilar speech and customs.
The resemblances noted between the peoples of
the first group exist also between them and the
Indo-Tranian peoples of Asia. From these data
philologists have inferred that all these peoples
are members of a single race, which thoy term

the Aryan race; and since, in historical times,
tlie Celts, Germans, and Slavs have been press-
ing westward, it is assumed that the original
home of the Aryan race was in Asia. Modern
ethnological researches, however, are tending to
modify the Aryan hypothesis. On the basis of
a comparison of physical characteristics, es-
pecially of skull forms, it is asserted that the
original population of Europe consisted of two
races, which are termed Eurafrican and Eur-
asian, and that the former race was originally
located in the basin of the Mediterranean, the
latter in the valley of the Danube or even farther
east. Of the Eurafrican race two branches are
found, one of which coptinued to live on the
Mediterranean, while the other wont or was
driven into north Europe (the so-called Baltic
branch ) . It is further asserted that the so-called
Aryan peoples of Europe exhibit, for the most
part, such a mixture of these two racial types
that the resemblances which have heretofore
been taken as proofs of common origin seem
rather ascribable to the diffusion of the speech,
religion, and customs of some superior people*,
partly by expansion and conquest, partly by
imitation. See ARYAN; INDO-EUROPEANS ; Eu-
BOPE, PEOPLES OF; MAN, ANCIENT TYPES.

Earliest Civilization. In the earliest times
of which we have historic knowledge, only those
parts of Europe which border upon the Mediter-
ranean were in any sense civilized, and the
points at which a Mediterranean civilization
first appeared wore Egypt and Phoenicia. There
is increasing evidence* that the civilization of
these countries was of Asiatic origin. It prob-
ably came along the routes of trade from Assyria
(perhaps ultimately from China), and its diffu-
sion through the Mediterranean basin was ac-
complished chiefly by the earliest traders in
that sea, the Phoenicians. It was in Crete, where
the Phoenicians had some of their earliest trad-
ing posts, that a Greek civilization seems
first to have developed. See ASSYRIA; EGYPT;
PHOENICIA.

Greek Civilization. Before the conquest of
Greece by the Romans (146 B.C.), the Crooks
had developed every form of government which
Europe has since known. Their little city
states passed from patriarchal kingship to aris-
tocracy and from aristocracy through tyranny
to democracy. In the struggle of their leading
states for predominance, as on the larger theatre
of Europe 2000 years later, a refined diplomacy,
solicitous to maintain the balance of power, knit
and dissolved alliances; and when, weakened by
these internal conflicts, Greece was subjected to
the military monarchy of Macedon, an era of
imperialistic expansion began. In art and in
letters this precocious people similarly antici-
pated every form of expression which European
civilization has since employed; and Greek
builders, sculptors, poets, and orators produced
masterpieces that have not been surpassed. In
philosophy also the Greeks have foreshadowed,
if they did not anticipate, all the chief tenden-
cies of modern thought. By colonization the
Greek civilization was extended to Asia Minor,
Sicily, south Italy {Magnet, (TrrecuO, and many
other points in the Mediterranean. By the con-
quests of Alexander the Great (q.v.) 'it became
dominant in Egypt and southwest Asia. As far
as Euro-pe was concerned, theonlv lands which the
Greeks brought into closer touch with Mediter-
ranean civilization were those bordering on the
Black Sea. Tn that sea the Phoenicians had had

EUROPE

177

EUROPE

trading posts, but the Greeks founded colonies
and built cities. A trade route was gradually
established between the Black Sea and the Bal-
tic, and the direct influence of the Greek civili-
zation upon eastern Europe did not cease until
Constantinople was captured by the Turks ( 1453
A.D.). See AsciLaEOLOGY, subdivisions I-V;
UfiEECE; GBEEK AST; GREEK LANGUAGE ; GBEEK
LITEBATUBE; GREEK PHILOSOPHY.

Roman Civilization, Inferior to the Greeks
in alertness of mind and in versatility, but su-
perior in poise and in judgment, the Romans
slowly developed a civilization of a higher type
in matters of government and law. They first
devised a working combination of power and
freedom. In the third century B.C. Rome had
made herself mistress of Italy; when, in the
struggle with Carthage (q.v.), she added sea
power to her land power, she was able to ex-
tend her authority over the entire basin of the
Mediterranean. After the conquest of Greece
(146 B.C.) the Greek culture became dominant
at Rome in art, letters, and philosophy; and the
civilization which the Roman Empire carried
into lands heretofore barbarous was a Grseco-
Roman civilization. In the eastern portion of
the Empire, the direct influence of Greece was
naturally greater; in the western portion, that
of Rome. In west and central Europe the Greek
culture was introduced and perpetuated, until
the fourteenth century, mainly through the Latin
imitations and adaptations of Greek forms and
Latin popularizations of Greek thought, and the
original Latin productions, that sprung out of a
study of Greek culture. The third great force
tli at has shaped modern Europe, Christianity,
was sensibly affected by Greek thought and
Roman institutions, Paul and the early fathers,
trained in the learning of the Greeks, put the
doctrines of the new religion into the form best
ndiipted to appeal to the Graeco-Roman world;
the formulation of its dogmas was sensibly in-
fluenced by Roman legal ideas; and the hier-
jirc-hic organization with which the Christian
Church came into mediaeval Europe was modeled
on the administrative system of the Roman
Empire. If it is broadly true, as Maine has
""id, that the modern civilized nations are those
that derive their law from Rome, their art from
''roeoe, and their religion from Judaea, it is also
true, as Freeman has said, that "of all Euro-
pean history Rome is the centre"; for the Roman
Umpire summed up the chief results of the an-
cient civilization and transmitted them to
the modern world. See ROME; CHBISTIANTTY;

(llVTL LAW.

Europe Under the Roman Empire. Under
Augustus the Roman Empire attained the boun-
daries which it successfully defended for four
centuries. (See Map of the Roman Empire,
under ROME.) In Europe these were the Rhine
und the Danube, and the territory between the
upper courses of these rivers. In only two di-
rections was there subsequent expansion. Dur-
ing the first century the greater part of Britain
\vas subduod (see BRITANNIA) ; and at the be-
ginning of the second century the territory
beyond the lower Danube, Dacia (modern Ru-
mania), was organized as a province and held
for 170 vears. (See TRAJAN.) Military roadfl
and fortified camps not only^ facilitated the de-
fense of the Empire, but stimulated trade and
the growth of cities. Except in the most moun-
tainous regions, the barbarians whom Rome had
subjugated gradually accepted the Grseco-Roman

civilization. In Spain and Gdul and in tlio Brit-
ish cities Latiu supplanted the native languages.
From the close of the first century the provinces
supplied the Empire with the majority of its
civil and military officers and with nearly all
its emperors. Through this increasingly homo-
geneous Empire the Christian religion made
rapid progress; and when in the fourth cen-
tury Christianity became the state religion, the
Erovincials accepted that creed which had
nally obtained the recognition of the Imperial
court — the creed formulated by Athanasius
(q.v.). Of the barbarians beyond the Roman
borders, the nearest and most dangerous were
the Germans. The almost incessant conflicts
which were necessary to hold the line of the
Rhine and the Danube forced Rome steadily
further into military monarchy, until, under
Diocletian (q.v.), the Empire was reorganized
on lines which contemporaries regarded as
"Persian." The burden of a groat standing army,
bad management of the Imperial finances, and
an elaborate system of state socialism impover-
ished the Empire, and its native population
diminished. In order that the soil might be
tilled and the legions kept at full strength, bar-
barians, especially Germans, were imported hi
increasing numbers. At the time of Augustus
the population along the west bank of the Rhine
was substantially German. In the following
centuries German captives were settled in Brit-
ain, in Gaul, in Italy, and in the Danubian
provinces, at first as 'serfs, but after the close
of the third century as tributaiy communities.
From these and from tribes across the frontier
in alliance with Rome, an increasing propor-
tion of recruits was drawn, until in the fourth
century the legions settled on the frontier were
largely composed of Germans. After Constan-
tino Germans rose to the highest positions in the
army and the central administration, and "the
last century of Roman history may boldly be
characterized as the century of German rule."
(Brunner.) Upon the Germans beyond the fron-
tier the most important clTcct of these centuries
of conflict wuis the gradual formation of those
larger tribal unions which in the fifth century
overthrew tho West-Roman Empire and divided
among them its provinces. The tribes in closest
contact with Rome were converted to Chris-
tianity in tho fourth and fifth centuries. The
missionaries who accomplished this work were
followers of Arms (q.v.), and the Germans re-
tained the Arian creed after the emperors
and the church councils had accepted that of
Athanasius. See GEBMANIA; GOTHS; HTJ^SJ
ROME, Tlie Roman Empire.

The Barbarian Kingdoms. It was the be-
ginning of the end of the old order when, at the
close of the fourth century and the beginning
of the fifth, whole German tribes were settled
within the frontier as allies of Rome, on the
condition that they should hold back the tribes
behind them. The incursions of the Huns (q.v.),
which threw eastern and central Europe into
confusion, hastened the destruction of the Em-
pire. In the fifth century the frontier was lost;
the Germans and the Huns broke through all
along the line. (See MIGRATION.) At the close
of the fifth century Saxons, Angles, and Jutes
had established kingdoms in eastern and south-
ern Britain; Gaul was divided between Franks,
Burgundians, and Visigoths; Spain between
Vifligoths and Suevi; northern Africa and the
islands of the western Mediterranean were occu-

EUROPE 178

pied by Vandals; and Italy, where a German
leader of mercenaries (see ODOACER) had de-
posed the last West-Roman Emperor, had passed,
\vith all the territory between the middle Dan-
ube and the Adriatic, under the rule of the
Ostrogoths. (See BURGUNDY; GOTHS; SUEVI;
VANDALS ; ETC. ) To the Roman provincials ( ex-
cept in Britain) the change of conditions must
have seemed slight. They had often been ruled
by German officials, and the German kings who
7i ow ruled them held oificial titles conferred
by the Emperor at Home or the Emperor at
< onstantinople. The Romans remained free,
and in their disputes with each other they were
still governed by Roman law. The Burgundian
and Visigothic kings caused manuals of Roman
law to be compiled for the benefit of their Roman
subjects. Theodoric (q.v.), King of the Ostro-
goths, issued a similar compilation, by which
(loths as well as Romans were to be governed.
Each provincial landholder was, indeed, com-
pelled to surrender to a German a part of his
estate and slaves; but under the Empire Ger-
man soldiers had been quartered on the pro-
vincials, and contributions had been exacted for
the support of the soldiers. From such contri-
butions the Romans were now freed. The chief
cause of friction between the German kings and
their followers on the one hand and the Roman
provincials on the other lay in the fact that the
former were generally Arian heretics. The re-
sultant disaffection was a serious element of
weakness in the kingdom of the Goths, Burgun-
dians, and Vandals. Early in the sixth century
the newly converted and orthodox Franks de-
feated the Visigoths and the Burgundians and
brought under their control all Gaul except the
Mediterranean coast. (See CLOVIS; FRANKS.)
Later in the same century the armies and fleets
of the orthodox Justinian overthrew the king-
doms of the Arian Vandals and Ostrogoths and
wrested southeastern Spain from the Visigoths,
so that for a few years the Mediterranean was
again Roman. (See JUSTINIAN; BELISARIUS;
NARSES.) Before the close of the century the
Visigoths and the Suevi, whose realm the Visi-
goths had annexed, abjured their heresies, and
in Visigothic Spain the clergy became all-power-
ful. In 568 the Arian Longobards, or Lombards
(q.v.), conquered north and central Italy; but
this tribe also accepted the orthodox faith in
the middle of the seventh century. The scat-
tered settlement of the Gorman conquerors among
their Roman subjects favored a fusion of races,
and the chief obstacle to fusion disappeared
when the Germans became orthodox Christians.
Of all the kingdoms founded by the Germans
on Roman soil, that of the Franks became the
most powerful and proved the most durable, be-
cause the Franks retained, as the central point
of their power, their old home on the lower
Rhine, and because the expansion of their rule
over Gaul and later over Italy was accompanied
by expansion over purely German territory. At
the close of the fifth century the Franks con-
quered the Aleinanni and in the sixth the Thu-
ringians and the Bavarians.

The Arabs. In the seventh century Chris-
tendom was forced into a struggle for existence
against the hordes of Arabia, fused into a fight-
ing unit by a new religion, — Mohammedanism.
Within a generation after the Hejira (622 A.D.)
the Arabs had destroyed the Kingdom of the
Sassanides in Persia, had wrested from the Greek
Umpire Syria, Armenia, Cyprus, Crete, and

EUROPE

Egypt. Before the close of the century they
were overrunning north Africa. A few year?
later they were liesieging Constantinople. The
Greeks, though hard pressed by Asiatic hordes
north of the Balkans, nevertheless boat off the
Mohammedan attack and maintained a hold on
Asia Minor. Eaily in the eighth century the
Arabs, now in complete control of north Africa,
defeated the Visigothic forces (711 A.D.) and
conquered all Spain except the mountainous
northern regions. Pressing into Gaul, they were
defeated by the Franks in 732.

The Frankish Empire and the Papacy.
The German-Gallic Kingdom which the Franks
had built up in the fifth and sixth centuries was
threatened in the seventh century with dissolu-
tion. The royal power was hereditary, but all
the sons of the king had equal rights of inheri-
tance. The resulting partitions were indeed
temporary; by wars and by deaths the realm
was repeatedly reunited; but in these struggles
the territorial magnates gained increasing in-
dependence, while the degeneracy of the reign-
ing house diminished its authority. (See
MEROVINGIANS.) The power that was slipping
from the hands ci the Merovingians was, how-
ever, grasped by new rulers, Arnulfings or Cn.ro-
lingians (q.v.), who, first as mayors of the
palace, later as kings, reestablished the royul
power, and in the eighth century widened the
Frankish kingdom into an empire. As in the
earlier stages of Frankish expansion, the acquisi-
tion of new Romanic territory (part of Italy
and northeastern Spain) was balanced by con-
quests of other German tribes (Frisians and
Saxons) . Even more than the Merovingians, the
Carolingians identified their dynastic interests
with those of the orthodox Christian Church.
They carried the gospel among the heathen
Germans 'with the sword, converting as they
conquered. They drove the Arabs back across
the Pyrenees (see CIIABLES MARTEL and PEPIN
TUB SHOUT under PEPIN) and extended the
boundary of Christendom to the river Ebro.
Throughout their realms they supported with
ready assistance the supreme authority of the
Pope in ecclesiastical discipline; and when they
interfered to protect him against the Lombards
they gave to him a strip of central Italy, reach-
ing from Ravenna to Rome, and thus laid the
basis of the temporal power which the popes
held until 1870. (See DONATION OF PEPIX;
PAPAL STATES.) The sovereignty of the Em-
peror at Constantinople, which the Roman
pontiffs had previously recognized, was from
this time denied. (See PAPACY.) In return
for their services to the church, tho Carolingians
received aid from the popes in political matters.
The papacy helped to transform Pepin from
mayor of the palace into King (751 A.D.), and
Charles the Great from King of the Franks and
the Lombards into Emperor of the Romans (800
A.D. ) . The tradition of the Roman Empire, the
idea that all Christians should be subject to one
secular lord, the Emperor, was still a force;
and when Charlemagne had made himself su-
preme in the Western Christian world, and the
Imperial dignity had passed at Constantinople
to a woman (Irene), it seemed to Western
Christendom a natural tjiing that its ruler
should be recognized as the successor of the
Roman Csesars. Through the harmonious coo"p-
eration of church and state, in the Empire of
Charlemagne, the political, religious, and liter-
ary influences that had come down from the

at the time of
CHAELEMAGNE

Showing
the Division of 843.

10'

IS*

ETTBOPE

179

ETTBOPE

ancient world were for the last time focused;
and from the Frankish Empire these influences
were transmitted, with certain permanent modi-
fications, to the new and separate nations which
took its place. Of the new institutions that
took shape in the Frankish Empire the most
important was feudalism. Feudalism had many
roots, some of them Roman; but the growing
feudal institutions received a great impetus
when Charles Martel, in order to meet the
Arab horse with Christian cavalry, gave bene-
fices on the tenure of knight service. The
knight fees which he created were to a large
extent carved out of church lands; and the
church was drawn into the feudal system. See
CHABLES THE GBEAT; FEUDALISM.

Europe at the Time of Charlemagne. (See
Map: EUROPE AT THE TIME OF CHARLEMAGNE.)
The Empire of Charles the Great included all
Christian Europe except the British Islands,
where the German invaders had been converted
in the seventh century; northwest Spain, where
Christian chieftains of Gothic or Suevic blood
were holding out against the Arabs; and the
Greek Empire, The Danes and Scandinavians
on the north, the Slavs and Avars on the cast,
were still heathens. The Frankish Empire in-
cluded all the German tribes of central Europe;
but it did not include all the territory of modern
Germany, since its northeastern frontier ran be-
tween the Elbe and the Oder. The other impor-
tant European powers were the Greek Empire
and the Emirate of Cordova. The territoiy
north of the Balkans had fallen into the hands
of Slavic and Asiatic hordes (Servians and Bui-
garians) ; but the Emperor at Constantinople
still ruled the rest of the Balkan Peninsula, to-
gether with south Italy, some of the islands
of the Mediterranean, and the greater part of
Asia Minor. The Greeks still had sea power,
and the trade between Europe and the Orient
was mainly in their hands. Until after the
Crusades thoir coin, the "besant," was the
standard of Mediterranean values. South of
Christendom, from Spain through north Africa
to Syria, curved the crescent of Islam. In the
went, where the emirs of Cordova had made
themselves independent of the caliphs at Bagdad,
Mohammedanism had reached the limit of its
forward movement; but in the islands of the
Mediterranean, in Asia Minor, and in southeast
Europe it was still to win ground from the
Greeks. Placed in touch with the Greek civiliza-
tion in Syria and in Egypt, Islam was develop-
ing, in letters and in science, a culture which,
until nearly the close of the Middle Ages, was su-
perior to that of western Europe. See SABACETCS.

Dissolution of the Frankish Empire. Be-
ginnings of the Modern European Nations.
Hie power of Charles the Great's successors was
undermined by the growing independence of the
local magnates, particularly of those who held
the offices of count or of margrave. These
offices, as well as the domains that went with
them, were coming to be regarded as fiefs and,
like other fiefs, were becoming hereditary. Some
magnates whose feudal authority extended over
several counties were coming to be called
dukes. In the German territories some of these
dukes ruled over tribes, like the Bavarians and
the Saxons, and were in a sense successors of
the tribal kings whom the Franks had sup-
pressed. The great prelates, too, were becom-
ing independent, and in many cases bishops and
abbots received the secular powers of counts.

The Empire was weakened also by the attacks
of Slavs and other barbarians on its eastern
frontier, of Arabs in Italy, and of Scandinavian
pirates on all its northern and western coasts.
The immediate cause, however, of the disruption
of the Empire was the division of the Imperial
territory among all the sons of the Emperor.
In order to maintain as far as possible the unity
of the Empire, a compromise was proposed:
Arrangements were made by which each son
should receive as King a part of the Empire, but
a larger part with a superior authority should
go to the eldest son as Emperor. Wars followed,
and in these the old Frankish principle tri-
umphed. In 843 the Empire was divided into
three shares. (See VEBDUN, TBEATT OF.) Al-
though this division lasted but 27 years, the
name of a part of the middle kingdom, Lotharin-
gia, still survives in the modern Lorraine. Some
40 years after the partition of Verdun, all the
Carolingian territories were for a short time re-
united under Charles the Fat; but after 887,
when Charles the Fat was deposed, France and
Germany were permanently separated; there
were two independent Burgundian kingdoms, and
Italy was separate, but not united. In the north
of Italy there were kings, some of whom were
crowned emperors; in the middle were the pos-
sessions of the papacy; in the south Lombards,
Greeks, and Arabs were fighting for control and
territories. In France and in Germany descend-
ants of Charles the Great reigned for a time;
but in the tenth century other kings, not of the
Carolingian stock, were set up by the territorial
magnates. Of these new kingdoms Germany was
by far the strongest. The Northmen pirates
were beaten off from its coasts, and the Danes
were pushed back into Jutland, The Hungari-
ans, who had kept central Europe in turmoil
during the first half of the tenth century, were
defeated and confined to approximately the terri-
tory which they still occupy. The Slavic King-
dom of Poland recognized German suzerainty;
the Slavic peoples of Bohemia and Carinthia
were incorporated into Germany. The debatable
land to the west of the Rhine (Lorraine) and
the greater part of Italy were brought under
the overlordship of the German kings in the
tenth century; Burgundy was annexed in the
eleventh. With the reSstablishment of German
authority in Italy (962) the German kings as-
sumed the Imperial title. See HOLY ROMAN
EMPIRE.

Second only to Germany's influence during
these centuries was that of the Scandinavian*.
In the latter half of the ninth century the
Swede Rurik established among the eastern
Slavs the kingdom which became Russia, and
the Danes conquered half of England. In the
tenth century the Norsemen obtained possession
of a part of north France, founding there the
Duchy of Normandy. In the first half of the
eleventh century the Danish King Canute reigned
for a few years over an empire which included
all England and the greater part of Scandinavia ;
and England escaped from the rule of the Danes
only to fall, within a score of years, under that
of the Normans. In the same century Norman
knights gained control of south Italy and Sicily.
(Seo NOBMANS,; VABANGIANS? GTHSOABD.) Of
all the national states that were in process of
formation at the close of the eleventh century,
England alone had a strong central government,
and this only -after the Norman Conquest
France and Germany each had a king, but the

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i So

EUROPE

king was only the first among Ms peers; the
real power wtis, in France always, in Germany
sometimes, in the hands of the great nohles and
prelates. The same was true in Italy and in
the Christian states that were taking form in
north Spam; and in neither of these peninsulas
was there even the nominal unity of a single
national kingship. In Spain and in Italy, how-
ever, as in France, separate and fairly homo-
geneous nationalities were developing. Goths
and Franks, Burgundians and Lombards, had
intermarried with the Roman provincials and
had adopted their speech; and on the basis of
the vulgar Latin, of each province, new national
languages had already been formed. The Scandi-
navian conquerors also, who came five centuries
later, lost their racial identity and became
French in France, Italians in Italy, Russians in
Russia. In all the larger countries of west and
south Europe, however, there were marked local
differences in dialect and in customs, and
broader differences between the northern and
southern districts. In general, throughout the
Middle Ages, national feeling was weak. The
strongest ties ware those of locality and of
class, and the classes were not national, but
European. At the close of the eleventh century
the peoples of north and east Europe were
coming under the influence of Christian civiliza-
tion. The only important regions not already
reclaimed from heathenism at the end of the
century were those south and east of the Baltic,
inhabited by Pomeranians, Prussians, Lithuani-
ans, Livonians, etc. The Scandinavians, the
western Slavs (Poles and Bohemians), and the
Hungarians received Christianity from, the Ro-
man church, and were thus drawn into the
West-European body of nations. The Servians,
Bulgarians, and Russians, on the other hand,
were converted by Greek missionaries and consti-
tute to this day, with the Greeks, a distinct
East-European group.

Increasing Power of the Church. After
the disruption of the Frankish Empire the unity
of Western Christendom was visibly represented
only in the Roman church. The church had
supported the Carolingian Empire and had
striven to avert its destruction. When this be-
came inevitable, the church naturally secured
as much as possible of the Imperial inheritance.
The unity for which it stood was in no wise con-
fined to matters of faith and worship. The
church represented the learning of the age and
had complete control of education. It was the
recipient and administrator of charitable trusts;
it cared for the sick and infirm and relieved the
poor. It interpreted and enforced by penalties
rules of morality, and by reason of the intimate
connection between morals and law, and between
its sacraments and the whole social life, it
exercised a somewhat indefinite but very wide
jurisdiction over matters which are to-day re-
garded as legal. (See CANON LAW.) To this
jurisdiction every Christian was thought to be
subject, from the peasant to the king. The
church thus discharged many governmental func-
tions which the mediaeval state was too crude
and too feeble to undertake. It was in reality
an ecclesiastical state, and it possessed a govern-
mental organization and a governmental per-
sonnel far superior to that of any contemporary
secular state. For the efficient discharge of its
duties the church deemed it necessary that its
agents, from pope to parish priest, should be
independent of the secular powers. It had par-

tially succeeded in exempting its cleigy from
secular jurisdiction, but it had not obtained full
freedom in the selection of its officials. The
Pope, as Bishop of Rome, was chosen by the
clergy and people of Rome. In the tenth cen-
tury the Roman nobles controlled the papal
elections, and the character of the popes whom
they selected was such as to deprive the office
of inuch of its dignity and authority. In the
eleventh century the German emperors brought
about a reform; they secured the deposition of
unworthy claimants and the election of worthy
German successois; but this Imperial inter-
ference was a fresh menace to the independence
of the church. The local authorities of the
church, the bishops and the abbots, were like-
wise elected by the clergy of the cathedral chap-
ters and of the monasteries; but as the lands
of the church were held as liofs and the prelates
were feudal vassals, the secular overlord natu-
rally endeavored, and usually with success, to
Control the election of these authorities. The
attempt of the great Pope, Gregory VII, to de-
prive feudal superiors of all influence upon the
choice of bishops and abbots brought the papacy
into conflict with the German emperors. In
this conflict the emperors were supported by
many of the German prelates whom they had
practically appointed, while the popes were sup-
ported by most of the secular princes of Gtr
many, who desired to weaken the Imperial power
at home. (See INVESTITURE; GKEGORY VII;
HENRY IV; SAXONY; PAPACY.) The terms on
which the conflict was ended (Concordat of
Worms, 1122) were a compromise, defining more
clearly the ecclesiastical and feudal rights. In
the eleventh century, however, the basis was
laid for the greatly increased power which the
church exercised in the thirteenth century. The
selection of the head of the church was intrusted
to a body, the College of Cardinals, created by
the head of the church. The interest of the
feudal superior in the control of church elections
was somewhat diminished by renewed prohibi-
tion of the sale of ecclesiastical preferments
(simony) and by making it more difficult for
those prelates who bought preferment to keep it.
Finally, the renewal and attempted enforcement
of the rules prohibiting the marriage of the
clergy sought to secure for the church a body
of servant** removed as far as possible from ail
influences except her own. (See CELIBACY.)
From the eighth century, when the Roman pon-
tiirs denied the temporal sovereignty of the
Emperor at Constantinople, the Eastern church,
under the influence of the emperors and already
tending to separation on account of disciplinaiy
distinctions, drifted away from the Roman,
church. The separation became definite and fi-
nal, in tho eleventh century, in consequence of
a doctrinal difference concerning the Procession
of the Holy Ghost. The Eastern church never
became independent of the secular authority,
and its dependence facilitated the development
of national churches. See BYZANTINE EMPIKE;
GREEK CHUHCII.

Age of the Crusades. In Spain the kings
of LeCn had gradually reconquered a fourth part
of the peninsula, the Byzantine Empire had re-
gained some of its territory, part of Italy had
been wrested from the Moslems; but, on the
whole, Christian Europe had remained for nearly
three centuries on the defensive against Islam.
In the eleventh century a new and ruder people,
the Seljuk Turks, became dominant in Moham-

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medan Asia, maltreated Christian pilgrims, and
conquered Asia Minor (1071). At the appeal of
the Greek Emperor, Pope Urban II called Chris-
tian Europe to arms (1095); and before the
close of the century a great host of Grusaders
had marched through Asia Minor and occupied
part of Syria, establishing there a kingdom of
Jerusalem and other principalities. (See CRU-
SADES. ) The struggle thus opened continued for
two centuries. The retainers of the Christian
princes in Syria and the military monks (see
HOSPITALERS; TEMPLABS, KNIGHTS; TEUTONIC
KNIGHTS) constituted the standing army of the
Christians; repeated crusades from all parts of
Europe brought volunteer assistance. This
phase of the struggle ended at the close of the
thirteenth century with the evacuation of Syria
by the Christians. An episode of the Crusades
was the temporary overthrow of the Greek Em-
pire (1204) by French Crusaders in alliance
with Venice. A Flemish count (see BALDWIN
I) was made Emperor at Constantinople, and
the European territories of the Empire were
divided between Venice and individual leaders.
Greek emperors, meanwhile, continued to reign
in Asia Minor; and in the latter half of the
century, with the aid of the Genoese, one of
them recovered Constantinople (1261) and part
of the former possessions. The Venetians, how-
ever, kept much of the territory they had ac-
quired, and became the leading commercial
power in the eastern Levant; -although the Geno-
ese, on better terms with the Greeks, had control
of trade in the Black Sea. The only permanent
gains made by Christendom during these centu-
ries were in Spain and on the Baltic. War
against the heathen in these places also was
regarded as a crusade. By the middle of the
thirteenth century the Christians had conquered
all of Spain except Granada; the Teutonic
Knights had subdued and converted the Prus-
sians; and another body of military monks, the
Brethren of the Sword, were doing the same
work in Livonia and Esthonia. In this same
century, however, Christendom lost ground in
eastern Europe through the conquest of Russia
by the Mongols. See MONGOLIAN RACE.

The Papacy and the Western Empire.
During these centuries the papacy, which had
obtained tho leadership of Christendom in the
warfare for the Cross, attained its greatest
power. The popes made and deposed kings, ac-
cepted whole kingdoms as fiefs of the church,
and exercised jurisdiction in international con-
troversies. The German emperors of the house
of Hohenstaufen (1138-1254) seemed indeed al-
most as powerful as their predecessors of the
eleventh century, who had made and unmade
popes; and when by marriage the emperors
gained control of the Norman Kingdom of Naples
and Sicily, the independence of the papacy ap-
peared to be seriously menaced. Among the
Gorman princes, however, and in the Lombard
cities the popes found trustworthy, because inter-
ested, allies; and a century of intermittent con-
flict ended in the destruction of the Hohenstaufen
dynasty. See GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES; HO-
HENSTAUFEN.

Europe at the End of the Crusades. At the
close of the thirteenth century Germany and
Italy had become aggregations of practically in-
dependent principalities, secular or ecclesiastical,
and of free cities. Kings were elected in Ger-
many, and these kings called themselves Roman
emperors; but they had almost no power in

Italy and little in Germany. Poland and Hun-
gary wer<3 no longer even nominally subject to
the Empire, and Burgundy was drifting to
France. In the northeast, however, Germany
had expanded by Saxon conquests and coloniza-
tion, and the gains thus effected proved more
durable than those made by the military monks.
The kings of England had retained Normandy
through the twelfth century and had acquired
by marriage so many other fiefs that they ruled
more than half of the French territory; but all
these possessions except Guiennc had been lost
by the unlucky John early in the thirteenth
century. In France, as in England, the crown
had become hereditary, and at the close of the
thirteenth century the power of the French kings
was increasing. In Spain the united Kingdom
of Leon-Castile (in which also the royal power
was increasing) covered the greater part of the
peninsula; but Portugal, independent since 1140,
had attained its present boundaries, and all east-
ern Spain was ruled by the King of Aragon.
During these centuries there was a great in-
crease of commerce in west Europe. The con-
trol of European trade with the East passed
out of the hands of the Greeks into those of the
Italians, and a much more active traffic was de-
veloped on the trade routes between the Medi-
terranean and northern Europe, especially on
those that ran through Germauy. The result
was a great increase in the wealth and power of
the cities, first in Italy, later in Germany,
France, and Spain. Everywhere the citizens
bought or fought themselves free from their
ecclesiastical or secular lords; in many parts of
Europe tho cities formed alliances for mutual
protection. The league of the Lombard cities
played an important part in the struggle between
the popes and the emperors; the great league*
of the Hansa, which soon controlled the trade
in the northern seas, was formed before the closo
of the thirteenth century. (See HAN SEAT re
LEAGUE.) It was a natural result of the in-
creasing importance of the cities that their
representatives were summoned to meet with tho
other estates of the realm in diets or parlia-
ments. This occurred in the Spanish kingdoms
in the twelfth century, in England and in Gor-
many in the thirteenth century, and in Franc'i
at the beginning of the fourteenth century. In
the intellectual life of Europe the universities
played an increasingly important part. Tho
age of the Crusades was also the age in which
scholasticism reached its highest development
Et was also the age in which the study of the
law books of Justinian was revived, and in tho
legists a new learned class appeared from which
the kings and princes, heretofore dependent upon
the clergy for their administrative officials, were
able to draw servants more devoted to their
interests. The cities furnished the wealth and
power which in tho following centuries made
the monarchy independent of the feudal nobility ;
the legists formulated the theories and furnished
the trained service which was to make the
modern state independent of pope and church.

Changes during the Fourteenth and Fif-
teenth centuries. The consolidation of France
was interrupted by a series of wars in which
the English kings strove to make themselves
kings of France also. (See HXINDBED YEAJBB*
WAR. ) In the fifteenth century, in alliance with
Burgundy, Henry V of England came near ac-
complishing this end. The French dukes of
Burgundy had obtained control of the Nether-

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182

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lands and aimed to establish, an independent
middle kingdom. (See BUBGUNDY.) In 1435,
however. Burgundy made peace with France, and
within a score of years England had lost all its
conquests except Calais. After the death of
Charles the Bold of Burgundy, in conflict with
the Swiss ( 1477 ) , the greater part of the Nether-
lands passed, by marriage, to the Austrian house
of Hapsburg, but Burgundy was annexed to
France. By the union of Castile and Aragon
(1479), and the conquest of Granada (1492)
and of Spanish Navarre (1512), Ferdinand the
Catholic became ruler of the entire Spanish
peninsula, except Portugal. Thus, France and
Spain came out of the Middle Ages as well-
rounded national states. In each the crown
was hereditary, and the royal authority was
becoming supreme. In central Europe the con-
ditions were very different. In Germany the
emperors were chosen first from one house and
then from another, that no precedents for heredi-
tary succession might be created; and each em-
peror used his position to increase the terri-
torial power of his own house. After 1438,
indeed, emperors were regularly taken from the
Hapsburg family, but this change of policy indi-
cated only that the other territorial princes had
become too strong to apprehend any revival of
the Imperial power. Thus weakened, the Empire
began to lose territory on every side. In the
fourteenth century the Swiss became practically
independent of the Empire; in the fifteenth they
became a factor in European politics. In the
latter century Burgundy passed definitively to
France; Schleswig and Holstein were brought
into personal union with Denmark; and the
Prussian possessions of the Teutonic Order were
partly annexed by Poland and partly held as
fiefs from the Polish crown; Italy remained
divided, for it was the policy of the popes to
prevent any single state from obtaining a pre-
dominance which would threaten the independ-
ence of the Papal States. The wealth and
weakness of Italy naturally attracted the
stronger western states. Since the overthrow
of the Hohenstaufen, Aragonian princes had
ruled in Sicily and French princes at Naples.
In the first half of the fifteenth century Aragon
obtained control of both regions. Before the
close of the century Charles VIII had invaded
Italy to enforce the French claims to Naples,
and the struggle for the control of the peninsula
was opened. In the north and east of Europe,
as in the west, larger political unions were
forming. At the close of the fourteenth century
all the Scandinavian countries were brought by
the Calmar Union under a single ruler, and
Norway remained united with Denmark until
1814; but Sweden was largely independent dur-
ing the fifteenth century and became wholly
independent in the sixteenth. In the latter part
of the fourteenth century Poland was united
with the recently Christianized Lithuania, and
became, in territorial extent at least, an impor-
tant state, stretching from the Baltic to the
Black Sea; but the elective Polish monarchy
never developed sufficient power to make this
Slavic state permanent. At the close of the
fifteenth century Russia freed itself from sub-
jection to the Mongols. The most important
event of this period, however, was the overthrow
of the Greek Empire. In the middle of the
fourteen th century the Ottoman Turks, having
subdued Asia Minor, attacked the European
territories of the Empire; before the end of

the century they had conquered iieaily all of the
Balkan Peninsula, and in 1453 they took Con-
stantinople by storm. Long decadent, the East
Roman Empire had, nevertheless, outlived the
West Roman for nearly a thousand years; and
it had held against Islam the southeastern gate
to Europe for more than seven centuries. (See

Map: EUJBOPE ABOUT THE YEAR 1500.)

Close of the Middle Ages. Intellectually
and spiritually the closing centuries of the Mid-
dle Ages represented ferment and growth. Re-
newed acquaintance with the literature of the
ancient world (see HUMANISM) widened the
nairow horizon of medieval thought. The in-
vention of printing immensely accelerated the
diffusion of new ideas. The basis of political
power also was shifted. The invention of gun-
powder completed the change begun by English
bows and Swiss pikes; it destroyed the military
superiority of the armored horseman and the
power of the feudal nobility. The opening by
the Portuguese of the sea route to India, and
the discovery, under the auspices of Spain, of
a new world in the west, signified primarily for
modern Europe the opening of new sources of
wealth, and an increase of the power of the
burgess class and of the crown. Later it was
to signify the expansion of European civilization
over the world; and, last of all, the subordina-
tion of European politics to world politics. At
the close of the thirteenth century the power of
the papacy had begun to decrease. England
and France were already asserting, as other
countries were later to assert, the right of the
state to limit ecclesiastical jurisdiction and tax-
ation and the taking of land into the "dead
hand." (.See MOBTMAIF, STATUTES OF.) Early
in the fourteenth century the French kings
brought the papacy under their control, and for
70 years the popes were in exile at Avignon.
Other popes were set up at Rome. The schism
was ended by church councils in the fifteenth
century, but reforms proposed by the councils
were not carried into operation. Reformation
through revolt found its leaders in Wiclif and
HUBS, and the attempt to crush the Hussite
revolt led in the fifteenth century to a long
and bloody Avar. Sec WICLIF; Huss; HUSSITES.

The Period of the Reformation and the
Religious Wars. The struggle between France
and Spain for stipremaey in Italy may be re-
garded as the beginning of the modern period of
international politics. The Reformation (q.v.),
by completing the disintegiation of the Holy
Roman Empire and dismembering Germany,
made this country, too, a plaything for the am-
bition of other powers; it shifted the centre of
European intrigue and conflict from south to
north Europe. The expansion of firmly governed
nations at the expense of nations lacking a
strongly centred authority is perhaps the most
marked feature of the succeeding period. Thus,
France and Sweden grew at the expense of Ger-
many, and later Prussia, Austria, and Russia
grew at the expense of Poland, and Spain grew
at the expense of Italy. The election of Charles
I of Spain as Emperor in 1519 loci to a pro-
tracted war with Francis I of France. In view
of the overwhelming power of Charles, who, in
addition to the Imperial title, united in him-
self the sovereignty of Spain with Naples and
Sicily, the Austrian possessions of the Haps-
burgBi and the enormous wealth of America ar»d
the Low Countries, the war assumed for Francis
the character of a struggle for self-preservation.

EUROPE 183

Francis was fighting for nationalism and Charles
for internationalism. (See CHABLES V; FRAN-
CIS I.) The odds against the French King,
however, were not so great as they seemed.
He could depend upon the united strength of a
firmly jointed nation; whereas Charles's multi-
farious interests and the very extent of his do-
mains exposed him to attack from many sides.
The Turks, the Protestants, the Pope at differ-
ent times prevented Charles from bringing all
his resources to bear against France, and that
country, though defeated in four wars, suffered
little loss In the end. The nature of the Ref-
ormation Charles in the beginning entirely
failed to understand, and he neither made him-
self the leader of it nor did he consistently
attempt to repress it. He thought he had set-
tled the German difficulties by the Edict of
Worms (1521). Protestantism, unmolested be-
fore 1530, spread rapidly over north Germany —
originating, no doubt, in the prevalent abuses
and laxness of discipline in ecclesiastical affairs,
but finding favor, too, with the princes and
knightly classes, whose anarchic ambitions it
tended to confirm. After 1530 all efforts on
Charles's part to stamp out the progress of the
Reformation were vain; and though the victory
of ftllthlberg (1547) over the German Protes-
tants seemed for a moment to make him master
of the Empire and of west Europe, he was com-
pelled during the last years of his reign to make
his peace with the Protestants (Passau and
Augsburg) on the terms of aujua regio, ejus re-
ligio, and to see the French King actually the
master of German soil (Metz, Toul, Verdun,
1552). With his abdication his huge Empire
fell apart. The Imperial dignity was assumed
by his brother Ferdinand, and the throne of
Spain with its possessions in Italy and the
Netherlands went to Philip II. With the over-
weening power of the Hapscnirgs reduced and the
fabric of the Holy Roman Empire crumbling un-
der the progress of the Reformation, France's
opportunity seemed to have come. But France
itself fell a victim to religious strife and ex-
hausted its energies in civil warfare (see HU-
GUENOTS) ; and it was not until the genius of
Henry IV (q.v.) had reunited all factions that
France was able to revive the anti-Hapsburg
policy of Francis I and Henry II. The wide-
reaching plans of Henry IV were interrupted
by his death, but they were taken up and put
into execution by Richelieu (q.v.), who insti-
tuted the famous French policy of Catholic at
home but Protestant abroad. Nor did France
find its opportunity gone after the lapse of 60
years, for on the part of its rivals this had been
a period of steady degeneration. The bigotry of
Philip II brought on the revolt of the Nether-
lands (Briel, 1572) and the loss of the northern
provinces; and the strength of the Spanish
monarchy was exhausted in the struggle with the
Dutch and in the crusade against England.
(See ABMADA.) In the Empire a succession of
rulers, acting in the spirit of the Counter Ref-
ormation (Rudolph II, Matthias, Ferdinand II),
drove the line of cleavage between Protestants
and Catholics deeper than ever, and finally, by
their aggressions on the reformed religion,
brought on the Thirty Years' War (q.v.). This
was Richelieu's opportunity. Originally a con-
flict for religion between members of the Empire,
the war, with the incursion of Gtuatavus Adol-
phus (q.v.), developed into a war for booty on
the part of Sweden and France.

EUROPE

Europe in 1648. The Treaty of Westphalia
(q.v.) confirmed the dismemberment of Germany
by i educing the power of the Emperor to a
shadow, by making the members of the Diet
virtually independent, by erecting in Germany
266 secular states and 65 ecclesiastical princi-
palities. Sweden gained extensive territories on
the south shore of the Baltic, and France was
confirmed in its possession of the three bish-
oprics, received territory in Alsace, and gained
a foothold on the right bank of the Rhine. West-
phalia left France the strongest power m Europe,
and for a time France possessed in Sweden a
powerful ally. Spain was forced to acknowledge
the independence of the Netherlands and, though
still retaining its Italian possessions, was mori-
bund. The Emperor recognized the independence
of Switzerland, and, with the increased power of
the Diet, his authority became restricted practi-
cally to his personal dominions, whose safety
was threatened by the Turks. These had be-
come and were still the masters of the greater
part of Hungary, with its capital, Buda. South
Italy, the Italian islands, Milan and Mantua,
were ruled by foreign masters. Poland was wel-
tering in anarchy and fast slipping to its doom.
Russia had not yet found a great ruler to bring
it on the stage of European history.

The Period of Dynastic Wars (1048-1703).
From Westphalia to Utrecht international rela-
tions in Europe were dominated by the aggres-
sions of France, which, after passing through a
period of civil disorder (see FBOWDB), attained
under Louis XIV (q.v.) such power as to
threaten for a time the other states of Europe
with the same fate that Franco had feared from
the power of Charles V. The European states
wore forced to unite against him — Holland,
England, and Sweden in 1667; Holland, Spain,
Brandenburg, and the Empire in 1672; Holland,
England, Spain, Sweden, the Empire, Bavaria,
and Saxony in 1680. In the course of these wars
the theory of the balance of power was worked
out in great detail, and the War of the Spanish
Succession (1701-14), in which the French
armies were repeatedly worsted, demonstrated
the superiority of the state system of Europe to
the power of any single state, no matter how
strong. (See GRAND ALLIANCE.) The defeat of
Louis XIV carried with it the overthrow of
the Swedish power in Germany. Brandenburg,
strengthened by its union with Prussia (1618),
and under the astute guidance of the Great
Elector (1640-88), had made common cause
with the enemies of Louis XIV, and by its vic-
tory over the Swedes at Fehrbellin (1*675) had
entered upon its destiny as the successor of
Sweden on the southern shores of the Baltic.
While Louis XIV was battling against the Grand
Alliance, Sweden was assailed by Denmark,
Poland, and Prussia, and, in spite of its heroic
King (see CHARLES XII), lost all of its posses-
sions on the south shore of the Baltic with the
exception of a small part of Pomerania; Prussia
and Russia entering into its inheritance. The
treaties of Utrecht (1713), Rastadt (1714), and
Nystadt (1721) signalized momentous changes
in the political balance of Europe, and things
began to assume an aspect that is familiar.
The power of France was checked by the aggran-
dizement of Austria, which now obtained posses-
sion of the Spanish Netherlands and became the
dominant power in Italy. France lost the con
trol of the sea to England, which entered upon a
successful career of commerce and colonization,

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EtTfcOPE

Prussia was raised to the rank of a kingdom
and stood forward as the leading state of
north Germany. Russia under Peter the Great
gained a foothold on the Baltic at the expense of
Sweden. Savoy was made a kingdom and by
the acquisition of Sardinia became a prominent
factor in Italian affairs. The period that fol-
lows to the French Revolution was in general one
of development on these lines. France, ex-
hausted bv the wars of Louis XIV and the
excesses of his profligate successor, steadily de-
clined in power in spite of a temporary success
over Austria in the War of the Polish Succes-
sion (1733-35). Prussia, under the able and
unscrupulous Frederick the Great (q.v.), as-
sumed the leadership in Germany and held it in
the great Seven Years' War (q.v.) against the
united forces of Austria, France, and Russia.
In this stiuggle Prussia received some aid from
England; but England was more actively inter-
ested in world politics than in the continental
politics, and to England fell the immense pos-
sessions of Franco in the New World and the
ultimate control of India. Russia increased its
territory at the expense of the Turks, who,
after their great defeat at Vienna (1683), had
rapidly been swept back, Carlowitz (1G99),
Passarowitz (1718), Kutschuk Kainardji (1774),
marking the steady decline of their power.
The greed for territory, since 1048, the moving
spirit of European politics, reached its climax
in the despoliation of Poland (1772, 1793, 1795)
by Russia, Prussia, and Austria, acting under
the inspiration of Catharine IT.

Reform and Revolution (17G3-1815). In
the throe decades of peace which followed the
Seven Years' War the attention of European
sovereigns was directed chiefly towards the in-
ternal problems of state. This was the ago of
benevolent despotism, when monarchs sought to
reconcile the theory of absolute govcinment with
the new ideas concerning the rights of man
emanating from France. Joseph II of Austria,
Catharine II of Russia, Frederick the Great,
Leopold of Tuscany, and Pombal in Poitugal
carried out far-reaching reforms in church and
state without conceding any increased share in
the government to the people. The states of
Europe were thus mere governing machines
rather than true nations, and they showed little
Htability when the outbreak of the French Revo-
lution assailed the old form of things. In
France (q.v.) the Revolution swept away all
hereditary privileges and disabilities, destroyed
monarchy, and for a time transformed the state
into a confederacy of independent communes.
The zeal of liberated France to extend to its
neighbors the blessings of freedom, and the
apprehensive howtility of the rulers of the mo-
narchic states, brought on a series of European
wars. The reaction in France against anarchy,
and the stress of foreign conflict, made Napoleon
(q.v.) absolute ruler of France, with govern-
mental power more completely centralized than
under the Bourbons. Napoleon's ambition con-
verted the revolutionary wars into Napoleonic
wars, and his military and political genius made
him master of half of Europe. He took the
title of Emperor of the French and regarded
himself as the successor of the Frankish em-
perors. (See Map: EUROPE AT THE TIME ov
NAPOLEON'S GREATEST POWEB.) The Emperor
in Vienna, who claimed the same position, sur-
rendered his title in 1806, henceforth calling
himself Emperor of Austria only; and thus

ended the Holy Roman Empire, the most vener-
able and the emptiest of surviving mediaeval
institutions. To at least one of the principles
of the Revolution Napoleon remained faithful.
As far as his authority or influence reached,
class distinctions were swept away, and all men
became equal before the law. By independent
legislation Prussia and other states took long
stops in the same direction. (See STEIN.) This
was the one great direct result of the revolu-
tionary propaganda. For political liberty and
popular government in Europe, Napoleon of his
own will did nothing; nor was it his purpose to
contribute in any way to the establishment of
national states in central Europe. These things
were not compatible with his European empire.
The seeds of democracy, however, had been sown
in the early years of the Revolution; and na-
tional feeling was fostered among the peoples
of Europe by the struggle against foreign rule
which Napoleon forced upon thorn. Knowing
that the dynastic method of warfare would bo
unavailable to make head against him, the mon-
archs were forced to make common cause with
their subjects. The constitution of 1812 in
Spain, the organization of local self-government
and of a popular army in Prussia, were results
of French aggression; and it was the national
forces of Spain that prepared Napoleon's down-
fall, as it was the national levies of Prussia
that helped to consummate it. By establishing
legal equality and by awakening the desire for
national self-government the Revolution gave a
unity to subsequent developments in Europe,
which had not been seen since the Reformation
broke up the uniformity of the mediaeval civili-
zation. Yet Europe, after the fall of Napoleon,
entered on a period of sharp recoil from the
ideals of the Revolution. At the Congress of
Vienna (1814-15) the Powers, under the leader-
ship of Austria, made a deliberate attempt to
icturn to the conditions that had prevailed be-
fore 1789. The map of Europe, with which
Napoleon had played havoc, was reconstructed
in the interest of "legitimacy" and "convenancc"
and of the balance of power, that great ideal of
eighteenth-century statecraft. France was re-
stricted to her ancient boundaries. Belgium
and Holland were united into a kingdom to keep
watch on the northern boundary of France.
Norway was taken from Denmark and given to
Sweden to make up for the annexation of Finland
by Russia. Russia received also the Grand
Duchy of Warsaw, which was organized as a
separate kingdom of Poland. For the unity of
Germany and of Italy nothing was done.
Prussia and Austria were both strengthened.
Prussia gained territory chiefly in north and
west Germany, Austria in Italy. The smaller
German states and free cities, greatly reduced
in number, were united with Prussia and Austria
in a German confederacy, in which Austria held
the presidency. In Italy Sardinia was strength-
ened; but Austria held a dominant position in
the north. The Papal States were reestablished,
and Naples and Sicily were restored to their
Bourbon ruler. (See Map: EUROPE AFTER THE
CONGRESS OF VIENNA.)

Reaction and Revolution (1815-52). The
purpose of the Congress of Vienna was to re-
establish legitimate monarchic authority. To
maintain this authority and to resist all revolu-
tionary movements, an alliance was formed by
the emperors of Russia and Austria and the King
of Prussia. (See HOLY AIXIANCE.) Of this

at the Time of

the Civalest Expansion of

NAPOLEON'S PO\YEIL 1813

8CALBOPMILM ^

185

EUROPE

alliance mid of the leactiouary policy followed
bv fc'ic iiiujnntv of the European governments
till 1848. Metlernich (q.v.), the Austrian Min-
latci, was the directing spirit. Among the
peoples of Europe, however, there was a natural
desire for some share in government; and in
Germany and Italy there was a strong desire
for national unity/ The attitude of the princes
made it appear impossible that unity could bo
attained except through, popular sovereignty.
For this reason the nationalists in Germany and
Italy became revolutionists and to a large extent
republicans. Revolutionary agitation was main-
tained by secret associations. (See BURSCUEN-
SCIIAFT; MAZZINI; YOUNG ITALY ) The first
popular outbreaks occurred in 1820 in Spain and
in Naples. In each of these kingdoms the mon-
arch was forced to grant a liberal constitution.
Acting under the authorization of European con-
gresses, Austria forcibly intervened in Naples
and France in Spain; the objectionable constitu-
tions were withdrawn, and absolute royal gov-
ernment was reestablished. In 1821 Greece re-
volted from Turkey and with the aid of England,
France, and Eussia, achieved her independence.
The next purely political outbreak occurred in
1830 in France. Louis XVIII had granted his
people a constitution and had reigned in peace.
Charles X attempted to subvert the constitution
and was deposed. (See JULY REVOLUTION.)
Louis Philippe, of the house of Orleans, was
made King, and a more liberal constitution
was adopted. The French example stirred the
Libei als to action in other parts of Europe.
In Germany a few of the smaller kingdoms and
principalities had already received representa-
tive constitutions; in 1830, in consequence of
popular demonstrations, nearly all the other
minor states were constitutionalized. The gov-
ernments of Prussia and of Austria, however,
made no such concessions. In Belgium and in
Poland insurrections occurred, which -were na-
tional rather than political. The Belgians re-
volted against the Dutch rule and elected Leo-
pold of Saxe-Coburg as their King; and France
and England forced Holland to recognize Bel-
gian independence (1831). Poland rebelled
against its King, the Russian Czar; but this re-
bellion was crushed, and Poland became a Rus-
sian province. In 1848 France was again in
revolution. (See FEBEUABY REVOLUTION.)
Louis Philippe had resisted the demand foe a
wider suffrage and was deposed. A republic
was established; a struggle followed between the
socialistic and conservative elements; a social-
istic rising in Paris was put down with much
slaughter ; Louis Napoleon was elected President.
Three years later the President overthrew the
constitution, and in 1852 he assumed the title
of Emperor. (See NAPOLEON III.) Both of
these changes were approved by vote of the
French people. In 1848, as in 1830, the dis-
turbances at Paris were followed by disturbances
throughout central Europe. Popular uprisings
at Berlin and Vienna forced the Prussian and
Austrian rulers to grant constitutions. Here
and everywhere else in Germany the revolu-
tionary leaders also demanded national unity.
All the German kings and princes bowed to the
storm, and a parliament was assembled at
Frankfort to draw up a constitution for a
united Germany. Simultaneously the people of
Schleswig-Holstein took arms against Denmark
and demanded that these ducMes should be in-
corporated in the new Germany; while the Bohe-

mian, Hungarian, and Italian subjects of Aus-
tria rose against German rule. The Austrians
were driven out of Lombardy and Venice, and
throughout the rest of Italy the people either
expelled their princes or forced them to send
troops to the aid of the insurgent Venetians and
Lombards. Tho united Italian forces were
placed under the command of the King of Sar-
dinia. All these movements came to nothing.
The Austrian army restored order in Bohemia
and at Vienna, and defeated the Italians. With
the aid of "Russia, the Hungarian insurrection
also was crushed. All the Italian princes re-
covered their thrones, the Pope, who had been
expelled from Rome, was reinstated by Napoleon.
The Frankfort Parliament, after long deliboia-
tion, determined to organize all Germany ex-
cept Austria as a federal empire, and offered the
King of Prussia the Imperial crown. He declined
the offer, and the German Parliament dispersed.
A belated attempt of the King of Prussia to
organize the "narrower Germany" on more con-
servative lines than those proposed at Frankfort
also failed. The old confederation was reestab-
lished, and the people of Schleswig-Holstein
were again made subject to the King of Den-
mark. Thus, after many revolutions, we find
the conservative status quo of 1815 still existing.
Eastern Affairs (1815-56). In 1821 a ris-
ing against the Turks in Wallaehia gave the
signal for insurrection in Greece. After several
years of conflict Russia, England, and France
intervened. The Allies destroyed the Turkish-
Egyptian fleet at Navarino (1827), and Russia
declared war on Turkey (1828). The Peace
of Adrianople (1829) guaranteed to Servia,
Wallachia, and Moldavia the management of
their own affairs under Christian governors
and made Greece independent. Greece was or-
ganized as a kingdom under Otto of Bavaria
(1832-62). In 1831 war broke out between the
viceroy of Egypt, Mehemet Ali, and his suzerain,
the Sultan, and the Turkish forces were worsted.
Russia intervened and brought about peace,
taking pay for its services in a treaty of alliance
(Unkiar-Rkclessi, 1833) which practically gave
it a protectorate over the Turkish Empire. In
1853, after attempting to arrange with England
a partition of the Turkish Empire, Russia
occupied the Danubian principalities. Austria
and Prussia assumed an attitude of unfriendly
neutrality; England and France came to the aid
of Turkey, and carried the war into Russian
territory. (See CBTVEAN WAK.) The Peace of
Paris, 1856, pushed Russia back from the mouth
of the Danube (Bessarabia, previously Russian,
being ceded to Moldavia), neutralized the Black
Sea, and placed Turkey under the protection of
Europe. In return Turkey promised reforms.
National Organization of Italy and of Ger-
many (1859-71). The unification of Italy and
of Germany, which the popular revolutions of
1848 had failed to achieve, was accomplished by
revolution from above. In Italy the movement
was initiated and directed by the Sardinian pre-
mier, Cavour (q.v.) ; in Germany it was carried
through by the Prussian premier, Bismarck
(q.v.). Austria was the great obstacle to both
movements, and it took two great wars to expel
the Austrian s from Italy and from Germany.
It was not in the interest either of Russia or
of France that strong states should be estab-
lished in central Europe; but Russia remained
neutral, because, remembering the aid given to
Austria in 1840, the Czar bitterly resented the

EUROPE 186

"ungrateful" attitude assumed by Austria dur-
ing the Crimean War; and Napoleon III (q.v.)
assisted Sardinia and encouraged Prussia, partly
in expectation of petty advantages, partly by
rtason of an unpractical zeal for the "principle
of nationality." In 1859 France and Sardinia
defeated Austria, and Sardinia obtained Lom-
bardy. France was later paid for lier services
by the cession of Savoy and Nice. Simulta-
neously all the small states of north Italy and
the northern provinces of the states of the
church established revolutionary governments
and demanded union with Sardinia. In 1860
Garibaldi (q.v.) overthrew the Kingdom of the
Two Sicilies and placed all Italy south of Rome
in the hands of the King of Sardinia. In 1861
the Kingdom of Italy was established, including
all the peninsula except Venice held by Austria,
and Rome held by the Pope with the assistance
of Fiance. During these movements Prussia
stood inactive. In 1863 Denmark, in violation
of its treaty engagements, endeavored to incor-
porate Schleswig. Prussia, of which Bismarck
was now Premier, acting in concert with Austria,
made war on Denmark, and the Allies obtained
joint sovereignty over Schleswig-Holstein (q.v.).
In 1806, in alliance with Italy, Prussia made
war on Austria. Austria was supported by all
the south German states and by the more im-
portant states of north Germany, but victory
rested with Prussia. (See SEVEN WEEKS' WAB.)
Italy obtained Venice as a reward for her alli-
ance with Germany; Prussia annexed a con-
aiderable part of north Germany, and organized
with the remaining principalities and cities a
north German federal state, of which the King
of Prussia was hereditary President. Failing to
obtain any compensation for his benevolent neu-
trality, Napoleon III was forced by French
popular feeling to quarrel with Prussia and to
endeavor to arrest the unification of Germany.
In the ensuing war (1870-71) the south German
states acted with Prussia; and during the Ger-
man siege of Paris King William of Prussia
was proclaimed Emperor of a united Germany.
To this new Empire France was forced to cede
Alsace and a part of Lorraine. (See FRANCO-
GERMAN WAK.) During the war Italy annexed
Rome (1870).

The Roman Catholic Church and the Mod-
ern. States. Just before the occupation of Rome
by the Italians, an Ecumenical Council (18C9-
70) had defined the dogma of papal infallibility.
Viewed politically, this dogma signifies the com-
plete subjection of the bishops to papal author-
ity and the centralized guidance of the church
militant in its struggle against what it regards
as the usurpations of the modern states. Si-
multaneously Catholic or "Ultramontane" parties
were organized (or reorganized) in many< of
the European states; and while these parties
deny the right of the church to direct their
political activity, they are supported by church
influence and work in accordance with the gen-
eral policy of the church. In Prussia and other
states these movements have led to legislation
intended to check the political activity of the
clergy and to diminish the control of the church
over education. ( See KTJLTURKA^IPF. ) The fur-
thest step was taken by the French Republic in
1902 in the effort to resist and supervise educa-
tion by the clergy.

The Eastern Question (1856-1914). Tfye
Eastern Question had been the outstanding prob-
lem of Europe almost from the time when the

EUROPE

Turks entered Constantinople in 1453. Although
individual nations had been interested in the
Balkans for special reasons, the question was
primarily European, owing to the general fear
that the dominance of one power in Turkey,
particularly Kussia, would disturb the balance
of power and so upset international relations.
For this reason every important state in Europe,
no matter how remote its interests in the
Balkan Peninsula, has been deeply concerned
in the fate of Turkey.

The Peace of Paris, which closed the Crimean
War, although it settled little or nothing, marks
the first attempt of Europe as a whole to solve
the Eastern Question. Turkey came out of the
struggle not only unscathed but "respectable";
she was formally admitted into the family of
nations; her independence was recognized, and
her territory guaranteed. This treaty was
signed by representatives of Russia, England,
France, Prussia, Turkey, and Sardinia. The
assistance given by the Christian Powers to the
Turk made him feel safe in oppressing his Chris-
tian subjects, because they looked to defeated
Russia for help; and it became a policy of the
Porte to play off one Christian power against
another in order to continue its tyranny un-
disturbed. The history of Turkey during the
nineteenth and twentieth centuries is a dreadful
story of massacres, riots, uprisings, and assas-
sinations. Europe looked on, uneasy and con-
science-stricken, but loath to interfere unless its
interests were threatened. The frightful Bul-
garian atrocities of 187C brought denunciation
from England, but war from Russia, which made
itself the champion of the Greek Orthodox Slavs
in the Turkish Empire. Once more Russian
armies marched into Turkey (see RUSSO-TUBKISH
WAB) and compelled the Ottoman government
to sign the humiliating Treaty of San Stcfano
(1878). The Mohammedans were to be turned
out "bag and baggage," when England, fearing
increased Russian prestige, declared that the
question could be settled only by a concert of
the Powers. A great congress was then called at
Berlin in 1878 (see BERLIN, CONGRESS OF),
which undertook the dismemberment of Euro-
pean Turkey. The independence of Montenegro,
Servia, and Rumania was recognized; a new
state, Bulgaria, was called into existence, and
Austria was to "administer" the provinces of
Bosnia and Herzegovina, The results of the
Congress of Berlin were very important: 11,-
000,000 Christians were freed from Turkish
misrule ; Russia, thrice frustrated in her attempt
to get Constantinople, turned her attention to
the Far East; Austria entered as a vital factor
in the situation; and, finally, a new group of
Balkan nations made their appearance, and these
soon became ambitious to settle the Eastern
Question in their own interests.

One thing remained unchanged — the tyranny
of the Turkish government, which, under 'Sultan
Abd-ul-Hamid II, became more intolerable than
ever. Suddenly, in July, 1908, the impossible
happened: a revolution against the Sultan by
the Turks themselves. A progressive element
among the Mohammedans, known as the Young
Turks, organized a powerful society known as
the Committee of Union and Progress, which got
control of the army and deposed Abd-ul-Hamid.
A constitutional government was then estab-
lished. Mohammed V, brother of the deposed
Sultan, was chosen as his successor, and a pop-
'->^)r elected parliament •&*,& organized. The

EtTROKE 187

Young Turks were dominated by the European
ideals of democracy and nationality. They
wished to modernize the Turkish government and
society, reform Mohammedanism, and particu-
larly to weld the various races into a true
Turkish nation. They failed miserably, either
because the task was too great for them or
because they came too late on the scene. The
Mohammedans became angry at the equal treat-
ment givon to the Christians by the new regime;
the latter began plotting to join their kinsmen
in the Balkan States; the army was unpaid
and discontented; revolts among the semisavago
tribesmen became frequent; and the leaders
among the Young Turks were inexperienced
and incapable of handling a new situation.
Worst of all, came financial embarrassment. It
soon became evident that there could be no solu-
tion of the Eastern Question without a dis-
solution of the Turkish Empire.

On Oct. 7, 1908, there took place the great
diplomatic coup of Baron von Aehrenthal, the
Austrian Foreign Minister, who announced the
formal annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina to
Austria, thus breaking the Treaty of Berlin.
There was great resentment against this action
all over Europe, particularly in Servia. Six
years later (July, 1914) Archduke Francis
Ferdinand, the heir to the Austrian crown, was
assassinated in Bosnia by a patriotic Servian,
See WAK IN EUROPE.

Italy, which had marked out northern Africa
as its field of colonial expansion, suddenly de-
clared war (Sept. 29, 1911) against Turkey and
seized Tripoli. (See ITALY, History.) In the
fall of 1912 the Balkan States, taking advantage
of the embarrassment of Turkey, entered into an
alliance and declared war against their old
enemy. (See BALKAN WAB.) In the cam-
paigns that followed, the Turkish armies were
completely defeated by the allies, who were
marching victoriously to Constantinople. The
Turk was about to be driven out of Europe
at last when the allies began to quarrel
Amongst themselves. As a result, Constantinople
and Adrianople with their adjacent territories
remained under the Ottoman flag, but nearly
all the rest of European Turkey was divided
among the Balkan States. Albania was created
into an independent state, with. Prince William
of Wied as its ruler. The enlarged Balkan na-
tions became a source of uneasiness to Europe
in general and to Austria in particular. There
was fear of the possible appearance of a federal
Slav state which, would disturb the balance of
power and create rebellion among the Austrian
Slavs.

European .Alliances. The emergence of
Germany as one of the most important of the
European Powers necessitated a readjustment of
international relations. It was Bismarck's con-
stant policy to be on good terms with Russia
so as to prevent her from falling into the arms
of France. With this idea in view, he organized
in 1872 the Dreikaiserbund, or Three Emperors
League, composed of Germany, Austria, and
Russia. For reasons best known to the secret
history of diplomacy, Germany and Russia be-
came estranged, and the league became a dead
letter. This was France's opportunity, and she
immediately began making overtures to Russia
for an offensive and defensive alliance.

In the mean while the Italians were greatly
angered by the French occupation of Tunis —
"the last door open to Italian expansion," as it
VIII.— 13

EUROPE

was then thought. Moreover, there was great
fear that the French clericals were plotting to
restore the Pope to his temporal power. For
these reasons Italy joined Germany and Austria
in forming the famous Triple Alliance organized
by Bismarck in 1882. What the terms of this
treaty are have never been revealed; it is sur-
mised, however, that the Triple Alliance would
aid Germany in case of an attack by France,
would promote Austrian interests in the Bal-
kans, and encourage Italy in her policy of colo-
nial expansion. Although the treaty has been
renewed several times, rumor has it that its
effectiveness is gone. Since the annexation of
Tripoli, Italy, never very happy under tho
burden of militarism required of her by the al-
liance, has shown a lack of interest in the treaty.
For this reason Germany and Austria have
drawn more closely together.

The Franco-Russian entente became a hard and
fast Dual Alliance when, in 1897, at an official
banquet, Czar Nicholas II toasted President Felix
Faure of France as "my friend and ally." Like
the Triple Alliance, the Dual one is mainly de-
fensive. Russia is to help France in case of an
attack by Germany and in return French loans
arc to be forthcoming to the Russian govern-
ment.

Diplomacy, no less than polities, makes
strange bedfellows. The common fear of Ger-
many has drawn together the century-old
enemies, England and France, into a semialliance
known as the entente cordiale. In a war with
Germany the English fleet would be of great
value to France and the French army to Eng-
land. The effectiveness of this understanding
was tested in the Morocco affair (see MOROCCO,
History), as the loyal support given by Eng-
land to France's determination to annex Mo-
rocco in 1911 was mainly responsible for the
diplomatic rout of Germany on that occasion.
Russia's alliance with France has made the en-
tente cordiale into a Triple Entente, with the
result that Germany's position in Europe has
become rather precarious. The international
crisis of 1911 was directly responsible for the
increase of armaments among the nations of
Europe. Germany added in 1913 about 40,000
men to her already enormous standing army;
and France, not to be outdone, passed the three
years' military service law (see FRANCE, His-
tory), because her stationary population made
it impossible to increase her army without in-
creasing the term of service.

Europe in the Twentieth Century. The
population of Europe in 1914 was about 425 5-
000,000, an average yearly increase in the previ-
ous decade of over 3,000,000 in spite of the
large emigration. There is no distinct and
definite European race, for all the peoples are
of mixed origin. • But taking language as a
tost and grouping cognate languages, about 31
per cent of the inhabitants are Slavs, living
mainly in the eastern part; about 27 per cent
are Latins, living in the southern and western
parts; and about 32 per cent are Teutons —
Germans, English, Scandinavians, Dutch, and
Flemings — living mainly in the north. There
are also the so-called non-European races, like
the Finns, Hungarians, Turks, and Jews, who
make up the remaining 10 per cent. About 95
per cent of the population are Christians, di-
vided roughly into 45 per cent Catholk, 20 per
cent Orthodox, and 26 per cent Protestant. Po-
litically Europe consists of 26 independent states:

EtTBOPE

188

BUEOPE

four empires, viz., Russia, Germany, Austria-
Hungary, and Turkey; 13 kingdoms— Great
Biituin, Spain, Italy, Belgium, Greece, Holland,
Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Bulgaria, Servia,
Montenegro, and Rumania; 4 principalities —
Albania, Monaco, Lichtenstein, and the Grand
Duchy of Luxemburg; and 5 republics — France,
Switzerland, Portugal, Andorra, and San Marino.
Two are federal states, Germany and Switzer-
land; one dual, Austria-Hungary; and the rest
are unitary. In none does absolute monarchy
as a form of government exist, although in
Russia constitutionalism is of a veiy weak
variety. The system of parliamentary govern-
ment based upon the English model has been
adopted in one form or another in every Euro-
pean state. Industrially England, Germany,
Fiance, and Belgium are most advanced; east-
ern and southern Europe are still largely agri-
cultural, althoiigh the industrial revolution is
ranking rapid headway in these places.

The twentieth century is witnessing the
rapid spread of European civilization to the
old nations of Asia and to the savage races of
Africa. The coming of the missionaries preach-
ing what has become a European religion, Chris-
tianity, and the desire of the manufacturers and
capitalists to develop the resources of the back-
ward countries of the world, has profoundly
affected the life of non-European peoples. Fac-
tories, railways, telephones, printing presses,
and steamboats are almost as common in China,
India, and northern. Africa as they are in Eu-
rope and in America. The world is rapidly
acquiring a common civilization, which has not
only been created but spread by Europeans.

Bibliography. GENERAL WOEKS. E. Reclus,
The Earth and its Inhabitants, vols. i-iv (19
vols., London, 1876-94) ; L. Lanier, L'Europe
(5th ed., Paris, 1890) ; Regions of the World, ed.
by Mackinder (4 vols., London, 1902-05) ; A.
Philippson, Europa (2d ed., Leipzig, 1900) ; G.
C. Chisholm, Europe, vols. i-ii of Stanford's
Compendium of Geography a-nd Travel (13 vols.,
London, 1907 ) ; A. Hassall, Periods of Euro-
pean History (10 vols., New York, 1901-08);
P. Hcrre, Quellenkunde eur Weltgesohichte
(Leipzig, 1910) ; Cambridge Modern History (14
vols., New York, 1902-12) ; Laraed's History
for Ready Reference (7 vols., Springfield, Mass.,
1913).

FLORA: T. Caruel, Epitome Floras Europce
(Florence, 1892-94) ; G. Rouy, Sur la geographic
botanique do I'Europe (Paris, 1886) ; id., ILlus-
trationes Plantarum Europce (ib., 1894-1905);
F. Thonner, Excursions flora von Europa (Ber-
lin, 1901); W. Junk, Bibliographia botanica
(ib., 1909); Die Vegetation der Erde, ed. by
Engler and Drude, vols. i, ii, iv, v, x, xi (13 vols.,
Leipzig, 1806-1911).

FAUNA: J.Gould, The. Birds of Europe (5 vols.,
London, 1832-37); E. Sclireiber, Herpetologia
Hurop&a (Brunswick, 1875); H. G. Seeley,
Fresh-Water Fishes of Europe (London, 1886-
87) ; H. E. Dresser, The Birds of Europe (ib.,
1871-81; Supplement, 1895-96); A. Heilprin,
Geographical and Geological Distribution of Ani-
mals (New York, 1897); R. F. Scharff, Euro-
pean Animals (ib., 1907); R. B. Lodge, Bird
Hunting through 'Wild Europe (ib., 3909) ; M. I.
Nuwbcgin, Animal Geography: The Faunas of
the Natural Regions of the Globe (Oxford,
1913).

PHYSICAL FEATURES: H. Berghaus, Physi-
kalischer Atlas (Gotha, 1902) ; *). Kann, Hand-

look of Climatology, part i (New York, 1903) ;
J. F. Partsch, Central Europe (ib., 1903) ; A. J.
Herbertson, Oxford Geographies (Oxford, 1907-
08) ; H. R. Mill, International Geography (new
ed., London, 1908); E. Suess, The face of the
Earth (Oxford, 1904-10); J. G. Bartholomew,
Physical and Political Atlas (ib., 1913).

GEOLOGY: J. Geikie, Prehistoric Europe: A
Geological ft ketch (London, 1881); Strelbitsky,
Superficie de VEurope (St. Petersburg, 1882);
K. A. von Zittel, History of Geology and Palaeon-
tology (New York, 1901); A. Geikie, A Text
Book of Geology (4th ed., 2 vols., ib., 1903) ;
Chamberlin and Salisbury, Geology (3 vols., ib.,
1006-07) ; Beyrich and Hanchecornc, Carte Ge-
ologique international e de I'Europe (Berlin, 1895
-1911). For the geology of Great Britain,
France, Germany, and Russia, consult the re-
ports issued by the geological surveys of the
respective countries.

ANTHROPOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY: Wagner and
Supan, Die Bevolkcrung der Erde (Gotha, 1890-
93) ; F. RatzeJ, The History of Mankind (3 vols.,
New York, 1896-99 ) ; J. Deniker, The If aces of
Man (London, 1900) ; G. Sergi, The Mediterra-
nean Pace; Origin of European Peoples (New
York, 1901 ) ; N. W. Thomas, Bibliography of
Anthropology and Folk Lore, 1905— (Lon-

don, 1907- ) ; A. H. Keane, The World's
People (New York, 1908) ; E. C. Scmplc, In-
fluences of Geographical Environment (ib.,
191] ) ; J. Beddoe, The Anthropological History
of Europe (London, 1912); R. ]yfiinro, Palcro-
lithic Man and Terramara Settlements in Europe
(ib., 1913); W. Z. Ripley, Races of Europe
(new ed., ib., 1913). Consult also the works
of R. G. Latham, a general authority of the
first order.

HISTOKY: I. C. K. Adams, Manual of His-
torical Literature (3d ed., New York, 1901). —
II. General Histories: of larger works, con&ult
W. Onckcn, Allgcmeine Geschichte (45 vols., Ber-
lin, 1893) ; Epochs of Modem History (18 vols.,
New York, 1875-1900); Lavisse and Rambaud,
Ilistoirc gencralc du> 4 sit'des d nos jours (12
vols., Paris, 1893-1901) ; H. F. Helmolt, History
of the World (8 vols., New York, 1902-07);
A. Hassall, Periods of European History (10
vols., ib., 1901-08) ; Cambridge Modern History
(14 vols., ib., 1902-12). Of brief manuals, con-
sult E. Lavisse, General View of the Political
History of Europe (New York, 1891) ; Thatcher
and Scliovill, General History of Europe (ib.,
1900) ; K. Ploetz, Epitome of Ancient, Mediaeval,
and Modern History (new ed., Boston, 1903) ;
J. H. Robinson, Readings in European History
(2 vols,, ib., 190U ); A. H. Johnson, tiix
Ages of European History (New York, 1909) ;
A. Hassall, Handbook of European History
(London, 1910); Robinson and Beard, Outlines
of European History (2 vols., Boston, 1912) ;
S. B. Howe, Essentials in Early European His-
tory (2d ed., New York, 1913) ; E. C. Richard-
son, Union List of the Collections on European
History in American Libraries (Princeton,
1913). — III. For the history of Europe in the
pre-Mycentean and the Mycenaean periods, see
Aiicii-aEOLOGY; for its history in the later Greek
days and in Roman times, consult the works
cited under the various articles referred to above,
under the headings Greek Civilization; Roman
Civilization; Europe under the Roman Empire.
Consult further: A. Philippson, Das Mittelmeer-
gebiet (Leipzig, 1904); I. P. 12. von Miiller,
Handbuch der klassischen Alter tumswissen-

EUROPE

189

ETTEOPE

schaft, vol. iii (3d ed., Mtinchen, 1907-13).
—IV. The Middle Ages: V. Duruy, History of
the Middle Ages (New York, 1891) ; E. Emerton,
Mediaeval Europe (Boston, 1896); G. B. Adams,
Ciuihsation during the Middle Ages (New York,
1898); J. B. Bury, The Later Roman Empire
(2 vols., ib., 1S9<J) ; H. E. Bourne, History of
Mediceval and Modern Europe (ib., 1905); D.
C. Munro, History of the Middle Ages (ib.,
1909) ; J. Bryce, The Holy Roman Empire (ib.,
1911) ; E. Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the
Roman Empire, ed. by Bury (7 vols., London,
1912) ; M. F. Moore, Two Select Bibliographies
of Mediceval History Study (ib., 1913); J. B.
Bury, Cambridge Mediaeval History (S vols.,
New York, 1913); H. 0. Taylor, The Claswoal
Heritage of the Middle Ages (3d ed., ib., 1911) ;
id., The Mediasval Mind (rev. ed., 2 vols., London,
1914).— V. The Renaissance: J. A. Symonds,
The Renaissance in Italy (6th ed., London,
1909) ; J. C. Burckhardt, The Civilization of the
Renaissance in Italy (new ed., 7 vols., New
York, 1897-98).— VI. Modern History: T E.
May, Democracy in Europe (New York, 1895) ;
V. Duruy, History of Modern Times (ib., 1899) ;
C. Seignobos, The Political History of Europe
(ib., 1900) ; C. M. Andrews, The Historical De-
velopment of Modern Europe (2 vols., ib., 1900) ;
H. Sidgwick, The Development of European
Pohtij (London, 1903) ; A. Stern, Geschichte
Eitro'pas, 1815-1878 (4 vols., Stuttgart, 1905);
F. Schevill, The Political History of Modem Eu-
rope (New York, 1907); T. A. Dodge, Great
Captains (Boston, 1890-1907); A. von Horoet-
sky, A Short History of the Great Campaigns of
Europe since 1792 (London, 1909) ; A. Sorel,
I/Europe ci la revolution fran^aise (8 vote.,
Paris, 1807-1910); T. H. Dyer, History of
Modern Europe (6 vols., London, 1901-09); R.
W. Jeff cry, The New Europe, 1789-1889 (Boston,
1911) ; Cr. P. Gooch, History of our own Times
(New York, 1911); A. Wahl, Geschichte des
europiiischen Staatensystems, 1789-1815 (Mtin-
chen, 1912) ; J. H. Rose, The Development of the
European Nations (3d ed., London, 1912) ; F.
A. Ogg, The Governments of Europe (New York,
1913) ; D. J. Hill, History of Diplomacy in the
International Development of Europe (3 vols.,
ib., 1905-14) ; E. A. Freeman, The Historical
Geography of Europe (3d ed., London, 1903) ;
E. W. Dow, Atlas of European History (New
York, 1907) ; Historical Atlas of Europe and h&r
Colonies (Oxford, 1907).

EXT'BOPE, PEOPIJSS OF. All Europeans be-
long to the White, or Caucasian, and the Yellow,
or Mongoloid, varieties of man. Throughout
historic time Europe has been a meeting ground
of races, differing from each other in complexion,
stature, physical features, temperament, lan-
guage, occupation, social organization, govern-
ment, opinion, and religion. In studying the
ethnology of this portion of the Eastern Hemi-
sphere it is imperative to hold these several cate-
gories apart in the mind, especially those of race
or blood kinship, the result of crossbreeding;
speech or linguistic affinities, the result of accul-
turation; arts, the result of commerce or con-
tact; and social life or nationality, the result
of conquest. It is true that these concepts are
related, and each is of value in the whole
account of any people. When, however, one
attempts to argue that people who speak the
same language or practice the same arts are
necessarily akin, confusion is certain to arise.

Beginning with the first account of ancient

man in Europe, paleethnology may be divided
into three parts: (1) Tertiary man, or the
origin of humanity; (2) Quaternary man, or
the development of humanity ; ( 3 ) present types
of man. It is to be distinctly understood that
this classification is intended only as a guide
to study. New discoveries are constantly de-
manding new adjustments with reference to
the earliest races of men in Europe.

The existence of Tertiary man is yet in doubt,
for our sole information concerning him rests
upon the finding of extremely rude stone imple-
ments (called eoliths) in geological layers which
are thought to be Tertiary. These supposed
primitive implements, so far as their shape is
concerned, might be only the refuse of later manu-
factures of more delicate objects. For in Amer-
ica, where at first materials of this character
were regarded as showing the existence of man
on this continent many thousands of years ago,
they are now known to be the quarry refuse of
historic tribes. In Europe the argument against
the eoliths rests on the suspicion that the sup-
posed indications of use by human hands are
merely the product of natural causes. Thus,
the demand is made that eoliths, in order to
be recognized as genuine, should be made of
material foreign to the deposit in which they
are found. Nevertheless, Obermaier, who takes
a very skeptical attitude towards both Tertiary
man and the eolithic problem, admits the pos-
sibility of both and accepts as reasonable the
view that the earliest paleolithic tools must
have developed from simpler forms, however
difficult it may be to differentiate these from
unworked stones.

Still keeping in mind geological epochs, Euro-
pean archaeologists divide human culture into
Prehistoric, Protohistoric, and Historic. Again,
it is thought possible to separate the life of man
in Europe into ages according to the materials
which characterize the several periods, as the
Stone age, Bronze age, and Iron age. It must
be remembered at this point, however, that the
word "age" does not refer to definite chrono-
logical dates, but that in the progress of human
development man lived first in the stone grade,
next in the bronze grade, and lastly in the iron
grade of culture.

Leaving out of view, then, the question as to
the existence of man in the Tertiary period, sub-
stantial exploration begins with the Quaternary
epoch. In his investigations there the inquirer
is everywhere confronted by problems concerning
cosmic changes in climate, the plants and ani-
mals which were contemporaneous with man
during these changes, the species or varieties of
man based on the human crania actually dis-
covered, as well as on the progress in arts, es-
pecially those in stone. Notwithstanding the
speculative character of much that is affirmed
about Quaternary man in Europe, an examina-
tion of the accumulated evidences leaves the
impression of a long perspective of history, in
which the life of the species was gradually trans-
formed by human ingenuity into the higher cul-
ture, the life wherein nearly every conscious
action is performed artificially. On the assump-
tion that the forward movement of this artificial
life is an unquestionable fact, the relics of hu-
man industry discovered in the caves and other
archaeological stations throughout all the coun-
tries of Europe may be mapped out in a series.
Attempts have been made to mark epochs in
this progress, and names have been given to them

BtTROPE

190

from locations where topical specimens of that
particular grade of ait were to be found, be-
ginning with the Chollean, and ending with the
Tourassian for the Paleolithic period.

EUROPEAN PALEETHNOLOGY

MES

Ages

Periods

Epochs

„

Merovingian

IWabenian
(Waben, Pas-de-Calais).

Champdolian (Champ-
dolent, Seme-et-Oise) .

Of iron

Lugdunian
(Lyon, Rhdne).

Beuvraysian (Mont
Beuvray, Nievre).

-g

Galatian

Marnion (Department
of the Marne).

Hallstattian
(Hallstatt, Austria).

TVii Iranian

Larnaudian
(Larnaud, Jura).

•«

bronze

Morgian
(Morgee, Vaud, Switz.).

Neolithic

Robenhausian (Roben-
hausen, Zurich).

Azylian (Mas d'Azil,
Ariege).

Magdalenian (La Ma-
deleine, Doidogne).

Solutrcan (Solutre,
Saone-et-Loire).

PoTortlit>ii/»

Aurignacian (Aurignas,
Haute Garonne).

stone

Moustenan (Le Mous-
tier, Dordogne).

Acheulean (Saint-
Acheul, Somme).

Chellean (Chelles,
Seine-et-Marae).

Eolithic

Puycourman
(Puy-coumy, Cantal).

Thenaysian (Thenay,
Loir-et-Cher).

A fair number of skeletal remains to which
the title Quaternary has been applied can now
be vouched for as beyond question.

All the finds may be grouped as belonging to
one of two races— the Neanderthal race, which
shows striking differences from modern man, and
the Cro-Magnon race, which clearly exhibits
affinity with him. The oldest of all the remains
is the jaw unearthed in Mauer, near Heidelberg.
It belongs either to the Old or the Middle Quater-
nary, and Obermaier's avowedly most conserva-
tive minimum estimate sets its age at 100,000
years. Clearly human in its teeth, this find
resembles other Neanderthal remains in its chin-
loss character and surpasses all in primitive-
ness by virtue of the extraordinary massiveness
of the jaw. A remarkable find made in De-
cember, 3912, near Piltdown, Sussex, by Dawson,
consisting of part of a skull, a lower jaw, and a

canine tooth, has been the subject 01 vigorous
discussion, especially by Drs. Keith and Smith
Woodward, the hitter assigning it to a distinct
genus of humanity, which he dubs Eoanthropus
dawsoni. The interest of the find, which some
regard as contemporaneous with Chellean ob-
jects, lies in the incongruity of the distinctively
human forehead with the apelike jaw.

Among the best-known remains of the Nean-
derthal type may be mentioned a burial at Le
Moustier belonging to the Late Acheulean or
Old Mousterian epoch, the burials of La Fer-
rasaie and La Chapelle-aux-Sainttj (Mousterian),
the jaw of La Naulette, and the two Spy skele-
tons (all from Belgium and of the Mousterian
epoch), the Neanderthal skull proper (of uncer-
tain epoch, but almost certainly Old Paleolithic),
and the Croatian skeletons from Krapina (Late
Chellean). All these and other Neanderthaloid
remains point to a thickset race of short stature
(160 centimeters), with low, long, and narrow
skullcap, receding forehead, very prominent
brow ridges, and massive lower jaw without pro-
jection of the chin. The Neanderthal type was
not by any means uniform, however. Thus,
while the West European specimens of the race
indicate dolichocephalic skulls (70 to 75.7), the
Krapina fragments show a distinct tendency to
brachycephaly.

The Cro-Magnon race certainly dates back to
Aurignacian times, as proved by the skeletons
of Mentone, Cro-Magnon and Laugerie Hauto
(Dordogne), and Combe-Capelle (Perigord). Im-
portant Magdalenian finds were made at Lau-
gerie Basse, La Madeleine, and Chancelade (all
in the Dordogne district). The tendency to
variation was far more strongly pronounced
among the Cro-Magnon people than among their
Neanderthaloid predecessors and contempoi aries.
Thus, the skeletal remains in the Grimaldi grot-
toes point to a lofty stature of 187 centimeters
(6 feet, 1% inches), while that of the Combe-
Capelle man does not seem to have exceeded 166
centimeters. In all Cro-Magnon specimens, how-
ever, the skullcap is high, the brow ridges are
unobtrusive, the jaw is loss massive, and there
is a pronounced chin. There is marked dolicho-
cephaly, the index being 65.7 for that from
Combe-Capelle, but with a considerable range
of variation (Cro-Magnon, 73.8). Some of the
Grimaldi remains have been interpreted as be-
longing to a Negroid people, but this conclusion
has not been definitely established. The precise
relations of the Neanderthal and Cro-Magnon
races are by no means clear. Among other
hypotheses it has been suggested that the
Cro-Magnon men did not develop from the Ne-
anderthalers, but originated outside of Europe,
immigrated, became in part blended with the na-
tive populations, and ultimately supplanted them.

After these Paleolithic epochs, during which
man attained not only his present physical type,
but also a very creditable degree oi industrial
and artistic culture, came the Neolithic or Pol-
ished Stone period, followed by the Bronze or
Tsiganian period, and this by 'the age of Iron.
These changes did not come by sudden breaking
down of the Stone and Bronze ages, but by
transitional steps with a separate history in
each of the countries of Europe. For instance,
the Polished Stone period was not developed
simultaneously over the continent Scandinavia,
in its northern parts, was covered with glaciers,
and only in the refuse piles in Denmark are
polished-stone hatchets found contemporaneously

EtTBOPE 191

CLIMATIC AND OTHER CHANGES IN

ETTBOFE

THE PALEOLITHIC EPOCHS

Climate

Geologic action

Plants

Animal*

Azylian

As at present

Fauna of to-day, Cervus ektphua
abundant. Reindeer disappears.

Magdalenian

Cold and dry

Formation of red earth with
angular pebbles

Polar moss in
Wurttemberg

Man, race of Laugene Basse
Great development of northern
fauna, reindeer, etc. Extinction
of mammoth.

Solutrean

Mild and dry

Retreat of the glaciers

Horse abundant. Reindeer. Mam-
moth. Increase of rhinoceros

4
Aungnacian

Cold

Gradual retreat of glaciers

Mammoth, Siberian rhinoceros
reindeer, cave bear, bison
horse. Man: Cro-Magnon race

Mousterian

Cold and moist

Great extension of glaciers,
and consequent changes of
the soil and levels

Flora of cold re-
gions

Arctic fauna. Mammoth, Rhi-
noceros iichorinua, cave bear,
musk ox.

6
Aoheulean

Mild and moist

Alluvium of the high levels.
Loam of the plateaus

Flora in transi-
tion

Fauna intermediate. Appear-
ance of mammoth. Disap-
pearance of Elephos antiquus.

7
Chellean

Warm and hu-
mid

Subsidence. Filling of the
valleys. Alluvium every-
where at lower levels

Flora subtropi-
cal. Mediter-
ranean plants
in Seine valley

Man. Neanderthal race. Tropi-
cal fauna. Hippopotamus. Eh*
noceros merckii, Elephas an-
tiquua. Extinction of Tertiary
forms.

CLASSIFICATION OF QUATERNARY CULTURE IN EUROPE

PERIOD

Epoch

Technio

Characteristic implements

End of the Paleolithic

Azylian

Workmanship in bone and
stone degenerated

Harpoon heads flat, with large barbs,
in antler. Passage from the Paleo-
lithic period into the Neolithic.

Paleolithic

Magdalenian

Development of work on
bone and hard substances

Burins or gravers in flint. Flint blades
thin and symmetrical. Development
of bone implements and of fine art.

Solutrean

Flints worked by pressure

Laurel-leaf blades. The skin scraper
appears. Apogee of stone implements.

Aurignaoian

Marginal retouching by strik-
ing and pressure

Blades of unilateral curvature; tools
thinner "fchflp those of Mousterian
epoch.

Middle
Paleolithic

Mousterian

Flints that show retouching
(chipped and flaked)

Stone blades to be held in the hand,
knives and choppers. Blades wide and
thick, and chipped on one face only.
Disappearance of the flaked axe
(coup de powiff).

Transition
Paleolithic

Aoheulean

Mixed art

Leaf-4iape blades, langue de chat, nar-
rower, thinner, more delicate, and
carefully finished.

Lower
Paleolithic

Chellean

Made by direct blows

Only one stone implement, the coup de
poing, large, ooarse, with large facets
on each side.

with Neolithic tools of the rest of Europe. There
were even, until quite recently, tribes in Russia
who were still in this grade of progress.

These ancient Neolithic peoples were sedentary
and industrial. Their food was not ^obtained
wholly by natural processes, but artificialism in
the cultivation of the soil and the domestication
of animals progressed. Their homes were no

longer movable tents, but substantial buildings.
They constructed the pile dwellings of Switzer-
land, France, Italy, and perhaps of Ireland.
They buried their dead under dolmons, and it
was they who set up huge megalith! c monu-
ments in England, Brittany, and Spain.

The Neolithic peoples of the British Isles, as
well aa of other parts of western Europe, were

EUROPE

193

EUROPE

quite long-headed, the ratio of the length to the
width of the skull being as low as 65-75. These
earliest of European industrial peoples had also
long faces like some existing populations of
Europe. It must be carefully noted at this
point that in Sweden, France, Switzerland, Ger-
many, Austria, Spain, and Portugal crania of
short-headed peoples are found mixed with doli-
chocephalic skulls. This tells an important
story, for it clearly shows that with progress
race mixture had begun to take place, the bor-
rowing of blood being associated with the com-
munity of arts. Another fact worthy of notice
is tbat tho erection of huge stone and earth
monuments, called barrows by ethnologists, indi-
cates the consolidation of society, implying an
increasing number of persons who could be
brought together in the same enterprise, and the
consequent raising of an artificial food supply
so that these masses might cooperate for longer
periods of time.

The so-called ages of Metal in Europe, i.e.,
of Copper, Bronze, and Iron, comprise the re-
maining epochs in the popular scheme of Euro-
pean archtcology. In America the earliest im-
plements in copper were cold-hammered and
ground into shape, the material being treated
technically precisely as if it were stone. It is
not surprising, therefore, to find the same con-
dition of things in Europe. The parallelism is
almost perfect in every respect. Copper tools
and weapons do not mark a separate epoch,
meaning tbat the stone implements ceased to be
used at once, nor must it be inferred that there
was a Copper age as distinguished from a
Bronze age, for copper tools and weapons are
found associated with bronze relics. And here
arises one of the most interesting inquiries of
all, how far the exquisite products in bronze,
found all over Europe, are results of indigenous
development, and how far they indicate com-
merce or instruction from without. There is
no doubt tbat both of these factors cooperated,
the result of which was the art as it existed in
each region.

It is a well-known law of progress that sugges-
tion is one of the strongest incentives to the use
of materials and processes. There existed in
central and western Europe a Bronze age, which
in some characteristics of its products resembles
the Orient and in others is entirely original. The
art of bronze smelting and working could not
arise originally and develop completely and in-
dependently in any land; and secondly, such an
urt could not be imposed bodily upon a people
who were not far enough advanced to add to it
many thoughts and technical processes of their
own. Progress and complexity in artificial ac-
tivities are produced by the mutual influence of
races and peoples. In proof of this the Bronze
age witnessed the coming of a great variety of
physical types. In England the people became
more brachycephalic, the ratio of head length to
head width being 81. In Sweden and Denmark
long-headed people, tall and fair-haired, coexisted
with those of much larger index. In the valley
of the Rhine, as well as in southern Germany
and Switzerland, the dolichocephaly was more
pronounced. Knowledge of the use of fire among
the peoples of the Bronze age was contempo-
riuipoita also with the cremation of the dead.

The earliest relics of the Iron age are found
in the hamlet of Hallstatt, in Upper Austria,
in thousands of graves, revealing implements
of industry, weapons, and personal ornaments,

but no pottery. At first it seemed to have
had no affiliation with any other national art,
but later researches put the earliest Iron age as
a medium between the more advanced art of
southern Europe and the West. Iron gradually
replaced bronze, which had then passed into its
aesthetic stage, and revealed the existence of Ori-
ental influence in Europe. The long heads also
became mingled with short heads, and in the La
Tene, also called Marncan, epoch, skulls vary
almost as much as at the present day. Vou
Luschan is of opinion that all the brachycephalic
Europeans (Alpine race) are genetically re-
lated with the Hittites of western Asia, and
holds that there were successive immigrations
of short-headed peoples, the most recent and
historically best-established one being that of
the Magyars. On the other hand, Schliz inclines
to the theory of a European origin of the bracliy-
cephalous skulls found in Europe.

The types of races mentioned extend far beyond
the boundaries of Europe into Asia and Africa.
The lines between the continents are entirely
artificial.

Riploy finds three separate biological races of
men in Europe:

1. TEUTONIC RACE. Dolicholeptorhine of Koll-
mann; Reihengraber of German writers; Germanic of
English; Kymnc of French; Nordic of Demkor; and
Homo europ&us of Lapouge.

2. ALPINE RACE, (or Celtic). Celto-Slavio of French
writers, Sarmatian of Von Holder; Discntia of Ger-
man writers; Arvernian of Beddoe; Occidental of Deni-
ker; Homo Alpmua of Lapouge, and Lappanoid of
Pruner-Bey.

3. MEDITERRANEAN RACE. Ibenan of English writ-
ers; Liffurian of Italian writers; Ibero-Insular and
Atlanto-Mediterranean of Deniker.

B4.CB

HEAD

FACE

HAIR

BYES

STATURE

NOSE

Teu-
tonic

Long

Very
light

Blue

Tall

Narrow,
aquihnc

Alpine
(Celtic)

Round

Broad

Light
chest-
nut

Hazel-
gray

Medi-
um,
stocky

Variable
broad,
heavy

3
Mediter-
ranean

Long

Dark
brown
or black

Dark

Medi-
um,
slender

Rather
broad

Inquiry into the causes of difference in stature,
head form, and color, leads to the profoumlost
of biological studies. To say that inheritance
and variation are sufficient to account for thorn
is to explain nothing. Even stature is not al-
ways a matter of nutrition. Much controversy
has arisen over the origin of blondness in north-
ern Europe. No doubt, albinism is more pro-
nounced in Europe. Its marked appearance else-
where is among the kindred peoples in northern
Africa and southeastern Asia. The popular no-
tion that exposure to the action of the sun's
rays is the cause of brunetteness is altogether
erroneous. No single known cause produces
either albinism or brunetteness. It is quite prob-
able that long ago the subspecies to which Euro-
peans belong were yellow or Mongoloid in color,
and that by the cooperation of environment and
obscure physiological processes these characteris-
tics became fixed and persistent through heredity.

Having fixed these three biological types in
mind, the difficulty is in finding their represent-
atives in modern Europe. Race is a matter of
blood kinship, requiring isolation under favor-
able conditions for bringing about new character-

THE WHITE RACES OF EUROPE

40P£-- V' - \ \

•;:£V:>44|r ' \\
— — -^ v '*••». ' * ''\ !

HELLENIC FAMILY - A GREEK

CELTIC FAMILY - AN IRISHMAN

EUROPE

193

ETJBOPE

istics that become distinguishing and heredi-
tary. These combined marks define race, and are
not to be confounded with the term "people."

A people is a collection of human beings living
together under a definite nationality and occupy-
ing a specific region. It is an elastic term,
applying, it may be, to a small community, as
the people of a certain valley or plain, but can
also include all who are under the sway of a
great nationality. In Europe there are the
people of France, Belgium, Scandinavia, and
Germany; of Italy, Spain, and Portugal; of
Switzerland, Tirol, and the Netherlands; of the
British Isles, Russia, Turkey, and Greece; and
each one of these peoples becomes a problem to
be solved with reference to race. No people are
of one race, no race is confined to a single peo-
ple. The entire population of Europe is 425,-
000,000, and besides the three races already
mentioned, which include nearly all of this num-
ber, there are a few straggling peoples belonging
to other races, such as the Basques, Lapps,
Magyars, Semites, and Gypsies.

In the classification just described the races
are only ideal tvpes; but one of the latest au-
thors on this subject, Deniker, publishes a scheme
of the races of men more after the manner of
the naturalists. Passing by the assumption that
there may have been formerly a certain small
number of typical races out of which all the
peoples of Europe have grown, he takes the total
population as he would a number of animals,
and divides them up on biological characteristics
as he finds them, without inquiring into their
causes. The nations and peoples now existing
in Europe have arisen from mixture in varying
proportions of ancient varieties of our species.
By abstracting from these millions of individuals
certain ones having groups of definite charac-
teristics relating to stature, the form of tho
head, pigmentation, and other somatic data,
Denikor determines the status of each race, giv-
ing rise to six principal and four secondary
races, leaving out Lapps, Ugrians, Mongolians,
and others belonging to Asia.

DENIKER'S SCHEME OP EUROPEAN PEOPLES

I. WAVY BROWN OB BLACK HAIB, DARK BYES

1. Littoral European race-^t&ll stature ;"|
elongated, oval face; straight fine nose; I Tawny
meaocephalic. r white skin,

2. Ibero-Inaular race — short stature, doll- j black hair,
chocephalic. J

3. Western European race — short stature,^ Dull white
round face, strongly braohyoephalic, I skin, brown

4. Adriatic race — tall stature, elongated f hair,
face, brachycephalio. J

II. FAEB, WAVY, OK STRAIGHT FA re, LIGHT

Reddish
white skin.

5. Northern European race — somewhat^
wary hair and reddish; tall stature;
dolichocephalic.

6. Eastern European race — somewhat
straight flaxen hair; short stature; sub-
braohyoephalio.

Scrgi pushes the study of classifying Euro-
peans still further into the domain of natural
history. In his work on the Mediterranean race
he emphasizes the obligations which modern
Europe owes to ancient peoples, like the Hamites
of Egypt and northern Africa, the Semites of
southwestern Asia, the early Greeks, Italians,
and Iberians, for the foundation of their culture.

Laying aside the biological divisions of Euro-
pean peoples or countries, the concept of speech
may be invoked to show what languages they
use. At the outset it is affirmed that no people

belong to one language, no language is confined
to one people. The following general scheme
shows the relationship between nationality and
languages in Europe:

BTOO-GBJBMANIC

1. Celtic group.

a. Gaelic. Irish, Highland Scotch, and Manx.

b. Cymric. Welsh, Low Breton, and Cornish (extinct).

2. Romance group.

a. French, in 13 dialects. The Langue d'Oc and Langue

d'Oil are its two Romanic forms.
6. Italian, 14 principal dialects.

c. Spanish.

d. Provencal, 8 dialects.
e Rumamc.

/. Portuguese.

g Rumansch or Churwaelsh.

3. Germanic group. Scandinavian branch.

a. Swedish.

6. Danish or Danske.

c. Icelandic.

4. Germanic group. Germanic branch,
a. High German.

6. English.

c. Platt-Deutsch.

d. Dutch, with Flemish dialect.

e. Frisian.

5. Slavic group. Eastern branch.

a. Russian, with Ruthenian or Little Russian dialect.

b. Bulgarian.

c. Servian, with Sloventzi or Wend dialect and Croat
dialect.

6. Slavic group. Western branch.

a. Polish.

b. Czech or Bohemian.

c. Wend, of Brandenburg and Silesia.

7. Lettic group.

a. Letts.

b. Lithuanian, with Shamaite and Prussian Lithuanian
dialects.

8. Hellenic group,
a. Greek.

9. lUyrian group,
a. Albanian.

10. Indie group.

a. Gypsy, or Romany, in several dialects.

The dead languages of the family in Europe are: Etrus-
can (doubtful), Oscan, Umbrian, Latin, and Langue d'Oc
and Lancue d'Oil, of the Romance croup; Gothic, Anglo-
Saxon, Old Saxon, Old Dutch, OM Frisian, and Old Norse,
in the Germanic group; Church Slavic, Old Bohemian, and
Polabish, in the Slavic group, Old Prussian in the Lettio
group; ancient Greek with its dialects.

TUBANIAN OB FTNNO-TATAR FAMILY

1. Finnic group. Tchudic branch.

a. Finnic or Suomic, two dialects.

b. ISsthoman.

c. Tchoud.

J&E-

f. Livonian.

2. Finnic group. Permian branch.

a. Votiak.

b. Sirian or Sirvanian.

6. Permiak, with Bissermian.

3. Finnic group. Volgaic branch.

a. Tchuvash.

b. Mordvin.

c. Cheremiss.

4. Finnic group. Ugric branch.

a. Magyar or Hungarian, with Saekler dialect.

b. Samoyed.

5. Tatcaric group.

a. Turkish or Osmanli.

CAUCASIAN FAMJLT

1. Leaghian.

2. Circassian, in 72 dialects.

FAMILY

1. Basque or Buskara (with Spanish group and French
group).

SBMOTC FAMILY

1. Hebrew.

EUROPEAN CONCERT i

Bibliography. Sources of information on the
ethnology of Europe are abundant. Ripley com-
piled, as a supplement to his Races of Europe,
a bibliography of 2000 titles arianged by authors
and by topics. The official publications of an-
thropological societies pay great attention to
literature on all branches of this subject. The
principal serials are the American Anthropolo-
gist (Washington) ; Annales dc Demographie
(Paris); Anthropologie (ib.) ; Archiv fur An-
thropologie (Brunswick) ; Archivio per VAntro-
pologia (Florence) ; Seitrage aur Anthropologie
und Urgeschichte Bayerns (Munich) ; Bulletins
de la SocietS d1 Anthropologie de Paris (Paris) ;
Centralllatt fur Anthropologie, Ethnologie und
Urgeschichtc (Munich); Gorrespondens-Blatt der
dcutschen Oesellschaft fur Anthropologte, Eth-
nologie und Urgeschichte (Brunswick) ; Journal
of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain
and Ireland (London); Memoires de la 8oci6t6
d3 Anthropologie de Paris (Paris) ; Memoirs Read
before the Anthropological Society of London
(London) ; Mitth&ilungen der antJvropologischen
G-esellschaft in Wien (Vienna) ; Peter manns
Mittheilungen aus Justus Perthes geographi-
schcr Anstalt (Gotha) ; Revue d! 'Anthropologie
(Paris) ; Revue Mensuelle de VEcole d' Anthro-
pology de Paris (ib.) ; Revue d' Ethnographic
(ib.) ; Verhandlungen der Berliner (resell-
schaft fur Anthropologie, its organ being the
Zcitschrift fiir Ethnologic (Berlin).

The following comprehensive works are more
or less devoted to European ethnology: Keane,
Ethnology (Cambridge, 1896) ; id., Man, Past
and Present (ib., 1899); Ripley, The Races
of Europe (New York, 1899); Deniker, The
Races of Man (London, 1900) ; Macnamara,
Origin and Character of the British People (ib.,
1900) ; G. and A. Mortillet, Le prehistorique;
origvne ct antiquity de I'homme (Paris, 1900);
Giuseppe Sergi, The Mediterranean Race (Lon-
don, 1901) ; Obermaier, Der Mensch der Vorscit
(Berlin, 1912) ; Birknor, Die Rassen und Volker
der Menschheit (ib., 1913). Among recent arti-
cles the following are of special interest: Von
Luschan, "Beitrilge zur Anthropologie von
Kreta," Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie, pp. 307-393
(Berlin, 1913) ; id., "The Early Inhabitants of
Western Asia," Journal of the Anthropological
Institute, pp. 221-244 (London, 1911).

EUROPEAN CONCERT OF POWERS.
This term is applied to the system of interna-
tional politics which was actually in vogue from
1815 to 1822 and theoretically after the latter
date. The first intimation we have of the idea
is to be found in the sixth article of the Treaty
of Chaumont signed Nov. 20, 1815, after a
quarter century of bloody warfare. It ran as
follows: "In order to consolidate the intimate
tie which unites the four sovereigns (England,
Russia, Austria, and Prussia) for the happiness
of the world, the High Contracting Powers have
agreed to renew at fixed intervals, either under
their own auspices or by their respective minis-
ters, meetings consecrated to great common ob-
jects and to the examination of such measures
as at each one of these epochs shall be judged
most salutary for the peace and prosperity of
the nations, and the maintenance of the tran-
quillity of Europe." The Congress of Aix-la-
Chapelle (1818) admitted France to the Con-
cert and apparently the nations were all work-
ing in harmony. Soon after a disintegrating
trend is noticed. By the protocol of Troppau
(1820) Austria, Russia, and Prussia made the

M, EUROPEAN CONCERT

aim of the Concert synonymous with Metter-
nich's reactionary policy. This was particularly
displeasing to England and France, which were
liberal countiies. The final break came when
Great Britain refused to become a party to the
Congress of Verona, which authorized France to
send an army into Spain to quell a constitutional
uprising. The attempt to govern Europe by the
Concert system failed because the doetrine of
nationalism and the modern idea of a "State"
promulgated by the French Revolution had
finally come into their own on the Continent.

As an outgrowth of the foregoing system,
Europe in recent years was divided into two
rival alliances. The first the Triple Alliance
(q.v.), signed (1882) by Germany, Austria, and
Italy, and the second the Triple Entente, signed
first by France and Russia (1891-95) and later
by France and England (1904). Before the
admission of England the former was a far
more formidable agreement than the latter.
Unquestionably the balance of power of Europe
was preserved by these two opposite divisions.
Several times previous to the war of 1914 the
near Eastern question almost precipitated a
far-reaching European conflict. The greatest
crisis was in 1908, immediately following the
Young Turkish revolution. Austria announced
the complete annexation of Bosnia and Herze-
govina. The Triple Entente raised a strong
protest, but the weak condition of Russia and
the mobilization of Germany's wonderful arma-
ment on the French and Ruasian frontiers effec-
tively stopped all argument. The struggle in
the Balkans (q.v.) caused the two alliances to
be harmonious in one respect at least. England,
Germany, France, Russia, and Italy determined
that Austria should not expand southward and
absorb the entire Balkans, which are lier only
outlet. They feared a strong Mediterranean
power which could be very easily maintained
by one nation on that peninsula. The five other
members were also determined that Russia
should not get control of the Dardanelles, for
here again the supremacy of the other nations
on the Mediterranean would be seriously threat -
cmed by so great an enhancement of 'Russia's
power.

The outbreak of the European crisis in July,
1914, after the declaration of war on Servia
by Austria, put the Concert to a severe test.
From the very beginning, disintegrating in flu-
en cos, as well as new alliances, were strikingly
apparent. Italy refused to be bound by the
Triple Alliance and claimed she would enforce
her neutrality by strength of arms if necessary.
The rapprochement with Austria has always
been unpopular with the Italians, and was only
entered into because of Hie fear of French en-
croachments. The. offer of a strip of territory
in northern Africa was not tempting enough
for her to cast her lot with Germany and thus
draw upon herself the strength of the unques-
tionable masters of the Mediterranean, Eng-
land and France. Another feature of this situ-
ation was the alignment of almost all of the
other European nations with the Triple En-
tente against Germany and Austria. In the
Balkans, Servia, Montenegro, and Greece were
actually at war, and Bulgaria threatening to
attack Turkey, if she aided Germany. Portugal
decided to help Great Britain, and Belgium was
fighting Germany to protect her neutrality.
Holland and Denmark declared that they would
appeal to arms if their territory was violated.

EtTROPHEN i

Spain and Italy refused offers of aggrandise-
ment to help the German Emperor, and so he
was left along with Austria to struggle against
an almost unified Europe. In August, 1914, one
phase yet to be worked out was to see whether
Russia's treaty obligations would cement her
with Great Britain throughout the crisis, or
whether she would attempt to realize her de-
sire for the Dardenelles, while Great Britain
was engaged with Germany and possibly unable
to maintain the integrity of European Turkey.
Si'o WAU IN EUROPE.

ETrBOPHElT. An amorphous yellow powder
containing 27.G per cent of iodine, which it sets
free under the influence of heat and moisture.
Its action is similar to that of iodoform, to
which it is preferred on account of its rather
aromatic odor. It is insoluble in water, but dis-
solves freely in alcohol, ether, chloroform, and
oils.

EUBO'PIUM. A chemical element contained,
in exceedingly small quantities, in monazite
sand and, as shown by spectrum analysis, in
the chromosphere of the sun and in other heav-
enly bodies. In monazite sand it is associated
with a number of other elements of the "rare
earth" group, including cerium, lanthanum, neo-
dymium, praseodymium, samarium, gadolinium,
and terbium, and a complex series of operations
are required to separate it from these, the
methods having been worked out by Demargay,
Urbain and Lacombe, and Eberhard. The sym-
bol of europium is Eu; its atomic weight, as
determined by Jantsch in 1908, is 152. In its
metallic state the clement is still unknown. Its
oxide, Eua03, is obtained in the form of a pink-
ish powder. Its sulphate, Eu2(S04)3 + 8H30,
forms pale-pink crystals, soluble in water.

EUBO'TAS (Lat., from Gk. Eflpe&ras), the
modern Int. In ancient geography, a river of
southern Greece, rising in the southern Arcadian
Mountains and flowing in a southerly direction
through Lacouia, traversing the fertile valley
between Mount Malevo and Taygetus, and fall-
ing into the Gulf of Laconia. The cities of
Sparta and Amy else, celebrated in Greek my-
thology, were situated on the Eurotas.

ETTBOTITTM:, u-ro'shl-um. The generic name
of one of the most common molds. It appears
on bread, preserves, etc., and is commonly known
as the herbarium mold. The generic name more
frequently used now is Aapergillus. See PHY-

COMYCETES.

EU'BTTS (Lat., from Gk. Eflpos). The south-
east wind; in later Greek legend, the son of
Afltnnin and Eos.

EUBYALE, u-rl'a-lS (Neo-Lat., from Gk.
etfprfaXos, earyalos, with wide threshing floor,
from efytfs, eurys, broad + &\us, haltis, threshing
floor). A genus of plants of the family Nym-
phseaccfie, or water lilies, closely allied to Vic-
toria (q.v.), although of a very different appear-
ance, fjuryale feroa, the only species, is a water
lily native to India and China, with small red or
violet-colored flowers, leaves from 1 to 4 feet in
diameter, the leafstalks and calyces covered with
stiff prickles. The fruit is round, soft, pulpy,
and of the size of a small orange, composed of a
number of carpels, and containing round black
seeds as large as peas, which are full of starch
and are used to thicken soups or are eaten
roasted. The rootstock also contains starch,
which may be separated and used for food; the
root itself is also eaten. The plant, which is
said to have been in cultivation in China for

upward of 3000 years, is more hardy than the
Victoria regia and will endure the temperatures
of the latitude of Philadelphia, reproducing it-
self from self-sown seeds in ponds. The whole
plant is formidably spiny, whence its specific
name, ferox.

ETTBYBIADES, u'rf-bl'a-dez (Lat., from Gk.
Etpvfiiddrjs) . A Spartan naval hero. He was
in command of the Spartan fleet and afterward
nominal commander of all the Greek vessels sent
out against the Persians in 480 B.C. To him
and to Themistocles (q.v.) is credited the Greek
victory of Salamis (q.v.).

EU'BYCLE'A (Lat., from Gk. Efyu/eXeia, Eu-
rykleia). A slave in the household of Laertes
and the nurse of Odysseus. On his return in the
garb of a beggar she recognized him by a scar
while washing his feet and secretly reported his
return to Penelope. Consult Odyssey, xix, 385 ff.

EUBYDICE, Q-rldl-sS (Lat., from Gk. Eupu-
dim), EurydikQ). The wife of Orpheus (q.v.).
When she died from the bite of a serpent, her
husband followed her into the lower world, where
he so charmed Hades with the music of his lyre
that he was permitted to take Eurydice back to
earth on condition that while on his way to the
upper world he would not look behind him.
Just as he reached the exit he disobeyed, and
Eurydice vanished into the darkness. For a
beautiful version of the story, consult Yergil,
Georgics, iv, 453-527. Hermes, Orpheus, and
Eurydice are represented on a very beautiful
Greek relief of the end of the fifth century B.C.,
of which copies arc, in Naples, Paris, and Rome.

ETJBYI/OCHTTS (Lat., from Gk. EripriXoxos ) .
One of the companions of Odysseus. He alone
escaped when the others were turned into swine
by Circe (q.v.). On the island of Thrinacia he
induced his companions to slaughter the cattle
of Helios, which resulted in the destruction of
all the ships. See ULYSSES.

EtTBYM'ACHUS (Lat., from Gk. Etiptfjuaxo?) .
The son of Polybus, and one of the boldest of
the suitors of Penelope, slain with the other
suitors by Odysseus. See ULYSSES.

EUBYiM/EDON" (Tbtpvpfouv) . An Athenian
general in the Peloponnesian War. In 428 B.C.
he commanded a fleet at Corcyra. In 427 he
ravaged the Territory of Tanagra. In 425 he
was appointed, with Sophocles, son of Sostratides,
to command an expedition aimed at Sicily. On
reaching Sicily, Eurymedon and Sophocles con-
cluded terms of peace with Hermocrates. These
terms displeased the Athenians, who charged
that the treaty was brought about by bribery;
Eurymedon was sentenced to pay a heavy fine.
In 414 he was sent to reSnforce the Athenians
at Syracuse, but was defeated and slain before
reaching land.

EUBYITOME, A-rln'd-me1 (Lat., from Gk.
Etipuitf/fl?) . The daughter of Oceanus and mother
by Zeus of the Charites, or of Aropus. She was
the wife of the Titan Ophion, who ruled Olym-
pus, but with his wife was cast down to Tartarus
by Cronus. She had a temple at Phigalia, where
her statue — half woman, half fish — was pre-
served, and where she was popularly identified
with Artemis.

ETTBYPTEBIDA, u'rip-teVl-da. A class of
extinct Arachnoidea, related to the horseshoe
crab on the one hand and the scorpions on the
other. They appear in the Cambrian period,
reach their greate&t development in the Silurian,
and decline in the Devonian and Carboniferous,
disappearing with a small form found in the

196

EUSEBIABT CANONS

Permian rocks of Portugal. In tlie Silurian,
before the ascendancy of the fishes, they were
the terrors and monsters of the sea and attained
a length of 10 feet or more, as in Pterygotus
Iniffalocnsis of the water-lime beds of New York.
These gigantic aquatic arachnids probably origi-
nated in the sea, but later flourished in the
estuaries and lagoons of the shallow coasts, and
finally became adapted to fresh-water conditions.
In appearance they are distinctly archaic, espe-
cially the type of the class, Euryptcrus, with its
relatively small broad cep halo thorax and evenly
segmented abdomen; there is resemblance to a
primitive crustacean, to which the eurypterids
have long been referred. Some are somewhat
fishlike in outline (HughmiUewa) , others with
their spreading legs resemble gigantic spiders
(Stylonurus) , and others again are distinctly
seorpion-like (Eusarcus) by reason of their
abruptly set-off tail and curved tail spine.

The body of the eurypterids consists of a
broad semicircular or semielliptic cephalothorax
which boars on the upper side a pair of faceted
or smooth lateral eyes and a pair of ocelli on
the apex; on the underside are two prehensile
chcliceroe in front of the mouth, which in
Ptenigotois grow into immense serrated pincers;
and five pairs of legs. The last pair of them in
Ptcrygotwt, Eiirypterus, and Eusarcus is formed
into paddles that served as swimming organs
and to anchor the creatures to the mud. The
bases of the legs (gnathobases) that surround
the mouth are provided with teeth. A large
elliptic or oval plate, the metastoma, which
corresponds to the chilaria of Limulus, is at-
tached posteriorly of the mouth. It is a char-
acteristic organ of the eurypterids. The abdo-
men consists of 12 segments and a telson; the
anterior six segments consist of rather flat
dorsal plates (tergites), to which are attached
five pairs of broad, leaf like appendages, cor-
responding to the operculum and branchial ap-
pendages of Limulus. Thp operculum bears
genital appendages of two different forms which
permit the distinction of the sexes. The six
posterior segments are annular. The telson is
cither a long spine or a broad oval rudder, bi-
lobed in Erettopterus. The surface is marked
by very characteristic scales.

The eurypterids are divided into two families
— the Eurypteridce with smooth eyes and small
chelieeraj (genera Eurypterus, Tylopterus, Oni-
cJioptcrus, Eusarous, Dolichopterus, Drcpanop-
terns, Stylonurus, Anthraoonectes) and the
Pterygotidixi with faceted eyes and large che-
liceriB (Hughmilleria, Pterygotus, Erettopterus,
tftimonia). Tlioir remains occur in the Ordo-
vician rocks of eastern North America, the
Silurian rocks of the United States, the Old Red
Sandstone of Scotland, the coal measures of
Pennsylvania and Illinois, and the Carboniferous
strata of Dakota, Scotland, Brazil, and South
Africa. Some paleontologists see in the euryp-
terids the invertebrate ancestors of the fishes,
and thereby of the vertebrates in general. See
illustration in article MEBOSTOMATA.

Bibliography, Huxley and Salter, "On the
Genus Pterygotus," Memoirs of the Geological
Survey of the United Kingdom, vol. i (London,
1859); Hall, Paleontology of New York, vol.
xxxix (Albany, 1859) ; Woodward, A Mono-
graph of the British Fossil Crustacea of the
Order Merostomata (London, 1866-78) ; Woods,
"Eurypterida," in The Cambridge Natural His-
tory "( Cambridge, 1909) ; Walcott, "Middle Cam-

brian Merostoraata," Smithsonian Miscellaneous
Collections, vol. xxvii (Washington, 1911);
Clarke and Ruedemann, "The Eurypterida of
New York," New York State Museum Memovr>
14 (Albany, 1912).

EURYP'TERUS. See EUBYPTEEIDA.

EURYP'YLTTS (Lat., from Gk, Etfptf™Xos).
1. King of the Meropes in Cos, and son of
Poseidon and Astypalsea. He was killed by
Heracles, with the assistance of Zeus. His
daughter Ghalciope became by Heracles the
mother of Thessalus. 2. The son of Tclephus
and Astyoche, sister of Priam. He went to the
aid of the Trojans and after heroic deeds was
slain by Neoptolemus (q.v.). 3. The son of
Kuscmon, King of Ormenium, in Thcssaly, and
ono of the suitors of Helen. He went to Troy
with 40 ships and received as his share, at the
division of the Trojan booty, a chest preserved
by Dardanus, which contained an image of
Dionysus, the work of Hephaestus himself. On
opening the box Eurypylus was struck with mad-
ness, for the cure of which the Delphic oracle
directed him to dedicate the chest where he
should find an unknown form of sacrifice. On
his return he found at Aroe, in Achaia, an un-
usual sacrifice to Artemis, consisting of the
annual offering of a beautiful youth and maiden.
Having abolished this worship, he substituted
that of Dionysus JEsymnetes.

EXTBYSTHENES, ti-ris'the-nez (Lat.. from
Gk. Efyutftf&njs). One of the Heraclidse, the son
of Aristodemus. With his twin brother Procles
he received Lacedcemon a? his share of the Pelo-
ponnesus and ruled at Sparta in conjunction
with his brother. Thirty-one kings of Sparta
were of his family.

ETTBYS'THETTS (Lat., from Gk. Et5/>uo-0ei5s) .
A king of Mycenae, to whose power Heracles was
subjected by the craft of Hera and forced to
undertake the Twelve Labors. Kurystheus was
afterward defeated and killed by Hyilus, the son
of Heracles. See HEBCULES.

ETTSE'BIAN CANONS. An ancient system
of cross reference to the Gospels, found in very
many biblical manuscripts. Long before the
modern chapter and verse divisions came into
use, a number of systems of text division were
current. The one most generally used was that
of Eusebius, the famous church historian (c.260-
340). Either adopting or improving the work
of Ammonius, an Alexandrian, Eusobius divided
Matthew into 355 sections, Mark into 236, Luke
into 342, and John into 232, the so-called Am-
monian Sections, the number of each section
being written on the margin of the text. On
account of similarity of matter, many sections
of one Gospel were nearly or quite identical with
others in one or more of the other three. For
conveniences of reference, Eusebius constructed
10 tables or lists, called canons. The first con-
tained the numbers of all the sections common
to all four Gospels arranged in parallel columns.
The second, third, and fourth tables gave the
sections common to three Gospels. The fifth to
the ninth gave those common to two, while the
tenth was made up of those contained in but one
Gospel.

In manuscripts using the system, underneath
each section number was written in red ink the
number of the canon in which that section might
be found. For example, the first line of canon i
contained the section numbers 8, 2, 7, 10 — i.e.,
the eighth section of Matthew contained the
same matter as the second of Mark, the seventh

EUSEBIUS

197

EUSTACH10

of Luke, and the tenth of John. Hence, on the
margin of the text of Matthew, opposite the
eighth section, would be the figures (Greek

TT / O\

letters being used) T-( = i), indicating that this

section would be found in the first canon, and
similarly for all the sections in all the Gospels.
This widely used system was doubtless of great
convenience in New Testament study. Consult
Tischendorf, Prolegomena to the eighth edition
of his Greek New Testament (Leipzig, 1884),
and C. R. Gregory, The Canon and Text of the
^ew Testament, pp. 470 ff. (New York. 1907).

EUSE'BIUS (Lat., from Gk. EMjSior) OF
CJBSABEA (c.260-c.340). The father of ecclesi-
astical history. He was born in Palestine about
260. He took the surname of Pamphili from his
friend and teacher, Pamphilus of Caesarea, whose
great library furnished much of the extensive
historical sources Eusebius later used. Pam-
philus ultimately met a martyr's death, and
Eusebius had to flee for his life. He went to
Egypt an(* was imprisoned there. In 313 he
succeeded Agapius as Bishop of Ccesarea. At
the Council of Niccea (325) Eusebius made the
opening address and was the leader of the semi-
Arian or moderate party, who were averse to
discussing the nature of the Trinity and pre-
ferred the simplicity of Scripture language to
the metaphysical distinctions of either side. He
was present at the synods of Antioch (330) and
Tyre (335) and showed marked Arian leanings,
though at Niceea he had felt constrained to ac-
cept the Athanasian position. He stood in high
favor with Constantine, who, it is said, declared
that he was fit to be the bishop of almost the
whole world. He died at Casarea about 340.
Eusebius has the reputation of being the most
learned of the Church fathers after Origen,
though without his genius. His chief works are :
1. The Chronicon, a history of the world down
to the celebration of Constantino's Vicennalia,
at Nicomedia and Rome in 327-328. It is par-
ticularly valuable for its extracts from old
writers. 2. The Prceparatio Evangelica, in 15
books, a collection of extracts from heathen
authors fitted to prepare the way for Christian-
ity. 3, The Demonstratio Evangelica, in 20
books, a work intended to convince the Jews of
the truth of Christianity from the evidence of
their own Scriptures. 4. The Historia Ecolesi-
astica, in 10 books, relating the principal oc-
currences in the Christian Church to the year
324, Unfortunately Eusebius omits everything
derogatory to Christians, considering such mat-
ter not 'edifying. Eusebius' complete works
are in Migne, Patrologia Ghrasca, xix-xxiy. The
Prosparatio and Demonstratio were edited by
Dindorf (Leipzig, 1867-71); the Ecclesiastical
History, Life of Constantine, and Oration in
Eulogy of Qonstantine by Heinichen (ib.,
1868-70) ; the Ohronicon by SchSne (Berlin,
1866-75). A critical edition of his works
appears in the series OriecMsche ohristliohe
8 chrift atelier der ersten drei Jahrunderte
(Leipzig, 1902-03). The Prceparatio Evan-
geUca, with translation, was published by Gif-
ford (Oxford, 1903). There is an English trans-
lation of the History, by A. C. McGiffert, in the
Nioene and Post-Nicene Fathers (2d series, New
York, 1890), with prolegomena and elaborate
notes. Translations of some of the minor works
also appear in the same volume. Consult
Scheme, Die Weltchronik dee Eusebius in ihrer
Bewbeitung duroh Hieronymus (Berlin, 19UO),

and for a critical discussion of the text of the
Martyrs, Violet (Leipzig, 1896) and Harnack
(Essen, 1898). Consult also Harnaek, Ge-
schiohte der alt Christ ische Literatur (Leipzig,
1803).

EUSEBIUS OF EHESA <c.300-359). A Semi-
Arian bishop. He was born at Edassa, about
300. He was a pupil of Eu.sebius of Caisarea
and also studied at Alexandria. Averse to
theological controversy, he declined the bishop-
ric of Alexandria after the deposition of Athana-
sius. Later, however, he was appointed Bishop
of Emesa (the modern Horns) and filled the
post, notwithstanding opposition, sometimes
violent, on account of his semi-Arian sympa-
thies. He was also accused of Sabellianism, and
his astronomical knowledge made him suspected
of sorcery. (See SABELLIQS.) He was a fa-
vorite of the Emperor Constantms, accompanied
him on his expedition against the Persians in
338, and spent much of his time thereafter in
attendance upon the Emperor. He died at
Antioch in 359. His reputed works are in
Migne, Patrologia Grceca, Ixxxvi, and his homi-
lies were published by Augusti (Elberfield,
1829) . Many of these are undoubtedly spurious.
Consult Thilo, Ueler die Schriften des Eusebius
von Alexandrien und des Eusebius von Emesa
(Halle, 1859).

EUSEBIUS OP NICOMEDIA (?-342). An
Arian leader, Patriarch of Constantinople, He
was born towards the close of the third cen-
tury and was related to the Imperial family.
He was educated in the schools of Antioch,
Arius (q.v.) being a fellow pupil. He became
Bishop of Berytus (Beirut), in Syria, and later
of Nicomedia. At the Council of Nictea he ap-
peared as a defender of Arius, and, like his
namesake of Caesarea, advocated compromise.
Later he placed himself at the head of the Arian
party. In 339 he was made Patriarch of Con-
stantinople. In 341 he held an assembly of the
Church at Antioch, for the purpose of estab-
lishing Arianism. He died soon after, in either
that year or the following. Eusebius is said to
have been ambitious and avaricious, and un-
scrupulous in the means adopted to secure his
ends. It must be borne in mind, however, that
no writings of the Arian party are preserved,
and all our knowledge is from their opponents,
the orthodox party. The Arians are sometimes
called Eusebians.

EUSEBIUS EM/MEBA1T. See DAUMEB,
GEORQ FRIEDRICH.

EUSKALDUM", u'skal-duoV. See BASQUE,

EUSKIB.CHEM', pisldr-Ken. A town and
railway junction, capital of a circle in the Rhine
Province, Prussia, 15 miles west of Bonn (Map :
German Empire, B 3). It is a thriving in-
dustrial centre; manufactures cloth, sugar,
white lead, hosiery, leather goods, furniture,
art objects, machinery, pottery, malt, beer,
brandy, flour, and meal. Pop., 1900, 10,285;
1910, 12,413.

EUSPOHAWGIATES, u'sp6-ran'jl-ats. A
name given to those groups of plants whose
sporangia originate beneath the surface of the
body rather than from the surface. They in-
clude the seed plants and also all of the
Ptoridophytes excepting the common ferns.

EUSTACHZAff (u-sta1d-<m) TUBE. See
EAR.

EUSTACEIO, a-o"os-tit/k&-d, BARTOLOMMEO
(?-1574). An Italian anatomist, born in the
early part of the sixteenth century. His birth-

EUSTACHIUS

198

ET7STIS

place is not known with certainty. Iii 1662 he
was professor of medicine in the Collegio della
Sapienza at Koine. His name is indelibly as-
sociated with anatomical science, through his
description of the Eustachian tube (see EAR)
and the ludimentary valve in the heart, which
am named after him. He was the first to give
an accurate description of the thoracic duct and
was probably this first to notice and describe
the stapes (one of the chain of small bones
crossing the tympanic cavity of the ear) — a
discovery which, however, Fallopius assigns to
Ingrassias. He likewise contributed materially
to the diffusion of more accurate knowledge re-
garding the development and evolution of the
tee bli and the structure of the kidney. These
discoveries are recorded in his Opuscula Ana-
tomica, published at Venice in 1563. The
TalulcB Anatomicce did not appear until 1714,
when they were edited, with explanatory re-
marks, by Lancisi. Eustachio, Vesalius, and
Fallopius may be regarded as the founders of
modern anatomy. See ANATOMY.

EUSTACHITJS, ft-stald-fto, or EUSTA-
THITTS. A Roman saint and martyr of the
second century. According to the legend, his
name was Placidus. The legend adds that he
was converted, while engaged in the chase, by
suddenly beholding between the antlers of a deer
a vision of Christ, which thus addressed him:
"Why dost thou follow me, who desire thy sal-
vation?" He suffered martyrdom in Rome under
Hadrian and is regarded by the Roman Catholic
church as the patron of the chase. His day is
September 20.

ETrSTA'THITTS (Lat., from Gk. EtfcrTAflios)
OF ANTIOOII (?-c.340). A bishop of Antioch,
born at Side, Pamphylia. At the Council of
Nicaca he was exceedingly hostile to the Arians,
in consequence of which he was deposed (331)
upon their accession to power. He was subse-
quently banished to Illyria, and finally to
Thrace, where he died. Of his numerous writ-
ings only a work against Origen and a few
fragments of other volumes remain.

EUSTATHIUS (c.300-<j.380). A Semi-
Arian bishop of Sebaste, in Armenia, into which
country he introduced monasticism. The ascet-
ics and celibates known as Eustatliians are
supposed to have derived their name and their
religious practices from him. They were con-
demned in 340 by the Synod of Gangra. He
was also the founder of a hospital for the poor
at Sebaste, which he placed in charge of his
friend JSrius. Although constantly attacked by
the orthodox churchmen, he retained his see,
through the friendship of Constantino. He was
deposed in 358 by the Synod of Melitene. Con-
sult Loofs, Eustathius von Sebaste (Halle,
1898).

ETTSTATHITTS. A celebrated Byzantine
commentator on Homer, on the geographical
epic of Dionysius the Periegete, and on Pindar.
He was born probably at Constantinople in the
early part of the twelfth century; became a
monk, later a deacon in the church of St.
Sophia, and in 1175 was appointed Archbishop
of Thessalonica, where he died between 1192 and
1194. He is best known for his great commen-
tary on the Iliad and the Odyssey, which, in.
spite of its diffuseness and digressions, is a
valuable treasure house of ancient learning; but
since the discovery and publication of the Ho-
meric Scholia its importance has been much
iiminished. His chief sources were the extant

Homeric Scholia, rhetorical lexica, Suidas, the
Etymologicum Magnum, Atheneeus, JElius Dio-
nysius, Aristophanes of Byzantium, Pausanias,
Stephanus of Byzantium, Suetonius, and Iler-
aclides of Miletus. The commentary was first
published in Home in 1542; it was last edited
by Stallbaum (7 vols., Leipzig, 1825-30). The
paraphrase and commentary to Dionysius the
Periegete is of little value, except for what it
preserves of Stephanus of Byzantium and of
lost writings by Arrianus. It is best published
by Bernhardy, in his edition of Dionysius (Leip-
zig, 1828). Of the commentary to Pindar only
the introduction is preserved. This contains a
life of Pindar, and a discussion of lyric poetry
and of the Olympic Games. It was edited with
commentary by Schneidewin (Gottingen, 1837).
Eustathius also left a considerable number of
historical writings, speeches, and tracts, impor-
tant for a knowledge of his times, and of the
inner history of the Greek monasteries in the
twelfth century. Of these the greater part are
published in Migne, Patrologia Chr&ca, vols.
cxxxv and cxxxvi. Consult Krumbacher, Bysan-
tinische Litteraturgeschichte (Munich, 1897),
and Colin, the article "Eustathios, 18," in Pauly-
Wissowa, Iteal-JSncyclopadie der classischen Al-
tertumnwisscnschaft, vol. vi (Stuttgart, 1909).

ETTSTATHTUS, or ETTMATEITJS, also
known as MAKKBMBOLITES. A Byzantine erotic
writer or novelist of the twelfth century A.D.
He seems to have been a native of Parembole
in Egypt and is referred to in the manuscripts
of his work as chief keeper of the archives there.
The novel by him is probably the latest Greek
production of its kind known. It consists of
11 books and is a story of the love of Hys-
minias and Hysmine (published in the Scrip-
torcs Erotici of Le Bas, Paris, 1856; also
by Hercher, Leipzig, 1859, and by Hilbcrg,
Vienna, 1876). The style of the novel is some-
what artificial, and the story decidedly im-
probable and of a very sensual character. Con-
sult Rohde, Der griechische Roman (2d ed.,
Leipzig, 1900).

EUSTATITTS (u-sta/shi-us) ISLAND, or
ST. EUSTACIIE ISLAND (Statia). One of the
Lesser Antilles, lying northwest of St. Christo-
pher, a Dutch dependency of the island of
Curacao (Map: West Indies, G 3). The chief
town is Orangetown. It has an area of 7 square
miles and a population (1902) of 1484.

ETJSTIS, JAMES BIDDLB (1834-99). An
American lawyer and legislator. He was born
in New Orleans, graduated at the Harvard Law
School in 1854, and was admitted to the New
Orleans bar in 1856. During the Civil War he
served in the Confederate army as judge advo-
cate on the staffs of Generals Magruder and
Johnston and afterward was one of the com-
missioners sent by Louisiana to confer with
President Johnson with regard to the "recon-
struction" of that State. He served for several
terms in the State Legislature and was after-
ward twice sent to the United States Senate,
serving from 1877 to 1879 and again from 1885
to 189L From 1879 to 1884 he was professor
of civil law in the University of Louisiana and
from 1893 to 1897, after his second term in the
Senate, was United States Minister and first
United States Ambassador to France. After re-
turning in 1897 he practiced law in New York
until his death.

ETTSTIS, WILLIAM (1753-1825). An Ameri-
can physician and politician. He was born at

ETTTAW

Cambridge, Mass., graduated at Harvard in
1772, studied medicine with Joseph Warren, and
served as a surgeon in the Revolutionary army.
He served in the Massachusetts Legislature and
Governor's Council and two terms (1801-05) in
Congress as a Democrat, was Secretary of War
in President Madison's cabinet from 1809 to
1813, and was Minister to Holland from 1814 to
1818. On his return he was again a member
of Congress from 1820 to 1823 and from 1823
until his death was Governor of Massachusetts.

EIT'TAW. A town and the county seat of
Greene Co., Ala., 90 miles west-southwest of
Birmingham, on the Alabama Great Southern
Railroad (Map: Alabama, B 3). It has an
oil mill, ginneries, a lumber mill, and a cotton
compress. Eutaw, established in 1838, was
named in honor of General Greene's victory at
"Eutaw Springs in the Kevolution. Pop., 1900,
884; 1910, 1001.

ETJTAW SPBIITGS, BATTLE or. A battle
of the American Revolution,' fought on Sept. 8,
1781, about 60 miles northwest of Charleston,
S. C., between about 2000 Americans under
General Greene and about 2300 British under
General Stuart. The battle consisted of two
engagements, in the first of which, beginning at
about 4 A.M., Greene was victorious j while in
the second the British, having rallied, beat off
all further attacks. During the night, however,
Stuart retreated towards Charleston, and Greene
slowly pursued. The battle, though tactically
drawn, was an important strategic victory for
the Americans, closing, as it did, Greene's fa-
mous campaign and compelling the British to
shut themselves up in Charleston. The British
lost in killed, wounded, and missing about 800
211011, the Americans about 535.

EUTERPE, u-tSi/pfi (Lat., from Gk. EtfT^Tnj,
very delightful, from etf, eut well + rfyirew,
trrpcin, to delight). One of the nine Muses,
the daughter of Zeus and Mnemosyne. In the
specialization of the functions of the Muses,
which occurred in later times, Euterpe was made
guardian of flute playing and was represented
as holding a flute.

EUTHANASIA, u'tha-na'zhl-a (Neo-Lat.,
from Gk. ev$avaffla, easy death, from etf, eu, well
4- 6&va.Tos, thanatos, death, from Baveiv, thanein,
to be dead). An easy death, or a painless
method of putting to death. The use of nar-
cotics or other means for shortening life, in
disease, has become a subject of discussion in
civilized countries; and it is often a very practi-
cal question as to how far such means are ad-
missible for soothing the last hours of life, when
the approach of death does not of itself dull the
consciousness and the sensibility to pain. It
must be decided according to all the surround-
ing circumstances, medical and otherwise, in each
individual case. The law, medical ethics, and
religious teaching alike condemn euthanasia.
The law stigmatizes deliberate putting to death
or aiding in the same as murder, and physicians
know that apparently doomed patients often
recover.

ETJTHE'RIA. A subclass of the Mammalia,
embracing all mammals except the monotremes
(Prototheria}. This subclass is characterized
by being viviparous, with a small ovum and an
a'llantoic placenta, and by having teats. Whether
certain of the most primitive fossil remains, more
or less doubtfully attributed to the Mammalia,
are to be placed here or among the Prototheria,
is still a subject of inquiry, Consult Beddard,

199

ETTTBOPItTS

''Mammalia/' in Cambridge Natural History,
vol. x (London, 1902). It is unfortunate that,
in addition to the above use of Eutheria by Gill,
Osborn, and Beddard, the same word was used
by Huxley, as including the Placentalia alone;
and this usage is widely disseminated through
the literature of the subject. The term Theria
has recently been used by several authors ( Parker
and HasAvell, and Gregory) as the equivalent of
Gill's Eutheria. Consult Gregory, "The Orders
of Mammals," Bulletin American Museum of
Natural History, vol. xxvii (New York, 1910).

ETTTHYMITJS (Lat., from Gk. EMiVuos),
Slav. Evthimii (?-c.!393). A Bulgarian patri-
arch and religious writer, pupil of the Patri-
arch Theodosius. He lived for some time as a
monk on Mount Athos, but, having incurred the
enmity of the Byzantine Emperor John V Palce-
ologus, he withdrew to the vicinity of Trnovo
(Tirnovo), the capital of the second Bulgarian
Empire and seat of the Bulgarian Patriarch.
There he led a saintly life, revising the Slavic
service books and directing the monks who
nocked around him. About 1375 he was elected
Patriarch. From his see ho preached against
the Bogorniles and other heretics. Nothing is
known of his life after the taking of Trnovo by
the Turks. His original works include lives of
saints, eulogies of prominent churchmen^ and
pastoral epistles. All his writings evince an
overwhelming Byzantine influence, which mani-
fests itself not only in his style and ideas, but
also in his syntax and orthography. To his
Slavic contemporaries this seemed a happy in-
novation, and Euthymius became the head of a
religious literary school which for a long time
held sway over Bulgaria, Servia, Russia, and
Rumania.

ETTTHYM1TTS (Lat., from Gk. EtMtf/uos)
ZYGADEITUS (?-c.H18). A Greek monk and
scholar, highly esteemed by the Emperor Alexis
Comnenus. He wrote some very dry theological
works ; the principal one of these is an enumera-
tion of all the heresies from Simon the Magician
to his own time — TlavoirXla Ao7/*arixi} (first
Latin edition in 1555; there was an imperfect
Greek edition in 1711). His works were printed
in Migne-, Patrologia, Qraca, vols. cxxviii and
cxxxi (Paris, 1864).

EUTING, oi'tfng, JULIUS (1839-1912). A
German Orientalist and epigraphist. He was
born at Stuttgart and studied theology and
Oriental languages at Ttibingen, Paris, London,
and Oxford. In 1871 he was appointed chief
librarian at the Imperial University and Gov-
ernment Library at Strassburg and in 1900 di-
rector of that institution. He retired in 1909.
As a result of his travels in Europe and the
Orient, he accumulated a vast number of ancient
Semitic inscriptions, which he gave to the
University of Strassburg. His publications in-
clude : Seeks PhoniJcische Insohriften aus Jdalion
(1875) ; Beschreibung der Stadt Strassburg und
des Miinsters (1881; 15th ed., 1909); Naba-
t&iscJie Inschriften au.s Arabien (1885) ; Sinai"
tisohe Insohriften (1891) ; Tagebuch einer Reise
in Inner-Arabien (1896); Mandaischer Diwan
(1904).

ETTTRO'PrcrS. A Latin historian, concern-
ing whom we know only that he filled the office
of secretary to the Emperor Constantine, at
Constantinople, fought under Julian against the
Persians (363), and was still alive in the reign
of Valens (364-378). The date of his death ;s
unknown. His Breviwium, ab Urbe Condita*

EUTROPITJS

200

EVAGBITJS

giving a short narrative of Roman history from
the foundation of the city to the time of the
Emperor Valens, is written in an extremely
simple and pure style and appears to have been
originally intended for the use of schools. It
rests on good authorities. An edition, with en-
largements, however, was published by Paul, son
of Warnefrid and Thecdolinda, generally known
as Paulus Diaconus ( q.v. ) . Others continued it
down to the year 813. At the revival of letters
the history existed in three distinct forms.
There was 'first the genuine work of Eutropius,
in 10 books; second, the expanded edition of
Paul; and third, a very complete but also in-
terpolated copy in the Historic, Miacella. The
editio princeps, printed at Rome in 1471, was
from the text of Paul. The best modern editions
are those of Droysen (Berlin, 1870) and Ruchl
(Leipzig, 1887). There is an edition with Eng-
lish notes, by Hazzard (New York, 1808). A
Greek version of the Bremarium, by Pseanius,
is extant and is to be found in Droysen's book.
Consult Teuffel, Qcschichte der romischen Litte-ra-
tur, by Kroll and Skutsch, vol. iii (6th ed.,
Leipzig, 1013).

ETTTROPITTS (?-399). High Chamberlain of
the Emperor Arcadius. He was a eunuch and
came originally from Armenia. He subsequently
became attached to the Imperial court and
gained the favor of his master by bringing about
the marriage of the latter with Eudoxia, by
whom he was installed as the successor of the
Minister Rufinus (395). He was the chief ad-
viser of Arcadius and become notorious for his
cruelty and avarice. In 397 he procured the
enactment of the law of Arcadius against treason
(intended to guard against a popular uprising,
and later embodied in the codes of Theodosius
and Justinian), which provided that in case of
high treason even the children of the accused
were to bo punished. He was deposed in 399,
oxiled to the island of Cyprus, and subsequently
beheaded. Consult Tlie Cambridge Mediaeval
History vol. i (New York, 1911).

EUTYCHES, u'tl-k£z (Lat., from Gk. Etfrrf-
Xn*)' A monk of the fifth century, archiman-
drite of a cloister near Constantinople, who in
his old age taught views respecting the nature
of Christ which were condemned as heretical.
He possessed little education, but was fond of
doctrinal controversy, in which the whole Church
at that time was engaged. His peculiar teach-
ing was a development of the Alexandrian Chris-
tology. He hold that two natures, one divine
and one human, went to make up the person of
Christ, but that after their union in the in-
carnation there was only one nature, so that
Christ was "from" two natures, but not "of two
natures. Ho was unwilling even to admit
that Christ's physical body was like that of
ordinary men. Thus his theory tended to
dissolve the true humanity in the divinity of
Christ.

At a synod held at Constantinople in 448,
under Flavian, Bishop of Constantinople, Eu-
tyches was charged with heresy by Eusebius of
Dorylseum and condemned. Under Alexandrian
influence the Emperor was persuaded to summon
a council which should review the case of Eu-
tyches. This council met at Ephesus in 449 and
is known as "The Robber Synod," from the
riotous character of its proceedings. (See
EPHESUS, COUNCILS OF.) By the aid of armed
soldiers and excited monks Flavian was con-
demned and Eutyches rehabilitated. But the

Church at largo properly refused to recognize
as final the verdict of this disgraceful assembly,
and a change in emperors made its reversal
politically possible. Under Pulcheria and Mar
cian the Fourth Ecumenical Council was held at
Chalcedon (451), and there the doctrine of the
two natures in Christ was declared to be an
article of the Catholic faith. Eutychianism was
again condemned, and Eutyches himself, now 73
years old, was excommunicated and banished.
We hear of him for the last time two years
later, when he was still in exile. His followers
continued their separate existence for a time,
having monasteries of their own, but were soon
absorbed in the Monophyaites (q.v.), who com-
posed a large majority of the Eastern church.
See LEO I, and consult: Hofole, History of the
Councils, iii (Eng. trans., London, 1883) : Har-
nack, History of Dogma, vol. iv (Boston, 1899) ;
Du Bose, The Ecumenical Councils (New York,
1897).

EUTYCHIANUS, u-tlk'I-a'mls, SAINT.
Bishop of Rome, 275-283, reckoned twenty-
seventh in the list of the popes. His day is
December 8.

EUTYCH1DES (Eurux^s). A Greek
sculptor of the latter part of the fourth century
B.C., pupil of Lysippus. He was born at
Megara. His most famous work was a statue
of Fortune, made for the city of Antioch; it pic-
tured the goddess as wearing a crown of towers
and seated on a rock, with the river Orontes at
her feet. The work, which was copied for other
Asiatic cities, is known through a small copy in
the Vatican. It has been suggested that the
famous "Victory of Samothrace" is a work of
Euty chides.

ETJXINE, uksln (Lat. Euxinus, from Gk.
C&&LVOS, euaceinos, hospitable, from etf, ew, well
+ &IPOS, £fros3 coeinos^ ®enos, stranger ) . The
name applied by the ancients to the Black Sea. It
is said to have been called in very early times the
Ascenos Pontos, the Inhospitable Sea, by reason
of the roughness of its waters and the wildnoss
of the savage tribes that lived on its borders, but
to have had its name changed after the Greek
colonies were founded in that region. Possibly,
however, we are to explain the name Euxine as
a euphemism for Aatinc. For such euphemistic
names, see DURAZZO; EUMENIDES.

E'VA, LITTLE. The friend of Uncle Tom in
Mrs. Stowc's Uncle Tom's Cabin.

EVAD1TE (Lat., from Gk. EMdwi). The
daughter of Iphis3 King of Argos, celebrated for
her love of her husband Capaneus. Evadno was
burned alive on Capaneus' funeral pyre.

EVACKOBAS (Lat., from Gk. Etfcryopas). A
king, or dospot, of Salamis in Cyprus, a reputed
descendant of Teucer. He became King in 410
B.C. and is described by Isocrates in his
Panegyric as being a just and wise ruler, who
aimed to promote the welfare of his people. He
cultivated the friendship of the Athenians, and,
after the defeat of the Athenians at JEgos-
Potami, offered Conon a place of refuge at his
court. Being attacked by the Persians, he allied
himself with the Athenians and the Egyptians,
but was in the end made tributary prince to the
Persians. Ho was assassinated in 374 B.C. and
was followed on the throne by his son Nicocles.

EVA'GBXCTS (Lat., from Gk. EtfdTpws, E>ua-
grios) (c.536-?). An early Church historian,
surnamed Scholasticus. He was born at Epi-
phania in Coele-Syria in 536 or 537. He was an
advocate at Antioch and the legal adviser of the

EVALD

201

EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE

Patriarch Gregory. The Emperor Tiberius II
made him a quaestor, and Mauritius, the son of
Tiberius, made him prefect. His influence and
reputation at Antioch were great, and on the
occasion of his second marriage he was given a
public festival by the citizens. The date of his
death is unknown. Evagrius wrote an Ecclesi-
astical History for the years 431-594, which has
value not only for Church history, but also for
secular. It forms the last of the continuations
of Eusebius' History. It is in Migne, Patrologia
Qrceca, Ixxxvi, and there is an English transla-
tion by Hamner (London, 1577, reprinted in
Bolm's Ecclesiastical Library). The Greek text
with the scholia was edited by Bidez and Par-
mentier (London, 1898). Consult Krumbacher,
Q-eschichte der Byzantinischen Litleratur (Mu-
nich, 1897).

EVALD, a'vald, HETIMAN FEEDERIK (1821-
1908 ) . A Danish novelist. Tho more noteworthy
of his novels are: Valdemar Krone's Youth
(1860), a story of Danish aristocracy; The
Nordby Family (1862); Johannes Folk (1865);
Charles Lyng (1882), showing him at his best in
the drawing of character; The Swedes at Eron-
lorg (1867); Anna Harderibcrg (1880); Clara
Bille (1892); Leonore Kristine (1895); Klein
Kirsten (1901); Bondelruden (1904)— all his-
toi'ical novels of merit.

EVALD, JOHANNES (1743-81). The greatest
lyric poet of Denmark, born at Copenhagen. His
poetry, such as The Temple of Fortune (1764),
and Elegies (1766) on the death of Frederick
V, brought him deserved fame, and his biblical
drama, Adam and Eve (1769), was up to that
time the best poem in Danish, as his Rolf
Kralce (1770) was the first original Danish
tragedy. His next decade was very productive
in tragedy, comedy, and farce, and closed with
a drama, The Fishers (1779), the noblest of his
works, in which, among other lyrics, is the
Danish national song "Bang Christian Stood by
the Lofty Mast." Already his health was giving
way; the excitement of the first performance of
his opera The Fishers was too much for him,
and he died after some months of agony, cruelly
neglected by his family, but solaced by his
friends. The best edition of his Works is by
Liebenberg (8 vols., Copenhagen, 1850-55), the
best biographical study his own Life and Opin-
ions (Copenhagen, 1792). For his biography,
consult also Hammerich (Copenhagen, 1882) and
Jorgensen (ib., 1888).

EVAN'DER (Lat., from Gk. EtfaySpos, Evan-
dros). According to Roman traditions, the son,
of Hermes by Carmenta or Tiburtis or Themis
or Nicostrate, About 60 years before the Tro-
jan War he is said to have led a Pelasgian
colony from Pallantion in Arcadia to Italy, and
to have landed on the banks of the Tiber, near
the foot of the Palatine Hill. From his Arca-
dian home this settlement was named Pallan-
teum, or Palatium. Tradition represented
Evander as having done much to civilize his
neighbors by introducing trades and also^knowl-
edge of music and writing. To him is also
ascribed the introduction of the worship of
the Lycaean Pan, with that of Demeter, Posei-
don, and Heracles, though Heracles is also said
to have introduced his own worship when en-
tertained by Evander after his battle with
Cacus. Vergil represents Evander as being still
alive when JSneas arrived in Latium after the
sack of Troy; Evander*s son Pallas fought for
JEneae, but was slain by Turnus. Evander was

worshiped both at Pallantion in Arcadia and
ut Home. The story seems clearly devoid of
any historical truth and to be meiely a late
invention to explain some similarities of wor-
ship and customs which were thought to exist
between Rome and Arcadia. Consult: Schweg-
ler, Romische G-eschichte (Tubingen, 1867);
Preller- Jordan, Itbmische Mythologie (3d ed.,
Berlin, 1881-83); Wissowa, Religion und
Kultus der Romer (2d ed., Munich, 1912).

EVANGELICAL (from evangelic, Lat. evan-
gelicus, Gk. etiayyeXixfa, euangehkos, pertaining
to the gospel, from etiayyeXtov, euangclion, gos-
pel, from eudyye\os, euangelos, bringing good tid-
ings, from ctf, eu, well + o.yy4\\€Lvt angeUein, to
announce). Properly, belonging to or based
upon the gospel, and hence applied to anything
which is marked by the spirit of the gospel of
Jesus Christ. In popular use the term is em-
ployed by a portion of the Christian community
to denote their own peculiar theological opin-
ions, which are held to constitute the only true
and complete expression of Christian belief. In
general, it implies emphasis on the traditional
Protestant theology and upon the element of
feeling in religion. In England and Scotland
dissenters have claimed to be more "evangeli-
cal" than the established churches. In the
United States the term is appropriated by the
more orthodox sects to distinguish themselves
from the liberal bodies. In Germany all Prot-
estants call themselves Evangelical, in opposi-
tion to the Catholics. The modern orthodox-
pictistic party in tho German churches has
made exclusive claim to the designation "evan-
gelical" on the ground that they alone hold to
the gospel in its actual historic form. In
England, after the Methodist revival, those in
the Established church who shared in general
its spiritual views formed a very numerous
party and called themselves evangelical. They
formed the great body of the Low Church
party.

EVANGELICAL ADVENTISTS. See AD-

VENTISTS.

EVANGELICAL ALLFANCE. A volun-
tary association of Evangelical Christians be-
longing to various denominations and countries.
It had its origin in a general and strong desire
for a more practical union among Protestants to
promote the cultivation of Christian fellowship
and the extension of Christian faith. After full
conference and correspondence the Alliance was
formed in Freemason's Hall, London, Aug. 19-
23, 1846, at a meeting of about 800 persons
— Episcopalians, Presbyterians, Independents,
Methodists, Baptists, Lutherans, Reformed, Mo-
ravians, and others representing England, Scot-
land, Ireland, Germany, France, Switzerland, the
United States, and other countries. The following
doctrinal articles were adopted, not as a binding
creed, but as an expression of the substance of the
gospel: 1. The divine inspiration, authority, and
sufficiency of the Holy Scriptures. 2. The right
and duty of private judgment in the interpreta-
tion of the Holy Scriptures. 3. The unity of
the Godhead and the Trinity of the persons
therein. 4. The utter depravity of human, na-
ture in consequence of the fall. 5. The incarna-
tion of the Son of God, His work of atonement
for sinners, and His mediatorial intercession
and reign. 6. The justification of the sinner by
faith alone. 7. The work of the Holy Spirit
in conversion and sanctification. 8. The im-
mortality of the soul, the resurrection of the

EVANGELICAL ASSOCIATION

202

EVANGELICAL COUNSELS

body, the judgment of the world by our Lord
Jesus Christ, with the eternal blessedness of
the righteous and the eternal punishment of
the wicked. 9. The divine institution of the
Christian ministry and the obligation and per-
petuity of the ordinances of baptism and the
Lord's Supper. The organization thus com-
menced has since been extended throughout
Protestant Christendom. Branch alliances have
been formed in Great Britain, Germany, France,
Switzerland, Sweden, the United States, Aus-
tralia, and among missionaries in Turkey, India,
Brazil, and Japan. The American branch was
organized in 1807. These national branches are
related to each other as members of a confedera-
tion having equal rights. The whole Alliance
appears in active operation only when it meets
in general conferences having the character of
Protestant ecumenical councils, but claiming
only moral and spiritual power. These have
been held at London, 1851; Paris, 1855; Ber-
lin, 1857; Geneva, 1861; Amsterdam, 1867;
New York, 1873; Basel, 1879; Copenhagen,
1885; Florence, 1891; London, 1896 (celebra-
tion of the jubilee) ; London, 1907. The United
States branch held a national conference at
Chicago in October, 1893. One of the most
effective of the general conferences was that at
New York in 1873. The visible results of the
Evangelical Alliance may be seen, in part, in
its promotion of religious liberty wherever that
has been restricted or assailed. Since its or-
ganization several cases of persecution have oc-
curred in southern Europe under the operation
of penal laws against Protestants. In these
cases the influence of the Alliance has been
successfully exerted to bring the persecution
to an end. It has aided in bringing about
changes in favor of religious liberty in Turkey,
Sweden, the Baltic provinces of Russia, and
Japan. Consult Reports of the conferences and
Arnold, History of the Evangelical Alliance
(London, 1897).

EVANGELICAL ASSOCIATION. A reli-
gious denomination formed originally among the
Germans of Pennsylvania, It has grown and
extended till it is represented in most parts of
the United States and Canada and has gained a
solid footing in Germany and Switzerland. Its
founder, Jacob Albright, was born in Pennsyl-
vania in 17C9 and was a member of the Metho-
dist Episcopal church. Observing the low con-
dition of religious life among the German popu-
lation around him, he undertook a work of
reformation among them about 1700 and traveled
as an evangelist. In 1800 he formed a class or
society of his converts, which by 1807 had be-
come large enough to make some organization
desirable, and a conference was held at which Al-
bright was unanimously elected Bishop. Ho
died in 1808, leaving the association a growing
body of much vigor. A book of discipline was
published similar to that of the Methodist Epis-
copal church, and the name Evangelical Associa-
tion of North America was adopted. Annual
conferences were formed, and the first General
Conference, consisting of all the elders, was held
in 1816 in Union Co., Pa.

The doctrines and theology of the Evangelical
Association are Arminian, and its 21 articles
of religion do not differ in any essential point
from the 25 articles of the Methodist Episcopal
church. Its government, polity, and methods
of worship likewise closely resemble those of
the Methodist church, and it is represented in

the Methodist ecumenical conferences. It has
bishops, chosen by the General Conference for
terms of four years; presiding elders, serving
not moie than four years consecutively in the
same districts; classes, quarterly conferences,
annual conferences, and the General Confeience,
the supreme judicatory, meeting every four
yeara. The ministers are of two orders — dea-
cons and ciders — and the itinerant bystem pre-
vails, the pastors being appointed to their sta-
tions from year to year, at the meetings of the
annual conferences. In 1891 the church suffered
a division, the culmination of a controversy of
several years' duration. Two bodies met, one
at Indianapolis and the other at Philadelphia,
each claiming to be the true and lawful Gen-
eral Conference and regarding the other as
spurious. Lawsuits resulted conccming titles to

Eroperty, the final decision of which was given
i favor of the party representing the majority,
whose General Conference had been held at
Indianapolis. The minority then withdrew and
organized the United Evangelical church. By
this division the Evangelical Association lost
about 40,000 members. In 1891, previous to
the division, it had 26 annual conferences, 1*227
itinerant and 619 local preachers, 150,334 church
members, church buildings valued at $5, 168,210,
and a missionary income for the preceding year
of $150,443. In 1913 it had 20 annual "con-
ferences, including two in Germany and one in
Switzerland; 1644 churches, 111,7*02 communi-
cants, about 190,000 pupils in Sunday schools,
church property valued at about $1*0,300,000,
and a total income for missions of about $1,000,-
000. Besides its German elements, it has a
relatively larjre English-speaking membership
and publishes English periodicals and English
books. It has four bishops, a well-equipped
publishing 'house at Cleveland, and another at
Stuttgart, Wiirttembcrg; a biblical institute
and Northwestern College at Nnperville, 111.;
two seminaries; an orphan home at Fbit "Rock,
Ohio; a charitable society; a missionary society,
sustaining domestic missions and foreign mis-
sions in Japan and China, and assisting the
European churches; a Woman's Missionary So-
ciety; a Church Extension Society; a Sunday-
School and Tract Union; and a Young People's
Alliance. Hospitals arc maintained in various
cities in Germany and in Chicago, and in Bis-
marck, N. Dak. Its periodicals are: The Evan-
gelical Messenger (weekly) ; The Missionary
Messenger (monthly) ; Der Ghristlichc Botschaf-
tcr (weekly) ; Der Evangelise he Mtesiombotc
(monthly) ; papers for Sunday schools and the
young people, in English and German — all pub-
lished at Cleveland; Der Evan gel ischc. Botschaf-
ter (weekly) ; and Der EvangcttscJie Kinder-
freund (weekly), published at Stuttgart, Wurt-
temberg. Consult: Plitt, Die Albrerhtsleuts
(Erlangen, 1877); W. Orwig, Hilary of tJie
Evangelical Association (Cleveland, 1S5S) : Mrs.
H. Bennett, Histori/ of the "Woman's Missionary
Society of the Evangelical Association (ib.,
1902) ; Carroll, Religion ft Forces of the United
States (rev. ed.. New York, 1912).
EVANGELICAL BODY. See COBPUS OATIIO-

LTeOTJUM.

EVANGELICAL CHtTRCH CONFEB-

ENCE (Ger. Evangelische Kirrhenkonfcrenz).
See EISENACH CITUBCTT CONFERENCE.

EVANGELICAL CHtTRCH, THE UNITED.
Sec UNITED EVANGELICAL CTTITRCU.

EVANGELICAL COUNSELS, or COUNSELS

EVANGELICAL UNION

OF PERFECTION. A term signifying, among Ro-
man Catholics, the recommendation of certain
things which are not universally necessary to
salvation, but which those who wish to attain
perfection are advised to practice. The most
important are those which form the basis of
the monastic vows of poverty, chastity, and
obedience. A basis is found for them in cer-
tain words of Christ, as Matt. xix. 16 if.

EVANGELICAL UNION. The name as-
sumed by a religious body constituted in Scot-
land in 1843 by the Rev. James Morison (q.v.),
of Kilmarnock, and three other ministers, who
had beon separated from the United Seces-
sion clnirch for doctrinal views, of which the
fundamental and determining article was the
wtrict universality of the Saviour's atonement.
They wore soon joined by a number of ministers
and churches of the Congregational Union of
Scotland and extended themselves considerably
in Scotland and the north of England, having
93 churches in 1889. In 1896 nearly all the
churches were absorbed by the Congregational
Union. Their cliurch government is independ-
ent, but many congregations have ruling elders.
Consult Ferguson, The History of the Evan-
gelical Union (Glasgow, 1876), and Adamson,
Life of Dr. James Morison (London, 1898).

EVAN'GELINE. An exquisite idyllic poem
by Longfellow, deriving its title from its heroine
and published in 1847. It is the story of two
lovers, Gabriel and Evangeline, who are parted
during the deportation of the Acadians by the
British in 1755. The lovers vainly seek each
other, but aic brought together only at Gabriel's
deathbed, after many years.

EVAN'GELIST (Gk. efttvyxeXion}*, euange-
Hstvs, bringer of good tidings [the gospel], from
ctafYye\ig€<r0a,L) euangelissesthai, to preach good
tidings [the gospel], from 6^077^X101', euangelion,
good tidings Tthe gospel] ) . A term which occurs
three times in the New Testament, but is not
found in either classical or LXX Greek and has
not as yet been discovered in the Papyri. It
designates one of the several phases of minis-
try referred to in Eph. iv. 11 and is associated
with the name of one of the workers in the
apostolic church (Philip, Acts xxi. 8) and with
one of the helpers of the Apostle Paul (Timothy,
2 Tim. iv. 5). The service which it represented
was of a missionary character, itinerant rather
than local, pioneer rather than supplemental,
its purpose being to carry the gospel message
to new parts, preparing the way with aggres-
sive work for the more settled and organizing
service which should follow, though not neces-
sarily without a local centre for work, as Philip
had in Ctcsarea and Timothy in Ephesus. Its
missionary work was much more restricted than
that of the Apostles: in fact, the mention of
evangelists in the Ephesian encyclical letter is
doubtless because the churches to which it was
sent had been established largely, if not wholly,
by means of their missionary work, under the
direction of the Apostle Paul (cf. Col. ii. 1;
iv. 12 1; Acts xix. 10).

As to whether it represents a distinctive office
or merely denotes a peculiar set of functions,
there may be discussion. It should be recalled,
however, that the original office of the Apostle
was one that embraced in itself all the functions
necessary for the primitive life of the Church,
and that, as the Church grew in the complexity
of its life, the Apostles were compelled to dele-
gate to others duties which they themselves had
VOL. VTTT.— 14

203

EVANGELISTABION

performed (e.g., Acts vi. 1-4 ; xiv. 23). It would
seem, therefore, that however functional the
work of the evangelist may have been at the
beginning, the tendency would be, even in the
apostolic church, for this work to become con-
fined to men who were best qualified to carry
it on and who would thus give themselves wholly
to its duties. This would explain the designa-
tion of Philip as "the evangelist"; while the
exhortation to Timothy to 4<do the work of an
evangelist" would indicate that in his peculiar
relations to the Ephesian fiold he was, as the
representative of the Apostle, to assume the
oflice of the evangelist as well as that of the
pastor and the teacher. In the earlier estab-
lished churches the apostolic representatives em-
braced in their work functions which were later
assigned to distinctive sets of workers. (Cf. 1
Thess. v. 12 with Eph. iv. 11 and Phil. i. 1.)

In postapostolic times the work of the evan-
gelist underwent a radical change, losing its
missionary character and even its itinerant
form. Before this change took place, however,
the term began to be used of those who had
transmitted in writing the oral message of the
good tidings of salvation; so that, as these writ-
ings came to be termed evangels (gospels),
their writers came to be termed evangelists.
This meaning first appeared in the third cen-
tury and later came to be the distinctive usage
of the term. In later liturgical language the
term was used to denote the reader of the gos-
pel for the day. Its present reference is, some-
what in its earlier sense, to a preacher of the
gospel whose work is given specifically to awak-
ening personal interest in religion and who is
not permanently connected with any local field,
nor devoted to the usual service of the pastorate.
Consult: Zockler, "Diakonen und Evangelisten,"
in BilUsclie und Kirchenhistorische Studion
(Mfinohen, 1893) ; Reville, Lea origines de
Vepiscopat (Paris, 1895); Zahn, Nisaionx-
wiethoden im Zeitalter der Apostel (Erlangxm,
188G) ; Harnack, The Expansion of Christianity
in the First Three Centuries (2d ed., 2 vols.,
London, 1908) ; The Constitution and Law of
the Church in the First Two Centuries (ib.,
1910).

EVAN'GKELISTA'EJON (ML., from MGk.
etayye\i,<rr&pi,ov9 book of selections from the Gos-
pels, from Gk. euayy&iov, euangelion, gospel). A
lectionary or service book of the Greek church,
containing the lessons taken from the Gospels for
each day in the year. The custom of assigning
to each day some portion or portions of Scrip-
ture as its appropriate reading was in vogue very
early in the Eastern church. In process of tim"
usage in this respect became quite uniform, each
day of the year having its special lesson from tli°
Gospels and another from the Epistles or Acts.
In addition to these regular daily readings, holy
and saints' days had their own appropriate read-
ings assigned. It was customary to mark, in red
ink, in the text of New Testament manuscripts,
where the appointed lessons began or ended, by
the words or abbreviations Apxfi or Apx (= he-
ginning) and r^Xos or reX (= end), while on the
margin or at the bottom of the page the day to
which the lesson belonged was indicated. But
more convenient for use were the books, often
called lesson or sot-vice books, containing col-
lections of the readings arranged in chronologi-
cal order. If suc-h a book included only Gospel
lessons, it was called an Evangelistarion ; if the
lessons were those from the Acts and Epistles,

EVANGELISTS

204

EVANS

the book was called a Praxapostolos. If the
book included both, it was a Euchologia, or
Book of Offices. Lists or tables of such readings
were also in circulation, called Synaxaria. If
a table was of the daily readings only, it was
called an Eclogadion; if of the readings for
saints5 days only, it was called a Menology.
Hundreds of manuscripts of Evangehstaria are
in existence, some of them quite sumptuous.
They date from the sixth century onward, and
many are of considerable value for the textual
criticism of the New Testament. Consult Scriv-
racr, Introduction to the Textual Criticism of
the Veil? Testament (4th ed., London, 1894), and
C. R. Gregory, The Canon and Text of the Neio
Testament, pp. 384r-393 (New York, 1907). See
LEOTIONABY.

EVANGELISTS, SYMBOLS or THE FOUR.
The symbolism by which the four Evangelists
are represented by certain living figures had its
origin with Irenceus and is founded on the pas-
sage in the Book of Revelation (iv. 64) which
describes the four living creatures before the
throne of God. It secured wide currency in the
Church, though there was little or no agree-
ment as to the order in which the creatures were
assigned to the separate Evangelists. The order
which is best known and is most largely repre-
sented in Christian art is that which prevailed
throughout the Western church from the time
of Jerome. In this Matthew is represented by
a man, Mark by a lion, Luke by a calf, and John
by an eagle. The earliest symbol used to typify
the Evangelists as a class was foxir scrolls, or
four books, placed in the four angles of a Greek
cross. LatcT the symbol of four rivers was
used. The conventional symbols referred to
above came into use in the fifth century. Con-
sult Mrs. Henry Jenner, Christian Symbolism
(Chicago, 1910); and Elizabeth E. Goldsmith,
Sacred Symbols in Art (New York, 1911).

EVANS, ALEXANDER WILLIAM (1868- ).
An. American botanist, born at Buffalo, N. Y.
He was educated at Yale University (Ph.B.,
1890; M.D., 1892; Ph.D., 1899), and at Munich
and Berlin. After 1895 he taught botany at
Yale, in 1906 becoming Eaton professor at Shef-
field Scientific School. In 1911 he was president
of the Botanical Society of America. His in-
vestigations cover the Hepaticse of Alaska and
Japan, and the bryophytes of Connecticut.

EVAN'S, SIB ARTHUR JOHN (1851- ).
An English archscologist, born in Nash Mills,
Herts, the son of the antiquary Sir John Evans.
He was educated at Harrow, at Brasenose Col-
lege, Oxford, and at GSttingen, and for 10 years
after 1873 traveled in eastern Europe, especially
the Balkans, publishing Illyrian Letters ( 1878 ) ,
and being imprisoned in 1882 charged with con-
spiracy in southern Dalmatia. In 1884-1908
ha was keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Ox-
ford. In 1893 he undertook investigations in
Crete ( q.v. ) of the utmost archaeological and his-
torical importance, particularly in the discovery
of what he considered to be a pre-Phcenician
script (see ARCHAEOLOGY, Mwioan or Mgean
Period). Among his works are: Through Bosnia
(1895) ; Cretan Pictographs and Prcs-Phoenician
Script (1896); Further Discoveries of Cretan
and JBgean Script (1898); Script a Minoa
(1909). He was knighted in 1911. In 1878 he
married a daughter (died 1893) of E. A. Free-
man, the historian, the fourth volume of whose
Sicily he published with revisions and additions.

EVANS, AUGUSTA JANE (1835-1909). An

American author. She was born near Columbus,
Ga., but when a child removed with her father to
San Antonio, Tex., which the family left after
two years (1847-49) to settle in Mobile, Ala.
She was married to L. N. Wilson in 1868. Her
works consist of a number of novels, popular in
their time, such as Inez: A Tale of the Alamo
(1856); Beulah (1859); Samt Elmo (1866);
Yasfiti (1860); At the Mercy of Tiberius
(1887); A Speckled Bird (1902).

EVANS, CHRISTMAS (1766-1838). A Welsh
Baptist preacher. He was born at Isgaerwen,
Cardiganshire, on Dec. 25, 1766. He was
brought up among Presbyterians, but became a
Baptist in 1788 and was ordained as a mission-
ary among the Baptists in Carnarvonshire
(1789). In 1792 he removed to Anglesey, and
till 1826 lived there, and virtually exercised
episcopal functions over his brethren. His arbi-
trary and dictatorial conduct was offensive and
compelled his removal to Glamorganshire in
1826. In 1828 he went to Cardiff, and in 1832
to Carnarvon. He was familiar to all Welshmen
bv reason of his journeys over the principality
in behalf of church building, and famous for
his eloquence. He died at Swansea, July 19,
1838. For his biography, consult Hood (Lon-
don, 18S1).

EVAN'S, EDWARD PAYSON (1831-1917). An
American author and scholar. He was born
at Remsen, N. Y., moved to Michigan in ISSO,
and was educated at the University of Michigan
(A.B., 1854; A.M., 1857), where, after several
years of teaching in Mississippi and Wisconsin,
ho was professor of modern languages and litora-
tures in 1802-67. After 1870 he resided in
Europe, and after 1884 he was on the staff of
the AUgemeine Zeitung of Munich. He also be-
came known as a contributor to German and
American reviews and periodicals. His publi-
cations include: Adolf Stahr's Life and Works
of Ootthold Epliraim Lcssing (1806); Athancse
Coquerel, Jr.'s First Historical Transformation
of Christianity (1867) ; Abriss dcr deittschcn
Litteraturgeschichte. (1869); .-I Progressive Ger-
man Reader (1870) ; Animal 8yml)olism in
Ecclesiastical Architecture (1896) ; Evolutional
Ethics and Animal Psychology (1897; 2d ud.,
1898) ; Bcitrdge sur Amerikanischcn Litterahir
und Kulturgesohichte (2 vole., 1898-1903) ; The
Criminal Prosecution and Capital Punishment
of Animals (1906).

EVA3STS, EDWARD RADCUFFE GAETII RTTSSELL
(1881- ). A British explorer, educated at
Merchant Taylors' School. Entering the British
navy in 1897, he became sublieutenant in 1900,
lieutenant in 1902, and commander in 1912.
In 1902-04 he served on the Morning, sent in
relief of the Discovery expedition. In 1909 he
joined the British Antarctic expedition as second
in command, and after Captain Scott and several
of his companions had perished on an advance
expedition, late in December, 1912, Evans re-
turned in command of the expedition. (Sec
POLAR RESEABCH.) In 1914 he lectured in the
United States on the Scott expedition. He was
awarded the Shad well testimonial prize in 1907
and the cross of the Legion of Honor in 1914,
and was created C.B. in 1913.

EVAN'S, EVAN HEBER (1836-96). A Welsh
Congregational clergyman, born near Newcastle,
Emlyn, Cardiganshire. Educated at the Normal
College, Swansea, and the Memorial College,
Brecon, he served as pastor of Lebanus Church,
Morriston (1862-65), and of Salem Church,

EVANS

205

EVANS

Carnavon (1865-94), becoming especially cele-
brated as an eloquent pulpit orator. He filled
the chair of the Welsh Congregational Union
in 1886 and of the Congregational Union of
England and Wales in 1892 and in 1894 became
principal of the Congregational College at Ban-
gor. He also edited the Welsh Congregational
magazine, Y Dysgedydd. Consult his Life by
H. Elvet Lewis.

EVANS, FBEDEBICK WILLIAM (1808-93). An
American reformer. He was born in England,
but came to the United States in 1820, was ap-
prenticed to a hatter and, in the intervals of his
work, studied the writings of Owen, Fourier,
and other social reformers, and became a thor-
oughgoing Socialist. After visiting the Shakers
at Mount Lebanon, N. Y., he determined to join
them and soon became an elder and a recognized
leader. By his teachings he modified the doc-
trines of the sect. Among his writings arc:
Autobiography of a Shaker (1869; new ed.,
1888) ; Sfiaker Communism (1872) ; Tlie Second
Appearing of Christ (1873).

EVANS, SIB GEOBGE DE LACY (1787-1870).
A British soldier and politician. He was born
in Limerick, Ireland, entered the British army
in 1806, was present, as lieutenant colonel of
infantry, at the capture of Washington, the at-
tack on Baltimore, and the operations be'fore
New Orloans, in the War of 1812, and fought
under Wellington at Waterloo. He served in
Parliament in 1831-32 and from 1833 to 1841
and again from 1846 to 1865, as a representative
of the "Advanced Liberals," and in 1835 com-
manded the British Auxiliary Legion in Spain.
In 1854 he was promoted lieutenant general and
was selected to command the second division of
the army in the Crimea, where he distinguished
himself at Alma and Inkerman. He was pro-
moted general in 1861.

EVANS, HBNBT CLAY (1843-1921). An
American Republican politician, born in Juniata
Co., Pa. In 1864 he enlisted in the Forty-first
Wisconsin Infantry, subsequently established
manufactories of iron and railway cars at Chat-
tanooga, Tenn., and was twice elected mayor of
that city. From 1889 to 1S91 he was a member
of Congress and from 1889 to 1893 Assistant
Postmaster-General. In 1894 he was elected
Governor of Tennessee in accordance with the
original returns, but on a recount by the Legis-
lature certain returns were thrown out as ir-
regular, and the Democratic candidate, Peter
Turney, was declared elected. At the Republican
National Convention of 1896 he was second in
the balloting for Vice President. He was
United States Commissioner of Pensions in 1894-
1902, and Consul General at London from 1902
till 1905. In 1911, when the city of Chatta-
nooga adopted a commission form of govern-
ment, he became commissioner of education and
health.

EVANS, HUGH DAVEY (1792-1868), An
American author. He was born in Baltimore,
was admitted to the Baltimore bar in 1815, and
attained eminence as a constitutional lawyer.
He was prominent in the councils of the Protes-
tant Episcopal church, edited several religious
newspapers between 1843 and 1858, and from
1852 to 1864 was lecturer on civil and ecclesias-
tical law in St. James's College, Maryland. The
most important of his publications is his Trea-
tise on the Christian Doctrine of Marriage, pub-
lished posthumously in 1870. Consult Harrison,
Memoir of Hugh Davey Evans (Hartford, 1870).

EVANS, SIB JOHN (1823-1907). An Eng-
lish antiquary. He was born in Market Bos-
worth, Leicestershire, and was educated by his
father. He made a fortune in paper manufacture
and thereafter devoted himself largely to collect-
ing coins and antiquities. His researches em-
brace the departments of geology, archaeology,
and numismatics, and his collection of coins
ranks among the first in England. He was
president of the Geological Society (1874-7(5),
the Numismatic Society (3875-1902), the So-
ciety of Antiquaries (1885-92), the British
Association (1897-08), and the Egyptian Ex-
ploration Fund. His principal publications in-
clude Corns of the Ancient Britons (1864;
supplement, 1890) and The Ancient Stone Im-
plements, Weapons, and Ornaments of Great
Britain (1872; 2d ed., 1897), both of which
have been translated into French.

EVAN'S, JOHN GWENOGVETIT (1852- ).
A Welsh scholar, born in Ffynon Velved, Car-
marthenshire, and educated at the Presbyterian
College of Carmarthen, at Owens College, and
at Oxford, where he received an honorary M.A.
in 1887 and Litt.D. in 1903. He was editor
of the Series of Old Welsh Texts and, in 1894-
1906, inspector of Welsh documents for the His-
torical Manuscripts Commission. He published
valuable reports on Welsh manuscripts, and the
Red Book Mabinogion (1887), the first edition
of the White Book Mabinogion ( 1907 ) , Facsimile
and Text of Book of Aneirin (1908), Facsimile
of Ohirk Codex of Welsh Laics (1909), Fac-
simile and Teat of Book of TaUessin (1910),
and Amlyn and Amic (1912).

EVAN'S, MAEGABET J. (1842- ). An
American educator and club woman, born at
Utica, N. Y. She graduated from Lawrence
University in 1869 (A.M., 1872) and also studied
in Paris, Berlin, Heidelberg, and Oxford. From
1874 to 1908 she was professor of English liter-
ature and dean of the woman's department of
Carloton College. She served as president of the
Minnesota Congregational Woman's Board of
Missions after 1879 and of the Minnesota Federa-
tion of Women's Clubs in 1895-99, as chairman
of the Minnesota State Public Library Commis-
sion, as the first woman corporate member of the
American Board of Commissioners for Foreign
Missions (Congregational), and as second vice
president ( 1900-02 ) and honorary vice president
for life (after 1908) of the General Federation
of Women's Clubs. She is author of Woman as
Citizen and also of several published addresses.

EVAN'S, MART ANN or MAEIAN (1819-80).
An English novelist, the author of Adam Bede,
Felix Holt, Middlemarch, Daniel Deronda,, etc.
She wrote under the pseudonym George Eliot,
and under this title her life and works are
described. See ELIOT, GEORGE.

EVANS, OLIVEB (1755-1819). An American
inventor. He was born at Newport, Del., and
in Ms early youth was apprenticed to a wheel-
wright, thus being afforded an opportunity of
displaying uncommon inventive genius. When
22 years of age, he invented a machine for mak-
ing the wire card teeth used in carding cotton
and wool, which hitherto had been produced
by handwork. He later invented improved ma-
chinery for flour mills, which enabled the miller
to make not only finer flour, but 20 pounds more
to the barrel, at the same time cutting down the
cost of labor one-half. Having invented a steam
engine, in 1786 he asked for a patent from the
Legislature of Pennsylvania for its application

EVANS

206

EVAPORATION1

to mill machinery and to the steam carriage.
Evans made the first high-pressure steam engine
and the first steam dredging machine used in the
United States. This dredge, weighing about
4000 pounds, was put on wheels and propelled
itself to the Schuylkill River, IV? miles distant,
where it was connected to a stern paddle wheel
and navigated the Schuylkill down to its junc-
tion with the Delaware. This is supposed to
have heen the first actual propulsion of a car-
i iage on land by steam in America. He designed
and constructed an engine for a stoam vessel on
the Mississippi River, but the boat in which it
was to be mounted was never completed, and the
engine was installed in a saw mill, where it ran
most successfully. He built many steam engines
and invented much new machinery and has been
termed the "Watt of America." He died in New
York, April 21, 1819. Consult Thurston, Growth
of the Steam Engine (New York, 1878).

EVANS, ROBLEY DUNGLISON (1846-1012).
An American naval officer, born in Floyd Co.,
Va. He graduated at the United States Naval
Academy in 1803, served in the West Indies, and
participated, with the North Atlantic blockading
squadron, in both attacks on Fort Fisher, and
in the second was severely wounded. In 1866,
however, he returned to the service as a lieuten-
ant. He was lighthouse inspector (1882-86),
in 1891-92 commanded the Yoiktown at Val-
paraiso, Chile, where American sailors were
killed by a Chilean mob (and where Evans gained
the sobriquet of ''Fighting Bob") : policed the
Bering Sea sealing grounds with much vigilance ;
was made captain in 1893, and in 1896 was
transferred to the Indiana, the first battleship
commissioned by the United States. Later, he
was attached to the Lighthouse Board (1897),
and during the war with Spain commanded the
Joipa, taking a prominent part in the battle of
Santiago, where the fire of the entire Spanish
fleet was at one time concentrated on his ship.
Tn 1898, at his own request, Evans was detached
from the Iowa and afterward was made a mem-
ber of the Board of Inspection and Survey. He
was advanced to the rank of rear admiral Feb.
11, 1901. It was on Evans's recommendation
that steel was first used for American battle-
ships. Ho was escort to Prince Henry of Prus-
sia, during the la tier's visit to the United States
in 1902, and in 1904 commanded the fleet in the
Far East. In December, 1907, he took com-
mand of the fleet which left Hampton Roads for
a cruise around the world; but after rounding
Cape Horn, and reaching San Francisco, Evans
was forced by ill health to give up the com-
mand. In 1908 he was retired, with the thanks
of the Navy Department. He published two
volumes of reminiscences, A Bailor's Log (1901)
and An Admiral's Log (1930).

EV'AETSTON. A city in Cook Co., 111., 12
miles north of Chicago, of which it is a popular
aubiirb, on Lake Michigan, and on the Chicago
and Northwestern and the Chicago, Milwaukee,
and St. Paul railroads (Map: Illinois, J 1).
It is beautifully situated on the lake and con-
tains the Northwestern University (q.v.), the
Garrott Biblical Institute, and a public library.
It is the national headquarters of the Women's
Christian Temperance Union. Settled about
3835, Evanston was incorporated about 1890.
Its government is administered by a mayor,
elected biennially, and a unieameral city coun-
cil. With the exception of the city treasurer
and city clerk, who are chosen T:>y popular elec-

tion, all municipal officials are nominated by
the mayor, with the consent of the council. The
city owns and operates its water works. Pop.,
1900, 19,259; 1910, 24,978; 1914 (U. S. eat.),
27,724; 1920, 37,215.

EVAJTSTON. A town and the county seat
of Uinta Co., Wyo., 90 miles west-southwest of
Rock Springs, on the Bear River, and on the
Union Pacific Railroad (Map: Wyoming, A 4).
It is the seat of the State Institution for the In-
sane and contains a fine courthouse and public
library. The city is in an agricultural, stock-
raising, and coal-mining district and has oil
Holds, large ice plants, and railroad repair shops.
The water worksv are owned by the town. Pop.,
1900, 2110; 1910, 2583.

EV'ANSVILLE. A city, port of entry, and
the county seat of Vanderbnrg Co., Ind., about
150 miles (direct) west-southwest of Indian-
apolis, on the Ohio River, and on the Chicago
and Eastern Illinois, Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chi-
cago and St. Paul, the Southern, the Louisville
and Nashville, and the Illinois Central railroads
( Map : Indiana, B 9 ) . Among the more promi-
nent buildings aro the customhouse, courthouse,
city hall, United States Marine Hospital, State
Hospital for the Insane, Elks3 Home, St. Mary's
and Deaconess hospitals, Carnegie libraries, high
school, Little Sisters' Home for the Aged, and
Willard Library. Other features of interest are
Cooks, Mesker, Sunset, and Garvin parks. Coal
abounds in the vicinity, and the city has a large
trade in coal, timber, grain, pork, tobacco, and
Hour. Abundant water power is supplied by a
large government dam, erected on the Ohio River,
near here, at a cost of $2,000,000. The indus-
trial plants include foundries and machine shops,
breweries, flouring mills, furniture factories,
plow works, and establishments for the manu-
facture of cotton and woolen goods, leather,
glasR, stoves, steam shovels, gas engines, cigars,
buggies and wagons, wire fence, metal beds, etc.
The government is administered by a mayor,
elected every four years, and a city council, seven
of the members of which aro elected by wards
and three at large. All other oilicials, excepting
the clerk and the police judge, who are elected,
aro appointed by the executive. The receipts of
the city in 1912 were $3,479,000, and its pay-
ments the same amount, the chief items being:
education, $282,000; police, $83,900: fire, $95,-
200; and water works and filtration plant
(owned by the city), $80,700. Kvansville was
founded in 1810 by Gen. Robert M. Evans, be-
came the county seat in 1819, and with a popu-
lation of 4000 was incorporated as a city in
1847. It was reincorporated in 1905. Pop.,
1890, 50,750; 1900, 59,007; 1910, 09,047; 1914
(U. S. cat.), 71,284; 1920, 85,264.

EVAP'OBA'TION (Lat. evaporatio, from
cvaporare, to evaporate, from <?, away -f- vapo-
rare, to emit vapor, from vapor, vapor), or
VAPORIZATION. The change of state from solid
or liquid to gaseous. All substances emit vapors,
and those which at ordinary temperatures evapo-
rate rapidly are said to be volatile. If the
vessel in which a liquid is allowed to evaporate
be open, the vapor will diffuse through the air,
and evaporation will go on until there is no
more liquid left. But if a liquid is placed in
an air-tight vessel, evaporation goes on until the
vapor escaping from the liquid has attained a
certain definite pressure within the vessel, and
then a "dynamic" equilibrium is established; i.e.,
evaporation will not really cease, but the amount

EVAPORATION 207

of vapor condensed in a given time becomes
exactly equal to the amount of liquid vaporized
in the same time, and hence, as a net result, no
further change can be observed. At any rate,
whether this conception of the equilibrium at-
tained is correct or not, the vapor from a single
liquid attains, within a closed vessel, a certain
maximum of pressure, which is determined al-
most entirely by the nature of the liquid and
its temperature. Dissolving a foreign substance
in a liquid always diminishes the vapor pressure
of the liquid. Mechanical compression of the
liquid by means, say, of an insoluble gas always
raises the vapor pressure of the liquid, because
such compression causes the liquid to occupy a
smaller space. On the other hand, if the sur-
face of a liquid is curved, as it is in a capillary
tube, the vapor pressure of the liquid is con-
siderably diminished. At the same temperature
different liquids have different vapor tensions,
and when the temperature is raised, the vapor
tension of each is increased by an amount depend-
ing, again, upon the nature of the liquid. When
the vapor of a substance has attained its full
pressure, it is said to be saturated. The full
vapor tension corresponding to a certain tem-
perature is not attained instantaneously, since
evaporation requires time. The rate of evapora-
tion depends on a large number of circumstances,
some of which are more or less accidental, i.e.,
have nothing to do with the nature of the liquid
experimented upon. Thus, the size, shape, and
material of the vessel in which evaporation is
allowed to take place have a considerable influ-
ence on the rate. Other factors are the tempera-
ture of the liquid itself, the density of the at-
mosphere above its surface, and the magnitude
of the surface exposed, shallow vessels being em-
ployed when rapid and copious evaporation is
required. In case the liquid is a mixture or a
solution, the rate of evaporation depends greatly
upon its composition and upon the nature of the
several constituents.

The Heat of Evaporation. The temperature
of pure boiling water remains constant; yet heat
must be continually supplied to it in order that
evaporation may go on; the heat does not appear
as sensible heat, but is required to produce the
change of state. The heat required to convert
one gram of a substance into vapor is called its
heat of evaporation. The laws of thermody-
namics lead to methods that permit of calcu-
lating the heat of evaporation of a substance if
certain other numerical data in connection with
the substance are known. Thus, if the volume
occupied by one gram of a liquid is V, and the
volume occupied by one gram of its saturated
vapor is V, the "absolute temperature" being T
(by the absolute temperature is meant the ordi-
nary centigrade temperature increased by 273),
and if the increase in the vapor pressure pro-
duced by a rise of 1° in temperature is denoted

by the symbol ^, then the heat of evapora-
tion, 7, may, according to Clausius, be calculated
by the following formula:

Z = T|f(V-V').

At the critical temperature (see CRITICAL
POINT) there is no difference between a liquid
and its vapor; the difference between the vol-
umes occupied by one gram of liquid and one
gram of vapor is naught, and the heat of evapo-

EVAHTS

ration is likewise naught, as is shown by the
above formula.

Cooling by Evaporation. Since the trans-
formation of liquids into vapors involves the ab-
sorption of heat, a liquid may be cooled by
allowing it to evaporate without supplying heat
to it from any outside source; the evaporation
will then take place at the expense of the sensi-
ble heat of the liquid itself, and as a result the
temperature will be lowered. Thus, the rapid
evaporation of liquid ammonia or of sulphurous
acid produces temperatures low enough for water
to freeze and is employed in making artificial
ice. Liquid ethylcne evaporates rapidly and pro-
duces temperatures low enough for compressed
air to be liquefied; the evaporation of the air
thus liquefied produces still lower temperatures,
and in this manner the most refractory g.ises, in-
cluding helium and hydrogen, have been lique-
fied. When liquefied carbonic acid is forced, by
the pressure of its own vapor, in a fine stream
into the air, it evaporates so rapidly that a
portion of the stream is frozen.

Evaporation is continually going on in nature
on a gigantic scale. Vapor from the ocean is
continually rising into the atmosphere, it then
condenses into mists or clouds and, under certain
conditions not as yet fully understood, falls as
rain, hail, or snow, to be again evaporated from
the ground, or from rivers, lakes, and seas.

A very useful annotated bibliography of evapo-
ration by G-. J. Livingston was published in the
Monthly Weather Review (Washington, June,
1908, to June, 1909). Important papers on
evaporation in the United States will be found
in the Monthly Weather Review (Washington,
1886, vol. xiv, p. 299; 1888, vol. xvi, pp. 235-
239, map; and 1907, vol. xxxv, to 1910, vol.
xxxviii). A summary of our knowledge of the
subject will be found in the same journal for
March, 1914. Consult Hausbrand, Verdampfen,
Kondensieren, und Kiihlen (5th ed., Berlin,
1912). See BOILING POINT; VAPOR.

EVAP'OROJMFETER. See ATMOMETER.

EV'ARTS, JEREMIAH ( 1781-1831 ) . An Ameri-
can editor. He was born at Sunderland, Vt.,
graduated at Yale in 1802, and practiced law in
New Haven. From 1810 to 1820 he was editor
of the Panoplist, and in 1820, when the Mission-
ary Herald was issued in its stead, he took charge
of that periodical. In 1821 he was chosen cor-
responding secretary of the American Board of
Commissioners for Foreign Missions. He was
an efficient organizer of Christian missions and
took an active part in the movement to secure
justice for the Indian tribes. Consult Tracy,
Memoirs of Jeremiah Evarts (Boston, 1845).

EVABTS, WILLIAM MAXWELL (1818-1901).
An eminent American lawyer and statesman.
He studied at the Harvard Law School until
1839. In 1841 he was admitted to the bar. He
was deputy United States district attorney from
1849 until 1851 and district attorney from 1851
until 1853. In 1860 he attended the National
Republican Convention in Chicago as the chair-
man of the New York delegation and nominated
Seward for the presidency. During the Civil
War he was secretary of the Union Defense
Committee and was sent by President Lincoln on
a diplomatic mission to England. He was the
senior counsel of President Johnson in the great
impeachment trial of 1868 -(see JOHNSON, AN-
DBEW) and did much to secure his acquittal.
From July, 1868, until March 4, 1869, he was
Attorney-General of the United States. In 1872

EVE 208

he acted as chief counsel of the United States
before the Geneva Court of Arbitration. In the
contest between Hayes and Tilden in 1877 for
the succession to the presidency, Evarts was the
loading counsel of the Republicans before the
Electoral Commission (q.v.). He was appointed
Secretary of State by President Hayes and served
throughout the term. In 1881 he was sent as a
delegate of the United States to the Interna-
tional Monetary Conference at Paris, and from
1885 to 1891 he served in the United States
Senate. He then retired both from politics and
from the bar. Among his public addresses are
the eulogy on Chief Justice Chase, delivered at
Dartmouth in 1873; the Centennial oration de-
livered in Philadelphia in 1876; and his orations
at the unveiling of statues in New York to
William Seward and Daniel Webster.

EVE. The name of the first woman in Gen.
iii. 20. Ordinarily she is only spoken of in the
narrative as "the woman," but in this passage
and in Gen. iv. 1 the proper name occurs. He-
brow folk etymology explains it as "the living
one11; she was so called "because she became the
mother of all living." Since Hawwah is not
the Hebrew word for "living," some scholars
regard the name as a late addition, made at a
time when Aramaic had become the vernacular;
others assume that the original meaning was
"serpent," and that a serpentine chthonic divin-
ity was once considered the mother of mankind.
It should be said, however, that there ia no di-
rect evidence of such a goddess, and that the
figure of Eve lias not been found in Babylonian
mythology. No woman is connected with the
story of ADAPA (q.v.), and it is still doubtful
what the significance is of the representation on
a seal of a man and a woman, a tree and a ser-
pent. The first account of creation (Gen. i)
does not mention a first woman any more than a
first man; like the other living beings, the
human race is created en masse, "males and
females created he them" (verse 20). Accord-
ing to Gen. ii, 15 ff. Eve was made out of a
rib taken from Adam while he was in a deep
sleep, after none of the animals fashioned and
brought before man to be named had proved to
be a helper that might stand before him. In
Gen. iii. Eve learns from a wise serpent the
virtues of the fruit of a tree in the midst of the
garden of Eden, shares the fruit with her hus-
band, and, as predicted by the serpent, they be-
come like gods, so that the deity declares "now
that man has become like one of us" (verse 22),
they know good and evil, and would live forever,
if they were not driven out of the garden. Con-
sult Breymann, Adam and Eve (Gottingen,
1893), and Gunkel, Oeneste, 3d ed. (Berlin,
1012). See ADAH,

EVE, PAUL FITZSIMMOWS (1806-77). An
American physician. He was born near Augusta,
Ga., and graduated at Franklin College (Georgia)
in 1820 and at the University of Pennsylvania
Medical College in 1828. He then studied in
Europe for several years and acted as surgeon in
the Polish Revolution of 1831. He was professor
of surgery in Georgia Medical College ( 1832-49 ) ,
and in the universities of Louisville (1849),
Nashville (1860-68), and Missouri (1868-77).
In 1857 he was president of the American Medi-
cal Association. He published more than 000
articles on medical subjects. His most important
publication is Remarkable Cases in Surgery
(1857).

EVECTION (Lat. evectio, a carrying up-

EVENING SCHOOLS

ward, from evehere, to carry out, from e, forth
+ veheref to carry). The greatest of the lunar
peiturbations or inequalities. It depends upon
the alternate increase and decrease of the eccen-
tricity of the moon's orbit. Evection may
change the moon's geocentric longitude by as
much as 1° 15' and alter the time of occurrence
of an eclipse by six hours. Sec LUNAR THEOBY.

EVELETH, eVe-l&th. A city in St. Louis
Co., Minn., 71 miles north by west of Duluth,
on the Duluth, Missabc, and Northern, and the
Duluth and Iron Range railroads (Map: Minne-
sota, E 3). It contains a public library and
three parks. Eveleth is in a rich iron-mining
region and has lumber and dairying interests.
The city adopted the commission form of govern-
ment in 1913. It owns its water works. Pop.,
1900, 2752; 1910, 7036.

EVELYN, JOHN (1620-1706). An English
author and virtuoso, born Oct. 31, 1620, at
Wotton, the family seat, Surrey. Educated first
at the free school of Lewes, he was afterward
for a short time at Balliol College, Oxford, and
also studied at the Middle Temple. During the
Civil War he found it prudent to pass much of
his time on the Continent, though he served in
the King's army for three days (1642) and lived
in England for two years (September, 1647. to
June, 1649). Returning to England in 1652,
he settled at Sayes Court, Deptford, where he
lived quietly, amusing himself with gardening
till the Restoration. A trusted Royalist, he was
much employed by the government, though he
was given no high office. Ho was of those who
were instrumental in the formation of the Royal
Society, in which he was one of the first and
most valuable members. In 1094 he removed
from Sayes Court to Wotton, where he died,
Feb. 27, 1706. Evelyn wrote upon a great
variety of subjects — art, architecture, gardening,
and commerce. These works, of which there are
about 30, have little permanent value. His
tiylva, or a Discourse of Forest Trees (1604)
was long a standard work. His Sculptura ap-
peared in 1G62, and A Character of K upland in
1659. His Diary is the work by which he lives.
It covers about 70 years, and these the most
dramatic in the history of England. It is of
inestimable value. Scott said he had "never
seen a mine so rich." The Diary was first

Eublished in 1818-19. The sixth edition, with
ife by Wheatley, appeared in London (1879).
A good later edition is Diary and Correspondence
(London, 1906).

EVENING- GROSBEAK See GROSBEAK.

EVENING- PRIMROSE. See CExorriKRA.

EVENING- SCHOOLS. Schools found in
England, the United States, and the leading
continental countries of Europe, whose principal
object is to provide either elementary or special
instruction for those who are unable to attend
day schools on account of the necessity of earn-
ing a livelihood. They supply throe classes of
wants: (1) primary instruction, for the illiter-
ate, juvenile or adult; (2) vocational training,
commercial or industrial j (3) the desire for
some higher, liberal culture on the part of the
masses generally, and especially of those who
have enjoyed few or no opportunities for ad-
vanced instruction in the ordinary schools. The
evening school, from being a place for mere
primary instruction, has in recent years become
more and more either a vocational' or a higher-
culture school. Such schools are the mechanical
institutes, workingmen/s colleges, and the con-

EVENING SCHOOLS

209

EVENING SCHOOLS

tinuation schools established by local authorities
in England, the Prussian Fortbildungsschulen,
the various classes of courses for adults, the
evening work in the apprentice schools in Prance,
and the evening hi^h schools and such institu-
tions as Cooper Union in the United States.

In Germany the evening schools may be said
to have sprung from the old Sunday schools,
which in 1760 began to give, in addition to re-
ligious instruction, some training in primary
work. Late in the eighteenth century cities took
up the task of supplementing the somewhat
meagre education that some of the poorer chil-
dren had received, Berlin being the first to
found a free school for manual workers. In
1844 the Prussian Cultusminister issued a cir-
cular calling attention to the need of such
schools, but, although this was immediately fol-
lowed by considerable activity in the matter, it
soon languished. Eventually, however, their
lumber increased, and their position became
more definite. They extended the time of in-
struction to from four to eight hours a week,
occupying evenings usually. With 'the rapid
development of industrial and commercial life,
and the elaboration of the school system, they
turned more and more to giving instruction in
technical and commercial matters. Their curric-
ulum, originally confined to German and arith-
metic, came to include elementary geometry
and drawing, then history, geography, and
natural science, with bookkeeping, correspond-
ence, etc. These Foribildung&schulen, or con-
tinuation schools, attempt to fit the course of
study to the occupations of the school locality.
Those in the cities are classified as commercial
and industrial, while those in the country em-
phasize subjects of study relating to agriculture.
They are often connected with schools for special
trades or occupations, and in fact such schools
are classified under continuation schools fre-
quently. Many of them do not carry on their
work in the evening. In 1912 the FortWdungs-
sohulen — public and guild — were attended by
473,381 industrial and 56,172 commercial stu-
dents under compulsory regulations, and 22,729
industrial and 3296 commercial attended volun-
tarily. The tendency throughout Germany is to
make attendance in continuation schools, held
more usually in the daytime, compulsory, to
relate the work of the schools with the trade of
the student, and to provide a general training in
citizenship along the lines successfully inaugu-
rated in Munich by Dr. George Kerschensteiner.

Although schools for the education of adults
had existed in France as early as 1709, the no-
tion of having evening schools for this purpose
seems to have been introduced from England in
1820, when such an institution was established
in Paris. After 1830 the movement was ex-
tended, and in 1867 there were 35,000 such
classes in France. A decline in number followed,
but recently they have again been on the in-
crease, numbering, in 1911-12, 52,797 courses for
male and female students. The classes for
women are generally separate from those for
men. The work is (1) for illiterates, or (2) a
review and extension of primary work, or (3)
preparation for special vocations. There is thus
an extensive system of continuation schools —
education postftoolaAre — which give vocational
courses and award certificates of attendance.
Many of these courses are given in the evenings.
But, as in England, there is a strong feeling
that attendance should be made compulsory for

several years after the elementary school age.
At present not more than about 600,000 students
attend these courses. In 1876 the Comit4 d'en*
cowagement des Etudes Commerciales began the
establishment of commercial evening schools,
while the Societe* Polytechnique and the Societe*
Philotechnique, founded in 1830 and 1848 re-
spectively, are now offering evening instruction
in commercial branches, industrial and con-
structive arts, and mathematics. Such private
agencies provide about 6000 courses in addition
to the number of public courses given above.
In addition there is a considerable movement in
the direction of university extension courses,
which are held in the evening. In general it
may be said that the French evening schools do
not attend quite so much to liberal and ethical
training as do the German continuation schools,
but emphasize more specific industrial and com-
mercial work.

In England the first evening school proper for
instructing boys and girls who had to work all
day for a livelihood was founded in 1806 at Bris-
tol by the Benevolent Evening Schools Society.
The first school established exclusively for adults
was in Bala, Merionethshh e, in 1811, by the Rev.
T. Charles. Similar schools were founded in
Bristol in 1812 and in London in 1816. In a
few years thev existed in 30 towns. The govern-
ment, through the science and art department
and the education department, began to grant
for their support certain allowances out of the
public fund for education. These were, how-
ever, very sparing until 1861, when a revision
of the code permitted day-school teachers to
teach in the evening schools. Aid to teachers
was withdrawn, but capitation grants were made
on the average attendance and for successful
examinations. The result was a great increase
in the sums obtained for such schools as were
devoted to review work, etc., and as also had
paid certificated masters instead of voluntary
ones. At the same time the schools devoted
to illiterate adults were loft largely to the
care of private beneficence. This type of school,
however, became constantly less and less neces-
sary, while the evening continuation school de-
veloped into a more and more elaborate institu-
tion. Until 1890 its curriculum was confined to
elementary subjects, and no aid was granted to
pupils over 21. At that time, however, and
especially by the Code of 1893, the course was
enlarged, the attendance of persons over 21
recognized, and the method of granting money
changed so as to recognize the work of the
school as a whole, rather than the attainments
of the individual pupil. The schools, as a result,
became largely secondary, and their attendance
steadily increased. In 1898 the attendance in
England and Wales was 435,600 in 5535 schools.
In 1900, however, came the Cockerton Judgment,
by which it was declared to be illegal to apply
the parliamentary grants for other than elemen-
tary education or for pupils above 14. This
obstacle Was removed by the Education Act of
1902, which empowered local education authori-
ties to provide higher education out of the rates.
The work which had been done under the science
and art department's supervision had not been
interfered with. The evening schools as organ-
ized at present are in session three or four even-
ings a week for two hours from September to
April. So far as possible students are encour-
aged to take work by courses rather than isolated
subjects, and graduated schemes lasting several

EVENING SCHOOLS a

sessions have been established. The subjects
are grouped in six divisions: 1. (a) Preparatory
and general, including elementary school sub-
jects, civics, and music; (6) literary and com-
mercial, including foreign languages, economics,
commercial law, etc. II. Art. III. Manual or
industrial instruction. IV. Science and mathe-
matics. V. Home occupations and industries
for women. VI. Physical training. More at-
tention is being paid to social work and the
schools are beginning to be centres for numerous
social activities. An interesting scheme was in-
troduced in London in September, 1913, to pro-
vide a coordinated system of nveaing instruction
in commercial, technical, art, domestic, women's
trades, and nonvocational subjects to be taught
by full-time or half-time teachers. In 1911-12
the Board of Education recognized 7749 centres
for evening education attended during the year
by 722,770 students, of whom 606,580 earned the
grant. Statistics hardly indicate the success or
otherwise of the evening schools, which can only
be measured by the persistence of attendance;
for while enrollment figures may be high at the
beginning of the year, there is a sad falling off
towards the end. It is felt very generally that
England must introduce compulsory attendance
up to the age of 17 or 18.

In the United States evening schools were
established at first largely to provide for chil-
dren in the great cities who were occupied during
the day. Attendance at them has been confined
principally to oldor children and adults. They
were tried in New York City in 1834, but failed
for want of teachers. Fourteen years later the
Public School Society successfully reestablished
them. Within two years they had 15 schools and
8000 pupils. The Boston evening schools were
legally recognized in 1857. In 1911-12 there
were evening schools in 204 cities having 10,000
inhabitants or more. They were situated in 34
States, although 41 were in Massachusetts. The
attendance was made up largely of pupils who
did not attend day classes. In most cities the
schools were kept open only a few months, and
the work was inferior and inadequate. As a re-
sult the attendance did not increase rapidly, or
even declined. The establishment of evening
high schools, which emphasize commercial and
technical work, has come to remedy this situation,
and the United States finds, as other countries
have found, that secondary evening instruction
is more in demand and more effective than that
of the primary grade. In 1884 five large cities
had evening high schools, and since then their
number has steadily increased, until in 1911-12
there were such high schools in 81 cities with
a population of 10,000 and over, enrolling 134,-
818 pupils and having an average attendance
of 46,575. The tendency generally is to provide
evening schools in which those already engaged
in some wage-earning occupation can improve
themselves in their trade and along general lines.
Thus, by law of 1911 Massachusetts has provided
for the establishment of extension courses with
related work for men and women, and prepara-
tory courses for women as well as courses in
home making to be given in the evening as part
of the State-wide provision of vocational educa-
tion. In addition a variety of means has come
into existence by which liberal and vocational
Instruction is given to people whose time is
occupied during the day. Among the most nota-
ble are Maryland Institute, Baltimore, and
Cooper -Union, New York. The latter institution

[0 EVEBEST

was incorporated in 1857. It furnishes advanced
instruction in mathematics and the natural
sciences, with applications to the various trades.
There is a school of art also, in which attention
is paid to the more mechanical of the nne arts,
such as engraving, etc. The Young Men's Chris-
tian Associations also have established in some
cities extensive lines of instruction, carried on
mostly in the evening. Mucli of the university
settlement, university extension work, and pub-
lic-lecture systems also occupy evening hours,
and with them the account of the principal lines
of evening instruction in the United States may
be concluded.

The evening school exists also in European
countries other than those already mentioned,
as in Holland, Italy, and Switzerland. These
nations have been called upon to deal with the
same problems which have characterized the
development of this school everywhere, and in
solving which it has turned more and more
towards vocational instruction and liberal studies
in advance of the primary grade. Consult:
Balfour, The Educational Systems of Great
Britain and Ireland (Oxford, 1912) ; Teegan,
Technical and Industrial Education in France
(London, 1892) ; Reports of United States Com-
missioner of Education, passim; A. J. Jones,
Continuation Schools in the United States
(Washington, 1907) ; M. E. Sadler, Continuation
Schools in England and elsewhere (Manchester,
1906) ; 0. Pache, Handbuch des deutschen Fort*
bildungswesens (Wittenberg, 1902). See NA-
TIONAL EDUCATION, SYSTEMS OP.
EVEWTOCKNATHI. See PLECTOSPONDYLI.
EVEHDINGrEN, a'vSr-dlng-en, ALLART, or
ALDEBT VAN (1021-75). A Dutch landscape
and marine painter and engraver. He was born
at Alkmaar and, according to a well-founded
tradition, studied under Roclandt Savcry at
Utrecht and Pictcr Molyn at Haarlem, where he
chiefly resided until his removal to Amsterdam
in 1657. In 1040-44 he visited Sweden and Nor-
way, and his subsequent landscapes show the
impression, made on him by northern scenery.
His pictures usually represent waterfalls with
iir trees and rocks. His treatment is fresh,
spirited, and truthful, his composition masterly,
and his atmospheric effects excellent. The color
in his landscapes is at times dark, but in his
better works it is clear and warm. Hardly less
notable are his rarer marines, of which the best
is "A Snow-Storm on the Zuyder Zee/' in the
Musee CondS, Chantilly. The finest collections
of his paintings are in Dresden, Munich, Am-
sterdam, and Copenhagen galleries and in the
Louvre. At his best he equals Ruysdael, to
•whom his works are frequently attributed, al-
though he is usually less versatile in execution
and less profound in feeling. He left more than
100 known etchings of great variety and spirit.
Fifty-seven of these illustrate the poem of Kei-
neke Puclis. The original drawings for this
work, and also others by him, are in the British
Museum. Consult Drugulin, Allart van Ever-
clingen, catalogue raisonnv de toutes les estampes
qui forment son ceuvre grav6 (Leipzig, 1873 ) , and
Granberg, Allart van Everdmgen et ses pay sages
norwegiens (Stockholm, 1902).

EVEREST, MOUNT. A mountain of the
Himalaya system on the frontier of Nepal and
Tibet, situated in lat. 27° 59' N. and long. 86°
55' E. (Map: India, F 3). It is the highest
known mountain peak on the earth, being about
29,000 feet above sea level, or approximately

EVEREST

2X1

EVEBETT

5% English miles. It was named after Sir
George Everest, a former surveyor-general of
India. It has been much confused with Gauri-
sankar, which peak is more than 5000 feet
lower.

EVEREST, SIB GEOBGE (1790-1866). An
English military engineer, born in Wales. He
studied in the Royal Military Academy at Wool-
wich, England, became a second lieutenant in the
Bengal artillery, and participated in a survey of
Java and in engineering work on the Ganges.
In 1818 he became assistant to Colonel Lambton
in the trigonometrical survey of India, and on
the chief's death in 1823 became his successor.
Tn 1830 he became surveyor-general of India,
and he discharged the duties of both offices until
his retirement in 1843. He became a fellow of
the Royal Society, was knighted in 1861, and
served as vice president of the Royal Geograph-
ical Society in 1862. Mount Everest (q.v.) was
named in his honor. He published An Account
of the Measurement of Two Sections of the Me-
ridional Arc of India (1847).

EVERETT. A city in Middlesex Co., Mass.,
4 miles northeast of Boston (Map: Massachu-
setts, E 3). It is on the Mystic River, on the
Boston and Maine Railroad, and has electric
railroad connection with Boston, Chelsea, Lynn,
Salem, and towns of the vicinity. Everett has a
large number of manufacturing plants, the prin-
cipal being chemical works, gas and coke works,
structural iron foundries, steel works, and man-
ufactories of radiators, shoes, coal-tar products,
leather, beds, concrete blocks, tools, wagons,
boxes, trunks, etc. There are two public libraries
— the Parlin Memorial and Shute Memorial —
and the Whidden Memorial Hospital. The gov-
ernment is administered, under the original city
charter of 1892, bv an annually elected mayor
and a bicameral city council, of which the mem-
bers of the upper house are elected for two years,
one from each ward and one at large, and those
of the lower by wards for one year. Of the
other municipal officials the more important are
nominated by the executive and confirmed by
the board of aldermen, and those of less impor-
tance are chosen by the city council. One-
third of the school board is elected at large,
the remainder by wards. Pop., 1900, 24,336;
1910, 33,484; 1914 (U. S. est.), 37,381; 1920,
40,120. Everett was settled in 1643 and re-
mained a part of the town of Maiden till 1870.
It was chartered as a aity in 1892.

EVEBETT. A city, port of entry, and the
county seat of Snohomish Co., Wash., 33 miles
north of Seattle, at the mouth of the Snohomish
River, on Puget Sound, and on the Great North-
ern, the Northern Pacific, and the Chicago, Mil-
waukee, and St. Paul railroads, and on several
lines of Sound and coasting freight and pas-
senger steamboats (Map: Washington, C 2).
It is in a rich lumbering, gardening, farming,
and copper-gold-and-silver-mining district, and
has a fine harbor with several large iron piers.
The city trades extensively in lumber, having
some of the largest plants in the northwest.
Red-cedar shingles arc the most important prod-
uct. There are also ore, paper, and flour in-
terests, and among the chief industrial establish-
ments, large shipyards, paper and flour mills,
ironworks, sash and door factories, saw and
shingle mills, smelters, and one of the two plants
in the United States for saving arsenic from
smelter fumes. Everett contains the Pacific Col-
lege (Lutheran), opened in 1908, a Carnegie

library, two hospitals, and the United States
customs and assayer's offices. The city has
adopted the commission form of government.
Settled in 1891, and incorporated two years later,
its growth has been rapid because of its favor-
able situation as a commercial port, its trans-
portation facilities, and its nearness to extensive
forests. Pop., 1900, 7838; 1910, 24,814; 1914
(U. S. est.), 32,048; 1920, 27,644.

EVERETT, ALEXANDER HILL (1792-1847).
An American diplomatist and political writer.
He was born in Boston, Mass., the son of the
Rev. Oliver Everett, and brother of the orator
Edward Everett. He graduated with highest
honors at Harvard in 1806, was admitted to the
bar, appointed United States charge d'affaires at
The Hague in 1818, and Minister at Madrid in
1825. Upon his return in 1829 he became pro-
prietor and editor of the North- A merican Revieio
and was elected to the Massachusetts Legislature.
In 1840 he was sent by the government to Cuba
as confidential agent, and appointed in 1845 to a
diplomatic post at Peking, a post which he held
at his death. His literary activity began early.
He made frequent contributions to the Monthly
Anthology (1803-11). His first important book,
Europe, or a General Survey of the Political
Situation of the Principal Powers, with Conjec-
tures on their Future Prospects (1822), was
translated into German, French, and Spanish. A
similar work on America appeared in 1827, hav-
ing been preceded by New Ideas on Population
(1822). Other books were Critical and Mis-
cellaneous Essays (1845-47) and Lives of Joseph
Warren and Patrick Henry in Sparks's Amer-
ican Biography. Frequent contributions, lit-
erary and political, to the North American
Review and economic essays in the Boston
Quarterly attest the unremitting labors of a busy
life. He shared something of his brother's ora-
torical power, the more noteworthy of his pub-
lished orations being "The French Revolution,"
"The Battle of New Orleans," and "The Battle of
Bunker Hill."

EVERETT, CHABLES CABBOLL (1829-1900).
An American Unitarian clergyman and educator,
born at Brunswick, Me. He graduated at Bow-
doin College in 1850 and studied in Berlin in
1851-52. After teaching languages at Bowdoin
College and being librarian there, he graduated
at Harvard Divinity School (1859), and for 10
years was pastor of the Independent Congrega-
tional Church (Unitarian) at Bangor, Me. In
1869 he became Bussey professor of theology
and in 1878 dean of Harvard Divinity School.
In 1872 he began his lectures on East Asiatic
religions, one of the earliest American courses
on "comparative religion." His principal pub-
lications are: The Science of Thought (1869;
rev. 1890) ; Religions before Christianity (1883;
in Dutch version for school use) ; Fichte's Science
of Knowledge (1884) ; Poetry, Comedy, and Duty
(1888) ; Ethics for 7oung People (1891); The
Gospel of Paul (1893) ; Psychological Elements
of Religious Faith (1902); Immortality and
Other Essays (1902); Theism and Christian
Faith (1909). He was a founder and editor
of the New World. Consult articles op Everett
in the December, 1900, number of the New
World by C. H. Toy, N. P. Oilman, and Josiah
Royce.

EVERETT, EDWAHD ( 1794-1865 ) . An Amer-
ican statesman, orator, and scholar.- He was
born at Dorchester, Mass., April 11, 1794; was
at one time a pupil in a Boston school of which

EVERETT

212

EVERGLADES

may not be filled with BOine sort of structural
work. Excavation may vary from the simplest
digging of a well or cellar for a rural dwelling
to svork involved in the construction of a ship-
canal or railway terminal, tunnel subway, or
subaqueous foundation. It may involve the
use of pick and shovel or other hand tools, a
horse-drawn plow or scraper, a steam shovel,
or other forms of excavating machinery (q.v.)
with or without the use of high explosives (see
BLASTING), or various complicated dredging
machinery. (See DKEDGE.) Often it is a form
of engineering where the element of human labor
figures more prominently than elsewhere, as
much of the work is done by hand, although this
condition has been improved by recent forms of
excavating machinery. The term Excavation,
however, is so general a one that reference should
be made to articles describing more important
processes included under such titles as CABALS,
DAMS AND RESEBVOIBS, EXCAVATING MACHIN-
ERY, FOUNDATIONS, TUNNELS, DBEDGE, RAIL-
WAYS, ETC.

EXCEL'SIOR (Lat., higher). 1. The motto
of the State of New York. 2. A widely known
poem of Longfellow (1841), suggested by the
motto of New York, and beginning "The shades
of night were falling fast/*

EXCELSIOB. A material formed of thin
wood shavings, much used for packing purposes,
stuffing for mattresses and upholstery, as stable
and kennel bedding, and in France employed as
a substitute for absorbent lint in hospitals, for
filtration purposes, and for weaving into floor
coverings. It was first made in the United
States about the middle of the nineteenth cen-
tury, being put on the market in 1860, but later
the manufacture was extensively taken up in
Europe, especially in France. Excelsior is not,
as is often supposed, made from shavings, but
directly from logs of wood. Aspen or poplar
and basswood furnish the best material. The
logs are first sawed into blocks, 19 inches long,
5 inches thick, and the width of the log. These
bolts, or split billets, are seasoned, split in two
19-inch lengths, and the ends trimmed down to
make the final bolt for the machinery 18 inches
long, the usual length of a strip of excelsior.
A knife shaves off the surface of the bolt, the
slice first having been split by a series of jacoring
knives. The tiny fibres curl and commingle as
they fall from the knife; the finer the shavings,
the' higher the grade of the product. An excel-
sior machine will make from 200 to 300 strokes
a minute, each stroke cutting off a tier of fibres
from the face of the block. Excelsior is packed
in bales weighing 250 pounds. The annual pro-
duction for the United States, amounting to
some 140,000 tons, requires some 85,000,000 feet
of timber, or the growth of over 14,000 acres of
forest land. The American product in 1911 was
manufactured by 122 factories, which consumed
142,944 cords of wood, of which 61,941 cords
were cottonwood, 37,901 cords yellow pine, and
33,042 basswood. The price in 1914 varied from
$8 to $22 per ton on the market according to
the grade. It was said that it costs from $7
to $12 per ton to manufacture and market the
product.

EXCEI/SIOR SPRINGS. A city in Clay
Co., Mo., 28 miles northeast of Kansas City, on
the Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul, the Wa-
bash, and the Kansas City, Clay County, and
St. Joseph railroads (Map: Missouri, B 2). Its
many mineral springs with medicinal properties

have made the city a popular health resort.
There are several fine hotels and pavilions, a
large auditorium, Carnegie library, and a gov-
ernment building. The city has also an ice fac-
tory and bottling works. Pop., 1900, 1881;
1910, 3900.

EXCEPTION (Lat. exceptio, from easdpere,
to except, from ex, out -f capere, to take). In
law: (a) a taking out or excluding something
from the operation or effect of an instrument,
statement, or the like; (Z>) an objection legally
taken to testimony or other material matter in
a legal proceeding; (c) the clause, writing, or
statement by which cither of these objects is
accomplished, also the thing excepted or ex-
cepted to. When applied to a clause in a deed,
it means a provision that exempts something
from the grant, as where the deed conveys a
certain farm with the exception of a described
piece of land or a designated building or tree.
(Cf. RESERVATION.) An exception in a statute
exempts a person or thing from the operation of
the enactment; and it is a rule of pleading in a
criminal prosecution or in a civil suit for pen-
alties under such a statute, that the indictment
or complaint must negative the exception, i.e.,
deny that the defendant or the alleged criminal
act comes within the exception. In admiralty
and equity practice the term is applied to the
proper method of bringing before the court an
objection to the regularity or sufficiency of a
pleading or proceeding. In this sense an excep-
tion partakes of the nature of a pleading, per-
forming the function of a special demurrer at
common law.

The term is employed most frequently, how-
ever, in common-law actions to describe the
formal signification of a party's objection to an
adverse ruling of the court upon some point of
law. It must be taken at the time of the ruling,
or \vithin a prescribed period thereafter, and
should be entered upon the court's record, so
that a proper bill of exceptions (q.v.) may be
prepared for a review of the case by a^n appellate
court. Consult the authorities referred to under
KEAL PROPERTY; PLEADING; PRACTICE.

EXCESS (Lat. eaocessus, departure, from
c&cedere, to depart, from ex, out + cedere, to
go). The remainder arising from dividing one
number by another is often called the excess, as
in casting out nines in the test for divisibility.
(See CHECKING.) In spherical trigonometry the
excess of the sum of the angles of a spherical
polygon over n — 2 straight angles (the sum of
the* angles of a plane polygon of the same num-
ber of sides) is called the spherical excess of the
polygon; e.g., the spherical excess of a spherical
triangle with the angles 00°, 127°, 40% is 77°.
When the area of a spherical triangle, compared
with the area of the sphere on which it lies, is
very small, it may be taken as the area of the
plane triangle with sides of the same length as
those of the spherical triangle and with angles
diminished by one-third of the spherical excess.
If S denotes the area of the spherical triangle,
l«j its excess, and r the radius of the sphere, then

E -- . This formula is of use in triangu-

7*8111 1

lation (see SURVEYING) to check the excess as
found from the observed angles.

EXCHANGE (OF. exchanger, echanger, Pr.
^changer, It. scawfnore, ML, excambiare, to ex-
change, from Lat. eo>, out + ML. camliare, Lat.
oambire. to change, from Olr. cimJ, tribute; con-
nected with Gall, oamlos, IT. cwnm, Welsh,

THE EVERGLADES

" ""• ''"

1. VIEW OF THE EVERGLADES WEST OF FORT LAUDERDALE, FLORIDA, LOOKING NORTH.

2. VIEW FROM THE SAME POINT, BUT LOOKING SOUTH.

3. DRAINAGE CANAL IN THE EVERGLADES WEST OF FORT LAUDERDALE, LOOKING WEST-

EVERGLADES

213

EVERGREEN

of a rim of this rock, which rises a foot or more
above the level of the water. This level is from
16 to 20 feet above the sea. It is known, too,
that, although there are many confusing cur-

IDVEBGLADES.

rents, the general movement of the water is con-
sistently southward. These facts have long been
appreciated, and prompted the belief many years
ago that the Everglades could be reclaimed. In
1845 the Legislature of Florida memorialized
Congress on this subject, and in 1847 the Secre-
tary of the Treasury, R. J. Walker, appointed
Buckingham Smith to report to him his opinion
of the feasibility of the plan. In 1850 Congress
passed the Arkansas Act, or Swamp and Over-
flowed Land Grant Act, under which virtually
all of the Everglades were patented to the State
of Florida; and in 1855 Florida passed an Act
creating the Trustees of the Internal Improve-
ment Fund to promote the reclamation project.
In 1881 a private company undertook to build
a drainage canal from Lake Okeechobee to the
Caloosahatchee River, but the work was not well
planned and did not succeed. In 1906 the State
adopted a fairly definite plan, and the actual
work was begun. The plan provided for a series
of main canals, to be dredged from the coast
to Lake Okeechobee, the object being to lower
the level of the lake by about 2 feet, to prevent
the overflow of its waters into the Everglades
once the water level there had been lowered by
these canals. In 1913 five such canals had been
completed, and several others had been recom-
mended for construction. The feasibility of ac-
tually draining the greater part if not virtually
all of the Everglades has been admitted by
several expert engineers, and rich crops of sugar
cane and garden truck have been grown upon
some of the land thus reclaimed. There is,
however, difference of opinion as to whether all
of the land thus reclaimed will be valuable for
agricultural purposes. See DBAIKAGB.

Apparently the first white man to enter the
Everglades was a Spaniard, Escalente de Fonte-
nada, who, after being shipwrecked in the Straits
of Florida, was taken prisoner and made a slave
by the powerful cacique, Calos, known as the
Lord of the Everglades* The only other human
beings known to have made their home in these
fastnesses are the remnant of the Seminole
Indians (q.v.) who fled hither after the virtual
subjugation of their tribe in 1842. Several ex-
peditions have traversed or explored parts of the
Everglades, the more important being those of
Major A. P. Williams in 1883, J. E. Ingraham
in 1892 (the first actually to cross the great
marsh lake), and Lieut. Hugh L. Willoughby
in 1897. Considerable literature about this
mysterious region has been produced. For the
various acts, reports, and other oflicial papers re-
lating to the reclamation scheme, and including
much information concerning the region, consult
The Everglades of Florida, Senate Document No.
80, 62d Congress, 1st Session (Washington,
1911), for progress of the work up to 1914,
Florida Everglades, Report of the Florida Ever-
glades Engineering Commission, Senate Docu-
ment No. 379, 63d Congress, 2d Session (ib.,
1914), and for a readable description of the
country, Lieutenant Willoughby's account of his
expedition, Across the Everglades (Philadelphia,
1898). Rhodes and Dumont in A Guide to Flor-
ida (New York, 1912) present a good brief
description; and of the numerous magazine
articles the following are especially worthy of
notice: Dix and MacGonigle, "The Everglades
of Florida," in the Century Magazine, vol. Ixix
(February, 1905) ; Willey, "Reclaiming the Ever-
glades," in Gassier3 s Magasino, vol. xxxix
(March, 1911); id., "Draining the Everglades,"
in the Scientific American, vol. civ, No. 2 (Jan.
21, 1911) ; and Dimock, "The Passing of a Wil-
derness/* in Scribner's Magazine, vol. xli
(March, 1907).

EVERGREEN". A town and the county seat
of Conecuh Co., Ala., 99 miles east-northeast
of Mobile, on the Louisville and Nashville Rail-
road (Map: Alabama, C 4). It is a winter
resort, noted for its mineral springs, and has
the Second Congressional District Agricultural
School and Experiment Station and the State
Baptist Orphanage. The to^wn is interested
chiefly in agriculture, lumbering, and market
gardening, and contains a veneer mill, box fac-
tory, and saw mill. The water works and elec-
tric-light plant are owned by the municipality.
Pop., 1900, 1277; 1910, 1582.

EVERGREEN. A plant which retains its
foliage organs throughout the year. Evergreens
contrast naturally with deciduous trees. These
latter shed their leaves periodically and are leaf-
less for some portion of the year; whereas the
leaves of evergreens are more persistent and are
either not shed periodically or the old leaves
are retained until after the new ones have ex-
panded. The term "evergreen" is used particu-
larly in. the case of trees, and the forests of the
world are subdivided into various ecological
groups, the basis for which is the nature of the
foliage, whether deciduous or evergreen. Ever-
green forests are again subdivided into the
northern or conifer tjrpes, *^e sclerophyll or win-
ter-rain type, and the tropical type in regions
whose atmosphere is always moist. In the last
„ je all gradations are to be found between the
[eciduous and the evergreen habit, See FOBBSTJ
LEAOT.

EVERHABT

214

EVICTION

EVERHART, BENJAMIN MATLAOK (1818-
1904). An American author and botanist. He
was born near Westchester, Chester Co., Pa., and
spent the first 40 years of his life in mercantile
pursuits. In 1867 he retired from business and
devoted himself to botanical research and to
gathering and ai ranging a great collection of
fungi, comprising thousands of specimens. He
diRi'overed nearly 300 new species of lichens,
mosses, and liverworts, and became known as one
of the greatest authorities in this branch of bo-
tanical science. In association with J. B. Ellis
he founded the Journal of Mycology, the publica-
tion of which was subsequently taken up by the
United States government. Nine plants have
been named in his honor. His principal publica-
tions are Ellis 's North American Fungi, and The
North American Pyrenomycetes, with original
illustrations by W. F. Anderson (1892), a valu-
able monograph.

EVERLASTING- SLOWER. A name given
to various flowers, among which are certain spe-
cies of Awaranthus (q.v.) and of Helichryaum.
See IMMORTELLE. See Plate of G-OLDENBOD.

EVERLASTING- GOSPEL. See JOACHIM
OP FLOIUS.

EVERLASTING PEA. See LATHYBUS.

EVERMAIOT, BABTOTST WABBEN (1853-
). An American ichthyologist, born in
Monroe Co., Iowa. He graduated from Indiana
University in 1886. After serving for 10 years
as teacher and superintendent of schools in In-
diana and California, he was professor of biol-
ogy at the Indiana State Normal School in 1886-
91. Entering the service of the United States
Bureau of Fisheries in 1888, he became ichthy-
ologist in 1891, had charge of the division of
scientific inquiry in 1905-11, and from 1910 to
1014 was chief of the Alaska Fisheries Serv-
ice. He lectured at Stanford University in 1 893-
04, at Cornell in 1900-03, and at Yale in 1903-
06. lie was also United States fur-seal com-
missioner in 1892 and became chairman of the
fur-seal board in 1908. His publications in-
clude bulletins and reports of the United States
Fish Commission and contributions to the pro-
ceedings of various societies.

E VERSUS Y, CIIABLES SHAW-LEFEVBE, Vis-
ooufrT (1794-1888). An English politician. He
was born in London, was educated at Trin-
ity College, Cambridge, was called to the bar
in 1819, and entered Parliament in 1830, where
he became a steady supporter of the Whig
government. He was Speaker of the House of
Commons from 1839 to 1857, when he was re-
tired on a pension and made a peer. He served
longer than any previous Speaker save Arthur
Onslow, who held the office nearly 34 years.

EVERSLEY, GEORGE JOHN SHAW-LEFBVBE,
first BARON. See SHAW-LEFEVRE.

EVERY MAN IN HIS HUMOUR. Jon-
son's first extant comedy, produced at the Globo
in 1598, Shakespeare himself taking a part, and
printed in 1601, It proved the most vital of
Jonson'a plays. Garrick, after revising the piece,
played the part of Kitely with great success.

EVERY MAN* OUT OF HIS HUMOUR.
"A Comicall Satyre," by Ben Jonson, produced in
1599 and published in 1600.

EVESHATVT, ev^am, originally EOVES-
HAM. A municipal borough and market town
in Worcestershire, England, on the right bank of
the navigable Avon, 15 miles southeast of
Worcester (Map: England, E 4). It lies in a
beautiful and fertile vale and has for many years

been noted for market gardening. It is well
built and lighted by gas. The gas works and
water supply are owned by the municipality,
which also maintains baths and washhouses, pub-
lic recreation grounds, two public halls, and a
public library. It has a grammar school founded
in 1546 and a free public school. It has manu-
factures of gloves and hosiery. An abbey was
founded here about 700, of which nothing re-
mains but a fine tower and gateway. The town
had its first charter in 1604 from James I. It
was the scene of Simon de Montfort's defeat
by the royal troops Aug. 4, 1265, terminating
the Barons' War. Pop., 1901, 7101; 1911, 8341.
Consult New, A Day at Evesham (Evesham,
1881), and id., Evesham (London, 1905).

EVET. See EFT.

EVICTION (Lat. evictio, from emctus, p.p.
of evincere, from ex, out + vincere, to conquer ) .
The expulsion or removal of a tenant from the
possession of real property either by his land-
lord or by another acting under a paramount
title. The term was formerly confined to dis-
possession by legal process, but it is now applied
to every form of dispossession under a title su-
perior to that of the person evicted. Disturb-
ance of possession by a stranger, i.e., by one hav-
ing no title to the lands in question, is not an
eviction, but a trespass, punishable by a tort
action. An eviction, on the other hand, whether
rightful or wrongful, is not a trespass and is
not punishable as for a wrong. Its effect is
confined to the dissolution or modification of the
relation of landlord and tenant between the lessor
and lessee.

An eviction by a landlord of a tenant at will
or at sufferance, or of a tenant who has forfeited
his estate by the commission of waste, or by the
breach of any condition on which the lease de-
pended, is the normal and proper mode of ter-
minating the relation between the parties. The
eviction operates ipso facto to determine the
tenancy. A similar act of dispossession of one
wrongfully in possession of property by the
rightful owner is not an eviction, but is more
properly described as a reentry. (See ENTBY,
RIGHT OF.) When, however, the person so in
possession claims under a lease from a third
person, the process may, from his standpoint
and in relation to his landlord, be an eviction.
Its effect is to terminate the lease and to set the
tenant free from his obligations to his landlord.
It is an eviction by paramount title. If the
eviction in this case be only partial, however,
i.e., from part and not the whole of the prem-
ises, the tenant may still be liable to his land-
lord for so much of the premises as remains in
his possession.

On the other hand, if the tenant be unlawfully
evicted by his landlord, it is immaterial whether
the eviction be total or partial. A lease of land
carries with it an implied covenant for the quiet
enjoyment of the demised premises (i.e., a cove-
nant that the tenant shall not be disturbed by
an unlawful eviction by his landlord or by para-
mount title), and rests upon the condition that
this covenant shall he observed. Any willful
eviction from any part of the premises by tho
landlord's act is a breach of this condition and
entitles the tenant to avoid the lease and refuse
to pay rent, even though his possession of part
of the premises is undisturbed. In this case,
however, if the tenant remain in possession of a
part of the premises, the rent is only suspended,
and he may become liable under the lease again,

EVIDENCE

215

EVIDENCE

if he is restored to the part from which he has
been evicted.

Strictly speaking, eviction involves the notion
of an actual forcible removal or exclusion from
the premises held by a tenant, and at common
law nothing less than this would protect him
against the claims of his landlord under the
lease. This rigid rule has been modified in two
particulars in certain of the United States. In
Massachusetts and a few other States it has been
held that when the premises are claimed by para-
mount title the tenant is not bound to await a
forcible removal, but may yield to a demand for
possession made on the premises. In New York
it has been held that the landlord may effect an
unlawful eviction, and thus release his tenant
from his obligations under the lease, without
any physical interference, by the process known
as a "constructive eviction." This consists of a
nuisance willfully maintained by the landlord,
either upon or in close proximity to the tenant's
premises, of such a character as to deprive the
tenant of his rightful enjoyment of them and
force him to abandon them. This doctrine has
also been applied to a variety of acts or omis-
sions by a landlord which do not come under the
ordinary description of a nuisance, such as the
refusal of the proprietor of an apartment house
to furnish the heat or the elevator service stipu-
lated in the lease. The courts have, upon the
contrary, refused to carry the principle to the
extent of permitting a tenant to claim a con-
structive eviction and abandon the premises be-
cause of the landlord's failure to make promised
repairs, even though the premises are rendered
untenantable by such failure.

The rights accruing to a tenant under an evic-
tion may usually be supplemented by a right
of action against the landlord for damages, and
the tenant may recover under the covenant of
quiet enjoyment from the lessor the damages
sustained by him as the result of the breach. See
LANDLORD AND TENANT,, and the authorities there
cited.

EVIDENCE. The means by which the truth
or untruth of any relevant fact is established in
the trial of an action at law. What is and what
is not legal evidence is determined primarily by
the pleadings in the action. The early common-
law system of pleading was so devised as to nar-
row down all matters of dispute between the
plaintiff and defendant to a single issue of law or
fact. If the issue was one of law, a question was
raised for the court only; but if the issue was
one of fact, a question was raised for determina-
tion by a common-law jury, after a trial in which
evidence was introduced on the one side to prove
the alleged fact and on the other to disprove it.
The whole system presupposed, on the part of
the jury, inability to consider more than one
issue of fact at a time, and in the consideration
of that one issue, to some extent, lack of capac-
ity to give to different classes of logically rele-
vant evidence their proper weight. It is to the
historical development of the jury system, there-
fore, that many rules of the law of evidence may
be attributed, which now seem to be unwarranted
in logic and unsuited to the times.

Modern systems of pleading permit the rais-
ing of numerous issues of fact and have thus
imposed on the jury duties requiring a higher
standard of intelligence than under the ancient
system. The rules of evidence, however, partly
because they have been found to be practically
sufficient and partly because of the necessity of

fixed and definite rules in the branch of the law,
have not undergone a corresponding change, and
many matters of evidence logically relevant and
of considerable probative force are still not le-
gally admissible evidence because of their sup-
posed tendency to "confuse and mislead the
jury."

I. Relevancy. The rule of first importance
in the law of evidence is that it must be relevant
in order to be legally admissible. Relevancy de-
pends directly or indirectly on the issue raised
by the pleadings. Thus, evidence of a fact may
be relevant because it tends directly or indirectly
to prove or disprove the fact in' issue that is
affirmed by one side and denied by the other;
or because it tends to prove or disprove some
matter of evidence already introduced by the
other side. But, as has been pointed out, not all
logically relevant evidence is legal evidence.
Thus, evidence which is logically relevant may
not be legally admissible because: (a) Its rele-
vancy is slight or remote. Thus, evidence that
the defendant was insolvent at a certain time is
not admissible to prove that he borrowed money
of the plaintiff at that time. (Z>) The evidence
is of collateral transactions, or (as is sometimes
said) res inter alias acta. Thus, in an action to
recover damages for negligence it is not per-
missible to show that the defendant was negli-
gent towards others than the plaintiff, or on
trial of a defendant for stealing, that he stole
from others. The general rule is, however,
subject to many limitations and modifications
more or less arbitrary. Thus, it is permissible
to show, in an action of tort, brought to recover
for injuries caused by a defective appliance be-
longing to the defendant, that others were in-
jured by it in a similar manner, and, generally,
value of land may be shown by proving the
selling price of other land similarly situated. The
character of a party to a civil action is not re-
garded as relevant and is therefore not the sub-
ject of evidence unless the character is directly
put in issue by the pleadings, as in an action
for libel. In a criminal trial, however, the de-
fendant may, if he so elects, introduce evidence
of his character, which evidence the prosecution
may then rebut.

II. Hearsay. What others than the witness
have said before the trial is not generally ad-
missible in evidence because not sworn to and
because not subject to cross-examination. This
rule, known as the "hearsay-evidence rule," is
subject to several exceptions, the most impor-
tant of which are the following:

(a) Admissions and Confessions. — Statements,
either oral or written, made at any time by a
party to an action or by his predecessor in in-
terest, may be introduced in evidence against
him, but not by him or in his favor. The rule
is based upon the inherent probable truth of
statements which are prejudicial to the inter-
ests of the party making them. Under the rule
as to predecessor in interest, the admissions of
a deceased person are admissible in evidence in
actions against his executor, or admissions as
to the title of real estate made by its then owner
are admissible in an action founded upon the
title brought against his subsequent grantor.
Admissions made by an agent within the scope
of his authority are admissible in evidence
against the principal. Confessions are strictly
admissions made by one charged with a crime,
and, because of the necessity of safeguarding one
charged with a crime, are not admissible when ob-

EVIDENCE

216

EVIDENCE

tained by means of threats or promises of favor.
This rule lias been extended or restricted by
statute in many of the States.

( & ) Reported Testimony in a Prior Trial. — In
general the testimony of a witness in an earlier
trial between the same parties and relating to
the same issues, or between parties identical in
interest with the parties at the present trial,
may be introduced in evidence if the witness is
dead, insane, unable to attend the trial, out of
the jurisdiction, or kept from appearing at the
trial by an opposing party. The testimony in
the earlier trial must have been sworn to and
subject to cross-examination, thus obviating the
usual objection to hearsay evidence.

(a) Dying Declaration. — Declarations made by
a person in extremis are admitted in evidence
upon, the trial of one charged with the homicide
of the declarant, either in favor of the prosecu-
tion or the prisoner. See DECLARATION, DYING.

(d) Declarations against Interest. — These are
admissions in any form against financial or pro-
prietary interest of the person making them and
made by one who at the time of trial is dead.
Unlike admissions, they need not be made by
one having some connection with the party to
the action. Thus, an indorsement written on a
note by the holder that a part of the note is
paid, or a book entry that a bill has been paid,
or a statement that the declarant is a tenant
(rather than the owner), are all admissions
against financial or proprietary interest, and are
admissible in evidence if relevant and if the
declarant be dead.

(e) Book Entries. — Book entries or reports
made pursuant to a legal duty or in the usual
course of business by one since deceased having
personal knowledge of the matter so entered or
reported are admissible in evidence to prove the
truth of matters contained in the entry. Thus,
the book entries of clerks or written reports of
officers are admissible in evidence under this
head, but not the entries in a diary, because not
made pursuant to a duty. Closely related to
the rule as to entries made in the course of busi-
ness is the so-called shop-book rule. This rule
varies considerably in different jurisdictions, but
the eft'ect in all is substantially to allow a party
to an action, although present at the trial in
person, to prove an account by introducing in
evidence his book of account, be is usually re-
quired to make preliminary proof that he is en-
gaged in the business in which the charges in
the book are made, and that he has made cor-
rect entries. A witness may always be allowed
to refresh his memory by referring to memo-
randa or book entries; in that case the memo-
randa or book entries are, however, not directly
in evidence, and the jury may rely only upon
the witness's oral testimony.

(/) Res fiesta?. — Any statement made at the
time of the happening of an event by one who
was then present may be introduced when the
event itself is in issue or relevant. Such evi-
dence is admitted on the theory that the state-
ment is incidental to the event itself and to
some extent characteri2es or explains it. Tims,
on a murder trial it is proper to prove a state-
ment made at the time of the homicide by any
person present, which tended to show that the
defendant committed the homicide or that the
act was intentional or malicious.

III. Real Evidence, Writings. Legal evi-
dence is not limited to the sworn testimony of
witnesses. Specific objects, when properly identi-

fied by oral testimony, may often be introduced
in evidence when their very existence or their
character or appearance tends to prove or dis-
prove an alleged fact. Thus models, parts of
machinery, weapons, clothing, etc., may be in-
troduced in evidence. Such evidence cannot of
course be submitted to an appellate court as a
part of the record of the trial, and for that rea-
son the extent to which such evidence may be
received may be limited by the discretion of the
court, and in some jurisdictions practically no
such evidence is admitted. Writings or docu-
ments may generally be introduced directly in
evidence for the purpose of proving the truth of
statements contained in them. At common law
documents purporting to be more than 30 years
old required no particular authentication, or,
as was said, such documents proved themselves.
The execution of other documents must, however,
be proved by the sworn testimony of a witness
to the execution, or, if he be dead, by proof of
the handwriting of the person who executed the
document.

The so-called best-evidence rule applies to doc-
umentary evidence. Briefly stated, it is that
the best evidence of the contents of a document
is the document itself, and that no other evi-
dence of the contents of a written instrument is
admissible. This rule is subject to many ex-
ceptions, real or apparent, thus: (a) Where
the original document is in duplicate form any
one of the duplicates may be introduced in evi-
dence as an original. ('&) Secondary evidence
(i.e., a copy" or oral testimony) of a written no-
tice is admissible, (c) Matters of public record
may be proven by secondary evidence, in most
jurisdictions by a certified 'copy of the record.
(d) Secondary evidence may also be introduced
to prove an instrument which has boon lost or
destroyed, or whenever the other party to an
action, having the document in his possession,
fails to produce it at the trial for the purpose
of preventing its being introduced in evidence on
due notice. One who has willfully destroyed a
document will not, however, be allowed to give
evidence of its contents. The common-law rule
as to proof of documents has been much modified
by statute. In most jurisdictions all documents
attested before a notary or corresponding officer
are prima facie admissible in evidence if relevant.
IV. The Parol-Evidence Bule. This is prop-
erly a rule of substantive law which is, in
effect, that the terms of a contract or other
legal instrument should be deemed to be em-
bodied wholly in the written instrument executed
by the parties thereto, or, stated in terms of
evidence, the rule is that parol or oral evidence
shall not be introduced for the purpose of vary-
ing the terms of a written instrument. The
rule, though necessarily subject to many excep-
tions, is founded upon the just notion that, when
parties havo deliberately embodied their agree-
ment or transactions in writing, they should not
thereafter be allowed to dispute its terms. The
following are the most important cases in which
evidence to vary the express terms of a written
instrument may be given:

(a) Where the parties did not intend to re-
duce all the terms of the agreement to writing.

(I) When the writing or agreement is varied
by a subsequent parol agreement.

(o) When the evidence is introduced to show
that the written instrument has never taken
effect because of the nonoccurrence of some
agreed condition precedent.

EVIDENCE

217

EVIDENCE

(d) When a term of the instrument is ambigu-
ous and parol evidence is necessary to explain
the meaning, and upon analogous grounds where
the term of a written instrument has a technical
or local meaning requiring oral explanation,

(e) When the proof of a custom which is in
law a part of a contract or other document varies
the eft'ect or meaning of the written language.

(/) When in equity an action is brought to
reform or rescind a written instrument, or con-
strue a conveyance as a mortgage.

V. Opinion Evidence. In general witnesses
are allowed to testify only as to facts, and not
as to their inferences or opinions based upon
facts within their knowledge. To permit the
witness to indulge in opinion testimony would
be a usurpation of the function of the jury,
whose duty it is to draw inferences of fact and
to form an opinion, where an opinion is neces-
sary to the verdict. Thus, the witness, when
the facts of a conversation are in issue, must
testify as to the terms of the conversation and
not his conclusions as to its meaning. There
are, however, three important exceptions to the
rule that opinion evidence is inadmissible. They
are: (a) Matters of common experience; mat-
ters of common knowledge to a certain extent
the result of inference. Thus, to testify that
a certain day was cold, or that a knife was
sharp, involves the operation of the witness's
mind in drawing a conclusion; but since these
are matters of common experience about which
the conclusions of the witness are as trustworthy
as those of a jury, such testimony is legally ad-
missible as evidence. (&) Matters not of com-
mon experience, but about which the opinion
of the witness is under the circumstances more
trustworthy than any which could be formed by
the jury. Thus, a witness may be so situated
with reference to an event or combination of
circumstances as to be able to draw a more ac-
curate conclusion from them than the jury,
which should rely wholly upon verbal testimony
about the occurrence. Thus, the witness may-
be allowed to give Ms opinion of the distance
between an approaching street car and a pedes-
trian before warning of the approach was given ;
or, under certain circumstances, he may be al-
lowed to give his opinion of the rate of speed at
which the car was moving. His presence at the
time of the event enables him to form a more
accurate opinion than the jury, which can only
rely upon a necessarily imperfect description of
the occurrence, (e) Expert testimony. A wit-
ness may be allowed to testify as to his opinion
because, by reason of experience or special study
and investigation, he is better qualified to form
an opinion than the jury. Thus, physicians, en-
gineers, handwriting experts, etc., are allowed
to give opinion evidence in order to aid the jury
in reaching a correct conclusion. They are not
allowed, however, to express any opinion as to
the truth or untruth of other evidence submitted
to the jury, that being a matter of which the jury
is qualified to judge. The testimony of experts,
so far as it is opinion evidence, is based upon the
evidence already before the jury, assuming it or
parts of it to be true. For that reason ques-
tions asked of expert witnesses are usually re-
quired to be hypothetical in form.

VT. Witnesses' Competency. A witness is
•not competent to testify until he has taken oath
•to testify truly. At common law an atheist or
other unbeliever in the Christian religion was
not a competent witness, because it was believed

that he would not feel constrained by his oath
to testify truly. At the present time a witness
is generally allowed to testify on his oath or
affirmation, no particular religious belief being
requisite. A child is a competent witness if old
enough to understand the nature and obligation
of an oath, and an insane person may testify
upon a matter concerning which his understand-
ing is not affected by his insanity. At common
law one convicted of a felony within the juris-
diction was incompetent as a witness unless par-
doned. In most jurisdictions such a conviction
now affects the credibility only, and not the com-
petency of the witness. At common law a party
to an action was not a competent witness in his
own behalf, nor was one a competent witness if
directly interested in the controversy. This dis-
ability lias been generally removed by statute.
Nor could either the husband or wife testify for
or against the other at common law. This dis-
ability has been removed to some extent by stat-
ute in most jurisdictions, but not generally so
as to permit testimony as to confidential com-
munications between husband and wife.

It was the policy of the common law to pro-
tect the witness from being compelled to in-
criminate himself. He is therefore privileged
from giving any testimony which tends to in-
criminate him or to subject him to a penalty or
forfeiture. If the witness does not claim his
privilege, his testimony is competent and subject
to the usual rules of the law of evidence. Hav-
ing once fairly waived his privilege, he must
testify fully. Thus, a defendant in a criminal
trial is privileged from being compelled to tes-
tify; but having offered to testify in his own
behalf, he must answer proper questions directed
to him on cross-examination. At common law,
also, an attorney and client were privileged
from testifying as to any confidential communi-
cation between them. By statute this privilege
has in most jurisdictions been extended to per-
sons standing in other confidential relationships,
e.g., physician and patient, clergyman or priest
and layman, and in some jurisdictions, notably
New York, attorneys, physicians, and clergymen
are not competent to testify as to confidential
communications received by them in their pro-
fessional capacity. Upon the similar ground of
public policy a party is privileged from testify-
ing as to his efforts or willingness to compro-
mise the matter in controversy, and it is prob-
able that the President of the United States and
the governors of States are privileged from ap-
pearing as witnesses under any circumstances.

VTI. Examination of Witnesses. Witnesses
nmy be classified as favorable or opposing. L
favorable witness is one called by a party to tes-
tify in support of his contention in the contro-
versy, and an opposing witness is one called by
the other party to the controversy to testify in
his behalf. The favorable witness on one side is
therefore the opposing witness of the other. As
a general rule, one is not allowed to ask his own
(or favorable) witness leading questions, i.e.,
questions which by their form indicate the an-
swer desired. The extent to which leading
questions may be asked, however, rests in the
discretion of the trial judge, and should the
witness prove hostile leading questions ma^ be
asked. One may not impeach the credibility
of his own witness, i.e., he is not allowed to
introduce testimony to show generally that
tlie witness is not worthy of belief. He may,
lioTir"V(»rf contradict the testimony of the wit-

EVIDENCE

218 EVIDENCES OP CHRISTIANITY

ness by otlier witnesses for the purpose of
showing the truth as to a fact about which
the first witness has testified. At the close of
the direct examination, or the examination of
a favorable witness, counsel for the other side
may cross-examine, i.e., may examine him as an
opposing witness. On cross-examinations it is
permissible to ask leading questions. The cross-
examiner may also attack the credibility of the
witness, and for that purpose may ask questions
not otherwise relevant. The credibility of an
opposing witness may also be attacked by in-
troducing testimony to show that he is generally
unworthy of belief.

The Burden of Proof. Prom the nature of
pleading and the trial of an action at law it
lollows that upon one party or the other to the
controversy rests the burden of introducing some
evidence in order to establish his contention.
The burden of proof is said to rest upon the
party against whom a judgment must be given
if no evidence be introduced in his favor. The
same doctrine is stated in slightly different
terms by saying that the burden of proving a
fact rests upon him who asserts the existence
of the fact in his pleading, and not on him who
denies it. The party on whom the burden rests
may, by the introduction of some evidence, make
out a prima facie case, and then arises the legal
necessity for the other party to introduce evi-
dence enough to destroy the prima facie case of
his opponent. Thus, at various stages of the
trial the burden of introducing evidence may
shift from one side to the other. It is evident,
therefore, that the common expression that the
burden of proof shifts during the progress of a
trial is not exact, unless the word "proof" be
taken in the sense of attempt to establish the
truth of a fact, and not in its usual legal sense
as such evidence as satisfies the mind. In civil
trials the party on whom rests the burden of
proof must sustain his case by the preponderance
of evidence. In criminal trials tne burden of
proof rests upon the prosecution, which is re-
quired to prove its case beyond a reasonable
doubt. In sustaining the burden of proof the
party upon whom the burden rests is aided in
making proof by the doctrines of judicial notice
and of presumption. It is unnecessary to prove
facts of which the court will take judicial notice.
In general these are facts of such common and
universal knowledge that it would be idle to
prove them by affirmative testimony. Thus (to
cite a few of the innumerable cases ) , it is unnec-
essary to prove the calendar, the multiplication
table, that water will freeze, or that ice will
melt. The party sustaining the burden of proof
is also aided in making proof by proving one
fact or set of facts from which certain conse-
quences are presumed to flow. (See PBESTJMP-
TION.) All so-called circumstantial evidence is
intended to create a presumption of some other
fact sought to be proven.

In general courts of equity follow the rules of
evidence as adopted by the common-law courts.

In. the United States the Federal courts in
civil cases usually follow rules of evidence ap-
plied by the local State courts. In criminal
trials they follow the common law as interpreted
by the Federal courts and as modified by Fed-
eral statutes. In the several States the common-
law rules of evidence are generally followed with
comparatively few statutory modifications. Con-
sult: Greenleaf, Treatise on the Law of Evidence
(16th ed., Boston, 1899) ; Thayer, Preliminary

Treatise on Evidence at Common Laio (ib.,
1898); id., Cases on Evidence (ib., 1900);
Stephen, Digest of the Law of Evidence (6th
ed., London, 1904) ; Best, Principles of Evidence
(9th ed., ib., 1902); Wigmore, System of Evi-
dence in Trials at Common Law (Boston, 1904) ;
id., Cases on Evidence (ib., 1913) ; Chamber-
layne, Treatise on Evidence (4 vols., Albany,
1911).

EVIDENCES OF CHRISTIANITY. A
term often used as the equivalent of apologetics.
(See APOLOGY.) Sometimes apologetics is used
in the wider meaning of a systematic statement
of the nature of Christianity and its place in the
human development, so frauiod as to meet the ob-
jections which have been raised against it, while
the evidences of Christianity is kept for a nar-
rower and more specific answer to current objec-
tions. The evidences most effective in any age or
portion of the Church depend upon the conception
of Christianity emphasized, and the nature of
the objections to be met. Since Christianity has
been conceived differently in different ages, the
evidences presented have also differed. In the first
period of its history, represented by the writers
of the N"ew Testament, Christianity was the be-
lief that Jesus was the Jewiah Messiah fore-
told by the prophets and that He would come
again to inaugurate the messianic kingdom. The
evidences consisted largely in the attempt to
prove that Jesus fulfilled the messianic predic-
tions of the Old Testament; to which Paul added
that the Old Testament also looked forward to
the extension of the work of the Messiah to the
Gentile world (Matthew, Hebrews, Paul's let-
ters). As Christianity entered the Gentile
world, it met a new field of thought, demand-
ing new evidences. Aside from answers to the
slanders against the moral life of the Chris-
tians, two kinds of evidence were demanded —
that which met the popular polytheism and that
which met the Greek philosophy. In time the
Christian apologists passed from the defensive
to the offensive. They attempted to show that
idolatry was absurd; that a revelation by the
Creator was reasonable; that Christianity was
foreshadowed by the Greek philosophy as well
as by the Hebrew prophets; and that its moral
results in the lives of its adherents proved its
divine origin. Most of the Church fathers con-
tributed to the body of evidences, notably Jus-
tin Martyr, Aristides, Tertullian, Clement (Stro-
mateis), Origen (Against Cel&us), Arnobius,
Cyril of Alexandria (Against Julian), Euscbius
(Pr&paratio EvangeUca), Augustine (De Civi-
tate Dei) . After the fall of paganism the evi-
dences lose their practical character and become
philosophical defenses of the current theology.
Such are Anselm's Monologion and Proslogion,
and Abelard's Dialogue "between a JeiA and a
Christian. After the Reformation philosophy
was freed from the trammels of the Church, an
active and aggressive skepticism arose, and the
evidences of Christianity once more became vital.
In Germany, France, and England rationalism
and deism (q.v.) arose in the seventeenth cen-
tury, denying revelation and affirming the suffi-
ciency of natural religion. This was an attack
upon the current conception of Christianity as
a miraculous revelation presenting the only ade-
quate knowledge of God which man possesses,
and the evidences which it called forth were con-
cerned with a defense of supernatural revela-
tion. Deism admitted the existence of God and
the fact of sin and judgment. In a work which

EVIDENCES OF CHRISTIANITY 219

EVIL

has become a classic in theology, The Analogy
of Religion, Natural and Revealed, to the Course
and Constitution of Nature (1736), Bishop But-
ler used these admissions as the basis for an
argument that revealed religion follows directly
from natural religion. In the eighteenth cen-
tury David Hume (q.v.) attacked the credibility
of miracles, appeal to which had been the chief
defense of the supernatural character of Chris-
tianity. The most famous reply was Paley's
View of the Evidences of Christianity (1794).
His argument was that the Apostles must be
regarded as credible witnesses to the miracles,
since they endured suffering and persecution
solely because they believed that certain mirac-
ulous events had taken place. During the nine-
teenth century the problem of the supernatural
was approached from another standpoint, and
positivism, agnosticism, and skepticism were
met by a theistic view of the universe. Mean-
time the argument from experience, though
playing no great part in the classic works of
the English apologists, had been developed, es-
pecially by the mystics. The greatest state-
ment of this argument is Pascal's Pensees.

The books of Evidences which present the clas-
sic argument usually gather up the various lines
of proof used in the different periods of history
and present them in systematic order. 1. A
personal God is the creator and governor of the
universe. This presents the Christian theory
of the universe as over against the pantheistic
or materialistic theory. 2. God has made a
revelation of Himself to man through nature
and through the Hebrew religion. 3. These rev-
elations were imperfect, and are perfected by
the revelation through Christ. This revelation,
attested by miracles, consists of His teaching
regarding God as the Father of men, His per-
fect life of obedience to God, and His death and
resurrection, by which God assures man of His
love and readiness to forgive. 4. The testimony
of the Apostles and Paul confirms the revelation
of Christ 5. The moral superiority of Chris-
tianity is shown by its triumph over paganism
and by the moral progress of Christian civiliza-
tion. 6. Individual experience shows that Chris-
tianity brings satisfaction for religious needs,
and the sense of communion with God. The
argument from experience, while it cannot be
made a compelling proof to the unbeliever, has
always been claimed as a satisfactory and com-
plete argument to the believer.

The older Evidences contain much which is
aside from present thought. The discussion has
moved to other fields and needs other arguments.
The older argument was adapted to a view of
the world which drew a sharp distinction be-
tween nature and the supernatural. Christianity
was regarded as a supernatural revelation
breaking into the mechanical realm of nature.
It was miraculous in content and depended
chiefly upon miracles to prove its supernatural
character. The content of the revelation was
regarded largely as a philosophical system, be-
lief in which was held to be necessary. The
present view of the world draws no such sharp
distinction between nature and the supernat-
ural. Nature itself is the unfolding of the
purpose of God, and revelation comes in it rather
than breaks violently into it from without. A
greater appreciation of the human elements in the
Bible has made it possible to offer other explana-
tions of some of the narratives of miracles than
those formerly given. Comparative religion has
VOL. VTIL— 15

shifted the ground from the problem of the ab-
stract truth of Christianity to that of its prac-
tical value. The present question is, Does Chris-
tianity meet the religious and ethical needs of
humanity better than do other religions? The
problem is no longer philosophical, but practical,
and the grounds of the evidence must shift
accordingly. The evidences which meet the
needs of the present day concern themselves
chiefly with the teaching of Jesus. They try to
show that His central principle of love to God
and to man is (1) the highest possible ethical
and religious ideal, for perfect love would be
perfect harmony with the God of love. This
makes Christianity the perfect religion, for none
can claim a higher ideal without destroying the
independence of personality. (2) When em-
bodied in conduct, it becomes the perfect ideal
of ethics. It adapts itself to all phases of civili-
zation. The goal which Christianity sets, the
kingdom of God, satisfies the highest social long-
ings of humanity, for it is the ideal of a society
in which the absolute righteousness shall rule.
The religion is capable of infinite progress, for
it is a religion of principles, not of precepts;
and the principles of love and righteousness can
never be superseded, but may be applied through
any conceivable future history with ever-increas-
ing success. These ideals are exemplified in
the character of Jesus; He Himself lived His
own religion; and Christianity claims that His
character remains in history as the type towards
which all characters should approach. The evi-
dence which appeals to the present day attempts
to show that Christianity is both the highest
and the most practical religion which history
offers to man. It cares less for miracle than
did the older Evidences, and more for life.

Bibliography. General works are: Fisher, A
Manual of Christian Evidences (New York,
1888) ; id., Grounds of Theistic and Christian
Belief (new ed., ib., 1903); Bruce, Apologetics
(ib., 1892) ; Robbing, A Christian Apologetic
(London, 1902) ; Illingworth, Reason and Reve-
lation (ib., 1906) ; Foster, The Finality of the
Christian Religion (Chicago, 1906); Rowland,
The Right to Believe (Boston, 1909) ; Burton,
Our Intellectual Attitude in an Age of Criticism
(ib., 1913). For the evidence of experience, con-
sult Frank, System of Christian Certainty
(Edinburgh, 1886); Stearns, Evidence of Chris-
tian Experience (New York, 1891) . For the rela-
tion of science to Christian faith, consult Rice,
Christian Faith m an Age of Science (ib., 1903) .
For the comparison of Christianity with other
religions, consult Knox, The Direct and Funda-
mental Proofs of the Christian Religion (ib.,
1903) ; Schultz, Outlines of Christian Apologet-
ics, trans, by Nichols (ib., 1905); Garvic, A
Handbook of Christian Apologetics (ib., 1913),

E'VIL (AS. yfil, Goth, ubils, OHG. ubil, Ger.
Mel, evil; probably connected with Goth, ufar,
OHG. ular, Ger. uber, AS. ofar, Eng. over, Lat.
super, Gk. ti^p, hyper, Skt. upari, over). Evil
may be generally defined as frustrated desire,
or the cause or causes of frustrated desire. If
a being had no wants, no desires, no aspirations,
for that being nothing could be an evil. His
own destruction would be a matter of absolute
indifference, and all his experiences would be
mere colorless events. It is often said that for
science there is no evil in the universe. But
this statement presupposes that all is law and
order in the universe, and that this uniformity
of law in nature is what man as an intellectual

EVXL

220

EVOLUTION"

being desires. 'For a being that wishes to know,
ignorance and all causes of ignorance arc evil;
and chaos would be an insuperable bar to knowl-
edge, hence would be an evil. The law-abiding-
ness of nature makes knowledge possible, hence
is for an intelligent being good. But man has
other desires than curiosity to know. And what-
ever thwarts any of these desires is so far evil.
Evil is absence of food for tho hungry, lack of
water for the thirsty, rebuff for the lover, disap-
pointment for the ambitious, death for him who
is filled with a hist for life, and life for him
who is weary of it. To the person, therefore,
who inquires why there is evil in the world the
answer given must be: "Because in the world
there are beings possessed of desire, and not
possessed of the means to satisfy desire." This
was the great insight of Gautama the Buddha.
His practical conclusion was to secure the sup-
pression of desire/ Another equally justified con-
clusion would be the social ordering of life >so
that in general satisfaction may be obtained-AVo
have thus opposed to each other the idea? of self-
repression and that of self -realization:/ Usually
the question has reference to woroY ovilyv But,
as an evil, moral evil differs no whit from any
other evil. It is an unsatisfied desire or its
cause. When the evil is nyral, the unsatisfied
desire is for a moral order! (For a discussion
of tho question What morality and moral order
are, see ETHICS.)/ What makes moral evil more
serious than other evils is tho fact that common
human interests; are more intimately and more
extensively concerned in the moral order than in
anything elso."/

Many theological and philosophical answers
have been given to the question a a to the origin
of evil. Thus, the dualism of Zoroaster main-
tains that evil arises from the action of Aim-
man in his ceaseless antagonism to Ormazd.
(See AVERTA; ZOBOASTKR ; MANIOH-ETSM; GNOS-
TICISM.) Traditional Christian theology traces
human evil to the fall of Adam and Eve, which,
according to the account in GenesiSjyas brought
about by the agency of tho serpent: In accord-
ance with later Hebrew tradition tho serpent
was regarded as representing Satan, the personal
principle of evil in the universe. Satan differs
from Ahriman in not being coordinate with the
principle of good. This opens the question of
the relation between Satan and God, which has
furnished opportunity for many a theological
controversy. Again, many philosophers and
theologians give a rationalistic account of the
origin of evil by saying that it is a metaphysi-
cal counterpart of good; that it is as impossible
to conceive good without evil as it is to con-
ceive an inside without an outside. Others again
make evil a necessary result of finitude; what-
ever is limited is ipso facto evil. Most of the
puzzles connected with the problem of evil are,
theological rather than scientific, i.e., it is by
reason of the assumption of an all-knowing, all-
powerful, and benevolent Creator that the ques-
tion arises how in a world made by him there
can bo evil, A scientific explanation of the ori-
gin of evil is a statement of the conditions of
evil, which arc on the one hand desiderative be-
ings and on the other a lack of things wanted.
The problem of evil thus 5s at bottom a biologi-
cal problem. The origin of evil in general as
well as that of good will be discovered when the
secret of the origin of life is revealed. As op-
posed to the theoretical problem, is the practical
one, how to eliminate evil. This is undertaken

in the practical Hcifiiccti Kiicli a« ethics, eco-
uoinica, political theory, hygiene, sdiutation, eu-
genics, etc. This problem, it appears, must be
solved by specialization.

EVIL, KING'S. See SCROFULA.

EVIL EYE. Sec MAGIC; SUPERSTITION ;
WITCHCRAFT.

EVIL-MERODACH, eAtfl-meVro'duk (tho
biblical form of the Babylonian Awel-Marduk,
or Amcl Marduk, man of Marduk). A king of
Babylonia, the son and successor of Nebuchad-
nezzar II, who, after a reign of less than a year
(o(il-360 u.c.), was put to death by his brother
Xeviglissar (i.e., Nergal-shar-usur, {'0 Nergal!
protect the King" ) . He is referred to in 2 Kings
xxv. 27 as having liberated Jehoiachin, King ot
Judali, in the thirty-seventh year of his cap-
tivity. Evil-Mcrodiich's name appears on some
contract tablets.

EV'OLTJTE AND IN'VOLUTE. The evo-
lutc of any curve is the locus of the centre of
its osculating circle; i.e., of the centre of the
curvature (see OSCULATING CIRCLE); and rela-
tive to its evolute, the curve is called the invo-
lute. The following example will show the rela-
tion between these curves. If on any curve, as

the circle in the figure, a string is closely
wrapped, fastened at one end and free at the
other, and if tho string is unwound from the
curve, being kept taut, the curve traced by a
pencil fixed to the free end of the string is the
involute of that curve from which the string is
unwound. The given curve is the c volute of the
curve thus traced. This explains the two names.
The normal to the involute at any point is a
tangent to the evolute, as the construction sug-
gests; and the difference in length between any
two radii of curvature to the involute is equal
to the length of the arc of the evolute inter-
cepted between them. To Huygens (1673), who
was among the first to investigate curves of this
kind, is due the name "evolute." He discovered
that the evolute of the common cycloid (q.v.) is
another cycloid equal to the first. The work in
which these discussions occur is Huygens,
Horologiwm Oscillatorwrn (Paris, 1673). See
CURVES.
EVOLUTION (Lat. evolutio, from

EVOLUTION

321

EVOLUTION

to unroll, from e, out + uo^ere, to roll; con-
nected with Goth, walwjan, AS. we&ltoia/n,, Eng.
wallow). The evolution theory, in its broadest
aspect, undertakes to explain the origin of the
universe, of all created things material and im-
material; and more especially the origin of our
own planet, together with the plants and animals
living and extinct, including man, his physical
and mental nature. Applied to living beings,
we use the expression "organic evolution,"
"theory of descent," "origin of species," "trans-
formation of species," or "transformism." The
theory of descent is supported by a range of
facts as wide as the number and variety of forms
of life, the species of plants and animals, living
or fossil, entering into the millions. To appre-
ciate properly the facts and arguments on which
the theory is based one must be familiar with
at least the elements of all the natural sciences,
especially botany, zoology, and geology, and have
done some original work on a group of organ-
isms, besides having some degree of sympathy
with the aims and methods of natural science.
It should be borne in mind that in this single
word evolution is comprised a study of the mode
of action of that vast complex of natural con-
ditions which has resulted in the formation of
the stars and planets, and in the stocking of
our earth with plants and animals each after
their kind.

Evolution in general is based (1) on the unity
of action of the processes of nature. We mean
by the word "nature" everything which has been
generated, produced, or created. This, from a
philosophical standpoint, implies an infinite
power, or Creator, outside of and yet immanent
in the material world, working by natural laws
in and through matter, mind, and spirit The
theory of descent, or organic evolution, is based
(2) on the principle of the unity of organiza-
tion in plants and animals; (3) on the fact that
the living substance known as protoplasm is the
physical basis of life; (4) on the fact that all
movements in the plant or animal body are due
to the contractility of protoplasm; and (5) to
the fact that all plants and animals arise from
germs, seeds, or eggs. This does not exclude
the view that the first germ of life — the primi-
tive bit of protoplasm — arose by spontaneous
generation.

Definition and Classification of Evolution.
As will be seen by the historic summary at the
end of this article, attempts have been made
since the days of Empedocles and of Aristotle
to explain the origin of. the universe. The word
"evolution" originally was applied to such phe-
nomena as that of the unfolding of a flower
or the development of an animal, and was used
by Haller, Bonnet, and others, in speaking of
the metamorphoses of the butterfly or frog. As
a name for what we call evolution, Wolff pro-
posed in 1759 the word "epigenesis" and applied
it to the mode of growth and development of
the vertebrate embryo. See EPIGENESIS.

But for the modern use of the word "evolu-
tion" we are indebted to Mr. Herbert Spencer.
In his Principles of Biology (London, ed. of
1900) "the theory of organic evolution first
found philosophic, as distinguished from merely
scientific, expression." (Osborn.) It would be,
perhaps, preferable to say that he used the word
both in a philosophic and scientific sense. He
gives us this highly generalized definition: "Evo-
lution is an integration of matter and concomi-
tant dissipation of motion, during which the

matter pa««es from a relatively indefinite in-
coherent homogeneity to a relatively definite
coherent heterogeneity, and during which the
retained motion (energy) undergoes a parallel
transformation." The essence of his view is
that there is a continual change in the organic
world from the homogeneous to the heterogene-
ous, or from the generalized to the specialized.

Evolution in general may be divided into (1)
inorganic; (2) organic; and (3) mental.

Inorganic Evolution. Under this head may
be comprised the evolution of the cosmos or
material universe, the evolution of our solar
system. It is chiefly concerned with the evolu-
tion of our own planet, in the manner described
by the framers of the nebular hypothesis. It
involves the gradual development of planets
from primitive nebulous masses through the
different gaseous stages of nebulae, which have
been happily called, by Clodd, "the raw material
of which suns and systems are formed."

Planetary evolution has to take into account
the formation of the air or atmosphere, of water,
and the origin of the denser minerals comprised
in the mass of planets.

Chemical evolution then follows. This is the
gradual evolution, underlaid and conditioned by
the physical forces of matter, from elementary
or still simpler conditions, through compounds
of various degrees of complexity to the most
complex of all, i.e., protoplasm. In this sub-
stance physicochemical evolution reached its
farthest limits. Since life began inorganic chem-
istry lias gone no further (Le- Conte) . It is
now being recognized that something akin to
evolution must have taken place in the elements,
since the elementary atoms postulated by the
chemist are themselves supposed to be wonder-
fully complex aggregates of yet smaller particles.

Organic Evolution. As we shall see, this is
the theory of descent, or an attempt to account
for the origin of organic species. The theory of
descent, however— of the origin of species — was
the result of attempts after the time of Linne
to define and classify plants and animals. Ow-
ing to the perplexing variations of the living
plants and animals, the difficulty of drawing the
limits between the more variable species, the
multiplication of specimens in our museums,
showing a filiation between many species, though
there were wide gaps between others, it became
recognized by Lamarck that species were arti-
ficial, i.e., ideas; that the individual only was
natural or existed in nature, and that the plant
and the animal kingdoms should be represented
by a genealogical tree, with its stem forms and
later derivatives.

As the knowledge of species increased, through
the sciences of embryology, morphology, paleon-
tology, and the new light thrown on the earth's
history by great advances in geology, a sufficient
fullness of knowledge resulted, and almost in a
single year (1859) the combined researches of
the studies of plant and animal life in different
quarters of the globe culminated in "the epoch-
making theory of descent proposed by Darwin
and by Wallace independently of each other,
and seconded by Hooker, Fritz Mtiller, Asa Gray,
Huxley, and others.

Under the head of Organic Evolution we have
the factors or agencies by which variation has
been brought about, giving us the materials on
which natural selection acts. The great facts
in nature are adaptation and variation, and the
causes of morphogenesis, of the origin of types

EVOLUTION

222

EVOLUTION

and species, and all the actions of the physical
agents, such as h«ht, heat, cold; the chemical
changes of the medium in which plants and ani-
mals live; changes m the environment, i.e., cli-
mate, temperature, altitude, and physiological
changes, such as the use and disuse of organs,
parasitism, and, finally, heredity. These are
called the "primary" factors of evolution, while
"natural selection" expresses the results of the
action of these primary factors of organic
evolution.

Mental Evolution. The actions of animals
ni'o physiological or reflex, instinctive, and
rational. Man, with his exalted nervous vigor
and brain power, alone thinks, reflects, or is
self-conscious. It is probable that the more in-
telligent insects and most of the vertebrates are
conscious agents. It is well-nigh impossible in
the last analysis to draw the line between the
mental acts of animals and man. The germs
of reason exist in animals, and the intellectual
qualities of man have with little doubt origi-
nated from those of the animals, wide as is the
gap between the mental, moral, and spiritual
nature of man, and the simple, elementary men-
tal faculties of animals.

The result of this mental evolution — the physi-
cal evidence of which is seen in the great number
of vestigial structures handed down from the
higher mammals, in the cranial character of the
highest existing races as compared with the fos-
sil races, in his erect position, his culture his-
tory, with its progressive steps, from primitive
savagery up through barbarism to civilization —
shows that at first brain use and development,
the exercise of wit, cunning, craft, invention,
skill, mastery over the elements, over the beasts,
over himself; that high endeavor, the gradual
elimination of savage impulses, success in the
arts mid sciences, due to his social mode of life,
and finally a tireless devotion in the highest
types of the race to the true, the beautiful, and
the tfood, and appreciation of the divine in
human nature, and, finally, the practice and
exercise of Inve to God and to man — that all
thono have been the agents of his mental evolu-
tion, of his moral regeneration, and his deyo-
ti<m fco his highest ideals, giving him the promise
nn*l potency of existence in another world than
tlml viin easing his physical evolution, where
Ins intellectual and spiritual forces shall have
the freest play, unhampered by a struggle for
mere animal existence, by competition with baser
forres See BEttosoN, HENEL

Species, Varieties, and Races. The indi-
vidual Srf a concrete fact. A species is an
JTKlnction, a generalisation. (See CLASSTFICA-
ri p\.i Our idea of moHt species is based on
n jwir or only a fuw individuals, whereas the
ti final number of individuals of most species
Mtiv L"j counted by the thousands or even mil-
3;oi»w. Our conception of a apecies varies with
the number of specimens in our collections; and
systcmatiats naturally differ greatly as to the
limits of many species. The best definition of
species is thai of Lamarck: "A species is a col-
lection of similar individuals which arc perpet-
uated by generation in the same condition as
long as their environment has not changed suffi-
ciently to bring about variation in their habits,
their character, and their forms."

A variety, or subspecies, is a group of indi-
viduals breeding true to each other, which re-
semble each other in color, size, etc., i.e., in
characters less pronounced than those of species.

Darwin calls a variety an incipient species, or
a species in process of formation. Local varie-
ties are fixed variations of species with a wide
range; they are restricted to small areas shut
in by mountain ranges, etc. They are thus due
to different local environments, to differences
in temperature, altitude, dryness or moisture,
soil, etc. Local varieties, says Wallace, are the
first steps in the transition from varieties to
species. Varieties are subdivided into "races,"
though the two terms are often used inter-
changeably. Huxley calls a race "a propagated
variety." Races are subdivided into "breeds,"
and these into "strains" — the numerous breeds
of pigeons, as the fantail, pouter, barb, tumbler,
English carrier, etc., are examples of breeds,
while a strain is the least recognizable variation
from some racial form. Among domestic horses,
we speak of the Arabian, Clyde, or Percheron
breed; of the Morgan or Hambletonian strains.
The American trotting horse is a breed which
has been formed by artificial selection since the
year 1822.

Sports. Much interest is now felt in the
matter of "sports" or aberrations. A sport may
be defined as an individual which is born of or-
dinary parentage, but differs in some marked
physical or mental characteristic. Sports in cul-
tivated plants or domestic animals appear with-
out any known cause, whereas aberrations in
moths and butterflies are readily produced by
artificial changes in temperature, humidity, or
dryness. Among animals, the famous Ancon or
otter sheep is as remarkable as any. By care-
ful breeding with normal sheep, this' long-bodied,
crooked-legged sheep became the progenitor of a
flock resembling the first aberration. Nature
abhors aberrations and by natural selection
wipes them out. Yet Galton thinks that the
transmutation of species is due to sports, and
De Vries upholds the theory of mutation, by
which variations from the normal, if useful,
are seized upon, and perpetuated by natural
selection. With this view we sympathize, for
the occurrence, claimed by Darwin, of vast num-
bers of intermediate forms between what are
now "valid" species, is a doctrine difficult to
apply to all cases.

Sports may be divided (1) into "teratoi<J."
sports, the result of discontinuous variation, in
fact monstrosities, and (2) Abiotic'' sports,
which are due to more or less sudden changes
of the conditions of life.

The remarkable experiments of Standfuss
show that in lepidoplera the crossing of an
aberration with the parent form may often re-
sult, not in the production of intermediate types,
but in the sharp cleavage of offspring into two
groups, each resembling one parent and not the
other.

Factors of Organic Evolution. We will
now pass on to the mechanism of evolution, the
means by which species and genera, and even
orders, classes, and phyla, have been evolved.
Those factors are (1) changes in the environ-
ment, and (2) dynamic or physiological, i.e.,
the result of movement, strains and stresses,
due to the exercise of organs.

Effects of Changes in. the Cosmical Envi-
ronment of the Genesis of Life Forms. When
the earth was cooling down from a gaseous to
a solid condition, it is most probable that the
changes in the cosmical environment had an
immediate and creative or modifying effect on
the beginnings of life. It is certain that the

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223

EVOLUTION

action of the same cosmical agents, such as
motion, gravity, electricity, etc., which have
determined the spherical shape of the planets,
as well as of a drop of water, has been concerned
in determining the shapes of cells, of eggs, oi
the simplest organisms,- and is the basis of all
physiological phenomena as well as of motion
in animals.

Plant and animal life are influenced in a way
we dp not understand bv electricity; they are
also influenced by variations in the pressure of
the^ air. Jaeger claims that the force of gravi-
tation is the primitive morphogenetic factor in
the development of animals. In the growth of
plants the influence of gravity and light is
marked. The influence of gravity on the form
of shells is noticeable. To this has been, by
Hyatt, attributed the asymmetry of univalve
shells.

The mechanical state of the medium is impor-
tant in modifying the shape of animals. The
spindle-shaped body of fishes enables them to
cleave the water; so it is with the shapes of
winged animals, whether insects, birds, or ptero-
dactyls. When some terrestrial mammal was
driven by necessity or competition with its fel-
lows to seek a livelihood in the sea, and thus
gave origin to the order of whales, its body un-
derwent a transformation; it became fishlike
in shape, and while from disuse it lost its hind
limbs, the forelegs were converted into fins.

When animals of very different types, such as
the earthworm, many sea worms, multitudes of
parasitic worms, the boring larvse of insects, live
in a denser medium than water and have been
obliged to burrow in the soil, or in the dense
tissues of their hosts, the body tends to be-
come elongated, cylindrical, and pointed at each
end.

Effects of Changes in the Chemical Na-
ture of the Medium, Every one is aware how
rapidly most sea animals, all except the migra-
tory fishes, such as salmon, die when placed in
fresh water. The effect of living by the sea on
land plants is to thicken their leaves. The pali-
sade cells are more numerous and larger than in
leaves of the same plants when grown inland.
Apparently the sea salt is the cause of this al-
teration, as plants cultivated in an artificially
salted soil yield thicker leaves. Such a change
as this is the result of the direct action of a
changed environment.

The effect of a change from fresh to salt water
on delicate forms, like the phyllopod crustaceans
(Branchipus, etc.), is to dwarf them. Thus, the
little brine shrimp (q.v.) is apparently a
dwarfed and otherwise modified form of some
fresh-water ancestor.

Experiments have shown that the brine shrimp
varies greatly with differences in the density of
the water in which it lives, with the result that
here we have a transformation of one species
into another. One form living in strong brine
has a longer abdomen than others living in a
weaker solution. This has been observed in
nature and also in forms living in the laboratory.

The lakes near the Sea of Aral are known to
vary in degree of saltness at different seasons of
the year; the result of this change from saline
to comparatively fresh water causes marked
variation in the pond snails, so much so that
the extreme varieties might be regarded as dis-
tinct species. So with the cockleshells; the semi-
fossil ones on the borders of lakes which once
formed a part of the Aral Sea vary greatly.

Effects of Changes of Light. Our light
comes from the sun. Without sunlight there
would be no life. Were it not for the stimulus
of the sun's rays, animals would be eyeless;
and it is the absence of light which bleaches
animals living in darkness, preventing the for-
mation and development of the pigment in the
skin. On the other hand, the colors of animals,
the beautifu] and varied tints of butterflies and
birds, of tropical shells as well as the gorgeous
hues of flowers, are all due to the stimulating
effects of light.

Light is necessary for the development of
chlorophyll, and therefore is an indispensable
agent in the life of all green plants, and espe-
cially for tree life and wood formation. Sachs
observes that "the forms and modes of life pre-
sented by plants . . . must have been to a large
extent induced by the continued action of gravi-
tation and light." And this applies as a gen-
eral statement to the simple animals and in a
sense to all animal life.

The influence of changes in the environment,
and especially of light, on organisms may be
immediate and direct, or it may be indirect. The
French botanist Bonnier has shown by experi-
ments that a life in feeble light produces a
change in the structure of plants, and that if
placed in markedly different surroundings they
either perish or become rapidly modified to meet
the changed conditions. He has found that Arc-
tic plants differ noticeably from the same species
growing in Alpine regions in the greater thick-
ness and simpler structure of the leaves and lias
attributed this to the feeble light of the Arctic
region and to the greater degree of moisture.
By means of feeble electric lighting and a moist,
cool temperature he had in his laboratory in
Paris produced these differences, i.e., converted
Alpine into Arctic plants.

Phototaxis. This means the influence of light
in directing the movements of freely moving
cells or unicellular plants, as certain bacteria.
"Heliotropism" means a turning to the light, as
seen in the case of infusoria, and many higher
animals which will in an aquarium press to the
light and collect on the side of the vessel next
to the light. The influence of light on night-
flying moths and other insects is well known.
See TBOPISM.

Color Preference. Different animals have a
marked preference for certain colors of the spec-
trum, in which they seem to feel better. The
little crustacean Daphnia, prefers to swirn in
orange, yellow, and especially in green light.
The starfish shuns the red rays. Animals which
love light, such as bees, prefer blue or green,
while the light-shunning forms, such as ants,
have less antipathy for red than for other colors.
In these cases light doubtless acts as an excitant
on respiration. It has been observed that slugs
almost always move with reference to certain
external agents, as gravity and strong light;
they move in straight lines vertically either from
or towards the light. It is so also with the
Hydra, and starfish, as well as with the larvte
of certain starfish.

Colors of Animals Influenced by Light. It
is well known that the chameleon and the Plori-
dan Anolis lizard, as well as tree toads, rapidly
change their color from green to gray or brown,
according as they rest among green leaves or on
the trunk or branches of trees. The "chromatic
function" is that adaptation of the color of the
akin of these animals, as well as of squids, cms-

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224

EVOLUTION

taceans, etc., to that of their surroundings. This
is due to the contraction or expansion of the pig-
ment cells (chromatophores) in the skin. The
pigment differs in color in different individuals
and species, and in different parts of the body,
being yellow, brown, black, sometimes even red
or grocn. On their distribution and their alter-
nate expansion and contraction under the influ-
ence of the nervous system depends the pattern
which the frog's skin displays at any given
moment.

It is claimed by Biedemann that the color
cells change their shape as the result of the
direct action of light and temperature. It ap-
pears that the slightest change of temperature
affects the mutual disposition of the pigment
cells, and consequently the color, of the frog.
Keeping the animal in the hand is enough to
provoke a contraction of the black cells.

That the light acts as a direct stimulus has
been proved by Steinach, who glued strips of
black paper to the skin of frogs which were
kept in the dark, when they were exposed to the
light only the uncovered parts of their skin be-
came paler, while the covered parts remained
dark. To avoid all doubt, the experiments were
repeated on skin separated from the body, and
photograms of letters and flowers, cut but of
black paper and glued to the skin, were repro-
duced upon it. Besides, blind tree frogs do not
become darker, as fishes do; and Biedemann has
proved that the chief agency of their changes of
color is not in the sensations derived from tho
eye, but in those derived from the skin.

The action of light also causes the varied
hues and markings of the chrysalids of butter-
flies. During the semipupal state, before the
chrysalis is fully formed, the surface is, so to
speak, photographically sensitive to the color of
the surroundings, and the gay hues of such pupso
arc due to exposure to the surroundings. Thus,
Poulton found that where the pupoe transformed
in boxes, lined with black paper, they became
dark, while white light produced pale ones, many
of the last being brilliantly golden; this sug-
gested gilt surroundings, which were far more
efficient than white in producing chrysalids of
a distinctly golden color, and even of a deeper
hue than often occurs in nature.

The under side of flounders and other flatfish,
as is well known, is white, owing to the absence
of pigment, while the upper side of the body is
dark, or variously spotted, or eyed. When the
under side is dark, the fish will be found, accord-
ing to Pouchet, to be blind.

By experiments in severing the connection of
some of the spinal nerves with the sympathetic
nerves of the same side, Pouchet succeeded in
limiting the chromatic function to those spots
where the nerves remained in connection with
the sympathetic; and he was thus able to pro-
duce at pleasure a zebra-like marking on one
side of a fish, while the other side retained its
natural hues and their normal variation, ac-
cording to tho colors reflected from surrounding
objects.

It is well known that small flounders and vari-
ous kinds of shrimps will turn pale if placed in
a white dish of salt water, and the red, green,
and brown colors of shrimps and other crus-
taceans will change in a few hours in color to
correspond with the green, rod, or brown sea-
weeds in which they rest. This was carefully
'observed in the ease of the prawn by Herdman,
who also kept a number of specimens of different

colors under observation in jars with various
colors of seaweeds and of background and in
very different degrees of light. The results
showed that the adult animal can change its
coloring very thoroughly, though not in a very
short space of time. The change is due to al-
terations in the size and arrangement of the
pigment granules of the chromatophores.

It will be seen from these facts that the won-
derful hues of tropical fish, with their colored
bands, the stripes of miakes, or of the tiger, the
spots of the leopard, the gay markings of cater-
pillars and of butterflies, as well as of spiders,
are originally due to changes in light and shade.
This will also apply to many of the protective
markings of insects and other animals; the
initial cause or factor is the varying action of
the sun's light, though natural selection may act
as a secondary factor, those forms or varieties
most protected by their special style of colora-
tion surviving.

Effects of Darkness. On the other hand, the
absence of light, or a life in perpetual darkness,
has gravely modified the visual organs of cave
animals and those living in the abysses of the
sea. (See CAVE ANIMALS.) In the case of the
blind beetles, crawfish, spiders, myriapods, etc.,
of caverns, we have the most obvious facts show-
ing the direct action of the environment. The
members of the fauna of our caves have their
eyes variously affected; some are blind, others
have vestiges* of eyes, and others are completely
eyeless. The cause is simply the result of disuse,
for natural selection does not operate in such
cases. The loss of eyesight and the scanty food
render the body slender, pale, colorless, while,
in compensation for the loss of sight, the tactile
sense is greatly exalted; the antenna?, legs, and
other appendages are remarkably long and slen-
der compared with those of their out-of-doors
relatives. The whole subject of cave life affords
a most instructive example of the effects of the
absence of light, the disuse of organs and their
different degrees of atrophy, and other remark-
able modifications of the body, and of use in-
heritance, all brought about by the action of the
primary factors of evolution, without the inter-
vention of natural selection. It is proper to say,
however, that Weissmann and other ardent
Darwinians account for the facts by natural
selection.

Other animals live in holes in the sea bot-
tom, as some blind crustaceans and fishes, whose
eyes in the very young are normal, also towards
or at maturity become blind, and perhaps eye-
less. The blind fishes and crustaceans of the
deep sea afford similar instances. It is a signifi-
cant fact that those animals, notably the fishes,
are provided with phosphorescent organs.

Effects of Changes of Temperature. If a
life in total darkness causes great variation and
the origin of new forms adapted to strange con-
ditions, so also great changes in temperature, as
shown in nature and by laboratory experiments,
afford the strongest circumstantial evidence of
the origin of new species by changes in the con-
dition of life. It should be observed that varia-
tions due to changes of temperature are not
fortuitous, but in tlirect relation to such changes
of environment.

There is for each individual, and hence for
each species, an optimum temperature which is
most favorable to its welfare and most favors
nutrition and hence growth and multiplication.
On the other hand, extremes of cold (minimum)

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225

EVOLUTION

and of heat (maximum) are unfavorable and
tend to cause death. Cold and its equivalent,
altitude, tends to dwarf plants, shells, etc. When
pond snails are transported into a cold region,
where the temperature is below the optimum,
sexual maturity is reached before the animal
has attained its full growth, and there is thus
formed a dwarf race by simple change of climate.
Hence this is the reason why Alpine and Arctic
species are of very small size compared with
those of lowlands 'in the temperate zone.

Certain plants, mo Husks, crustaceans, etc..
may become adapted to hot springs, constituting
a thermal-spring fauna. Several kinds of inol-
lusks live and prosper in the thermal waters of
the Pyrenees, and of Dax, whose temperature
varies from 25° to 35° C. (76° to 94° F.). A
gastropod (Melania tuberculata.) lives in the
hot springs of Algeria in a temperature of 87°
F., and a beetle (Hydrobius orbicularia) in the
hot springs of Hainniam-Meskoutine, with a
temperature of 55° C. (130° F.) ; in cooler por-
tions of the heated stream live a little fish, and
the fresh- water c-rab (Telp/iusa fluviatilte). A
small mollusk supports a heat of 122° F. in
Italy, and another (tferitina thermopMla) oc-
curs in a hot spring in New Ireland, with a
temperature of 122° and 140° F.

Finally, the supportable maximum appears to
be confined between 105° and 113° F. It is
known that at 122° F. protoplasm, at least in
vertebrate animals, partially coagulates, and
this causes death as by sunstroke, though Roti-
fer a may withstand even 80° C., while Protista
live in hot springs far above 60° C., and green
algce can survive 70° C. Yet, as we shall see
further ona monads can be so modified by a
gradual elevation of the temperature as to with-
stand the extreme of 158° F.

Very striking experiments have recently shown
that varieties and species may be artificially
produced by variations of temperature, which in
some cases are like those in nature. This is as
near an actual demonstration of the evolution
of species as we can expect to reach. Mr. Wal-
lace remarks that we have never seen a new
species formed by natural selection ; but in these
temperature varieties we see how species have
arisen by the direct action of a change in the
environment.

Sudden changes cause death, but if the change
is slow and gradual the animal may become
adapted to or acclimatized in a temperature
relatively high. By thus raising the tempera-
ture Dallinger practically produced a new tem-
perature race or variety of infusorian (Hetero-
mita). For a period of over 10 years he made
observations on this infusorian. Observjj^g that
a new generation comes into existence; *very
four minutes or so, it took years of experimen-
tation to raise the temperature to 158° F. Be-
ginning with the normal temperature of the
water at 60° F., in four months he had raised
it to 70°, without, however, affecting the
monads, which continued to multiply by fission
as vigorously as before. When 73° was reached,
however, an adverse influence seemed to be ex-
cited on the organisms as regards their vitality
and productiveness; but by keeping the tem-
perature constant for two months the new gen-
erations became, so to speak, acclimatized, and
in five months more the temperature was grad-
ually raised to 78°. These experiments were
continued until the temperature of 158° F. was
reached, when an accident put an end to the

experiments, and the new race thus adapted
became extinct.

Another instance of the effects of changes in
temperature is the case of a pond snail (Pliysa
aouta) which lived in the water of an artesian
well with a temperature of 32° to 33° C. (c.90°
F.) ; they were dwarfed and frequently de-
formed, but they reverted to their normal size
when, owing to the diminution of the supply, the
water became cooled at the end of two years.
Owing to the great summer heat (104° F.) in
the Transcaspian oasis, birds molt in summer.
Dolbear states that the rate of the chirp of the
cricket is entirely determined by the tempera-
ture; at 60° F. the frequency is 80 times a
minute, and at 70° it chirps 120 times a minute.

Wasmann was able during three successive
winters to induce parthenogenesis in the workers
of tin ant (Formitu sangmnea), and in their
helpers or slaves, by artificially warming the
nests. On one day as many as 12 workers of
this ant were seen laying eggs. Most of them
were large workers, but small ones were also
affected, and the. smaller the ant the more
tedious was the process of egg laying. Of many
hundreds of eggs thus laid none attained full
development, as the eggs or larva were all de-
voured by the ants. Many mollusks common in
France become in Africa (Algeria) doubled in
size, while* Jiiilimim decullalus becomes even nine
times Luger than in Europe.

On the other hand, cold is an efficient agent
in modifying plants and animals. It is well
known that fishes, caterpillars, etc., can be
frozen, and, if gradually thawed out, become
again active. One of the cabbage butterflies
(Pieris Iratsiccc) may live through —20° C., and
the European garden snail ( Helix pomatia)
survives refrigeration to —130° C., the lowest
temperature which could be obtained (Yung).
As is well known, the cold of highlands and of
mountains, as well as an extreme northern
climate, dwarfs man and animals as well as
plants, while the proportions of the body are
also changed. Salamanders, like the axolotl of
Mexico, and the siredon of Lake Como, Wyo.,
under the influence of the elevation and low
temperature, bec'mie retarded in their devel-
opment; while the reproductive organs be-
come accelerated in development and they breed
while in the larval state. Parthenogenesis in
aphids ceases ut the approach of the autumnal
cold.

Effects of Change of Climate, This has a
much greater effect on the origination of varie-
ties and species than is generally supposed. It
was formerly the fashion to claim that climate
had little or nothing to do with the origination
of species. It is not improbable, however, that
nearly a third or a half of the species in mu-
seums, or of those described in biological litera-
ture, arc climatic or local varieties or species.
The study of variation as now carried on, by
measurements of great numbers of specimens,
shows that each region, however limited, has its
local race or breed, each of which differs from
the others in slight yet constant features. And
on general principles* it is a change in the con-
ditions of life, however slight, which reacts on
the organism and results in adaptation to the
environment.

Local varieties are usually restricted to small
circumscribed areas, separated by mountains, or
by altitude, or by moist or dry regions; or, if
marine, by different kinda of bottom, whether

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226

EVOLUTION

sandy, muddy, or rocky, or by different degrees
of saltness of the water.

In the fresh-water fishes of the Pacific slope
each locality has its peculiar variety, which in
the aggregate is different from the variety of
ivory other locality (Gilbert and Evermann).
These variations are due to the different en-
vironment, for the differences in temperature,
altitude, and topography in the course of the
different streams which take their rise in
the Sierra Nevada are very marked. Indeed,
whether we consider the insects, fishes, birds,
or mammals in such a region as the Pacific
coast, which is undergoing rapid erosion or
base-leveling, the number of local species and
sub-species, is remarkable. Packard has ob-
served that species of moths which do not vary
much on the Atlantic coast, where the topo-
graphical conditions are more stable, are in Cal-
ifornia exposed to very considerable variation.

Even in two neighboring lakes in Indiana
(Lakes Turkey and Tippecanoe) the individuals
of a darter (EtJieostoma, capsodes) from one
lake differ constantly from those of the other
lake in color, in the scales of the nape, and of
the lateral lino, in the number of spines in the
anal fin, in the number of dorsal spines and
rays. (Moenkhaus.) Similar instances are
the absence of ventral fins in some of the fishes
inhabiting even widely separated mountain lakes,
and the presence of enlarged scales along the
base of the anal fin in the cyprinoid fishes in-
habiting the mountain streams of India, also
the peculiar color patterns of the fishes in
certain portions of northern Georgia. See
ISOLATION.

Introduced species tend to vary much more
than in their native lands. Children born of
British, German, or French parentage become
in the United States slightly taller than their
parents; the soldiers of the United States army
during the Civil War of 1861-65 were found, by
measurements made on 1,110,000 individuals, to
average taller than those of the British army.
Dr. Bumpus has critically examined and meas-
ured over 1700 eggs of the English sparrow, one-
half from England and the other half collected
at Providence, K. I. He found that the eggs of
the new or American race or breed vary much
more than the European, differing in being
smaller and of a strikingly different shape, be-
ing more rounded and with a greater amount
of color variation. His measurements of the
European periwinkle (Littorvna littorea), 3000
from England and 3000 from New England,
afforded similar results. Since its introduction,
about 1855, into the Bay of Chaleurs and its
rapid spread along the coast to New York, this
little mollusk has undergone a transformation
adapting it to the different conditions of our
northeastern coast. It has become more elon-
gated, lighter in weight, more bulky, and the
color markings are less pronounced. Also large
collections, in some cases 1000, from Casco Bay,
Woods Hole, Seaconnet, Newport, and Bristol,
were found to present constant variations at
each locality, the curves of variation exhibited
on the charts prepared by Dr. Bumpus being
different for each locality. So it is with a
European land snail (ffeliaf memor&lis) intro-
duced within a few years into Lexington, Va-
in Europe this is an exceedingly variable species,
but already of the 125 Virginian varieties found
by Mr. Cockerell, 67 are new and unknown in
Europe,

But by far the strongest and clearest evidence
of the means by which species are originated art-
afforded by Dr. J. A, Allen in the case of our
American birds and mammals, his results having
been based on prolonged studies made upon a
vast number of specimens from different locali-
ties. Our birds are found in passing from the
Atlantic to the Pacific coast to vary in general
size, in the size of the peripheral paits (wings,
etc.), and in color, thus varying with latitude
or longitude. There is an increase in size from
the south northward, not only in individuals,
but generally, though there are some exceptions.
The largest species of each genus and family are
northern, as in the cases of the fox and wolf,
the latter being one-fifth larger in Alaska than
are southern species of their kind. In the case
of those birds which breed from New England
to Florida, the southern ones are smaller and
differ in color. Mammals and birds, in their
southerly examples, have larger ears and feet,
and the cattle have larger horns. The hares have
less furry ears and naked soles; the sagebrush
hare has longer ears southward; so with the
large long-eared "jack rabbit." In birds bill,
claws, and tail are larger in southern species,
and all the largest-billed birds live in the tropics.
This, however, is to be observed in sparrows,
blackbirds, crows, thrushes, wrens, and warblers,
in the quail, meadowlark, and flicker. In
Florida forms with slender bills common to that
State and to the North have beaks still more
slender, longer, and decurved. Those with a
short conical bill have thicker and longer bills
than their northern relatives, though the birds
themselves are smaller. It is so with the tail —
the size of the body is the same as in the North,
while the tail is proportionately larger and
longer.

The color in mammals, as the rod squirrel,
changes in going southward from pale yellow or
fulvous to rufous. Except three species, all
squirrels living north of Mexico have the lower
parts of the body white, while those inhabiting
tropical Mexico have the lower parts fulvous,
deep golden, orange, or even dark brownish red.
In birds the colors are so much stronger and
darker in southern forms that they mi^ht with
their smaller size and larger bills be regarded
as distinct species. The blue jay, cardinal, and
other birds have, in the South, a more brilliant
and intense hue; some species are mere black
and red. In crossing from the Atlantic to the
Pacific coast Allen observes that there arc three
phases of color. On the Atlantic coast the birds
are bright and strongly colored: on the great
plains they are pallid, owing to the dryncss; and
on the humid, heavily wooded Pacific coast the
hues are deep-colored or piceous, both in birds
and mammals.

The same obtains in the Old World. The
marsh tit of Europe in warm, rainy regions has
its browns intensified; in dry, sandy districts
the plumage is paler; in the Arctic regions it
varies in paleness, and in Kamchatka it is al-
most white (Dixon) . The birds of the Galapagos
Islands differ from their nearest allies of the
South American mainland in their larger hills,
shorter wings, longer tails, and darker colors.
Besides this each of those islands has its local
species or varieties, which do not pass from one
island to the others.

The most important direct experimental evi-
dence of the effect of humidity on color is Bcebe's
work on doves (Zoologioa, I, No. 1, New York

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227

EVOLUTION

Zoological Society), where in successive molts
differences were obtained which would be of full
specific value in nature.

Many other examples could be given, but
enough lias been stated to prove that in the past,
as well as at present, changes in climate have
had an all-powerful influence in the origination
of species. To this factor, together with migra-
tion and geographical isolation, we may attribute
a very large proportion of the known species of
plant and animal life and also the races of
mankind.

Seasonal Dimorphism. Ordinary sexual di-
morphism is where there are two forms of one
sex, the cause of such a modification being un-
known. In seasonal dimorphism, however, the
cause is due to changes of temperature. Thus,
by subjecting the chrysalids of lowland butter-
flies to prolonged cold in ice chests Weismann
proved that northern or Alpine species are
climatic or seasonal varieties. W. H. Edwards
has shown that two of the four polymorphic
forms of Papilio ajaso (i.e., walshti and tela-
monides) emerge from winter chrysalids, and
Papilio marcellus emerges from a second brood
of summer chrysalids.

Cases of seasonal dimorphism frequently oc-
cur among tropical butterflies. While in the
north or temperate zone we have winter and
summer forms, in the tropics of India and of
Africa there are wet-season and dry-season forms.
It is curious that the difference between the two
forms principally consists in the fact that one
looks on the underside like a dry leaf, while the
other is marked with eyelike spots, or ocelli.
Their identity has been proved by raising both
forms from the same batch of eggs. This case
appears to be due to the direct action of the
season — in the dry form to dryness and heat, in
the wet form to the moisture and coolness of the
wet season. Weismann, however, maintains that
these changes of climate or season are "only the
stimulus, not the actual causes," the latter" being
the processes of selection — a quite hypothetical
cause, although 20 years ago he attributed the
change to the effect of change of temperature.
Limitations of space forbid one enlarging on this
fascinating- theme, but we may briefly refer to
the remarkable experiments of Standfuss, who,
by subjecting pupae of Swiss butterflies to heat
or cold, has produced artificially true tempera-
ture varieties, as follows: (1) seasonal forms,
similar to those known in nature (Vanessa
cardiii albus, and Papilio maohaon to some ex-
tent); (2) local forms and races similar to
those which occur constantly in certain locali-
ties (Vanessa urticas, cardw, and to some extent
Papilio machaon and Vanessa awtiopa] ; (3) en-
tirely exceptional forms or aberrations, also
occurring from time to time in nature ( Vanessa
io, cardui; Argynnis aglaia) ; (4) phylogenetic
forms, not now existing, "lout which may either
have existed in past epochs or may perhaps be
destined to arise in the future" (Vanessa io,
antiopa, atalanta). The conclusion from this
and experiments by others shows, as Standfuss
claims, that such forms are the result of the
direct action of a change in the temperature.

Effects of Change of flood. While changes
of light, heat or cold, moisture and dryness, are
fundamental factors in causing variation, the
abundance or scarcity and the nature of the
food are an equally potent agency, not only
affecting growth and reproduction, but in pro-
ducing variation and, by causing a change in

habits, in bringing about profound modifications
of the body. We will begin with the simplest
organisms. Maupas believes that the reproduc-
tive power of ciliate infusoria depends (1) on
the quality and quantity of food, (2) on the
temperature, and (3) on the alimentary adapta-
tion of the buccal organ. With favorable nutri-
tion an infusprian (Styloniohia pustulata)
undergoes self division once in 24 hours at a tem-
perature of 7° to 10° C. (42° to 50° F.), twice
at 10° to 15° C. (50° to 60° F.), thrice at 15°
to 20° C. (60° to 69° F.), four times at 20° to
24° C. (69° to 76° F.), and five times at 24° to
27° C. (76° to 80° F.). Thus, at a temperature
of from 25° to 20° C. (76° to 80° F.), a single
Stylonichia would in 7% days have a progeny of
100,000,000,000, estimated to weigh 100 kilo-
grams (about 230 pounds). With a vegetable
diet the rate is much less and the size smaller.
Maupas also shows that infusoria continue to
multiply by fission until the supply of food fails,
when hunger leads them to conjugate.

Polymorphism. It now appears that the
polymorphism of the social insects is due to the
nature and amount of food. The existence of
worker ants and bees, whose characteristics are
not inherited from their parents, has been a
stumbling-block to the theory of descent. As
Darwin states it: "The difficulty lies in under-
standing how such correlated modifications of
structure could have been slowly accumulated
by natural selection"; the "acme of the diffi-
culty" being "the fact that the neuters of several
ants differ, not only from the fertile females and
males, but from each other, sometimes to an al-
most incredible degree, and are thus divided into
two or even three castes." The castes, more-
over, do not commonly graduate into each other,
but are perfectly well defined; being as distinct
from each other as are any two species of the
same genus, or rather as any two genera of the
same family. It has also been found by Wheeler
that in a Texan ant the several castes are at
first all alike, the remarkable differences between
the large and small-headed workers being due to
differences in the amount and nature of the food.

It is well known that the larvae of the worker
honeybees are fed with much less nutritious food
than* those of the queens, which are fed on "pap,"
or "bee milk," a highly nitrogenous food which
has apparently a singular power of developing
the reproductive glands. The white ants (Ter-
mitidac) are remarkable for the polymorphism of
the species, there being in one kind eight castes,
among them workers with small heads and others
with large heads, and soldiers of two castes, i.e.,
small-headed and large-headed. It has been
found by Grassi that all these castes are born
alike, and that the differences between the castes
are chiefly due to the varying nature of the food
and have nothing to do with heredity. The
small-headed forms have a scanty diet, live on
refuse matter, and even eat their own excrement,
this being used in the construction of their gal-
leries. The soldiers live on sick or disabled
companions. The young are fed only with saliva.
From these facts it appears that the amount and
nature of the food are the chief cause of the won-
derful differentiation of the castes of the social
insects; besides this there are the results of the
division of labor in the community, use and dis-
use, together with specialization of labor, arising
from the varied life of the populous colony.

Difference in the amount and nature of the
food, involving low or under and high feeding,

results in a discrepancy in the number of in-
dividuals of either sex.

It is now clear that a preponderance in the
number of females is the result of high or better
feeding. Yung experimented on tadpoles and
increased the proportion of females as the diet
was improved. In the first brood, by feeding one
set with beef, the percentage of females rose from
54 to 78; in the second set, fed with fish, it rose
from 61 to 81; while in the third lot, when the
especially nutritious flesh of frogs was supplied,
the percentage rose from 06 to 02; i.e., in the
last case the result of high feeding was that
there were 92 females to 8 males.

The result of Diising's experiments with sheep
leaves little doubt that abundant moisture and
food tend to the production of females, while
high temperature produces males. The heavier
well-fed ewes brought forth ewes, while the
lighter, underfed ewes gave birth to males.
Giron divided a flock of 300 ewes into two equal
parts, of which one-half were extremely well fed
and served by two young rams, while the others
were served by two mature rains and kept poorly
fed. The proportion of ewe lambs was 60 per
cent and 40 per cent respectively.

Use and Disuse as Factors. Thus far we
have considered the action of those factors which
are concerned rather with the origination of
varieties and species thau of higher typos; with
the causes of specific variation rather than of
the formation of goncra, families, orders, classes,
and branches, or phyla. While gravity, light,
and the allied factors evidently come into play
in morphogenesis, the inquiry arises how the
higher categories of organic forms originated.
This must mainly have been accomplished
through change of environment, inducing new
needs, the formation of new habits, or change of
function, all operating together and resulting in
adaptations to the new mode of life. In all this
the principle of use and disuse plays a most im-
portant part. See DISUSE.

M"ew Structures. An interesting axample of
the origin of a new structure duo to change in
habits and to resulting strains and movements
is the formation of bivalve shells in animals of
classes RO unlike as the bivalve rnolluska ( Pele-
cypoda) and the ostracod, phyllopod. and phyl-
locaridan crustaceans. The shell, or carapace,
has become folded into two valves to protect the
body. The valves are opened and closed by the
relaxation or contraction of one or two peculiar
muscles, the adductors. These muscles are not
homologous with any muscles in other classes,
and at least in bivalve molluska they are prob-
ably developed from the mantle muscle as a con-
sequence of the conditions of the case. The sev-
eral types thus occurring in different branches,
or phyla, "is a strong proof that common forces
acting on all alike have induced the resulting
form." (Jackson.) There are also good ex-
amples of mimicry or "convergence," and many
so-called cases of mimicry are undoubtedly
merely examples of such convergence or simi-
larity of form due to the subjection of animals
of quite different groups to identical habits or
conditions.

Now, as the order of Crustacea IB founded in
part on the nature of the carapace or of the
limbs, whether adapted for walking, swimming,
or biting, etc., the ordinal characters are evi-
dently due to the different uses to which these
parts are adapted. It is so with the classes of
mollusks; the bivalves arc secondary forms

& BVOL0TIOH

which by change of habits gradually evolved
from some wormlike ancestoi. The gastropods,
with their unsyniraetrical shells, and the creep-
ing or swimming cephalopods, with their closely
coiled shells (when a shell is present), are
clearly the result of the use of certain parts,
tlie disuse of others. So it is with the orders
of mammals and birds, and the form of man
is mainly duo to the disuse of his feet in
t- limbing,' to his erect position, and to the use
and exercise of his brain.

Cooperative Evidences of Evolution. That
the general theory of evolution represents the
truth of history and existing facts is supported
by evidence from all departments of biology.
The basis of morphology is anatomy and embry-
ology. As soon as anatomists studied the mode
of development of organs and traced their his-
tory from the germ, it was found that organs
of the most diverse shape and use had hud a
common origin. Thus, the arm of man, the
foreleg of the lion, the flipper of the seal, the
paddle of the whale, and a fish's fin were found
to be morphologically identical — the same in
origin and fundamental structure — while the
wings of a bird and an insect were perceived
to bo simply analogous. Thus, what seemed
the most diverse organs were found to have a
common origin. Also cell studies proved that
the cell is the unit of organic life.

Classification also yields evidence. It is now
recognized that the plant and animal kingdoms
may "each be represented by a genealogical tree;
that the members of different classes, orders,
families, genera, species, and varieties are blood
relations which have had a common descent
from some primitive form, and that ultimately
the vegetable and animal kingdoms have de-
scended from a common ancestor. Taxonomy
is an attempt to unravel these lines of descent.
Jn classifying, animals of any group (see CLAS-
SIFICATION) we are constructing a phylogeny,
or genealogical tree.

Embryology furnishes an argument. The
mode of development of an animal throws light
on its ailinities. Ihiw, the barnacle (q.v.) was
supposed to be a mollusk until its development
from a nauplius young, very similar to that of
certain Crustacea, proved that it is a member
of that class. Merc resemblance between the
young of members of different classes points
unerringly to their common origin. Embryol-
ogy (q.v.) teaches that all plants and animals
have originated from a one-celled form. At
one stage tlie fish, amphibian, reptile, bird,
mammal, and even man are indistinguishable
from each other, and the resemblance of the
early embryo points to the origin of all verte-
brates from some wormlike form. From his
studies on the embryology of vertebrates, Von
Baer first indicated the *• recapitulation theory"
— i.e., that the different stages of development
of a highly specialized animal constitute an
epitome or recapitulation of that of the class
or type to which it belongs.

As stated by Von Baer, and afterward more
fully by Agassiz, the law expresses a general
fact. It was Fritz Miiller who, in 1864, ex-
plicitly pointed out its evolutional or phylo-
genetic bearings, and in 1860 Haeckel restated
the doctrine in the following words: "The de-
velopmental history (ontogeny) of an individ-
ual animal briefly recapitulates the history of
the race ( phylogeny )— i.e., the most important
stages of organization which its ancestors have

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329

EVOLUTION

passed through appear again, even if somewhat
modified in the development of individual
animals."

Thanks to recent advances in morphology and
embryology, and particularly to the study of
vestigial structures, we are in a position to
work out the phylogeny of the animal kingdom,
or any group of it, with some approximation to
exactitude. Even within the limits of a genus
it is in some cases possible to detect vestiges
of what were primitive characters and thus
to arrange in genealogical order the different
species. It is this sort of work which gives new
life, dignity, and importance to classification.

Vestigial Structures. The study of vestigial
characters in highly specialized animals gives
the clew to their ancestry. Thus, man has in
his body about 70 vestigial structures which
appear to be of no use to him; some, as the
csecal appendage (see VERMIFORM APPENDIX), a
positive menace; and all these afford the
strongest possible circumstantial evidence of his
descent from an arboreal ancestor.

The study of the changes undergone by ani-
mals like the frog or butterfly after birth, or
what we call "metamorphosis/' is rich also in
facts and suggestions which tend to prove that
such wonderful changes are due to the action
of the primary factors of organic evolution.
It is so also with the hypermetamorphosis of
certain insects. On the other hand, in groups
of animals which normally undergo a meta-
morphosis, development may, with a changed
environment, be direct or abridged. It is so
with the lobster, certain crabs, some insects, and
especially some of the tree toads of the West
Indies and of South America. As examples, a
Guadeloupe species of Hylodes (q.v.) is hatched
in the form of the adult; since there are no
marshes on the island, the tadpole state is
suppressed, or passed through in an abbreviated
way in the embryo. On the island of Martinique
the young are tadpoles, but they are carried on
the parent's back. The Surinam toad (Pipa,)
lias similar breeding habits, yet the young have
small gills, which, however, are of no use to
them, as the tadpoles do not enter the water,
but are carried about in cavities on the back,
where the young pass through an abridged
metamorphosis.

We have also seen that parthenogenesis
(q.v.) is due to differences in temperature and
food, while the alternation of generations (q.v.)
of the hydroids is directly conditioned by the
environment.

Geological Evidence. The age of the earth
is approximately estimated to be about 50,000,-
000 years. Its history is divided by geologists
into ages, periods, epochs-, etc. It is roughly
estimated that about 3p,0005000 years have
elapsed since the deposition- of the lowest fos-
siliferous rocks — those of Cambrian age. It is
believed that this amount of time is sufficient
for the origin and development of all the forms
of life with which we are thus far acquainted.
The stratified rocks are supposed to be about
20 miles thick, the earth's crust about 100 miles
in average thickness.

During the enormous space of time since the
Cambrian the forces of life and nature have
gone on much as at the present time, although
the oceans and land masses down to the Glacial
period practically had a subtropical climate.
Yet there were revolutions, widespread changes
of level in the relative distribution of land and

water, so that the map of the world changed
greatly at different periods. Hence there must
have been successive changes of environment,
the conditions of existence were unstable, there
were vast migrations, and the founding of new
colonies in regions opened up to migration re-
sulting from the subsidence of one region and
the elevation of another. Plateaus were ele-
vated, mountain ranges formed, mountain peaks
carved out of the mass of folded strata, and
thus the entire plateau was finally worn down
by the action of the rain and of rivers until
the surface formed a peneplain. Such a his-
tory of topographical transformation occurred
more than once on both the Atlantic and the
Pacific coasts of the American continent. All
these changes, these revolutions, such as the
Appalachian and those of the Glacial period,
exerted a profound influence on the flora and
fauna. The great lesson of geology is the im-
mensity of time and the ceaseless changes which
have taken place in the physical geography of
our globe; and these are of prime importance
as respects the evolution of life on its surface
and the variation of life forms; and yet there
were long periods of rest, succeeded by local
catastrophes and upheavals, though these so-
called "catastrophes/ however sudden geologi-
cally, may have extended through thousands of
years. The breaks, as indicated by local un-
conformities in the strata of different ages,
were confined to comparatively limited areas.
So that periods of what we call rapid extinction
of life were also periods of the comparatively
rapid evolution and specialization of plants and
animals.

The changes of level, the great elevation of
the land in the Northern and Southern hemi-
spheres, the widespread and profound change of
climate which ushered in the Glacial period,
and the effect which the geologically sudden
lowering of the climate had on plant and animal
life, causing extensive migrations and adapta-
tions (as of the polar plants and animals) to
their frigid environment, afford signal exam-
ples of the effect of geological changes on
the extinction of some and the modification of
other forms. So also the enormous changes of
level which occurred in Mesozoic and Tertiary
times, when vast regions of the globe were car-
ried up into the air, so to speak, and the
climate changed from a tropical one to that
of an elevated, cooler region. The very last
changes of level which took place after the
melting of the ice sheet, the drainage of con-
tinents, and the formation of extensive deserts,
accompanied by the adaptation of much plant
and animal life to them, should also be taken
into account as producing variation.

Evidence from Paleontology. Huxley af-
firmed that the primary and direct evidence in
favor of evolution can be furnished only by
paleontology, and its evidence is, indeed, of
the strongest nature, the discoveries and con-
clusions of paleontologists adding each year to
the strength of the argument.

There are remains in the Cambrian rocks of
14 classes of marine invertebrate animals and
traces of primitive plants. The Cambrian an-
nelids, trilobites, crustaceans, and other class
forms are highly developed. Some, as the trilo-
bites, are old-fashioned, generalized types; some
of the Crustacea are composite or generalized
types, as the Phyllocarida ; but the annelids are
as highly specialized as their representatives of

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230

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to-day. The earliest trilobites (q.v.) were blind
or eyeless, though they may have descended
from eyed forms. These and other facts strongly
indicate that the Precambrian, including the
Huroninn, and possibly the Upper Laurentian
ocean, supported an abundant life, made up of
protozoans, sponges, and the ancestors of worms,
mollusks, arthropods, etc., and most probably
of the vertebrates. The Precambrian time was
a period of the rapid evolution of types; strati-
graphic geology shows that in this formative
period there were widespread and rapid changes
in the physical geography of the globe.

Another period of the apparently rapid evolu-
tion of life forms was the time of the Appala-
chian revolution, when vertebrates with lungs
and limbs appeared, and the forerunners of
reptiles, birds, and mammals probably origi-
nated. In these early times the Precambrian, as
well as the opening ages of the Mesozoic, ani-
mal types were more plastic than now; dynamic
evolution and use inheritance did their work
in the origination of class and ordinal types
with comparative suddenness.

Paleontology teaches the fact of the rise,
culmination, and death of types; the origin of
life from generalized forms and their gradual
modification and specialization. It is safe to
say that the ancestral forms of most, if not all,
the classes of animals began with composite or
synthetic types. The geological succession of
the arthropod classes, as well as those of the
vertebrate phylum, all tell the same story.
What morphology and embryology strongly sug-
nest is emphatically confirmed by the series of
fossil remains. Tlie origin of reptiles, of birds,
of mammals, and of man from generalized types
is now placed beyond a reasonable doubt. Fa-
miliar examples of those principles or laws of
organic evolution are afforded by the genealogy
of the horse family (see HOBSE, FOSSIL; CAMEL-
KLE; ETC.), the ox, deer, cat, and other fami-
lies and orders of vertebrates. And so it is
with the phyla into which the arthropods will
have to be divided. There are lines of develop-
ment which have undergone a continual course
of modification by the rapid development by
exercise of the brain, limbs, and teeth, and the
reduction or atrophy of digits or teeth and other
hard and soft parts.

On the other hand, certain types have never
made any progress and show little advance over
their Paleozoic ancestors; such are the Forami-
nifera, the sponges, the corals, certain mollusks,
as nautilus, king crabs, Lingula, and even Cera-
todus and Hatteria. Certain arthropods, as
Peripatus, Scolopendrella, and Cwnpodea, are
probably persistent types.

Geological extinction has been due to obvious
causes, such as changes in climate, the eleva-
tion of one area and the subsidence of another,
as also to the competition with other types. If
these causes are quite obvious in their results,
it follows that the same causes which led to
the extinction of some forms exerted an influ-
ence in modifying others. It should be observed
that the imperfection of the geological record is
still marked, but many gaps have in late years
boon closed. See EXTINCTION OF SPECIES.

Evidence from Geographical Distribution.
The present distribution (q.v.) of plants and
animals can only be explained by reference to
past geological changes in the shape and pro-
portions of former continental masses and the
resulting geological extinction. We can in

many cases only account for the apparently
sudden appearance of groups of highly special-
ized animals in a given area by invoking past
migrations. Thus, the camel family (see
CAMELiD-32) originated in western North Amer-
ica, where it has since died out, but is still sur-
viving in South America and Asia. So with
the ox family in Eurasia, and the elephants in
northeastern Africa, the mammoth (q.v.)
having migrated into North America by way
of northeastern Asia. This interchange of forms
between Eurasia and America, between Asia
and Africa, between North and South America,
and the changes of climate and other sur-
roundings along the line of march, must have
operated in inducing change of habits and
variation, and, more especially by isolation,
have led to the origin not only of new species
and climatic varieties, but to the beginning of
new generic and family types. Australia is,
in many respects, notably in its characteristic
mammals, a Jurassic continent, while Madagas-
car is a Tertiary island. The moa birds, pe-
culiar to New Zealand, are the result of long
ages of isolation and lack of competition with
predatory animals.

The various modes of dispersal of organisms
and their colonization in remote regions also
throw light on the origin of species. The
study of deep-sea life is instructive in this con-
nection. It is now generally supposed that the
abyssal or benthal fauna originated from shal-
low-water forms, and that the characters in
which these animals differ from those liv-
ing near the coast arc adaptations to life at
great depths. Indeed, all the facts and conclu-
sions of zoogeography converge towards the
view that, as the different types evidently orig-
inated from this or that centre of distribution,
so they had common ancestral forms.

Biological Environment. We owe to Dar-
win and to Wallace the facts and theories epit-
omized by the terms "natural selection" (q.v.),
"struggle for existence," and to Herbert Spencer
the expression "survival of the fittest." The
competition continually going on between the
stronger and the weaker,' between original
stupidity and acquired wit and cunning, be-
tween the plant eaters and the flesh eaters, be-
tween parasites and their unwilling hosts, forms
a most important chapter in the story of evolu-
tion. As soon as, through the action of the
primary factors of organic evolution, the ocean
began to be peopled with the lowest, most
primitive organisms, and when the process of
specialization began to operate, then competi-
tion between this and that form sprang up, and
the struggle for existence — for food, for place,
for fixed abodes, or habitats, for a chance to
live and multiply and dominate this or that
area, and the rivalry of the sexes-— set in. The
result is natural selection, the elimination of
the unadapted, of the "unfit," the weak and in-
ept, and the success in life of this or that
form which became the founder of some one of
the immensely numerous groups of organisms
now peopling the globe.

Natural Selection. After the earth became
stocked with even a few comparatively simple
forms, the selective principles in nature began
to operate, resulting in the preservation of the
fittest. The factor of natural selection, as
stated by Wallace, is based first on "the enor-
mous powers of increase in geometrical progres-
sion possessed by all organisms, and the in-

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231

EVOLUTION

evitable struggle for existence among them";
and, in the second place, "the occurrence of
much individual variation, combined with the
hereditary transmission of such variations."

Animals tend to increase in enormous num-
bers, though, owing to the destruction of eggs
and young by animals of their own or other
species, the earth's population is scarcely
greater now than ages ago. When we consider
that the cod lays a million of eggs, and that
many other animals are nearly as prolific, the
species yet being represented by a constant
number of individuals, we see that the rate of
embryo and infant mortality is astonishingly
great. What is called "viability," or the "pros-
pect of life/' in man is in the lower animals
reduced to almost infinitesimal proportions. A
death rate among us of more than 20 in a
thousand excites alarm, but think of the death
rate in the cod, the bee, and most animals,
whore it reaches perhaps the figure of 999,998
out of 1,000,000. All this life is not, however,
wasted. The young serve as food for other
forms of life, and in this way the balance of
nature is maintained, the too great increase in
organic life is checked, and those that survive
and reach maturity are, so to speak, adequately
fed and housed. See LONGEVITY.

In formulating his theory of natural selection
Darwin assumed a tendency to variation, the
causes of which he did not discuss at length.
This variation, by insensible gradations, is, he
believed, fortuitous or "chance," this word serv-
ing, he adds, "to acknowledge plainly our igno-
rance of the cause of each particular variation."
The useful variations are those which survive.
Natural selection, as Darwin claimed, "leads to
divergence of character and to much extinction
of the less-improved and intermediate forms of
life," and he states: "It leads to the improve-
ment of each creature in relation to its organic
and inorganic conditions of life, and conse-
quently, in most cases, to what must be regarded
as an advance in organization." See NATUBAL
SELECTION.

Protective Mimicry. Much is said by Dar-
win, Wallace, Fritz Muller, Bates, and others
on this subject, and natural selection appears
to play an important part in bringing about
protective resemblance. The initial causes of
mimicry are the action of light, changes in
temperature, etc., which have brought about a
variety of patterns of color in insects and other
animals of different groups. But it is difficult
to account for the resemblance in form as well
as coloration between the mimicker and the
mimicked unless we invoke the action of natural
selection. The disguises of animals, danger sig-
nals, the bright spots, lines, bars, and other
markings, primarily due, perhaps, to the action
of light and shade, have been preserved and
exaggerated by natural selection, the process
resulting in the preservation of the species thus
favorod. "For further facts and considerations
relating to this phase of the subject, see
NATUBAL SELECTION; MIMICBY; PROTECTIVE
COTOBATTOX.

Heredity. The work accomplished by the fac-
tors of evolution, including natural selection,
would be all lost were the progressively developed
characters noifc transmitted and fixed by heredity.
Every one is familiar with the effects of the
action of heredity. Its cause has been a mystery,
now, however, in part cleared up. SeeHEBEDiTY;
USE INHBBITANOE.

Parasitism. A very considerable portion of
the animal world lives at the expense of its
hosts. Whole orders of protozoans, worms, crus-
taceans, several families of hymenopterous and
dipterous insects, numerically rich in species, and
members of many other classes, derive their ex-
istence by simply living within the bodies of
their hosts, or attaching thenibclvcs to some ex-
ternal part of their bodies. They infest the
blood, the muscles, glands, and, in fact, may in-
vade every organ and tissue in the body. A
signal example of the good done by parasitic in-
sects in preventing the overcrowding of the earth
with injurious insects is the ichneumon fly
(q.v.), a parasite of caterpillars, etc. The com-
petition which is going on in the world of life is
perhaps no better illustrated than by the work
done by those deadly enemies of animal life, of all
grades, the disease germs of bacteria; yet the
bacteria are met and devoured by wandering
cells, whose mission it is to prey on such germs

In short, by a study of these parasitic degen-
erate forms, in many of which there is a loss of
limbs and other organs, we readily understand
what a potent cause of profound modification by
disuse the habit of parasitism may prove to be.
In human history the occurrence of individual
and racial weakness, backwardness, and decay
due to the various forms of parasitic existence,
including slavery, is a conspicuous source of
physical and moral degeneration, and is exactly
paralleled and illustrated among certain social
insects. See ANT; INSECT, Racial Insects.

The Origin- of Man. The proofs of man's
origin from some other primate is now past dis-
pute. In fact, no scientist now doubts man's
descent, less directly from all lower forms of
life, and more immediately from a common
ancestor with the anthropoid ajies. Anatomi-
cally he presents no absolute differences from
the anthropoid apes, except in the organs of
speech. The relative differences between man
and apes are very great, though chiefly confined
to the capacity of the skull, the size, number,
and complexity of the convolutions of the brain,
and the specialization of the forearm in direc-
tions ministering to the behests of his brain.
He passes through the same embryological phases
as the higher mammals. Man's origin from
some mammal is strongly attested by the pres-
ence in his body of a large number of vestigial
characters, which indicate an ancestor that went
on all fours — some features appearing shortly
before and after birth, hinting at an ape
ancestry. The scanty remains of the fossil
races, that of Neanderthal or Spy, exhibit some
primitive characters, but the discovery of the
skull cap, femur, and molar teeth of the Javan
so-called "missing link" (Pithecanthropus erec-
tus) affords satisfactory evidence of the descent
of man from some gibbon-like ape. (See GIB-
BON.) Experts in craniology state that the
cranial capacity of this intermediate form is
about 1000 cubic centimeters, while that of a few
Australian skulls is even less than that (850
cubic centimeters). (See PITHECANTHROPUS.)
This creature stood erect and was of the average
height of man, and the general consensus of
opinion is that it is geologically Pleistocene.

Still more significant than any of these is
what is now known as the Piltdown skull.
Several years ago in Sussex, England, the first
fragment was discovered in a bed of gravel, and
since that time a skull mosaic has been con-
structed, which is of the greatest interest. The

EVOLUTION

232

EVOLUTION

Neanderthal and other early discovered skulls
probably represented a race of cave men, very
gorilla-like in general, with great brow ridges
and low foreheads. Pithecanthropus was more
erect and manlike. The Piltdown man had a
forehead as high as a modern man, but a smaller
brain, while the rear of the skull and the lower
jaw were little different from those of an
anthropoid ape.

At the outset man was a social being; his
erect posture, large brain, hands, so well adapted
to carrying out the suggestions of his developing
intellect, so that he was the first tool maker
and worker in stone, bone, and wood, and the
first being to tame other animals and to cultivate
the soil — these qualities enable him to dominate
all other animals. At first living a roving, soli-
tary life as a hunter, tribal communities gradu-
ally arose here and there, living in fixed habita-
tions and leading a sedentary life, and the
developing man eventually became a herdsman,
and after long ages a farmer. Even temporary
cessations from intertribal wars were provoca-
tive of intellectual growth and permitted the
origin and growth of the germs of the arts and
sciences. Meanwhile he began to migrate, and
became, during the Paleolithic age, scattered
over wide areas of the earth's surface. Then
ensued a process of isolation by geographical and
climatic barriers and the differentiation into
races — the black being confined to Africa, the
yellow to Asia, the red Indian to the Americas,
while the cradle of the white race was in the
region now including central and southern
Europe, and Africa north of the Sahara and the
Sudan.

The more civilized man grew, the more pro-
lific he became. The lowest races early, as a
rule, ceased to grow. The yellow races in sub-
tropical regions advanced much further in the
a its and sciences, but finally remained in a com-
paratively backward, semifossil condition.

Social Evolution. Up to a certain stage of
development — that of the lowest savagery — the
evolution of man was due to the action of the
same transforming factors as affected lower
organic life. The struggle for life, for food, for
place, for preeminence, was, however, stronger
in the human species than among the animals.
Primitive man, his animal passions enhanced by
his powerful emotions, stimulated by his growing
imagination, his dawning intellectual forces, and
his growing self -consciousness, rendered this new
creature more cruel, bloodthirsty, and revenge-
ful than the beasts. At first war did not tend
to nation building, but was a sporadic outbreak
of intertribal inherited hate and revenge, with
little result other than brutal sport and exer-
cise. Marriage was little more than animal
mating, ownership in property communal, and
the primitive spoken language had not arisen
out of signs and gestures, through picture
writing, into rude alphabets and a written
language.

As soon as some scattered tribes had adopted
a stationary mode of life, began to cultivate the
soil, had domestic animals, and through various
necessities made useful inventions, man began
to live in a world of new ideas. With fixed
abodes, family and tribal customs became handed
down, finally becoming laws, and as the result of
tribal combats patriotism and the social virtues
look root. With ancestor worship, reverence for
the dead, ideas of a future life, poetry, art,
architecture, sprang up. Commerce was, even in

the earliest ages, as now, a great civilizer, as
was ownership in flocks and herds and in land.
Man began to have his individual rights, and the
germs of morality, or the right relations be-
tween man and man, gradually evolved.

As the population of a given tribe or aggre-
gate of tribes increased, there ensued a differen-
tiation of the trades and arts, a separation into
political and religious classes, and finally a de-
gree of civilization, of which the Egyptian type
was the earliest, in which an alphabet gradually
replaced hieroglyphics, and a complicated reli-
gious ceremonial and theology superseded savage
rites. The new man, with his moral nature en-
hanced, his imagination aroused, his memories of
the past handed down by poets and scalds, his
thoughts turning upward and away from animal
existence, became gradually, in the noblest speci-
mens of his race, actuated by entirely new sets
of ideas, and the factors of his moral develop-
ment began to act with increasing force.

Keligious Evolution. Besides the purely
moral factors, all through the course of man a
development the religious feelings were constantly
active and growing. The lowest savage prac- "
ticcs religious rites, worships material emblems
of a higher or supreme power, or fetishes which
stand for a rude idea of worship, (protection
from the ills of life), while the most primitive
man has some slight conception of a future life.
Yielding to his murderous instincts, the earliest
fratricide or thief, reflecting on his crime, would
experience self-accusing feelings of remorse, and
there would follow the expiation for the crime,
or the feeling that one may be saved from the
results of wrongdoing by propitiating the higher
powers. The functions of the earliest physician, ,
theologian, and philosopher were combined in
the first "medicine man" and primitive theology
also held the germs of primitive science. At first
gross and materialistic conceptions of religion
prevailed. Nature worship was succeeded by poly-
theism, and this by monotheism. Theology has
gradually been purified ; genuine religion, besides
the worship of goodness or Ood, has developed
love for man, and the factors in religious evolu-
tion have been faith, hope, and charity, and an
increased observance of the "golden rule."

Summary and Conclusion. Life appears to
have been a necessary and inevitable result of
inorganic or cosmic evolution. It came into
being on our planet in the most natural way as
soon as the temperature of the originally super-
heated planetary mass became sufficiently low-
ered, and the gaseous matter had been condensed
into a universal sea. It arose by the action of
physicoehemical laws, through 'what we call
spontaneous generation, the materials for the
formation of the first bit of living protoplasm
being ready at hand. When once formed, mo-
tion, change, and the action of the primary
factors, exerted through a great length of time,
resulted in the differentiation or divergence of
characters, and specialization went on, condi-
tioned by and dependent on the increasing
changes in the internal structure and physical
geography of the globe.

Variation was most probably neither fortuitous
nor by chance, but was due to changes in the
environment, and therefore was necessarily in
direct relation with such changes, resulting in
the wonderful adaptation, variety, beauty, and
harmony reigning through the organic world.

Putting- together all the facts of geology and
biology observed during the past century, a few

EVOLUTION"

233

EVOLUTION

of the more observant and thoughtful naturalists
have, by the inductive method, to some extent
worked out the mechanism of evolution. The
theory is a good working one, indispensable in
research. Still, we know only in part the guid-
ing, controlling cause. There seems to be some-
thing more than the action of the physical
factors and natural selection, which we cannot
fathom. There has evidently been all through
the process a modifying power, the nature of
\\ hich science has not yet grasped. The striking
fact in the whole course of evolution is tliat
progress has been along certain useful and
beneficent lines; that the ill-fitted, inadapted,
degenerate, useless, however useful at first, have
had to make way for higher forms better
adapted to continually changing and improving
conditions. Intelligence, mind, order, harmony,
system, and good rather than bad conditions
have resulted from and operated since the origi-
nal chaos when physical force, energy, alone pro-
vailed. There is a constant tendency seen in
the evolution of the more favored human races
towards improvement, intellectual, moral, and
- spiritual. Epoch-making men, the highest rep-
resentatives of our race, have shaped the age in
which they lived and in various directions given
this and that impetus to the upward progress.
There has been a directive force through it all,
which has controlled and led life forms along
definite paths.

Natural selection alone, or the action of the
primarv factors, cannot entirely account for it.
The universe, our world, life, and nature, wore
not self-evolved. It seems to be a reasonable
induction that a self-conscious power and will
outside of, and yet immanent in, matter gave
the first impress to the nascent universe, what
we call natural laws being the mode of working,
and in some unknown way providing the germs
of self progress along improving lines.

The evolution theory and its implications,
therefore, immeasurably enhance our conception
of Deity and suggest most strongly that there
is a divinity which has shaped our ends. The
outcome of the whole is optimism, hope, giving
the certitude that man's future will brighten,
and that, as the ages roll on, life will be far
more worth living than even now.

History of the Evolution Theory. Aristotle
(384-322 B.C.) may be regarded as the father of
the theory of descent, although Empedocles has
been credited with the conception. The, latter
taught in a vague way the fact of the gradual
succession of life fornis from the less to the
more perfect, though he did not claim any ge-
netic relation, but believed that they were sepa-
rately created. The wonderfully comprehensive
mind of Aristotle, who was the first anatomist,
conceived of a genetic series, of a chain of being
from polyps to man ; he perceived the wonderful
adaptation in nature, the principle of the physio-
logical division of labor, and regarded life as
the function of the organism, not as a separate
principle. He recognized the fact of ^ heredity,
atavism, and believed in the inheritance of
mutilations.

The nearest approach which the didactic poet
Lucretius made to the evolution idea is to be
found in his account of the development of the
faculties and arts among the human races.

St. Augustine (354-430 A.B.) spoke of the
creation of things by series of causes, and
Thomas Aquinas (1226-74) expounded and up-
held St. Augustine's view. But the idea of

special creation became the universal teaching
from the middle of the sixteenth to the middle
of the nineteenth century.

That broad-minded early German philosopher
Leibnitz (1646-1716) gave examples of the gra-
dation of characters between living and extinct
forms as proofs of the universal gradation or
connection between species. He believed in a
chain of being and that the different classes
of animals are so closely united that there are
no gaps between them. 'He also suggested that
)>y means of great changes of habitat k'even the
species of animals arc* often changed"; he also
taught the doctrine of the continuity of nature
and was the author of the saying, Natitra non
facit saltum.

Buflfon (1707-88) thoroughly read and was in-
fluenced by Leibnitz's writings. Whether or not
ho owed his evolutional views to Leibnitz, he
stated, and as frequently denied, the mutability
of species. He suggested that such changes were
directly produced by changes in climate, food,
and domestication, and he gave a few examples
of the effects of disuse and held that all ani-
mals were possibly derived from a single type.

A stronger, more observant, and bolder rea-
soner than Buff on was Erasmus Darwin (q.v.),
the grandfather of Charles Darwin. He was a
country doctor, not a working naturalist, but a
remarkably close observer and a sound thinker.
He claimed that all animals wore derived from
""a single filament," insisted on the effects of
changes of climate, of use, characters being pro-
duced by the exertion of animals. He was the
first to propose the factor of sexual selection,
stated the principle of the law of battle, quite
fully elaborated the idea of protective mimicry,
and vaguely stated the doctrine of use in-
heritance.

The true founder of evolution, however, was
Lamarck (q.v.), "who was the leading zoologist
of the period between Linnaeus and Cuvier (1744-
1820). In 1801 he first published his evolu-
tionist views. He taught in his lectures (1801-
06) and in his Philosophie soologique (Paris,
1809) that all organisms arose from germs; that
develop meiit was from the simple to the com-
plex : that the animal series was not continuous,
but treelike; and he constructed the first phylo-
genetic tree. The Lamarckian factors are the
changos of environment, climate, soil, food, and
temperature, such changes being direct in plants
and the lowest animals, indirect in the higher
animals. He speaks of the struggle for exist-
ence, stating that the stronger devour the
weaker, and refers to competition. He dis-
cussed at length the effects of use and disuse,
taught that vestigial structures are the remains
of organs actively used by the ancestors of ex-
isting forms, and claimed that new wants or
necessities induced by changes of climate, habi-
tat, etc., result in the production of new pro-
pensities, new habits, and new functions. Change
of habits, lie says, originate organs, change ^ of
functions create new organs, and the formation
of new habits precedes the origin of new organs
or modification of organs already formed. He
refers to the swamping effects of crossing, and
to isolation as a factor. His definition of species
is the moat satisfactory yet stated, Lamarck's
views were not generally accepted, but misrepre-
sented or ignored, largely through the influence
of Cuvier and his disciples. See LAMARCKISM;

Notwithstanding this history, it was reserved

EVOLTJTION-

234

EVOLUTION

for Charles Darwin, in 1850, seconded by A. R.
Wallace, to convert the scientific world to evo-
lutional views. The new theory he specially
advocated was that of natural selection. Dar-
win claimed that there was a universal tendency
of fortuitous variation; its causes, he thought,
were only in part known. He showed that favor-
able variations were preserved and that natural
selection has a directive force. He dwelt con-
vincingly on the facts of competition, of the
struggle for existence, and on the biological en-
vironment. At the same time his Origin of
Species was a massive and irresistible argu-
ment for the doctrine of descent; and as further
expounded and upheld by Hooker, Huxley, Fritz
Mliller, Haeckel, and others, it became generally
accepted. Darwin was the prince of observers
and experimenters. He was also an expert sys-
tematist, a clear, persuasive writer; and into
whatever field he entered his work was epoch-
making.

Meanwhile in England, as early as 1852, Her-
bert Spencer advocated evolution from a philo-
sophical point of view. He proposed the term
''evolution" both for the inorganic and organic
world. His broad, synthetic mind grasped the
full significance of cosmic evolution, and he
extended the doctrine of descent to human his-
tory, human society, morals, ethics, and religion.
He is the philosopher of science and of all that
pertains to man. He has worked rather along
Lamarckian lines, holding that natural selection
as such was of secondary importance, as com-
pared with the primary factors of organic
evolution.

After Darwin's death, tinder the leadership of
Alfred Russel Wallace, and especially of Weis-
mann, the school of Nee-Darwinism (q.v.) arose.
Weismann, distinguished by his great work on
the embryology and motamorphism of insects,
and his investigations on tempers/tare forms,
has shown that heredity has a physical basis,
the chromatin being the bearer of heredity. He
asserts the "all-sufficiency" of natural selection
and claims that variability is due to sexual
reproduction.

The mutation theory of De Vries does not
attempt to supplant natural selection, Wois-
mannism and Mendelianism, but complements
these. Like the latter theory, it emphasizes the
importance of the congenital hereditary charac-
ters contained in the germ plasm. It differs from
the Darwinian theory in holding that the new
forms occasionally arise by great leaps, in place
of the slow accumulation of slight fluctuating
variations. The old Lamarckian doctrine of the
inheritance of acquired characters, at least in
its direct application, is rapidly losing ground.

In some directions we find the theory of
orthogenesis becoming stronger. This was origi-
nally sponsored by Nagde* and Eimer, and holds
that evolution is less the result of chance than
by direct linear progressive modification.

Even with all these theories, we find much of
the mystery of evolution still unsolved. In one
of the most recent reviews of the subject,
Bateson's Problems of Genetics, we find almost
more destructive than constructive theories and
arguments. But the intensive study now being
brought to bear on every aspect of the problem
cannot fail to yield results of great importance
in the near future.

Literature. C. Darwin, The Origin of Species
by Means of Natural Selection ( 1st ed., London,
1859; 6th ed., 1871); Descent of Man (New

York, 1872); The Variation of Animals and
Plants under Domestication (London, 1881);
A. K. Wallace, Natural Selection (London and
New York, 1870); Darwinism: An Exposition
of the Theory of Natural Selection with Some of
its Applications (London, 1889) ; Erasmus Dar-
win, Zoonomia, or the Laws of Organic Life
(ib., 1796); J. P. B. A. Lamarck, Philosophic
ffoologique (Paris, 1809) ; T. H. Huxley, On the
Origin of Species (New York, 1863) ; Herbert
Spencer, Principles of Biology (London, 1898;
New York, 1900) ; Factors of Organic Evolution
(New York, 1895); A. Hyatt, "On the Paral-
lelism between the Different Stages of Life in
the Individual and Those in the Entire Group
of the Molluscous Order Tetrabranchiata," in
Memoirs Boston Society of Natural fTiston/
(Boston, 1866) ; Genesis of the Arictida (Wash-
ington, 1889); Phytogeny of an Acquired Char-
acteristic (Philadelphia, 1894) ; Fritz Muller,
Fitr Darwin (Leipzig, 1864; Eng. trans., Lon-
don, 1869) ; H. Miiller, Fertilisation of Flowers
(trans, by D'Arcy W. Thompson, London, 1883) ;
M. Wagner, Die danoinische Theorie und das
Migrationsgesetz der Organismen (Leipzig, 1868;
Eng. trans, by Laird, London, 1873) ; E. D.
Cope, Origin of Genera (Philadelphia, 1868) ;
Origin of the Fittest (New York, 1887); The
Factors of Organic Evolution (Chicago, 1896);

E. Haeckel, Qenerale Morphologic (Berlin,
1866) ; History of Creation (New York, 1876) ;
St. G. Mivart, On the Genesis of Species (Lon-
don and New York, 1870) ; A. Gray, Dar-
winiana (New York, 1876); G. J. Romanes,
Darwin and after Darioin (Chicago, 1892-96) ;
Physiological Selection (London, 1886) ; Mental
involution (New York, 1884) ; J. T. Gulick, "On
Diversity of Evolution under One Set of Ex-
ternal Conditions," in Proceedings Linncean So-
ciety of London (London, 1872) ; "Divergent
Evolution through Cumulative Segregation"
(ib., 1887) ; "Intensive Segregation" (ib., 1800) ;
''Divergent Evolution and the Darwinian
Theory," in American Journal of Science (Now
Haven, 1890) ; G. H. T. Eimer, Orthogenesis
and the Impotence o] Natural Selection in
Species Formation (Chicago, 1898) ; Organic
Evolution (trans, by J. T. Cunningham, London
and New York, 1890) ; C. Lloyd Morgan, Animal
Life and Intelligence (ib., 1890-91); Habit and
Instinct (ib., 1896); H. de Varigny, Experi-
mental Evolution (London, 1892) ; C. Dixon,
Evolution without Natural Selection (ib., 1885) ;
W. Bateson, Materials for the Stud}/ of Varia-
tion (ib., 1894) ; A. Weismann, Studies on the
Theory of Descent (ib., 1882) ; Essays upon
Heredity (Oxford, 1889); Germ Plasm (New
York, 1893) ; H. de Vries, Die Mutationstlieorie
(Leipzig, 1901-03); 0. Hertwig, The Biological
Problem of To-Day (New York, 1894) ; G.
Henslow, The Origin of Floral Structures
through Insect and Other Agencies (London,
1893) ; The Origin of Plant Structures by Self-
Adaptation to the Environment (ib., 1895); H.

F. Osborn, From the Greeks to Darwin: An Out-
line of the Development of the Evolution Idea
(New York, 1894) ; A. S. Packard, Lamarck,
the Founder of Evolution: His Life and Work
(New York and London, 1901) ; P. W. Hutton,

'Darioinism and Lamarckismt Old and New (Lon-
don, 1899) ; E. Clodd, Story of Creation (ib.,
1888); Pioneers of Evolution (New York,
1897) ; J. Le Conte, Evolution and its Relation
to Religious Thought (ib., 1888) ; H. W. Conn,
Evolution of To-Day (New York and London,

EVOLUTION

235

EVREITX

1886) ; T. Y. Bergen, Primer of Danoinism
(Boston, 1890) ; Patten, The Evolution of the
Vertebrates and their Kin (Philadelphia, 1912) ;
Cunningham, Sexual Dimorphism in the Animal
Kingdom (London, 1900) ; Thayer, Gonceahng
Coloration in the Animal Kingdom (New York,
1909) ; Bateson, Mendel's Principles of Heredity
(Cambridge, 1909); Thomson, Heredity (Lon-
don, 1908) ,- Vernon, Variation in Animals and
Plants (ib., 1903); Wilson, Recent Researches
on the Determination and Heredity of Sex (New
York, 1909) ; Lock, Recent Progress in the Study
of Variation, Heredity, and Evolution (London,
1906) ; De Vries, Species and Varieties: Their
Origin ly. Mutation (Chicago, 1905) ; id.,
The Mutation Theory (London, 1910) ; Weis-
mann, The Evolution Theory (ib., 1904) ; Met-
calf, Organic Evolution (New York, 1904) ;
Poulton, Charles Danoin and the Origin of
Species (ib., 1909) ; Thomson, Danoinism and
Human Life (ib., 1910) ; various authors, Fifty
Years of Darwinism (ib., 1909) ; various authors,
Darwin and Modern Science (Cambridge, 1909) ;
Montgomery, The Analysis of Racial Descent in
Animals (New York, 1906) ; Kellogg, Darwinism
To-Day (ib., 1907) ; Bateson, Problems of Ge-
netics (New Haven, 1913) ; Crampton, The Doc-
trine of Evolution (New York, 1911) ; Lloyd,
The Growth of Oroups in the Animal Kingdom
(London, 1912). Consult also the books and
essays of A. Agassiz, J. A. Allen, E. Askenasy,
L. H. Bailey, W. P. Ball, H. W. Bates, F. E.
Beddard, C. E. Beecher, G. Bonnier, T. Boven,
W. K. Brooks, S. S. Buckman, Buffon, H. C.
Bumpus, E. Catchpool, C. Glaus, D. Clos, T. A.

D. Cockerell, E. G. Conklin, Costantin, J. T.
Cunningham, W. H. Dall, C. B. Davenport, Y.
Delage, J. Delboeuf, F. C. Dixey, F. Dreyer, H.
Dricsch, A. Dohrn, W. T. T. Dyer, C. H. Eigen-
mann, C. Emery, Cossar Ewart, E. Fischer, C.
L. Flahault, H. Gadow, F. Galton, P. Geddes,
Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire, A. Giard, E. Haase, E.
Haeckel, S. J. Hickson, J. D. Hooker, G. B.
Howes, C. H. Hurst, A. Hyatt, K. Jordan, L.
Kathariner, A KSllikcr, A. C. Keller, A. Lang,

E. R. Lankester, J. Lubbock, T. Meehan,
R. Moldola, F. Merrifield, T. H. Morgan, E. 8.
Morse, M. Neumayr, C. Nageli, A. S. Packard,
C. Pearson, E. Perrier, E. Pflttger, M. C. Piepers,
L. Plate, E. B. Poulton, A. de Quatrefages, C.
V. Riley, W. Roux, W. E. Ritter, J. A. Ryder, L.
Riitimeyer, C. SchrQder, W. D. Scott, S. H.
Scudder, G. Seidlitz, H. Simroth, A. Solokowsky,
J. W. Spengel, M. Standfuss, G. Tornier, G. R.
Treviranus, Verlot, H. M. Vernon, M. Verworn,
S. H. Vines, W. Waagen, L. F. Ward, E. Warm-
ing, W. F. R. Weldon, J. L. Wortman, G.
Wolff; H. Bergson, Creative Evolution (1911).

EVOLUTION" (IN MATHEMATICS). See IN-
VOLUTION AND EVOLUTION.

EVOLUTIONS, MILITARY. The movements
by which bodies of troops are enabled to change
position, order, or formation. The term em-
braces such movements as changes of front, for-
mations of line, column, echelon, or square.
While the primary principles of scientific war-
fare remain practically the same, the modern
developments of artillery and musketry fire have
greatly affected the dispositions of battlefields
and consequently changed the essential principles
involved in preparations for war. The ability
of infantry, e.g., to wheel accurately, coolly, and
with precision, or deploy in front of the enemy,
with the steady deliberation of ^the parade
ground, formerly so much admired, is to-day re-
VOL. VEIL— 16

placed completely by widely extended intervals
and distances in all fighting formations. Changes
of front are now made speedily, the men moving
by the shortest possible direction to their new
front. In brief, the spirit of the old order of
military evolution was to stamp out all indi-
viduality in the rank and file, making of the
soldier an automaton of little or no value as a
separate entity. Modern evolutions, on the
other hand, magnify the individual, encourage
individuality, and from time to time decrease
the tactical unit of command. See TACTICS,
MILITABY.

ifiVORA, a'v6-ra. A city of Portugal, capital
of the Province of Alenitcjo, situated in a fertile
and elevated plain, 75 miles east by south of
Lisbon (Map: Portugal, B 3 ). It is 'irregularly
built, with narrow streets, and is protected by
old walls and towers and some recently con-
structed fortifications. It contains remains of
great historic interest. The Gothic cathedral
dates from the twelfth century and has consider-
able architectural beauty. Of Roman antiqui-
ties there are a ruined temple (unwarrantably
called the temple of Diana) , with fine Corinthian
columns, and an old aqueduct (rebuilt) which
supplies the city with water. Evora has been
the seat of an archbishop since the sixteenth cen-
tury and has an archiopiscopal library with
about 25,000 volumes and 2000 manuscripts and
a number of paintings. The archaeological mu-
seum is one of the most interesting in Portugal.
The town has cotton and woolen manufactures
and iron furnaces. It carries on a considerable
trade in wine. Pop., 1890, 15,134; 1900, 16,152;
1911, 17,901. Evora, the ancient Ebora, was
captured by the Romans in 80 B.C. and became a
colony with the name Lileralitas Julice. It was
taken by the Arabs in 712, but was recovered by
the Christians in 1166.

A'vrS'. The capital of the De-
partment of Euro. An episcopal city of Nor-
mandy, France, on the Iton, an arm of the Eure,
67 miles west-northwest of Paris (Map: France,
N., G- 3). It is an old-fashioned town, with
wide streets and numerous promenades. Its
principal building, the cathedral of Notre Dame,
which dates from the eleventh century, is a
composite of various styles of architecture. The
north portal, built in sixteenth-century flam-
boyant style, is especially fine. Other build-
ings include the abbey church of St. Taurin,
originally built over the tomb of St. Taurin, the
first Bishop of Evreux, a thirteenth-century
shrine; the bishop's palace, built in, 1481; and
the Tour de 1'Horloge (clock tower) of the same
century. Evreux nas a botanical garden, a
lyce*e, a library of 21,000 volumes, and a small
museum situated in the town hall, which con-
tains relics found at Vieil Evreux. Its educa-
tional institutions are two theological semina-
ries, a teachers' college, and a school of design.
Evreux manufactures linen, shoes, gas engines,
metal ware, pianos, leather, meal, mustard, and
has an extensive business in grain. Pop. (com-
mune), 1901, 18,292; 1911, 18,957. It was
taken by Clovis from the Komans, was sacked
and plundered in 892 by the Northmen under
Hollo, was burned by Henry I of England in
1119, and in 1194 and again in 1199 was cap-
tured by Philip Augustus, King of France. It
was frequently taken and retaken in the wars
of the fifteenth century between France and
England.

EWALD

236

EWABT

VIEIL EVBEUX (Old Evreuas) , a village near
Evreux, is the site of ancient Mediolanum and
has remains of a theatre, an aqueduct, baths,
and fortifications. Pop., 1901, 275; 1911, 253.

EWALD, a'viil, GAEL (1856-1908). A
Danish novelist and poet, born in Schleswig.
After the War of 1864 the family moved to
Copenhagen, where Carl was educated at the
University. For a time he served as a forester,
but after 1887 he devoted himself to his literary
work. At first he published school books and
made translations. In his novel Den gaiule Ruin
(Eng. trana., The Old Room, 1908) he portrays
the character change of a man who deserted a
conventional life for one of freedom; and in its
sequel, Cordt's Son (Eng. trans., Cordt's Son,
1908), he shows the life of a man who strictly
observed all the social conventions. He is also
author of Singleton's Udenlandsrejse (1894);
Glaede over DenmarJc (1898) ; Siilasmiths Have
(1898); Der KinclerUruezzug (1896; Ger. trans.,
1899) ; Mem Kleiner Junge (1899; Eng. trans.,
190C) ; Crumlin (1900). Alexander T. de Mat-
tos translated others of his works under the
following English titles: My Little Boy (1906) •,
Two-Legs (1906); The Spider and Other Tales
(1907); The Pond and Other Stories (1909);
The Four Seasons (1913).

EWALD, a'valt, GEORG HEINBTCTI AUGUST
VON (1803-75). A German Orientalist and the-
ologian. He was born and educated at Gottin-
gen and in 1823 was appointed instructor in the
gymnasium of Wolfenbtittel. In the following
year he was made lecturer in the theological
faculty of Gottingen, and three years later he
became professor extraordinarius of Oriental lan-
guages. His full professorship was granted him
in 1831. Having become involved, together with
the brothers Grimm, Dahlmann, Gervinus, Al-
broclit, and Weber in the protest against the
abrogation of the constitution which the King of
Hanover had been obliged to grant in 1830,
Ewald was removed from his professorship in
1837. He went in the following year to Tubin-
gen as professor in the philosophical faculty,
from which he changed in 1841 to the theologi-
cal. Here, however, he became involved in con-
troversies with the Catholics, Hegelians, and
Pietists. He left Tubingen after having been
ennobled by the King of Wiirttemberg and was
reinstated in his old position at Gottingen in
1848. For many years, in addition to his
professorial duties, Ewald was engaged in active
support of the movement for Protestant reform
in Germany. After Hanover was annexed to
Prussia, in October, 1866, his loyalty to the
dethroned dynasty caused him to refuse to take
the oath of allegiance to the King of Prussia.
As a result of this decision, expressed with great
vigor and bitterness, he TV as removed from his
position, and pensioned in 1868. Ewald repre-
sented repeatedly the city of Hanover as a mem-
ber of the Guolph faction in the North Gorman
and German diets.

Ewald wielded an immense influence as a
scholar, and his learning was profound. He did
much for Hebrew scholarship and for the critical
study of Hebrew history. His History of Israel
was the most influential work on the subject
in his generation. His writings, excepting his
expressions on political subjects, which were
merely temporary in their interest, were almost
entirely on the Old and New Testaments and on
Arabic. Among those on Hebrew philology and
theology are his Ausfuhrliohes Lehrbuch der

hebraischen Sprache (8th ed., 1870) ; Hebraische
tiprachlehre fur Anf anger (4th ed., 1874) ; Ge-
schichte des Tolkes Israel (7 vols., 3d ed., 1864-
70) ; Die Altert timer dcs Volkes Israel (3d ed.,
1806) ; and Die Lehrc (Ler Bilel von Gott oder
Thcologic des alt&n, und neuen Bundes (4 vols.,
1871-78). The principal works on other Semitic
languages are: Grammatica Critica Linguae
Arabicce (2 vols., 1831-33) ; Abhandlung uber
des tithiopischen Buclies Henokh Entstehung
(1854) ; Ueber die plionikischen Ansicliten von
der WeKschopfung und den gewhichtlichen Wert
Ranch untatliona (1857). Of a more miscellane-
ous character are his tfpruchwissenschaftliche
Abhandtungcn (3 parts, 1861-71); Vcrzeichniss
der onentalischen Handschriften der Universi-
tutsbibHothek zu Tubingen (1839) ; Ueber einige
Mere Sanskritmctra (1827). Ewald was also
the founder ( 1837 ) and one of the editors of the
Zeitschnft fur die Knnde des Aforgerilandes
as well as of the Jalirbdcher der blblischcn "Wis-
soischaft (1840-65). The following have been
translated into English : Hebrew Grammar
(1870); History of Israel (1867-74); Antiqui-
ties of Israel (1876) ; Comment art/ on the
Prophets (1876-77); Isaiah (1869)'; Life of
Jesus Chris I (1865). Consult 'Cheyne, Founders
of Old Testament Criticism (London, 1893).

EWABT, fi'iirt, DAVID (1843- ) . A (1ana-
dian architect. He was born near Edinburgh,
Scotland, and was educated there at the public
schools and at the Edinburgh School of Arts.
He came to Canada and in 1871 was appointed
assistant to the assistant engineer and architect
of the Department of Public Works, Ottawa.
In 1897 he was appointed chief architect of the
department. Among his works are the com-
pletion of the main tower of the Dominion Par-
liament buildings, Ottawa, and the Canadian
buildings at the Paris Exposition and at the
Chicago World's Fair. In 1903 he received the
decoration of the Imperial Service Order. In
1906 he was appointed a member of the board
of assessors, with respect to the new depart-
mental buildings at Ottawa. In 1909 ho became
a councilor of the Royal Architectural Institute
of Canada.

EWA3RT, H'art, JAMBS COSSAR (1851- ).
A Scottish naturalist, born in Penicuik, Mid-
lothian. He was educated at Edinburgh Uni-
versity and in 1874 was demonstrator of nn-
atoray there. In 1875-78 he was conservator
of the London University College Museum, in
1878-82 was professor of natural history at
Aberdeen, and in 1882 became "Hegius professor
at Edinburgh. He started a marine station
near Aberdeen in 1879, in 1882-92 was promi-
nent in scientific work in connection with
fisheries, and devoted his later years to the
study of horses and especially to experiments at
Penicuik in hybridization of horses, zebras, and
donkeys, which were of particular importance
as disproving telegony. His publications in-
clude: Locowotor System of Eclnnodorms
(1881), with G. J. "Romanes; Fish Culture in
America (1884) ; On the Preservation of Fish
(1887) s The Electric Organ of the Skate (1888-
89 ) ; The Development of the Limbs of the
Horse (1894); The Penicuik Experiments
(1890) : Multiple Origin of Horses and Ponies
(1904); On a Prejvalsky Hybrid (1907).

EWABT, JOHN SKIBVING (1849- ). A
Canadian lawyer and publicist. He was born
in Toronto, was educated at Upper Canada Col-
lege, studied law, and was called to the bar in

EWART a;

1871. Until 1882 he practiced his profession in
Toronto, then until 1904 in Winnipeg, and after
that in Ottawa, where he took rank as one
of the leaders of the bar. In the prolonged
educational and religious contest over the Mani-
toba school question (see MANITOBA, History)
Ewart represented the Roman Catholic minority,
defending separate schools, not only in the
courts, but in leading periodicals. He wrote
several legal works of a technical character, and
in 1883-90 edited and published reports of cases
before the Manitoba courts. After 1900 he paid
special attention to the political questions which
arose in consequence of the increased importance
of Canada as a member of the British Em-
pire. He strongly opposed imperialistic views.
In 1910 he was chief counsel for Canada before
The Hague tribunal. In addition to the legal
works before mentioned, he published: The
Kingdom of Canada and Other Essays (1908) ;
Sir John Macdonald and the Canadian Flag
(1908); Canadian Independence (1911); The
Kingdom Papers (1912).

EWART, WILLIAM (1848- ). An Eng-
lish physician, born in London. He was edu-
cated at Paris, at Berlin, and at Cambridge,
where he was Scholar of Gonville and Caius
College. He was examiner and Goulstonian lec-
turer to the Royal College of Physicians and
assistant physician to the Brompton Hospital
for Consumption, besides being consulting physi-
cian to many hospitals. He specialized in dis-
eases of the heart and the lungs, and wrote:
Pulmonary Cavities (1882): Cardiac Outlines
(1892) ; Heart Studies, CUejly Clinical (1894) ;
and the articles "Bronchitis" and "Bronchiec-
tasis" for Allbutt and Rolleston's System of
Medicine, and a part of the Royal Medical and
Chimrgical Society's Report on Climates and
Baths of Great Britain, vol. ii (1902).

EWBANE, H-nbJink, THOMAS (1792-1870).
An American scientist and writer. He was born
in Durham, England, but emigrated to America
about 1819 and from 1820 to 1836 was engaged
in the manufacture of metallic tubing. From
1849 until 1852 he was United States Com-
missioner of Patents. Among his publications
are: A Descriptive and Historical Account of
Hydraulic and Other Machines, Ancient and
Modern (1842; 16th ed., 1863); The World a
Workshop, or the Physical Relation of Man to
the Earth (1855); Life in BrassU (1856):
Thoughts on Matter and Force (1858) ; Remi-
niscences vn, the Patent Office ( 1859 ) ; Inorganic
Farcer* Destined to Supersede Human Slavery
(1860).

EWE. A speech group of pagan negro peoples
on the slave coast of Africa in Dahomey and
Togoland. Keane gives the following list of
peoples speaking dialects of Ewe: Awuna,
Avcnor, and Ataklu, 45 miles inland on the
Volta; Agbosimi, and Aflao, coast from Volta to
Togoland'; Krikor, north of AfLao; Togo, coast
of Togoland; Geng, Porto Seguro and Little
Popo, Great Popo, between Little Popo and
Whydah; Dahoman, inland between Great Popo
and Kotonu; Ewemi, north of Kotonu; Fra and
Appi, from Kotonu to Yoruba frontier; Anfueh9
Krepe, and Ewe-A.wot Togoland; Mahi (Makki),
Affakpami, Aja, north and west of Dahoman.
It is probable that the Ewe came from the north-
east (possibly Borgu or G-urma) only a few cen-
turies ago. 'Their culture is typically West
African. They depend for food mainly on agri-
culture, the chase being monopolized by a special

17 EWELL

caste. Juridical procedure is highly developed,
and there is an unusual complexity of religious
conceptions. Consult: Keane, in Stanford's
Africa, vol. i (London, 1895) ; Ellis, The Ewe-
Speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast of West
Africa (ib., 1890) ; Spieth, Die Ewe-Stdmnie
(Berlin, 1906).

EWELL, H'el, ABTHUB WOOLSEY (1873-
) . An American physicist. Born at Brad-
ford, Mass., he graduated from Yale University
in 1897 (Ph.D., 1899) and also studied at Johns
Hopkins and the University of Berlin. He was
instructor in physics and assistant professor at
Worcester (Mass.) Polytechnic Institute be-
tween 1897 and 1910, when he became professor.
He became a fellow in the American Academy
of Arts and Sciences. He is author of A Text-
Book of Physical Chemistry (1909); Physical
Measurements (1910; 2d ed., 1913); Artificial
Rotator i/ Polarisation (1911).

EWELL, BENJAMIN STODDKBT (1810-94).
An American educator, brother of Richard Stod-
dert Ewell. He was born in Washington, D. C.,
and was educated at West Point, where, after
graduating in 1832, he was an instructor in
mathematics until 1836. After three years as
assistant engineer of the Baltimore and Susque-
lianna Railroad he became professor of mathe-
matics at Hamp den- Sidney College, Virginia, re-
maining there until 1846, and from 1846 to
1848 ho held a similar position at Washington
University, Lexington, Va. In the latter year
began his long connection with William and
Mary College, which ended only with his death.
First elected to the chair of mathematics, he
became president in 1854, a position which he
held until 1888, save for the interval of the
Civil War, in which he served in the Confederate
army as colonel of a Virginia regiment and as
adjutant general on the staff of Gen. Joseph E.
Johnston. From 1888 until his death he was
president emeritus.

EWELL, MABSHALL DAVIS ( 1844- ) . An
American lawyer, born at Oxford, Mich. He
graduated from the Michigan State Normal
School in 1864 and from the University of
Michigan Law School in 1868. In 1877 he be-
came professor at the Union College of Law in
Chicago, and later "he founded the Kent College
of Law, of which he became professor, president,
and dean. In 1890-96 he lectured on medical
jurisprudence at the University of Michigan.
He also became known as a handwriting expert
and microscopist and was president of the
American Microscopical Society (1893, 1906)
and of the Illinois Microscopical Society (1909,
1011). He edited Blackwell on Taso Titles,
Evans on Agency, and Lindley on Partnership,
published some 200 papers in scientific and law
journals, and is author of Leading Cases on
Disabilities (1876) ; Treatise on the Law of
Matures (1876; 2d edv 1905): Essentials of
the Law (1882); Manual of Medical Jurispru-
dence (1887; 2d ed., 1909) ; Essentials of Com-
mercial Law, with Whigam and Skinner (1913).

EWELL, RICHABD STODDEBT (1817-72). An
American Confederate soldier, brother of Ben-
jamin Stoddert Ewell. He was born at George-
town, D. C., graduated at West Point, and was
assigned as lieutenant of dragoons in 1840, and
served in the Mexican War, participating in the
engagements at Contreras and Churubusco. He
attained the rank of captain, took part in the
suppression of the Apache outbreak in 1857, and,
on the outbreak of the Civil War, in 1861, resigned

EWEB

238

EWIN0

his commission and entered the service of the
Confederacy, being actively engaged throughout
the war. As a major general, he commanded
a division at the first and second battles of Bull
Run, at Antietam, and under Jackson at War-
renton Turnpike, where he was severely wounded.
After the death of Jackson at Chancellorsville
he succeeded to his command with the rank of
lieutenant general, took part in the battles of
Gettysburg and the Wilderness, and was finally
captured with his entire corps by Sheridan, at
Sailor's Creek, April 6, 1865. After the war he
lived in retirement.

EWER, tt'er, FERDINAND CABTWBIGHT (1826-
83 ). An American clergyman of the Protestant
Episcopal church. Born at Nantucket, Mass.,
he graduated at Harvard in 1848, in 1849 became
a journalist in California, and in 1858 was
ordained a priest of the Protestant Episcopal
church. In 1858-60 he was rector of Grace
Church, San Francisco, Cal.; in 1860 he was
appointed assistant minister of St. Ann's
Church, New York City, and in 1862 rector of
Christ Church. Because of his extremely ritual-
istic innovations he occasioned a disturbance in
the parish and found it best to resign. In 1871
he became rector of St. Ignatius' Church, which
was organized for him by his friends and sym-
pathizers, and in which he developed very elabo-
rately his ideas regarding the conduct of the
service. His publications include: Two Event-
ful Nights or the Fallibility of Spiritualism
Exposed (1856); Sermons on the Failure of
Protestantism (1869); Catholicity in its Rela-
tions to Protestantism and Romanism (1878) ;
Urammar of Theology (1880).

EWING, ft'ing, FINIS (1773-1841). An
American clergyman, a founder of the Cumber-
land Presbyterian Church. He was born in Bed-
ford Co., Va., whence he removed to Tennessee
and later to Kentucky. In 1802 he was licensed
to preach by the Cumberland presbytery and
for several years thereafter labored with much
success as a revivalist. Ho formed, with two
other clergymen, in 1810, the presbytery from
which the Cumberland Presbyterian Church was
developed. He was subsequently pastor at New
Lebanon (Cooper Co.), Mo.,. in 1820-36, and at
Lexington (Lafayette Co.) in the same State
from 1836 until his death. His Lectures on
Important Subjects in Divinity appeared in 1824.
Consult Cossit, Life and Times of Finis Bwinq
(Nashville, 1853).

EWING, HWH BOYLE (1826-1905). An
American lawyer, soldier, and diplomat, son of
Thomas Ewing. He was born at Lancaster,
Ohio, studied at West Point, in 1849 went to
California by way of New Orleans and Texas,
and upon his return in 1852 studied law, which
he practiced at St. Louis, Mo., in 1854-56, and
at Leavenworth, Kans., in 1856-58. In 1861 he
entered the United States army as brigadier
inspector of Ohio Volunteers. He commanded a
brigade at Antietam and Vicksburg, and at
Chattanooga the division which constituted the
advance guard of Sherman's army, and took
Mission Ridge after a desperately contested
struggle. He was appointed a brigadier general
in 1862 and brevetted major general in 1865.
From 1866 to 1870 he was United States Minis-
ter to The Hague. His publications include A
Castle m the Air (1887) and The Black List
(1803).

E WING, JAMES (1866- ). An American
pathologist, born at Pittsburgh, Pa. He gradu-

ated from Amherst College in 1888 and in 1891
from the College of Physicians and Surgeons
(Columbia University), where, after further
study in Vienna, he was tutor, fellow, and in-
structor (1893-99). In 1899 he became profes-
sor of pathology at Cornell University Medical
School. He was president of the Association
for Cancer Kesearch in 1907 and of the Harvey
Society in 1908. He is author of Clinical
Pathology of Blood (1901; 2d ed., 1903) j
"Identity," "The Signs of Death," and "Sudden
Death," in the Text-Book of Legal Medicine and
Toxicology (1903); "Blood," in the Text-Book
of Legal Medicine (1910).

EWING, SIB (JAMES) ALFSED, K.C.B., F.TLS.
(1855- ). A Scottish physicist and engi-
neer. He was born at Dundee, March 27, 1855,
and was educated at the Dundee high school and
the University of Edinburgh. For several years
he was assistant to Lord Kelvin and Prof. Fleem-
ing Jenkin. In 1878 he was appointed professor
of mechanical engineering in the Imperial Uni-
versity of Tokyo, and while in Japan he devoted
himself assiduously to the study of earthquakes,
devising seismographs to record the earth's vi-
brations during such disturbances. In 1883 he
resigned to become a professor of engineering in
the University College, Dundee, and from 1890
to 1903 he was professor of mechanism and
applied mechanics in the University of Cam-
bridge. From 1903 to 1906 he was a member
of the Explosives Commission and a member of
the Ordnance Research Board, 1906-08. In 1907
he was made C.B., and K.C.B. in 1911. He is
the author of a treatise on Magnetic Induction
in Iron and Other Metals (1891), a work which
followed a series of researches in the various
phenomena of magnetism published in the
Philosophical Transactions and the Proceedings
of the Royal Society. Professor Ewing in-
vented a magnetic curve tracer, a hysteresis
tester, and a permeability bridge, which are used
by electrical engineers and steel makers in test-
ing the iron employed in the construction of
dynamos and transformers. His work on earth-
quakes resulted in the publication of Earthquake
Measurement by the University of Tokyo in 1883,
and other papers by the Seismological Society
of Japan. He also wrote: The Steam Engine
and Other Heat Engines (1894) ; The Strength
of Materials (1899) ; The Mechanical Production
of Cold (1908).

EWING-, JULIANA HOBATIA (1841-85). An
English writer of stories for children. Slip was
born at Ecclesfield, Yorkshire, England, where
her father, Alfred Gatty, was vicar. Her mother
was Margaret Gatty, "who wrote Aunt Judy's
Talcs (1858) and other stories and started
Aunt Judy's Magazine (1806). After the death
of Mrs. Gatty (1873) the magazine was con-
ducted for two years by Juliana and her sister. •
In the meantime (1867) Juliana had married
Major Alexander Ewing, of the army pay de-
partment. Mrs. Ewing wrote her first story,
A Bit of Green, for the Monthly Packet (July,
1861), but most of her work was contributed
to her mother's magazine. Among her many
tales are: Mrs. Over-the-Way's Remembrances
(London, 1869) ; The Brownies (ib., 1870) ; Sins
to Sixteen (ib., 1876) ; Brothers of Pity (ib.,
1882); Jackanapes (ib., 1884). She died at
Bath, May 13, 1885. Consult H. K. T. Gatty,
Juliana E icing and her Books (London, 1885).

EWING, THOMAS (1789-1871). An Ameri-
can statesman, born in Ohio Co., West Va.

EXAMINATION

239

EXAMINATION

He graduated at Ohio University (Athens,
Ohio) in 1815. The year following he studied
law and was admitted to the bar at Lancaster,
where he began his practice. In 1831 he was
elected as a Whig to the United States Senate.
He was a strong advocate of the reeharter of
the United States Bank and protested vigorously
against the action of Jackson in withdrawing the
government deposits from it, and after the
"specie circular" of Secretary Woodbury was
issued in 1836 proposed a measure for its an-
nulment. After the expiration of his senatorial
term in 1837 he resumed the practice of his
profession, but served as Secretary of the Treas-
ury from March till September, 1841, when he
retired because of the differences between Presi-
dent Tyler and the Whig party. In 1849 Ewing
again entered the cabinet, this time as the first
Secretary of the newly established Department
of the Interior. In June, ]850, he was appointed
by the Governor of Ohio a United States sena-
tor, to serve the unexpired term of Thomas
Corwin, who had resigned to enter Fillmore's
newly constituted cabinet as Secretary of the
Treasury. He remained in the Senate until 1851.
He was a delegate to the Peace Congress at
Washington in 1861, but unreservedly supported
the Lincoln administration during the Civil War.
EX A TVTINA'TION (Lat. ecoaminatio, from
examinare, to examine, from eaamen, tongue of
a balance, from emgere, to weigh, from ex, out
+ agere, to lead). The process of testing a
student or a candidate from some scholastic,
professional, or other position, with the purpose
of discovering either the proficiency that has
been attained in certain lines of study and of
knowledge possessed or the capacity for doing
certain lines of work in the future. Both of
these purposes may enter into an examination
and usually should, for it is the minimizing of
the latter purpose that has caused so much
criticism of the scholastic custom. The use of
examinations as a test of fitness for civil service
is discussed under the title CIVIL SERVICE.
Aside from the Oriental, especially Chinese,
civilization, which has had no educational in-
fluence on the West, the use- of examinations as
a scholastic test seems to have begun in the
mediaeval universities, where the conferring of
the baccalaureate degree was conditioned upon
the ability to define and explain terms before a
company already possessed of the degree, and of
the mastership or doctorate upon the ability to
"dispute" or to defend a thesis before a group or
a faculty, each member of which was possessed
of the degree sought* Since then examinations
have become a practice of every part of the
modern educational system, both as a test of the
completion of the component part of the system,
and as a test of fitness- for admission into more
advanced parts of the general system or into
specific institutions.

It is the confusion of the two purposes that
has given rise to some of the most complicated
problems of modern education, chiefly because
the test of a completed portion of work can
become, even if not necessarily so, largely an
exercise in memory, while the test of ability to
undertake other and more advanced lines of work
may have little relation to the excellence of the
memorizing activities or to the possession of
mere information. The use of examinations in
the former sense may be extended so as to fur-
nish a test of the standing or even of the finan-
cial support to be given to institutions. In this

latter application it forms a feature of the
public-school system of the State of New York,
and as "payment by results" was the chief
feature of the elementary school system of
England until the close of the last century and
is still to a large extent characteristic of the
Irish educational system. When used as a test
of knowledge, especially when some exterior end
is sought, examinations may lead to serious
injury to educational work: the work of instruc-
tion becomes formal, the intellectual discipline is
superficial, and the information acquired is soon
forgotten. When the passing of examinations
becomes a prominent motive, the higher pur-
poses and aims in education are lost sight of.
These difficulties in connection with the uses of
examinations are met in different ways. In
England examination by competent inspectors
has been substituted as a test of the quality of
the work done in both elementary and secondary
schools. There is also a tendency to introduce
the oral interview in some examinations, e.g., for
entrance into the naval colleges. In the ele-
mentary grade of the American public schools
the recommendation of the teacher, based upon
an intimate knowledge of the work of the child,
is a partial if not a complete substitute for the
multitude of examinations formerly given. For
the very burdensome college entrance examina-
tion, both certification by schools and a com-
bination of secondary school finals and college
entrance examinations through a general board
are being widely substituted. See COLLEGES,
AMERICAN; OXFORD UNIVERSITY; CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY; NATIONAL EDUCATION, SYSTEMS OF.
Consult: Hadlcy, The Education of the Ameri-
can Citizen (New York, 1901); Latham, The
Action of Examinations (Boston, 1886) ; Her-
bert, T7ie Sacrifice of Education to Examination
(London, 1889) ; Monroe, Cyclopedia of Educa-
tion, s. i>. Examinations (New York, 1911).

EX A MUTATION. In judicial proceedings,
the process by which the testimony of witnesses
is elicited and sifted. It is ordinarily con-
ducted by the counsel for the parties, although
the trial judge has the right to ask questions of
a witness at any time. The first examination on
behalf of the party calling the witness is known
as the direct examination, that on behalf of the
opposite party as the cross-examination, and any
further questioning by the first party is called
redirect examination.. As a rule, the party call-
ing a witness has no right to ask leading ques-
tions, i.e., questions which suggest to the wit-
ness the answers which are desired by the ex-
aminer. It is the duty of the court to see that
witnesses receive decent and respectful treatment
from counsel. For a further discussion, see
EVIDENCE; WITNESS; TORTURE; ETC.; and con-
sult the authorities there cited; also Ballantine,
Eatperiences of a Barrister's Life (New York,
1883).

EXAMINATION, PHYSICAL. In legal pro-
ceedings, the medical or surgical examination of
a living person by judicial order or as a part of
legal proceedings to determine the existence or
the nature of a physical injury alleged to exist,
or of a physiological condition upon which the
rights of a party to the proceeding may depend.
It is especially available in actions for personal
injury due to willful violence or to negligence,
and in cases of abortion, malpractice, and rape.
Whether a court of justice has the power to
compel a party to an action to submit to a phys-
ical examination is a question upon which judi-

EXANTHEMA

±40

EXCAVATlOST

cial decisions aie at variance. It has been
answered in the negative by the United States
Supreme Court and by courts of last resort in
several of the States, while an affirmative answer
has been given by many State tribunals. The
power has been denied on the ground that the
right of every individual to the possession and
control of his own person is held sacred and
carefully guarded by the common law. That
right, it is said, is as much invaded by a com-
pulsory stripping and exposure as by a blow.

Other courts have affirmed the (ixistence of
this power, on the ground that the end of litiga-
tion is justice, and that whenever the physical
examination of a party litigant is necessary to
the ascertainment of the truth and the award of
justice, such examination may be ordered. The
latter view has received statutory sanction in
borne of our States, (See chap. 721, N. Y. Laws,
1803.) Even where this view prevails, the exer-
cise of the power in a given case is a matter of
judicial discretion. A party has not the ab-
solute right to compel his opponent to submit
to a physical examination; and a court will
order such examination only when the necessities
of the case require it, and when it can be made
without dang 01 to the party's life or health,
and without the infliction of serious pain. Con-
sult Watson, On Damages for Personal Injuries
(Charlottesville, 1901).

EX'ANTHE'MA (Lat., from Gk. ^dvBTjfjLa,
eruption, from QavQelv, eatanthein, to blossom out,
from CK, c~k, out + &v0os, anthos, flower). A
name applied to a class of febrile diseases (ex-
anthemata ) attended by distinctive eruptions on
the skin, appearing at a definite period, and
running a recognizable course. To this class
belong smallpox, chickenpox, measles, German
measles, typhoid fever, scarlet fever, typhus,
and erysipelas (qq.v.). See FEVEB.

EX'ARCH (Lat. emrchuB, from Gk. tfapxos,
eatarchos, leader, from t£dpxcivt eaarchein, to lead
out, from #, ear, out + &px,ew, arcliew, to lead).
A title applied early in the sixth century to any
officer in the Byzantine army, but restricted in
the last decade of the century to the military
governors in Italy and Africa. Because of the
troubled conditions in those two countries the
exarch had to be given absolute civil as well as
military power. The Exarch of Italy, who re-
sided at Ravenna (q.v.), ratified the election of
the Bishop of Rome, controlled the finances,
judged all appeals, and made all official appoint-
ments. For the end of the exarchate in Italy,
see AISTULF. In the Christian Church exarch
vas originally a title of the bishops, afterward
of a bishop who presided over several others — a
primate. After the Council of Chalcedon it was
used as a title higher than metropolitan, but
lower than patriarch. The exarch of monas-
teries was an official charged with the mainte-
nance of discipline. The same title is also borne,
in the modern Greek church, by the person who
tkvisitsj' officially, as a legate of the patriarch,
the provincial clergy and churches. Consult
Bichl, Etudes sur I'admimstration lyvantine
dans I'exarchat de ftavewne (Paris, 1888), and
Ducange, Glossarium ad Scriptores Mediae et
Tnflmw Orcetitatis (Paris, 1688).

EXARCH. See Vascular System, under
MORPHOLOGY OF PLANTS.

EXCALTBTTR. The famous sword of King
Arthur (q.v.). It was bestowed upon him in
accordance with the promise of Merlin, by the
Lady of the Lake, and at his death thrown by

one of his faithful knights back into the waters
of the lake, where it was grasped and borne
beneath the surface by a mystic hand. Consult
Tennyson's Idylls of the King.

EX CATH'EDRA (Lat., from the chair).
A phrase originally used with reference to the
decisions of the Pope or others high in au-
thority, who, literally speaking, pronounced their
judgments etc cathedra. The expression is often
used generally, meaning to speak with complete
authority. In the definition by the Vatican
Council of papal infallibility the expression is
used as one of the limitations of the doctrine.
The Pope is held to be infallible only when,
among other things, e'he speaks ea cathedra,
i.e., when in the discharge of his office of pastor
and teacher of all Christians, in virtue of his
supreme apostolic authority, he defines a doc-
trine regarding faith or morals to be held by the
whole Church."

EXCAVATING MACHINERY (from Lat.
etccavare, to hollow, from ex, out -+- cavare, to
hollow, from cavus, hollow). This term em-
braces mechanical devices for excavating and
loading earth used in the construction of rail-
ways, canals, reservoirs, etc. The two most im-
portant classes,, of excavating machines are
dredges and steam shovels, which are described
under those titles. The ordinary drag- scraper
is one of the simplest forms of excavating ma-
chine; wheel scrapers are, roughly speaking,
drag-scraper bodies mounted on two wheels to
facilitate their movement. Drag and wheel
scrapers, which may be modified in various ways,
usually are hauled by horses and require a. man
to load and dump them. Scrapers of large size
are sometimes arranged to be operated by cables,
the cables being so arranged and so manoeuvred
by a steam engine that they automatically fill,
haul, dump, reverse, and return the scraper just
ns these operations are performed by hand and
horse power. A form of excavating machine
called a grader, which is much used, consists of
a four-wheeled vehicle with a strong frame from
which a peculiar form of plow is rigidly sus-
pended. Thia plow turns the earth on to a trav-
eling belt, which extends diagonally upward at
one side of the vehicle so that a wagon may
be driven under its upper end to receive the dis-
charge. Grapple-bucket excavators and con-
tinuous chain-bucket excavators have been de-
veloped from dredges of this type and quite
extensively used. Special forms of excavators
with buckets designed for the material to be
handled are in operation both in connection with
traveling cranes and with cableways, and these
are extensively used in all kinds of excavation.
The grapple dredge usually has buckets of the
orange-peel or the grab-bucket type, where two
quadrants of a cylinder are so hinged that after
being lowered into the material they may be
brought together and then the load raised by
another cable or chain. For ditching and trench-
ing drag-line excavators are employed, with
buckets of various types, as well as some form
of continuous chain-bucket excavator which can
be used in dry excavation as well as wet. See
DBEDGE; ROAD AXD STREET MACHINERY; STEAM
SHOVEL. Consult Merrhnan, .-I mcrican Civil En-
gineer's Pocket Book (2d ed., New York, 1913),
and McDaniel, Excavating Machinery (New
York, 1913).

EXCAVATION*. A term applied to the re-
moval of material in building or engineering
operations, to provide space which may be or

may not be filled with BOine sort of structural
work. Excavation may vary from the simplest
digging of a well or cellar for a rural dwelling
to svork involved in the construction of a ship-
canal or railway terminal, tunnel subway, or
subaqueous foundation, it may involve the
use of pick and shovel or other hand tools, a
horse-drawn plow or scraper, a steam shovel,
or other forms of excavating machinery (q.v.)
with or without the use of high explosives (see
BLASTING), or various complicated dredging
machinery. (See DKEDGE.) Often it is a form
of engineering where the element of human labor
figures more prominently than elsewhere, as
much of the work is done by hand, although this
condition has been improved by recent forms of
excavating machinery. The term Excavation,
however, is so general a one that reference should
be made to articles describing more important
processes included under such titles as CABALS,
DAMS AND RESEBVOIBS, EXCAVATING MACHIN-
EBY, FOUNDATIONS, TUNNELS, DBEDGE, RAIL-
WAYS, ETC.

EXCEL'SIOR (Lat., higher). 1. The motto
of the State of New York. 2. A widely known
poem of Longfellow (1841), suggested by the
motto of !New York, and beginning "The shades
of night were falling fast/*

EXCELSIOB. A material formed of thin
wood shavings, much used for packing purposes,
stuffing for mattresses and upholstery, as stable
und kennel bedding, and in France employed as
a substitute for absorbent lint in hospitals, for
filtration purposes, and for weaving into floor
coverings. It was first made in the United
States about the middle of the nineteenth cen-
tury, being put on the market in 1860, but later
the manufacture was extensively taken up in
Europe, especially in France. Excelsior is not,
as is often supposed, made from shavings, but
directly from logs of wood. Aspen or poplar
and basswood furnish the best material. The
logs are first sawed into blocks, 19 inches long,
8 inches thick, and the width of the log. These
bolts, or split billets, are seasoned, split in two
19-inch lengths, and the ends trimmed down to
make the final bolt for the machinery 18 inches
long, the uaual length of a strip of excelsior.
A knife shaves off the surface of the bolt, the
slice first having been split by a series of jacoring
knives. The tiny fibres curl and commingle as
they fall from the knife; the finer the shavings,
the' higher the grade of the product. An excel-
sior machine will make from 200 to 300 strokes
a minute, each stroke cutting off a tier of fibres
from the face of the block. Excelsior is packed
in bales weighing 250 pounds. The annual pro-
duction for the United States, amounting to
some 140,000 tons, requires some 85,000,000 feet
of timber, or the growth of over 14,000 acres of
forest land. The American product in 1911 was
manufactured by 122 factories, which consumed
142,944 cords of wood, of which 61,941 cords
were cottonwood, 37,901 cords yellow pine, and
33,042 basswood. The price in 1914 varied from
$8 to $22 per ton on the market according to
the grade. It was said that it costs from $7
to $12 per ton to manufacture and market the
product.

EXCEL'SIOR SPRINGS. A city in Clay
Co., Mo., 28 miles northeast of Kansas City, on
the Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul, the Wa-
bash, and the Kansas City, Clay County, and
St. Joseph railroads (Map: Missouri, B 2). Its
many mineral springs with medicinal properties

4i EXCHANGE

EXCEPTION (Lat. exceptio, from excipere,
to except, from ex, out + capere, to take ) . In
law: (a) a taking out or excluding something
from the operation or effect of an instrument,
statement, or the like; (6) an objection legally
taken to testimony or other material matter in
a legal proceeding; (c) the clause, writing, or
statement by which cither of these objects is
accomplished, also the thing excepted or ex-
copted to. When applied to a clause in a deed,
it means a provision that exempts something
from the grant, as where the deed conveys a
certain farm with the exception of a described
piece of land or a designated building or tree.
(Cf. RESEKVATION.) An exception in a statute
exempts a person or thing from the operation of
the enactment; and it is a rule of pleading in a
criminal prosecution or in a civil suit for pen-
alties under such a statute, that the indictment
or complaint must negative the exception, i.e.,
deny that the defendant or the alleged criminal
act comes within the exception. In admiralty
and equity practice the term is applied to the
proper method of bringing before the court an
objection to the regularity or sufficiency of a
pleading or proceeding. In this sense an excep-
tion partakes of the nature of a pleading, per-
forming the function of a special demurrer at
common law.

The term is employed most frequently, how-
ever, in common-law actions to describe the
formal signification of a party's objection to an
adverse ruling of the court upon some point of
law. It must be taken at the time of the ruling,
or \vithin a prescribed period thereafter, and
should be entered upon the court's record, so
that a proper bill of exceptions (q.v.) may be
prepared for a review of the case by $n appellate
court. Consult the authorities referred to under
BEAT, PROPERTY; PLEADING; PRACTICE.

EXCESS (Lat. eaooessus, departure, from
c&cedere, to depart, from ex, out + cedere, to
go). The remainder arising from dividing one
number by another is often called the excess, as
in casting out nines in the test for divisibility.
(See CHECKING.) In spherical trigonometry the
excess of the sum of the angles of a spherical
polygon over n — 2 straight angles (the sum of
the* angles of a plane polygon of the same num-
ber of sides) is called the spherical excess of the
polygon; e.g., the spherical excess of a spherical
triangle with the angles 00°, 127°, 40% is 77°.
When the area of a spherical triangle, compared
with the area of the sphere on which it lies, is
very small, it may be taken as the area of the
plane triangle with Rides of the same length as
those of the spherical triangle and with angles
diminished by one-third of the spherical excess.
If S denotes the area of the spherical triangle,
"K its excess, and r the radius of the sphere, then

a -

E -- . This formula is of use in triangu-

lation (see SURVEYING) to check the excess as
found from the. observed angles.

EXCHANGE (OF. exchanger, echanger, Fr.
^changer, It. scamliwe, ML, eaocamliare, to ex-
change, from Lat. eo?, out + ML. camliare, Lat.
oambire. to change, from Olr. oimb, tribute; con-
nected with Gall, oamlos, IT. ccwnm, Welsh,

EXCHANGE

242

EXCHANGE

Corn., Brit, cam, crooked). In the older politi-
cal economy, a division of the science including
the treatment of value, price, money, credit, and
also such topics as trade, domestic and foreign,
transportation by land or sea, commercial
policy, regulation of banking, and the like. In
the recent development of economic science most
of the topics mentioned above have been as-
similated to production and distribution, and
exchange, as a division of the science, has fallen
into disuse. See POLITICAL ECONOMY.

EXCHANGE. The conversion of the money
of one country into its equivalent in the money
of another. The technical meaning of the word
has now, however, come to be the difference be-
tween the actual value of money taken by the
standard of bullion, in any two places, with re-
lation to each other. If in New York it requires
more thtin $300 to pay a debt of that amount in
London, the rate of exchange is against the
former town and in favor of the latter, an in-
habitant of which can pay a debt of $500 in New
York with less than that amount of bullion in
London.

The operations of exchange are based on the
principle of the cancellation of indebtedness and
can be best explained by simple example. If a
New York merchant, A, buys goods from a Lon-
don merchant, B, it would seem that the simplest
way of discharging his indebtedness would be
by the shipment of gold to London. But this
primitive method is not the simplest. Such a
shipment involves costs of transportation and
insurance, which materially enhance the price
paid. A simpler plan would be to have another
London merchant, C, who owes money in New
York, make the payment in London to A's
creditor, whilo A in New York makes the pay-
ment to C's ci editor at that point. This is in
effect what actually takes place in the settlement
of such debts, though neither A in New York nor
C in London is under the necessity of ascertain-
ing to whom payment must be made to cancel
the two de^ts. This is done through the agency
of the banks and bankers. A in New York goes
to his hunker and buys a draft upon London;
C in his turn buys a draft upon New York.
These two drafts cancel one another, and London
pays New York, and New York London, without
the shipment of specie.

In order to correspond to the facts of the
actual world, these simple transactions must be
multiplied by the thousandfold. The aggregate
of the payments to be made by New York to
London must be balanced off against those of
London to New York. But can it be supposed
that thp balance \A ijver exact? As between two
points only, this is probably never the case.
How, then^ can a balance be reached? In the
first place, by associating with New York other
places which do their banking through that
centre. In this manner practical equality of
demand between points is attained, and ex-
change is at par. Costs of shipment are elim-
inated, and to pay a debt of £500 in London, the
New York merchant pays the exact equivalent
in American money of the fine gold contained
in £500. But such equality of demand is rare.
There is usually an excess of payments to be
made by one point or the other. In such cases
exchange rises above or falls below par. If
New York has more payments to make upon
London than London on New York, sterling ex-
change will bi» in domand. To secure the means
of payment in London the New York merchant

will pay more than the par, and exchange is
at a premium. If the contrary case prevails,
New York bankers in their desire to secure
payments for London will offer them at less
than par. The alternative of buying exchange
is always the shipment of bullion, and when
the premium upon exchange grows as large as
the cost of shipping bullion, gold exports will
begin. The cost of shipping bullion fixes, there-
fore, the maximum of exchange. In the last
resort, therefore, the discrepancy in the relative
demand of two points is liquidated by shipments
of specie, but it is to be observed that it is only
the balance which is shipped, and large amounts
are settled by the principle of compensation. Be-
fore the shipment* of specie takes place, various
adjustments in trade are likely to occur that
reduce the amount of specie to be shipped. When
exchange on London is above par, the premium
acts as a stimulus to exportation; when bolow
par, a stimulus to importation is offeied. Es-
pecially significant is the effect of changes in
the rate of exchange upon the movement of se-
curities, which often is sufficiently great to
liquidate balances. In the general circle of
transactions of this kind the state or town
which has the largest amount of transactions
will have the largest number of debtors and of
creditors and will afford the chief facility for
each compensating the other. It is thus that
London is the centre of the money market, where
all the debits and credits of the world may be
said to meet and extinguish each other. While
the old notions about the balance of trade (q.v.)
existed, it was supposed that the nation which
the exchange was against was going to ruin,
while that which it was in favor of was prosper-
ing through the other's loss. At present it is
inconvenient and expensive to a country to have
the exchange against it. An adverse exchange
generally indicates a sort of break in the circle
of trade which it would be advantageous to fill
up, and may be caused by the commerce of a
country decreasing; on the other hand, however,
the imports for which a countrv pays in cash or
in expensive bills may be a highly advantageous
traffic. Gold-producing countries find bullion
their most advantageous export, and the same
is the case with countries into which gold has
flowed in excess.

Some confusion as to rates of exchange often
occurs because of the failure to note the diver-
gent practice of the London and other markets.
In London they reckon how much foreign money
can be purchased by a definite sum of the home
currency. Thus, the par of exchange between
London and New York being £1 = $4.866%, Lon-
don may reckon exchange at $4.84, in which case
American money is dear and exchange at a
premium. On the other hand, New York reckons
the cost in American money of a definite quan-
tity of foreign money. Thus, when sterling
exchange is quoted at $4.84, English money is
cheap and exchange below par. Consequently,
in England, exchange "falls" as the conditions
become more unfavorable, while in the United
States exchange "rises" when the conditions be-
come unfavorable. A failure to note this differ-
ence has been a fruitful cause of misunderstand-
ing. Consult: G. J. Goschen, Theory of Foreign
Exchange (10th ed., London, 1894) ; C. A. Stern,
Arbitrations and Parties of Foreign Bacchante
(New York, 1901); P. Escher, Elements of
Foreign Eaoohange (ib., 1010) ; D. M. Barbour.
Standard of Value (ib., 1912) ; A. W. Margraflf,

EXCHANGE

243

EXCHANGE

International Exchange (4th ed., ib., 1912) ; H.
Withers, Moncif-Changing (ib., 1913).

EXCHANGE. A term applied to an organ-
ization of merchants meeting at stated times,
generally daily, for the transaction of business,
as well as to the building in which such meetings
occur. Here and in Great Britain a sharp line
is generally drawn between stock exchanges, at
present the most important form of exchanges,
and those devoted to other classes of transac-
tions, but on the continent of Europe this is not
the caae. There the exchange focuses the com-
mercial life of the community at one point, and
accordingly the buildings devoted to the pur-
pose are frequently among the architectural
ornaments of the city, as in Paris and Brussels.
Whether there is a single exchange or several,
the kindred purposes of all such organizations
have developed a particular type of building.
There is generally a large quadrangular space
surrounded by an arcade, frequently with offices
opening from the latter. The central space, the
"floor," devoid of furniture — transactions of
large amount being carried in the head or on
the simplest memoranda — is reserved for the ac-
credited members of the organization, while the
arcade, or gallery, as the case may be, accom-
modates visitors. Offices for the manager and
his assistants, and frequently reading and recrea-
tion rooms for the members, form a part of the
equipment of such a building.

Exchanges as organizations are of quite early
date, and we have no precise record of their
original purposes. It is probable that they grow
out of the mediaeval guilds of merchants. The
latter erected their own warehouses, and in the
regulation of their use and the determination of
trading customs and settlement of disputes in
such guilds we see types of the activities of the
modern exchanges. Many of the latter were
founded early in the sixteenth century, especially
in the Netherlands. The Royal Exchange of
London dates from 1556, when it was established
by Sir Thomas Gresham. Wherever they exist
exchanges are primarily organizations of mer-
chants with more or less recognition and control
by the government. In England and the United
States they are simply private corporations
chartered by the State, but on the continent of
Europe the government takes an active part
in their establishment and administration.

The main characteristic of dealings in ex-
changes is the fact that the goods dealt in are
not physically present. There is not, as in the
case of sales in a private establishment, op-
portunity for inspection of goods. It follows,
therefore, that exchanges deal in standard goods
only, or rather in such as may be definitely de-
scribed. The purchaser of goods on an exchange
does not buy specific goods, but rather a specific
quantity of goods of a definite character. It is
this feature which adapts the exchanges in so
marked a degree to speculation. Persons buy
and sell without contemplation of future de-
livery, but with reference to a future price.
Settlements are expected and made, not by de-
livery of the goods, but by adjustment of the
difference between the contract price and the
price ruling in the market at the maturity of
the contract.

Stocks, bonds, cotton, wool, grain, hides, pro-
visions, and a few other commodities can be
bought and sold in this fashion. Of these, the
first and second are particularly adapted to
such transactions, and stock exchanges are ac-

cordingly the most widely disseminated form of
exchanges. In the United States separate ex-
changes generally exist for them, while the other
commodities may be handled by a general prod-
uce exchange, or by separate organizations, de-
pending upon certain historical antecedents or
upon the importance of the staple in question for
the trade of a particular place.

Stock exchanges and produce exchanges have
many points of organization and procedure in
common, but as stock exchanges are treated in
a separate article, we shall confine our explana-
tions here to produce exchanges, illustrating
their methods and purposes by some account
of the New York Produce Exchange.

This organization was originally chartered
April 19, 1862, as the New York Commercial
Association. Its purposes are declared by its
charter to be "to provide and regulate a suitable
room or rooms for a Produce Exchange in the
city of New York, to inculcate lust and equitable
principles in trade, to establish and maintain
uniformity in commercial usages, to acquire, pre-
serve, and disseminate valuable business informa-
tion, and to adjust controversies and misunder-
standings between persons engaged in business."
In 1808 an Act amendatory to the charter
changed the name to the New York Produce
Exchange, while a further Act of 1882 added
to the declared purposes, "to make provision
for the widows and families of deceased mem-
bers." The conduct of the affairs of the organ-
ization is vested in a board of managers con-
sisting of the president, vice president, treasurer,
and 12 other managers elected annually by
the association. The charter authorizes the
board of managers to elect annually an arbitra-
tion committee composed of five persons not mem-
bers of the board, whose duty it is to hear and
decide controversies between members. On filing
the award of the committee in the Supreme
Court of the County and City of New York, judg-
ment is entered according to the award. From
such award there is no appeal except for frauds,
collusion, or corruption of the arbitration com-
mittee or of its members. Other committees
are named by the president. Of these, one of the
most important is the complaint committee,
which takes cognizance of all duly entered com-
plaints against members. This body endeavors
to conciliate the disputants or induce them to
resort to arbitration. Failing in this, it may,
if circumstances warrant, bring the matter be-
fore the board of manageis, which may, when the
charges against the defendant are substantiated,
by vote of two-thirds of the members present,
censure, suspend, or expel him from the exchange.
Other important committees are that on trade,
which has to do with commercial usages, and
the coonmittee on information and statistics. In
addition to the managers and various commit-
tees there is a superintendent of the exchange
charged with the details of management, the care
of the building, and similar duties. Annual as-
sessments of not less than $10 or more than
$30, as the board may direct, form the basis of
the revenues of the exchange.

In addition to general rules as to membership
and the like, there is a series of special rules
for the trade in provisions, lard, grain, flour,
seeds, petroleum, oil, butter, cheese, and hops,
maritime trade, and steamship trade. These
rules have much similarity, though they differ
according to the nature of the business in ques-
tion. Each set of rules defines standard grades

EXCHEQUER

244

EXCHEQUER BILLS

in tlie commodity to which it refers. Thus, in
the rules governing the provision trade we find
exact descriptions of what is meant by such
familiar market terms as mess pork, prinie mess
pork, extra prime pork, and the like. The
lules define also the quantities in which such
goods shall be handled, and modes of packing and
curing. They provide a system of inspection,
and the board licenses inspectors to carry it out.
Standard forms of contract, rules as to settle-
ments, and similar matters are features of the
rules. Far more complex are the rules governing
the grain trade, but they do not differ in spirit.

Each exchange makes its own rules, such as
are adapted to the locality in which it is situ-
ated, but for the same kinds of trade the rules
have much in common. This is particularly true
of all rules fixing definitions, as the various ox-
changes strive hero especially to secure uni-
formity. An important function of all ox-
changes is the dissemination of information. Not
only are the market reports published daily in
the papers prepared under the supervision of
the exchanges, but annual reports embracing
a vast amount of statistical information aie
frequently published. See STOCK EXCHANGE;
SPECULATION.

EXCHEQUER, CHANCELLOB OF TEE (OF.
eftclielter, Fr. 4chiquier, checkerboard, alluding
to the checkered cloth on which accounts were
reckoned, from OF. eschecs, Fr. echec, chess, from
Pers. Sah, OPers. xvayadiya, Skt. ksatriya,
king, from 7osi, to rule). In Great Britain, the
head of the Treasury Department. He must be
a member of the Lower House, which holds
control of the purse. When the Prime Minister
is a member of the House of Commons, he some-
times holds the office of Chancellor of the
Exchequer. Tho judicial functions of the Chan-
cellor, which before the eighteenth century wore
of great importance, have disappeared. See
EXCHEQUER, COURT OF.

EXCHEQUER, CocJET OP. An English law
court of great antiquity and importance, origi-
nally instituted for the adjudication of contro-
verted questions relating to the royal revenues.
It is said to have existed from the early times
of the Conquest and is supposed to have been
denominated the Exchequer from the fact that a
checkered cloth was wont to be laid upon the
table of the court. Under the Norman kings
it was a branch of the Aula Jtegid, or Great
Council of the Nation. From the reign of
Henry III its existence as a separate court was
recognized. Its special business continued to
be the decision of revenue cases, but from an
early period the court showed a tendency to, ex-
tend its jurisdiction over the ordinary litigious
business — the common pleas — of the country.
This was done by establishing the fiction that ail
lioges wore the crown's debtors, whereby the
Court of Exchequer acquired a concurrent juris-
diction with the other courts of common law.
Besides its common-law jurisdiction the Ex-
chequer was distinguished from the two other
superior courts of common law — the King's
Bench and the Court of Common Pleas—by hav-
ing an equity side; hut this was abolished in
1841, and its equitable jurisdiction transferred
to the Court of Chancery. The judges of the
Exchequer consisted originally of the Lord
Treasurer, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, and
three puisne judges (those last being called
barons of the Exchequer). The Chancellor of
the Exchequer sat only on the equity sido of the

court; he hart not been called upon to exercise
his judicial functions since 1735. The Court of
Exchequer was abolished as a separate court by
the Judicature Act of 1873, and its jurisdiction
transferred to the newly created High Court of
Justice. See BARON; CURIA REGIS.

The Com t of Exchequer Chamber was
formerly a court of all the judges in England as-
sembled for decision of matters of law. Orig-
inally established in the reign of Edward III,
for the purpose of reviewing the decisions of the
common-law side of the Court of Exchequer, it
developed into a general court of error, in which
capacity it revised the judgments of the other
two courts of common law as well. In the reign
of Elizabeth it was enacted that the judges of
the Common Pleas and Exchequer should foim
a second Court of Exchequei Chamber, for re-
view of certain eases in the Queen's Bench. But
this intermediate court of appeal was abolished
by the Judicature Act of 1873.

In Scotland, before the Union, the Exchequer
\MIS the King's revenue court. A new court was
established in the reign of Queen Anne having
a pm-ate jurisdiction as to questions relating
to revenues and customs of excise, and as to all
honors and estates, real and personal, and for-
feitures and penalties arising to the crown
within Scotland. The judges of the court were
the High TreiihUU'r of Great Britain, the Chief
Baron uud four other barons, and English bar-
risters as well as Scottish advocates were al-
lowed to practice in the court. By a statute of
William IV it was provided that successors
should not be appointed to such of the barons
as should retire or die, and that the duties of
the court should be discharged by a judge of the
Court of Session. More recently, by 19 and
20 Viet., c. 56, the Court of Exchequer has
been abolished and its jurisdiction transferred
to the, Cotirt of Session.

The Court of Excliequer Cliam'bcr in Ireland
was established by 40 George III, c. 30, but
was abolished as an intermediate court of ap-
peal between the Irish courts and the High
Court of England. (See COUET.) Consult Madox,
history and Antiquities of the fiscchequcr of the
Kings of England, etc. (2d ed., London, 1709);
Poole, T7ie Exchequer in the Twelfth Century
(ib., 1912).

EXCHEQUER BILLS. Notes issued by the
English Treasury or Exchequer for the purpose
of supplying a temporary demand for money,
ftuch bills were issued to meet temporary emer-
gencies, with the expectation of repayment in a
comparatively brief period. They bore interest
and were payable at the option of the govern-
ment. At times they have been liquidated by
payment from current revenues; at other ti-mes
by conversion into funded debt. While the bills
have some of the features of investments, they
are, on the other hand, receivable at the public
Treasury in payment of taxes, and the rate of in-
terest upon them has been variable, according to
the condition of the market at the time of issue.
They were first introduced into England in the
reign of "William III and have since been a con-
spicuous feature in English financial policy. Of
late years, however, they have been generally
superseded by the issue of Exchequer bonds.
These differ from the bills in having a definite
time to run, but otherwise they serve the same
purpose. While the United States has issued in
the past quarter of a century no obligations in
any way analogous to the Exchequer bills and

EXCHEQUER TALLIES

bonds, there are some striking points of re-
semblance between the latter and the Treasury
notes which wore a frequent device of American
financiering before the outbreak of the Civil
War. See TBEASTJEY XOTES.

EXCHEQUER TALLIES. Seasoned wands
of ash, hazel, or willow, formerly used for check-
ing accounts in the English Exchequer. The sum
acknowledged was inscribed on the tally, on the
other side of which the same sum was inscribed
in Roman characters, together with the payer's
name. Notches marked upon the tally indicated
by their form the class to which the account be-
longed. This tally was split, and the payer re-
ceived one-half, which he presented for payment,
and which was matched with the half remaining
in the office.

EXCIP'IEWT (from Lat. excipere, to take
out, from ex, out + capere, to take). An inert
or slightly active substance, introduced into a
medical prescription as a vehicle or medium of
administration for the strictly medicinal ingredi-
ents or to make up the necessary bulk. Thus,
conserve of red roses, or bread crumbs, or licorice
powder is used to make up pills; white sugar
in medicinal powders; water, mucilage, white of
egg, sirup, glycerin, and many other substances
in fluid mixtures.

EXCISE, ex-slz' (MDutch aksiis, alst/s, Ger.
Accisc, excise, from OF. as sis } taxes, from assise,
session, from asseir, Fr. asseoir, to sit, from Lat.
assidcre, to sit, from ad + sedere, Gk. 2£e<70ai,
heseslllai, Skt. sad, to sit; confused by popular
etymology with Lat. eoscieus, p.p. of excidere, to
cut off ) . A term commonly applied to a tax on
commodities, levied either upon production or
upon sale. In American finance the term is oc-
casionally applied to taxes of an entirely dif-
ferent nature, as, e.g., to the corporation tax of
1909. A tax on commodities bought and sold
is a very obvious one, but it has generally ap-
peared in the simple shape of a toll on goods
brought to market, and the complicated arrange-
ments for officially watching the process of a
manufacture for the purpose of seeing that none
of the dues of the revenues are evaded is of
comparatively modern origin. Though a tax
corresponding to the excise appears to have "been
occasionally levied in England in very early
times, the name first appears in the act of the
Long Parliament establishing an excise on
liquors, in 1643, with the promise of repeal at
the end of the war. But when the land tax was
removed or greatly diminished, and revenue
from that source was no longer sufficient, it was
found impossible to dispense with this new
method of supply to the Treasury. Though al-
ways unpopular, the excise in some form or other
has ever continued to be a material element in
the taxation of Great Britain.

In the United States the term "excise" ^ is
comparatively unfamiliar. The taxation which
corresponds to the English excise ia known as
internal-revenue taxation. See INTEBNAL-REVE-
NUE SYSTEM.

An excise, when compared with other taxes,
has its good and its bad features; it is a method
of extracting money for national purposes by
taxing expenditures on luxuries and is especially
serviceable when fed from those luxuries the use
of which in excess becomes a vice. On the
other hand, it renders necessary a system of
inquisitional inspection, while the manufacturer
ia at times obliged to employ a more expensive
and inconvenient process and to forego the in-

245

EXCOMMUNICATION

troduction of improvements in order to conform
to governmental regulations, the cost of such
unnecessary labor falling eventually upon the
consumer. Moreover, checking the demand by
artificially raising the price of a commodity in
this way may often retard the growth of a rising
industry. Though counteracted in a measure by
the bonding system, the necessity of a larger
capital for the manufacture of excisable articles
fosters a sort of monopoly by its tendency to
check competition; and since the manufacturer
must realize profits on that part of his capital
which is applied to the payment of taxes, as well
tia what is directly employed in the production
of the article, the price to the consumer is
greatly increased. These objections do not, how-
ever, invalidate the advantages of the excise
system in this country, where the luxuries,
spirits and tobacco, bear the chief burden of the
tax; and it is the common opinion that a low
excise on articles of luxury is the most produc-
tive as well as the least objectionable of taxes.
See FINANCE: STA^IF ACT; STJOTPS; TAX.

EXCFTANT (from Lat. excitare, to excite,
from ex, out + ciere, to call), or STIMULANT
(from Lat. stimulare, to stimulate, from stimu-
lus, goad). Any pharmaceutical preparation
which, acting through the nervous system, tends
to increase the action of the heart and other or-
gans. Examples of cardiac excitants are strych-
nine, cafTein, and alcohol, in small doses. Among
the respiratory stimulants ammonia is the most
useful and powerful. Externally mustard and
other rubofacients are employed. The class is
a very numerous one, and must be used with
discrimination.

EXCI'TO-MO'TOR ACTION. See NERVOUS
SYSTEM.

EXCLUDED MIDDLE, THE LAW or THE.
The logical principle that, of two contradictory
propositions, both cannot be denied. One of the
two must be affirmed. See OPPOSITION.

EXCLUSION BILL. See CHARLES II;
JAMES II.

EX'COMMTJ'NICA/TION. Exclusion from
religious privileges; usually used of exclusion
by formal sentence from the fellowship of the
Christian Church. The ancient Romans had
something analogous in the exclusion from the
temples and from participation in the sacrifices
of certain persons who were given over with awe-
inspiring ceremonies to the furies. In the time
of Christ it was a recognized penalty among the
Jews (see John ix. 22; xii. 42; xvi. 2). A dis-
tinction is drawn in the Mishna between two
degrees of excommunication; of these, the milder
(niddui) involved exclusion from the life of the
community for 30 days (or seven days), with
the performance of penances and the wearing of
mourning apparel. Twenty-four causes are enu-
merated, most of them of a civil nature. The
heavier sentence (cherem) was pronounced with
great formality of solemn curses and was for an
indefinite time. A similar power was recognized
from the first in the Christian Church (see Matt,
xviii. 17; 1 Cor. v. 5; 1 Tim. i. 20) and is fre-
quently referred to in the fathers. There were
two forms of excommunication, medicinal and
mortal — i.e., healing or reformatory and damna-
tory. The two degrees of excommunication, ma-
jor and minor, were early distinguished. Minor
excommunication involved exclusion from the
sacrament of the Lord's Supper and from the
full privileges of the Church. Major excommuni-
cation was pronounced upon obstinate sinners,

EXCOMMUNICATION 246

relapsed offenders, and heretics. Its form was
usually more solemn and the decree not so easily
revoked. The term of the excommunication was
left to the bishop. (See ABSOLTJTION. ) In Af-
rica and Spain the absolution of lapsed persons
— i.e., those who in times of persecution had
yielded and fallen away from their Christian
professions by actual sacrifice to idols — was for-
bidden except at the hour of death, unless by the
special intercession of martyrs. At first no civil
disabilities were connected with excommunica-
tion, but as governments became Christian, ma-
jor excommunication was followed by loss of
political rights and exclusion from public office.
The capitularies of Pepin the Short, in the eighth
century, ordained that major excommunication
should be followed by banishment. Other na-
tional laws still further extended the scope of the
ecclesiastical censure. By a logical consequence
a sentence of excommunication directed against
the rulor deprived him of his rights to govern
and by that fact absolved his subjects from their
allegiance to him. When such a purpose was
intended, however, a special sentence to that
effect was attached to the bull of excommunica-
tion. The reformers claimed the power of ex-
communication in the same degree as the church
from which they seceded. Luther, as may be
seen from the Table Talk, insisted on the right
of excommunication as inherent in the ministers
of the church. Calvin (see the Institutes, iv, xii)
asserted that excommunication is of the very
essence of the ministry. At first civil disabili-
ties, as in Geneva, followed excommunication in
reform communities. Later this ceased to be
the practice. Nevertheless in England, until
1813, persons excommunicated were debarred
from bringing or maintaining actions, from serv-
ing as jurymen, from appearing as witnesses in
any cause, and from practicing as attorneys in
any of the courts of the realm. All these dis-
abilities were removed by statute (53 G-eo. TIT,
c. 127 ) , and the excommunicate were declared
no longer liable to any penalty, except "such
imprisonment, not exceeding six months, as the
court pronouncing or declaring such person ex-
cominunicate shall direct." By the laws of the
United States excommunication cannot involve
the loss of civil rights, and the civil courts can-
not be used to enforce the restoration of church
membership.

Anathema differs from excommunication only
in that it includes certain formal ceremonies
and requires a solemn reconciliation. There was
some doubt on this point until the definition of
the Council of Trent. In the Catholic church
the power of excommunication belongs to those
who possess ordinary or delegated jurisdiction in
the external forum, but only in regard to those
subject to them. Parish priests who have juris-
diction only in the forum internum cannot ex-
communicate, and the power can never be dele-
gated to laymen. Bishops, within their sees;
archbishops, while exercising visitatorial juris-
diction; heads of religious orders, within their
own communities, all possess the power to issue
excommunication. The subjects of excommuni-
cation can be only Christians, alive and of sound
mind, guilty of a grave offense and persisting in
it, and subjects of the judge giving sentence.
The supposed excommunication of the dead was
merely a declaration that the deceased had,
while living, boon guilty of some crime to which
excommunication is attached ly the church laws.
The sentence of excommunication may be justly

EXCBETOBY SYSTEM

inflicted on heretics or schismatics. Excommuni-
cation may be incurred without the necessity of
formal sentence. For some acts a person may
be excommunicated, but does not actually incur
the sentence unless it is pronounced by a com-
petent judge. For other faults, however, the
words of the law are that upon a given act being
done the doer of it falls at once under the ban
of the church, the phrase usually employed being
"Let him incur excommunication ipso facto"
These are the excommunications latce sentential,
so called. Absolution from certain excommunica-
tions is reserved to the Pope. Those under
major excommunication fall into two classes —
the tolerated, whom the faithful are not bound
to avoid, and the nontoleratcd — i.e., those ex-
communicated by name and publicly denounced
— with whom the faithful arc forbidden to hold
either religious or civil communication. The
latest papal deliverance on this subject is the
Bull ApostolicoB Scdis, issued by Pius IX, Oct. 12,
1869. This permits civil intercourse, even with
persons under major excommunication, for the
sake of the faithful themselves, unless in very
exceptional circumstances and with regard to
specially designated persons. The formula of
excommunication from the anonymous appendix
to Marculphus cited in Tristram Shandy, and
often quoted as the actual formula employed by
Roman Catholic authorities, is a forgery and has
never been employed. Consult: Von Kobcr, Der
Xirchenlann (Tubingen, 1857); Schilling, Der
Kircheribann nach canonischen Recht (Leipzig,
1859); and Taunton, The Law of the Church
(London, 1906). For a description of the for-
mula used, see BELL, BOOK, AND CANDLE.

EXCRETION (Fr. excretion, from Lat. cue-
cerncrc, to separate, from ex, away -|- cernere, to
separate). In animal and plant physiology, the
process by which materials of no further use in
nutrition are separated from the protoplasm and
rejected by the body, and the substances so sepa-
rated. This process is similar to that of secre-
tion (q.v.). See FAECES; URINE; SWEAT.

EX'CRETORY SYSTEM, COMPARATIVE As-
ATOMY OF THE. The organs whose function it is
to remove from the animal body both the waste
products of metabolism and the excess of other
substances that occur in the blood. Not only
are the products resulting from the metabolism
of protcids separated from the blood, but the
blood is kept at its normal standard by the ex-
creting organs. They remove both the qualitative
and quantitative excess of any substance in the
blood. The excretory organs may be likened to
discriminating strainers. Of two substances
equally soluble in the blood, such as sugar and
urea, the urea is extruded by them and the
sugar retained, while such insoluble substances
as resin are removed by the vertebrate kidneys.
The excretory organs of vertebrates are primarily
the kidneys. The skin and lungs likewise func-
tion to some extent as eliminating organs. The
lungs, however, are both organs of nutrition and
excretion, for while they take in oxygen, so
necessary for the animal welfare, they throw out
carbonic-acid gas, which is a poison to the ani-
mal body, and free the body from other excre-
mentitious substances. The whole surface of the
skin functions to some extent as an excreting
organ, for considerable water, salts, and fats are
(•xpcllcd by the skin. The waste products pro-
duced by the breaking down of nitrogenous sub-
stances, and which contain nitrogen, such as
uric acid and urea, arc separated from the blood

EXCEETOBY SYSTEM *

and discharged from the body by another set of
organs, known as the renal organs or kidneys.
These organs vary greatly in form and function
throughout the animal kingdom.

Protozoa. The simplest excretory organ is
the contractile vacuole found in the Protozoa,
but little is known concerning its function. In
certain Infusoria fine lines or spaces radiate out
from the central part of the vacuole into the
substance of the organism, and through them the
waste substances are drained into the vacuole.
The contents of the vacuole either burst to the
exterior or are cast out forcibly through the
body wall by the contraction of the walls of the
vacuole.

Flatworms. Organs that have an undoubted
excretory function are first met with in the flat-
worms (Platyhelminthes). They are known as
the water-vascular system. This system con-
sists, in Planaria, of two lateral coiled trunks,
one on the right and one on the left side of the
body, from which many side branches ramify
through the tissues of the body. These tubes
open on the dorsal surface of the body by means
of several minute pores. The fine lateral
branches subdivide so as to give rise to still
finer capillary vessels. Each of these latter may
terminate in a flame cell. The flame cell is
nucleated and contains a vacuole or space in
communication with a capillary. The vacuole
contains one or more vibratile cilia, whose flicker-
ing motion, like that of a candle flame, has given
rise to the term "flame cell." A respiratory
function has also been maintained for this sys-
tem. The excretory system of the liver fluke
consists of one main trunk, which terminates
anteriorly in four large branching trunks. The
latter eventually lead into flame cells. Pos-
teriorly the mam trunk ends in an excretory
pore. In the tapeworm there are four longitudi-
nal water tubes, which extend throughout the
entire length of the worm. At the posterior end
of each proglottis they are connected by a trans-
verse tube. At the posterior end there is a pul-
sating caudal vesicle which opens to the exterior.
As in the planarian, so in the tapeworm the main
trunk gives rise to dendritic branches which end
in flame cells. The lateral tubes of ncmatodes
and rotifers end in a common duct or a con-
tractile vessel, respectively, posteriorly, and in
flame cells at the other end.

Ecninodermata. It is maintained by some
authorities that the water-vascular system of
Echinodermata helps to get rid of waste prod-
ucts. ( See EoinsrODEBMATA. ) The real function
of this system is little understood. It probably
subserves more than one function.

Brachiopoda. In the brachiopods there is a
pair of nephridia lateral to the intestine. Each
is funnel-shaped and opens into the body cavity
by means of a plaited nephrostome and out-
wardly into the mantle cavity by means of a
narrow curved portion.

Annulata. The organs that are considered to
be excretory in the segmented worms are known
as the segmental organs, or nephridia. They con-
sist of a pair of tubes which are repeated in most
of the annelids in nearly every segment of the
body. There is only one such pair of tubules in
Sipunculus, and in some other worms they are
not found in a few of the most anterior and pos-
terior segments of the body. A nephridraim con-
sists of a long tube coiled in a complicated man-
ner. Each tube ends anteriorly in a ciliated fun-
nel. The runnel connects with the ccdom, or

t7 ExcBEToay SYSTEM

body cavity, of the segment just anterior to the
one in which its coiled tubule lies and in which
the tubule communicates with the exterior by a
ventral, contractile opening. In the earthworm
a part of the lumen of the tubule is intracellular,
like the flame cells of Soolecidaj i.e., it is
formed by the perforation of a strand of
cells. The thicker portion of the tubule is lined
with cells, hence this portion of the lumen is
intercellular.

Crustacea. The excretory system of Crus-
tacea shows little relationship either with that
of annulates or with insects. In larval Crustacea
two sorts of so-called excretory organs are pres-
ent. One pair of these organs lies at the base
of the antenna and is known as the antennary
glands— the "green gland1' of the crayfish. The
other pair comprises the so-called "shell glands"
which open at the base of the second maxillee.
In the course of the development of the Crustacea
one pair atrophies. The Entomostraca retain
the shell gland, and the Malacostraca the an-
tennary gland. In the Stomatopoda, of which
Squilla is an example, the renal excretion is
poured through a pair of glandular tubes into
the rectum. In the amphipods the excretory
function is assigned to the cceca at the posterior
end of the mescnteron. The shell gland of some
of the Cirripedia is said to open like a true
nephridium into the body cavity.

Peripatus possesses paired nephridia much like
those of annulates. They open at the basal and
lower surface of the legs. The fringed funnel
of each nephridium opens either into the body
cavity or into a closed sac. The development of
the salivary glands, anal glands, and reproductive
ducts shows that they arc modified nephridia.

Hexapoda. The excretory system of insects
is well developed, but bears no relation to that
of annulates. There are no nephridia, but in
connection with the proctodteum (hind-gut)
there are from two (some Lepidoptera) to 150
(bee) fine tubes or solid threads, the Malpighian
tubes, which twine about in the abdominal cavity.
To these organs has been ascribed the excretory
function, since uric acid is contained within
them. In the Orthoptera these tubules may be
united with a common duel

Mollusca. A pair of kidneys or excretory
organs are always present in the Mollusca. In
many forms they are symmetrically arranged,
one in each half of the body. These organ*
communicate with the body cavity by means of
a wide opening (frequently a ciliated funnel),
and with the exterior by means of a small open-
ing. In these respects they correspond with the
annelidan segmental organs, and probably they
are homologous with a pair of such organs.
These mesoncphridia are situated just below the
pericardium, with which the kidney portion of
the organ also communicate*. Besides the glan-
dular kidney part there is usually a ciliated
bladder portion. The cilia create on outward-
flowing current. The mollusoan kidney is known
as the organ of Bojanus, in honor of its dis-
coverer. In addition there is a gland known as
Weber's organ, which lies in front of the peri-
cardium. It discharges its secretion into the
pericardium and is considered to have an excre-
tory function. The nephridia of gastropods open
directly to the exterior or by a ureter near the
anus. The right organ is the larger, or in some
cases is the only one to be developed. In the
pearly nautilus there are four renal organs. In
the squid and nautilus the glandular portion of

EXCRETOEY SYSTEM

248

EXECUTION

tlie kiduey follows along the right and left
branchial veins.

Chordata. Balangtossus has a very slightly
developed excretory system. Two ciliated funnels
pass to the exterior in. the region of the collar,
but no nephridia are known. The proboscis
gland has been thought possibly to have an
excretory function, but apparently it does not
open to the exterior. In tunicates the excretory
function has been ascribed to a mass of clear
vesicles in the loop of the intestine. In them
uric acid is present. The so-called subneural
gland may possibly also have secretory function.
In Amphioxus Boveri has discovered about 90
pairs of nephridia. They are short tubes and
<>l>eu into the atrial cavity by a single opening
for each tubule. The other end is in communi-
cation with the body cavity by means of a vari-
able number of funnels. Ray Lankester,
Hatcheck, and others have described other
tubules in different regions of the adult or larva
whose function is in doubt. Likewise on the
floor of the atrial chamber there are groups of
cells which have been called renal papilla?.

Craniata. The urinary system of vertebrates
is so intimately connected with the reproductive
system that the two systems are frequently con-
sidered together under the title urmogetiital sys-
tem or organs.

The excretory organs of vertebrates are much
more complicated than any we have so far con-
sidered. In its most highly developed form the
vertehrate excretory system consists of throe
sets of organs. The first set to arise, both in
phylogenctic and ontogenetic development, are
known as the proncphros* or "head kidneys."
Umially they arise in a more anterior position
than the oth'or kidneys. In position as well as in
several other respects they correspond to the
segmental tubules of amphioxus. They are seg-
mentally arranged like those of amphioxus and
aimulates, but they are much fewer in numbers.
They arise in the Wsoderm of the anterior end
of the cailomic wall, and each tubule opens into
the co?lom by a ciliated funnel. They differ from
the tubules* of annulates and amphioxus, how-
ever, in that each tubule does not open directly
to the exterior, but pours its secretion into a
common duct — the segmental duct — which in
turn discharges into the cloaca. It has boon
suggested that the segmental tubules formerly
poured their contents into a longitudinal groove
situated on the exterior. By the sinking of the
groove beneath the surface a tube was formed.
The embryonic development of this duct gives
little light as to its origin. In some cases it is
formed by a growth backward from the pro-
nephros. In others the mosoblast or even the
hypoblast seems to take an active part in its
formation. The head kidney is said to be the
functional excretory organ in the fish Toirasfer
and some of the other bony fishes. In Myxine
and Bdellostoma it persists throughout adult
life, although evidently in a somewhat degener-
ate condition; while in all the higher vertebrates
except turtles and crocodiles it is rudimentary
even in embryonic life.

The head kidney then is present at some stage
in the development of all vertebrates, although
its appearance may be very fleeting in some
forms, and it may be so rudimentary in others
as never to be functional. When the head kidney
is functional, the mesonephros, or "middle kid-
ney/1 appears later in larval development than
in the cases in which the pronephros is only

i ml i militarily developed. The nieaonephros con-
sists of another series of tubules, developed from
the mesoblast and usually in a position posterior
to that of the head kidneys. These tubules like-
wise become connected with the segmental duct.
Below the Amniota this, the Wollfian body, is
the permanent kidney. Upon the appearance of
the mesonephros the nephridia of the head kid-
neys lose their connection with the segmental
duct. The tubules of the mesonephros also open
into the body cavity by ciliated funnels. The
funnels are not always present. They are in
intimate relation with a glomerulus from the
aorta. In selachians Paul Meyer and Riickert
have observed vessels which connect the dorsal
aorta with the subintestinal veins. Such a blood
supply corresponds more nearly with that af-
forded by the segmental organs of the amphioxus.
In many forms the segmental duct seems to
divide, or at least two ducts appear side by side.
One retains its connections with the kidney
tubules and is known as the Wolffian duct. The
other, the Mullcrian duct, opens into the body
cavity on the. one hand and as the oviduct serves
to convey the eggs to the exterior. In the male
the Wolffian duct becomes the genital duct. In
the higher vertebrates still a third or permanent
kidney arises posterior to the mesonephros and
is known as the metanephros. This is the "kid-
ney " of the higher vertebrates. The permanent
kidney consists of coiled tubules, but a nephro-
stome is never present. Capillaries, forming glom-
eruli, are also present. The duct, the ureter
of the permanent kidneys of higher vertebrates
(from reptiles to man), 'is formed from a diver-
ticulum which grows forward from the posterior
end of the Wolffian duct and connects with the
posterior nephridia.

The urinary bladder of fishes is formed by a
diverticulum of the ureter, while in higher verte-
ImitoH it arises from the basal portion of the
nllantnift.

Bibliography. Sedgwick, Quarterly Jour-
nal .Microscopical Science, vols. xx and xxi (Lon-
don, 1877-78) ; Wiedesheim, Comparative Anat-
omy of Vertebrates (2d ed., by Parker, ib.,
1897) ; Lang, Texl-Book of Comparative Anat-
omy (ib., 1891-90) ; Lankoster ot al., A Treatise
in Zoology (ib., 1901); Quain, Lrhrluch dcr
Anatomic dcs Menschen (Leipzig, 1892) ; Gegen-
baur, Verfjlciohcnde Anatomic der Wirbelthiere
(ib., 1898).

EXCTTB'SION, THE. A didactic and descrip-
tive poem in blank verse, by Wordsworth, orig-
inally intended as a part of The Recluse, never
completed. It appeared in 1814.

EXE, eks. A river rising in Exmoor, in West
Somersetshire, England (Map: England, 06),
only 4 miles from the Bristol Channel. It flows
19 miles southeast to the borders of Devonshire,
and then 35 miles south through that county,
past Tiverton and Exeter, into the English
Channel at Rxmouth.

EXECUTION (Lat. executio, performance,
from etfcqui, arscqiti* to carry out, from ex, out
+ set/lit, to follow; connected with Gk. &w0at,
hepesthai, Lith. sel'ti, Skt. sac, Av. Jiac, to fol-
low, Goth, saihwan, Icel. sja, OHG. sehan, Ger.
soften, AS. sfon, Eng. see). The enforcement, by
the duly constituted authorities, of a final judg-
ment, order, or decree of a court of justice. In
strictness, the term has reference only to the
enforcement of the process of the common -law
courts, whether in civil or in criminal c*as«s, and
is not applicable to the procedure for carrying

EXECUTION :

into effect the decree of the equity courts. Til is
is due to the radical difference in the jurisdic-
tion exerciaed by the two classes of tribunals.
A judgment in a court of law is merely an
adjudication of the rights of the contending
parties, declaring that one is or is not entitled to
specific property or to a sum of money. In
itself considered it has no further force and is
ineffectual until enforced by distinct process, and
this is furnished by the writ of execution, ad-
dressed to the administrative officer A of the
county, and by the proceedings taken thereunder.
A court of equity, on the other hand, acts in
personam; i.e., its decree is directed to the pei-
son against whom the proceeding is brought and
binds him directly without further process. The
machinery of the court is sufficient to enforce its
decrees without calling upon the administrative
officers of the county or the state to carry them
into effect. However, in those cases in" which
the decree in equity directs the delivery of
specific property or the payment of a sum of
money, the process of execution is coming to be
employed for carrying it into effect.

Execution on civil process is generally accom-
plished by the seizure of the judgment' debtor's
property or person. In England the subject is
now regulated almost entirely by the rules of
the Supreme Court. These declare that the term
"writ of execution" shall include the common-
law writs of fieri facias, capias, elegit, sequestra-
tion, and attachment (qq.v.) ; and they provide
for the form as well as for the manner of
issuing and enforcing each of these writs.

In this country the form of executions and
the method of issuing and enforcing them are
quite various. The statutes and court rules of
each State must be consulted for the procedure
therein, and the Federal statutes and court rules
for the procedure in Federal jurisdictions. In
general terms it may be said that, a final judg-
ment h .iving been rendered, the attorney for the
judgment creditor is authorized to issue a writ
of execution to the sheriff, marshal, or similar
administrative officer, commanding him to seize
and sell property of the, judgment debtor suffi-
cient to pay the* judgment with interest as well
as the officer's fees and expenses. In certain
cases, usually those where the judgment debtor
has been guilty of some fraud or violence or
other misconduct, an execution may be issued
against his body, commanding the officer to seize
and imprison him until the judgment is paid.
This is commonly known as a "body execution."
Certain property of the judgment debtor is ex-
empted by statute from execution. This in-
cludes, as* a rule, a small amount of household
furniture, of food and fuel for his family, of
wearing apparel, of books, tools, and implements
of trade, and the like. Here, again, the statutes
applicable to a particular case must be consulted.
Consult Edwards, Law of Executions (London,
1888) , and Freeman, Treatise on the Law of Exe-
cutions in Civil Gases (3d ed., San Francisco,
1900). See DEBTOR.

Execution in criminal cases is the enforce-
ment of a sentence or judgment duly pronounced
by a court. If the judgment is for other than
capital punishment (q.v.), a certified copy of its
entry upon the minutes of the court is generally
required to be furnished to the officer whose
duty it is to enforce it, and no other warrant
or evidence of authority is necessary to justify
its execution. If the criminal is sentenced to
the punishment of death, a warrant, signed by

the judge presiding at the tiial, is ordinarily
delivered to the sheriff or similar officer, appoint-
ing tne time and describing the manner of the
execution. Formerly criminal sentences were
executed publicly and often were revolting ex-
hibitions of cruelty. The modern tendency
throughout Christendom has been to abolish the
publicity and to minimize the cruelty of crimi-
nal executions. Consult the authorities referred
to under the titles CRIMINAL LAW; SHERIFF;
CAPITAL PUNISHMENT; ETC. See PUNISHMENT;
CAPITAL PUNISHMENT; DROWNING; ELECTKOCU-
TH>X: GUILLOTINE -, HANGING ; MAIDEN; MURDER;
NEWGATE; PARRICIDE; PEINE FORTE ET DURE;
TREASON; TYBCRN; WHEEL, BREAKING ON THE,
ETC.

EX'ECTFTIOW, MILITARY. In a legal sense,
the carrying into effect the sentence of a mili-
tary court, as the "execution of the sentence."
(See MILITARY LAW.) In the manual of drill
regulations, commands are of two kinds — pre-
paratory commands and commands of execution.
The latter causes the execution of the former.
In the command *'l. Forward; 2. March," the
word "maieh" is the command of execution.

EXECU^IOJiTEB. The official who inflicts
capital punishment. In early times, both among
the Romans and the Teutonic peoples, a dis-
tinction was made between two aspects of the
function. In Rome the lictors executed sentences
passed on citizens, while an official called carni-
fcx, whose office was considered degrading, cruci-
fied or tortured slaves and foreigners. In primi-
tive Germany the carrying out of the sentence
usually fell either to the community from whicli
it proceeded or to the accuser and 'his friends —
a custom which in some places prevailed as late
as the sixteenth century, although the counts of
the Frankish monarchy had their official jailers
and hangmen. Sometimes the youngest bailiff,
or the youngest married man, was bound to
carry out the sentence; in other cases one of
the criminals was allowed to purchase his free-
dom by acting as executioner. In the towns
sentence of death was usually executed by a
subordinate official. In times of more definite
organization another distinction was made be-
tween the Scharfrichter, who beheaded the vic-
tim without the necessity of personal contact,
and the Henker, usually his subordinate, who
carried out sentences of 'banging, burning, quar-
tering, and torture. The office of the former was
expressly declared by law to imply no degrada-
tion, but popular feeling turned with disgust
from it and required its bearer to occupy a desig-
nated place in church and to present himself
last of all for communion.

Like many other offices, that of executioner
seems to have been at one time hereditary in
England, as in several German states, certain
families being thus, as it were, condemned to
perpetual infamy. In some parts o*f England the
office was annexed to other posts; thus, the
porter of the city of Canterbury was executioner
for tho County of Kent in the time of Henry If
and Henry III, for which he had an allowance
of 20 shillings a year from the sheriff, who was
reimbursed by the exchequer. The sum of 13
pence halfpenny was long popularly spoken of
as "hangman's wages," such a sum, equivalent
to a merk Scots, having been the fee for each
performance.

From Gregory Brandon, the London execu-
tioner, in the reign of James I, the name Gregory
was employed as a familiar designation for the

EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT

250

EXECUTOR

profession in general. Brandon managed to pro-
cure from the Heralds' College a coat armorial
and became an esquire by virtue of his office.
One of his successors, Dun, is referred to in
Butler's Ghost, published in 1862:

11 For you yourself to act 'Squire Dun/
Such ignominy ne'er saw the sun."

He was succeeded by John or Jack Ketch, com-
memorated by Drydon (Epilogue to the Duke of
Guise ) , and his name has since been synonymous
with hangman. All parts of England have in
recent times depended upon the London execu-
tioner for the actual hanging. Calcraft and Mar-
wood have been the best-known holders of the
office in modern days. The Parisian executioner
is familiarly styled Monsieur de Paris. The
Sanson family have been the most distinguished
beaiers of this title. (Consult Memoirs of the
Sansons, London, 1875.) It was one of this fam-
ily who officiated at the execution of Louis XVI.

'in all the American States a provision is
made for such an official, but the title and duties
differ in each. In many of the States the sheriff
is the executioner in his particular county; but
in lar^o States like New York, where a State
prison exists, the warden of that institution is
technically, not practically, the executioner. In
the United States army the provost marshal
performs the duties of military executioner.

EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. The branch
of government to which is confided the duty of
executing the laws; in distinction from the
legislative department, which enacts, and the
judicial department, which interprets them. In
the United States government the chief execu-
tive officer is the President; in the several States,
the Governor. The secretaries of State, Treas-
ury, Interior, Agriculture, War, the Navy, Com-
merce, and Labor, with the Postmaster-General
and the Attorney-General, are commonly called
chiefs of the executive departments. The Con-
stitution docs not recognize their existence, but
custom has made them the President's advisers.

EXECUTIVE OFFICER. On a vessel in the
United States navy, the officer of the line (or
executive branch) next in rank to the captain.
He is commonly appointed to this duty by the
Navy Department ; but in cases of detachment of
the executive officer without another being sent
in his place the next senior officer is then de-
tailed by the captain. In battleships and large
armored cruisers the executive officer is usually
a commander; in smaller vessels, a lieutenant
commander or officer of lower grade, depending
upon the size of the ship. He is the aid and
executive of the captain in all matters pertaining
to the ship and is responsible to the latter for
the proper organization of the ship's company
and for all drills and routine work. He acts
as recruiting officer and has entire charge of the
enlisted force, including their records, having
under his control one or more yeomen (see
YEOMAN) as clerks. In large ships the care of
the ship and its equipment devolves upon the
first lieutenant (see LIEUTENANT, FIBST), but in
those of less size this work also is controlled
by the executive. He is "on duty" at all times
when on board and has general supervision,
under direction of the captain, of all matters
connected with the organization, police, inspec-
tion, discipline, exercise, and efficient condition
of tho crew, and (if there be no first lieutenant)
of the cleanliness, good order, and neat and trim
appearance of the ship. When all hands are

called for the purpose of carrying on general
drills, he has charge of the ship, subject to the
direction of tho c-aplain. In battle he has gen-
eral supervision of the battery and of all matters
pertain iug to the safety of the ship except her
navigation.

EXEC'UTOR (Lat., performer, accomplished.
The personal representative of a decedent, ap-
pointed by last will and testament. His func-
tions are to-day substantially those of an admin-
istrator and are limited to the administration of
the personal estate of the testator. By the ec-
clesiastical law of England, however, by which
his powers and duties were formerly regulated,
his position was one of much greater considera-
tion. There he was regarded much in the light
of the heir (hcercs) of the Roman law (from
which the ecclesiastical law was mainly derived ) ,
and as the owner of the personal property left
by the decedent. His duty was originally con-
fined to the discharge of the funeral expenses
and the debts of his testator and, later, of the
personal legacies bequeathed by the will, the
residue in his hands belonging to him absolutely.
The right, universally recognized to-day, of the
next of kin of the decedent to share the residuum
of the personal estate among them, after pay-
ment of debts and legacies, is wholly due to a
series of statutes, which have gradually reduced
the executor to the position of an administrator.

As the expression "personal representative"
indicates, the executor is entitled only to the
personal rights of his testator, and not to those
in our law denominated real; i.e., only the per-
sonal property and personal rights of action — as
on contract, for debts due, etc. — accrue to him,
while real property and rights of entry and
actions for the recovery of freehold estates in
land descend to the heir. Where, as is fre-
quently th6 case, the executor is authorized by
the will to sell real estate for the payment of
debts, he does not thereby acquire any title
therein, but only a power of appointment of
sale. (See POWEB.) The proceeds of such sale
become equitable assets (q.v.) in his hands.

In this respect his position has always been
different from that of the Roman hares, who
succeeded to the entire estate of his testator.
Like the hccres, however, and unlike the English
and American administrator, the title of the ex-
ecutor to the personal estate of the decedent
vests at once upon the latter's death and is not
dependent upon the probate of the will under
which he claims, nor the issue of letters testa-
mentary. It is only for the purpose of enabling
him to maintain suits at law and as conclusive
evidence of his authority that probate proceed-
ings are necessary. It should be added that,
while the restriction of the executor's estate and
authority to the personal property of his testa-
tor is still generally observed, a few American
States have by statute invested him with similar
jurisdiction over the real estate, and that a
similar change has recently been effected in the
English law by the Land Transfer Act, 1897
(60 and 01 Viet., c. 65).

The duties of an executor are now usually pre-
scribed by statute and may be brieflv sum-
marized as follows : First. To bury the decedent
in a manner suitable to the estate. Second. To
prove the will and take out letters testamentary.
Third. To make and file with the probate court
an inventory of the personal estate. Fourth. To
collect the goods and chattels of the testator,
and his claims against others, with reasonable

EXECtTTOBY DEVISE

25*

EXEGESIS

diligence. Fifth. To advertise for claims against
the estate. Sixth. To pay tlie debts in tlie
order of priority established by law. Seventh.
To distribute the chattels and pay the legacies
in accordance with the terms of the will. Eighth.
To convert the surplus of personal estate, if any,
into cash, and distribute it among the next of
kin, according to the statutes of distribution.
Ninth. To keep the money and other property
of the estate safely and prudently. Tenth. To
render an account whenever called upon by
proper authority so to do, and to apply for a
discharge upon a final accounting, within the
time prescribed by statute for the completion
of the administration.

Generally speaking, any one who is not men-
tally incompetent may be an executor; even in-
fants, and married women under the common-
law disability of coverture (q.v.). The court
may compel an insolvent or nonresident executor
to give security; but ordinarily an executor need
not give security, unless (as is the case in some
American States) he is required by statute so
to do. No one is compelled to accept the oflico
of executor against his will; but, having once
been accepted, the duty cannot be renounced nor
assigned to another, and the acceptance may be
informal and even unintentional, as by taking
possession of the estate, paying the executor's
own claim out of money of the testator in his
hands, etc.

Executor de Son Tort. A person not named
in the will as executor may, by usurping the
office, have its liabilities and many of its powers
imposed upon him, without thereby acquiring
its privileges and immunities. Such a person is
known as an executor of his own wrong (de son
tort). Any assumption of authority over tlie
estate, or an^ interference with it, such as be-
longs of right to an executor, constitutes such a
usurpation. An executor de son tort is liable
only for such assets as come into his hands, and
the acts of de facto administration performed by
him are in general valid so far as other parties
who deal with him in good faith are concerned.

In the law of Scotland the term "executors"
is employed to describe the next of kin of a
decedent, whether testate or intestate, who are
entitled to share in the distribution of his per-
sonal estate, the person corresponding to the
executor of English and American law being dis-
tinguished by the title of testamentary executor.
See ADMINISTRATION; DisTBiBimoN; HEIB; PER-
SONAL REPRESENTATIVE ; WILL. Consult: Burn,
Ecclesiastical Law (30th ed., London, 1869);
Williams, The Law of Executors and Adminis-
trators (9th ed., ib., 1893); Croswell, The Law
Relating to Executors and Administrators (St.
Paul, 1897); Woerner, The American Law of
Administration (2d ed., Boston, 1899) ; Schouler,
Treatise en the Law of Executors and Adminis-
trators (4th ed., ib., 1910) ; Ingpen, Tlie Law
Relating to Executors and Administrators (2d
ed., London, 1913).

EXECUTORY DEVISE. A testamentary
gift of a future interest in real or personal prop-
erty of such a nature that it cannot be brought
within the technical description of a remainder.
In its earlier period the common' law recognized
no future estates in personal property, nor any
in real property but reversions and remainders.
Both of these were the remnants of a freehold
out of which a smaller estate had been "carved,"
as the expression was, and given to another. If
this remnant was retained by the former free-
VOL, VIII.— 17

hold tenant, it was a reversion; if it was, at the
time of the creation of the lessor estate, given
to a third person, it was a remainder. rlhus, if
a tenant in fee simple made a conveyance of a
life estate, he still had a fee simple which was
conceived of as reverting to him at the expira-
tion of the life estate, or which he might vest in
another as a remainder. In either case the
future estate, to be valid, must fit exactly upon
the precedent estate. An interval of even a day
between the two rendered the attempted future
estate void. Neither could there be a remainder
to take effect in the future without a preceding
estate "to support it," nor could a remainder be
created after or in derogation of a fee simple.

The practice of conveying lands to the use of,
or in trust for, others, which prevailed in Eng-
land during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries,
opened the way for the recognition of certain
future interests in land which were not per-
mitted by the rigid and artificial common-la^
system, and the famous Statute of Uses, passed
in the twenty-seventh year of Henry VIII
( 153.3 ) , stereotyped these interests into new legal
estates, known as springing and shifting uses.
The Statute of Wills (32 Hen. VTII), which for
the first time permitted the free alienation of
lands by will, enabled testators to create the
same interests more simply and directly by
testament, under the description of executory
devises. These were of two classes, correspond-
ing to the shifting and springing uses, the
former including future estates to take effect in
substitution for a preceding fee simple — as a
gift of land to A and his heirs, the same to go
to a charity if A or his heirs ever ceased to
occupy the premises so given; the second com-
prehending future interests to arise on a future
event — as a devise to B when he should attain
the age of 21 years. In the form here described,
executory devises have continued to be a recog-
nized form of testamentary disposition of real
estate, and the expression has also been extended
by analogy to include certain future interests in
personal property which have acquired legal
recognition.

This form of limitation is restrained by the
law against perpetuities (q.v.)» which requires
that the estate must take effect within a life or
lives in being and 21 years after. The law will
not interpret a limitation as an executory devise
if it can be otherwise sustained. Whenever,
therefore, a future interest in land is so devised
as to fall within the rules laid down for the
limitation of contingent remainders, such devise
will be construed as a contingent remainder and
not as an executory devise. An executory de-
vise, unlike a remainder, could not be defeated
by any act of the first taker or devisee; when,
therefore, an absolute power of disposition is in
the first taker, the limitation over is not an
executory devise. See DEVISE; FUTTTEE ESTATE;
REMAINDER; USE AND OCCUPATION.

EX'EDBA (^8pa, from !£, out -f ®P*, a
seat). Among the Greeks and the Romans a
seat built out from a portico or colonnade,
usually semicircular, and sometimes roofed over
with a hemispherical vault. They were used as
pleasant places for conversation. They were
sometimes out of doors, as in the Street of the
Tombs at Pompeii, sometimes parts of buildings,
as of the great thermse at Rome. Exedra have
been built also in modern times, notably in the
famous Sieges-Altee in Berlin.

(tfeo-Lat, from Gk. i&r>)fft.s,

EXEGESIS

252

EXEGESIS

eacegesis, explanation, from

to explain, from l£, ex, out -f- 1)yeiffQa.it heyei-

stliai, to lead, from fyew, agein, to lead) OF THE

BlIiLE.

OF THE OLD TESTAMENT

The Bible of the apostolic church was, natu-
uilly, the Scriptures of the Jews, and those
Scriptures mainly in the Greek translation,
since the popular ignorance of the Hebrew lan-
guage among the first Hellenistic and Gentile
converts to Christianity rendered direct use of
the oiiginal text impossible, acquaintance with
this text being largely limited to the Jewish
Christians of Palestine. Concerning the inter-
pretation of these Scriptures by the immediate
disciples of Jesus, we have no certain informa-
tion. It may be inferred, however, from such
documents as wo possess, that their exegesis of
the law did not differ materially from that of
the earlier rabbis in the Mislma, while their
haggadic interpretation of the prophets and the
Psalms was such as to furnish them with proofs
of the Messiahship of Jesus and with material
for His life. This attitude was preserved, even
beyond the middle of the second century, in the
Ebionitifih circles, whence some of the Clemen-
tine writings proceeded. But the identity of
Judaism and Christianity could be maintained
only at the sacrifice of certain parts of the law
that were declared unprophetical, and therefore
un -Mosaic. In this connection observations of
style are introduced in which the beginnings of
literary criticism may be discerned. A fresh
impulse in the direction of an allegorizing exe-
gesis was given by Gnosticism. When men like
Vtilcntinus and his disciples, Ptolemy and He-
racleon, Basilidcs and Isidore, Saturninus and
Carpocratcs, Marcion and Tatian, embraced
Christianity, it was impossible for them to be
satisfied with even the most liberal attitude of
the Christian Jew. No synagogue training pre-
vented them from measuring "the God of the
Jews" by the standard furnished by the Chris-
tian revelation, and the commandments of the
Law by standards of Christian worship and
morals. An effective defense of the Catholic side
could only be made by the chastened Gnosticism
and allegorizing interpretation that meet us in
Hebrews, Barnabas, Colossians, Ephesians, the
Pastorals, and the Fourth Gospel. The same
method and speculation were characteristic of
Justin (died c.166), Pantaenus (died c.100),
Clement of Alexandria (died c.215), and Origeii
(died c.254). As a textual critic and as a
thinker, Origen easily holds the foremost place
among the early fathers, though his knowledge
of Hebrew was inferior to that of Jerome. His
allegorical method was followed by Dionysius
(died 265) and Gregory Thaumaturgiis (died
<v270) ; and, to a large extent, by Eusebius (died
c.340), Athanasius (died 373), the three Cappa-
docians, Basil (died 379), Gregory of Nyssa
(died e.395), and Gregory of Nazianzus (died
c.390) ; Ambrose of Milan (died 397), and Cyril
of Alexandria (died 444). On the other hand,
the foundations of a sound historico-grammatical
in terp rotation were laid by the school of Antioch,
whopc* chief representatives were Theodore of
Heraclea (cliod 350), Eusebius of Emesa (died
c.300), Diodorus of Tarsus (died 394), Chry-
sostom (died 407), Theodore of Mopsuestia (died
429), his brother Polychronius, and Theodoret
of Cyrus (died c.457). Especially the criticism
of Theodore of Mopsuestia was often very keen.

Ephraem Syrus (died 378) also devoted himself
particularly to a grammatical explanation of the
text, and the school of Nisibis seems to have
been comparatively free from allegorizing tend-
encies, as may be seen from the conception of
the Bible which Junilius (died 552) declares
that he has received from Paul the Persian.
Through Jerome (died c.420) and Augustine
(died 430), however, the interpretation that
sought to discover a double or manifold sense
became dominant in the Latin church. Jerome
possessed a deeper knowledge of Hebrew, ac-
quired from Jewish teachers in Palestine, than
any other patristic writer, and had great skill as
a translator; while Augustine knew no Hebrew
and little Greek, but often understood the mean-
ing of the text better. Though he had neither
the erudition of Jerome nor the genius of Augus-
tine, Faustus of Mileve (born 344) was a greater
critic than either, anticipating some important
positions of modern scholarship.

In the sixth century commentators like Cas-
siodorus (died c.580) and Procopius of Gaza
(died 520) began to give a conspectus of earlier
interpretations in so-called ''chains" (catena,
ffelpat,), and Cosmas Indicopleustes (c.550) gave
a summary of authorship, purpose, and contents
of the biblical books. The learned Isidore of
Seville (died G30), Bode (072-735), and Alcuin
(died 804) largely epitomized Jerome. These
excerpts from the fathers were much reduced in
the Glossa Ortfinaria> of Walafrid Strabo (died
849), and by the learned Rabanus Maurus (died
856), who already seems to have given some at-
tention to tlio Hebrew; also by Haymo of Hal-
berstadt (died 853) and Remigius of Auxcrre
(died 890). With Johannes Scotus Erigena
(died c.891) the allegorical interpretation cov-
ered many views in advance of his age, on the
creation, the fall of man, the last things, and
other subjects. Lanfranc (c. 1005-89) continued
Alcuin's labors for the purification of the Latin
text. Ansclm of Laon (died 1117), in his
Olossd Jntorlinearia, Rupert of Deutz (died
1135), and Hugo of St. Victor (died 1171) pur-
sued the fourfold sense of Scripture — historical,
allegorical, tropological, and anagogic; and even
men like Thomas Aquinas (died 1274), Bona-
ventura (died 1274), and Albertus Magnus (died
1280) did not break with the prevailing method.
But the teaching of Aboard (died 1142) and
the Nominalists had a tendency to call the atten-
tion away from types and allegories, and Roger
Bacon (died 1294) applied his method, not only
in the study of natural objects, but also as' a
textual critic. In order to convert the Jews
and Moslems, to dispute successfully with them,
or even to expurgate their books, it became
necessary to learn the Hebrew and Arabic lan-
guages. Seminaries where Hebrew and Arabic
were taught began to be founded in the thir-
teenth century, and the Council of Vienne (1311 )
ordained that chairs of Hebrew, Arabic, and
Aramaic should be established in Paris, Bologna,
Oxford, and Salamanca. The results of this new
impulse are seen in the Pufjio Fidei of Ray-
mond Martini (died 1296) and the Postilla of
Nicolas of Lyra (died 1340). Bofch of these
authors were familiar with Talmudio and Rab-
binic writings, as well as with tho Hebrew Bible,
and especially the latter drew largely upon
Solomon ben Isaac (Rashi).

The Renaissance brought an improved critical
method, as well as increased knowledge of clas-
sical antiquity. Of great importance was the

EXEGESIS

253

EXEGESIS

criticism of sacred texts and traditions by Lo-
renzo Valla (died 1457). Such Hebraists as
Johann Weasel (died 1489), Pico della Miran-
dola (died 1494), Conrad Pellicanus (Kurschner,
died 1550; his grammar appeared 1503), and
Johann Beuchlin (died 1522) facilitated the
philological study of the Bible. The exegesis of
Franz Vatablus (Vatble, died 1547), Santes
Pagninus (died 1541), Johannes Maldonatus
(died 1583), and Gilbert Gten<$brard (died 1507)
was based on the Hebrew text as well as on the
Latin and Greek versions and sought to discover
the literal sense. Even Titelmann (died 1530)
and Oajetan (died 1534), who knew the original
only through Latin translations, recognized its
importance and discarded allegorizing. The
learned lawyer Andreas Masius (Maes) in 1574
published an important commentary on Joshua,
in which he maintained that the Pentateuch had
been compiled by Ezra from documents of differ-
ent ages. Great services were rendered to textual
criticism by Ximenes through his editions of the
Bible in the Complutensian polyglot (1514-17) ;
Arias Montanus, as editor of the Antwerp poly-
glot (1509-72); Pierre Morin and Antonio
Caraffn, by editing the Sixtine edition of the
Greek Bible (1587); and Robert Stephanus
(Estienne) in preparing for the press the Latin
Vulgate (1532).

Mai-tin Luther (died 1546) broke in principle
with the allegorical method, though his exegesis
still shows its lingering fascination and is at
times unduly influenced by dogmatic considera-
tions. While he recognized the importance of
the Greek and Latin versions, he leaned some-
what too confidently on the Masoretic text as the
"veritas Hebraica." He opposed the authority
of the Bible to that of the Church, yet in de-
termining the canonicity and relative value of
the books he depended largely upon his own sub-
jective judgment. His German version is an
admirable achievement and exercised a great
influence on the interpretation of the Bible
among Protestants. Philip Melanchthon (died
1560) and Johannes Brentius (Brenz, died
1570) possessed a good equipment for exegetical
work. Ulrich Zwingli (died 1531) and Johannes
(Ecolaanpadius (Hausschein, died 1531) were
also sober and capable exegetes. But easily the
foremost interpreter of the Bible in the six-
teenth century was John Calvin (died 1564).
His knowledge of Hebrew may have been less
than Luther's, but his exegesis is freer from
irrelevant digressions, observes more keenly the
connection of thought, and attempts to explain
what needs explanation. Philologically the com-
mentaries of Johannes Mercerus (Mercier, died
1570) are of great value. Less important are
those of Theodore Beza (died 1605). Among the
more radical interpreters of the time Andreas
Bodenstdn Carlstadt (died 1541), Johannes
Denck (died 1529), Sebastian Castalio (Ghateil-
lon. died 1563), and Michael Servetus (died
1553) deserve to be mentioned. Carlstadt wrote
discriminatingly on the canon, and his remark-
ably keen literary criticism led him to reject the
Mosaic authorship of parts of the Pentateuch.
Denck interpreted the Bible as an expression of
the spirit that enlightens every man and, instead
of Church or Bible, made the Christian, conscious-
ness the ultimate judge of truth. His transla-
tion of the prophets was valued and used both
by Luther and in the Zurich Bible. Chateillon
recognized the true character of Canticles and
urged its exclusion from the canon. In editing

Santes Pagnhms' Latin translation Servetus
expressed in notes some very advanced ideas.

During the seventeenth century marked con-
tributions to biblical interpretation were made
by Catholic scholars, especially by members of
the Society of Jesus and the Or at oil an s. Among
the former, Bento Pereira, in 1600, and Jacques
Bonfrere, in 1625, called attention to post-
Mosaic material in the Pentateuch. Athanasius
Kircher (died 1630) laid the foundations of our
knowledge of Coptic and began to use it for the
elucidation of the Bible. Cornelius a Lapide
(van den Steen, died 1637) prepared a learned
commentary on the whole Bible. Two fathers
of the Oratory, Jean Morin (died 1050) and
Richard Simon (1638-1712), rendered distin-
guished services to biblical science — the former
chiefly by his Samaritan studies and his recog-
nition of the late date of the vowel points, the
latter by his excellent critical history of the Old
Testament (1678), in which he set forth the evi-
dences against the Mosaic authorship of the
Pentateuch. Of importance was also the publica-
tion by Michael le Jay of the Paris polyglot in
1029-45. The comments of Catholic interpreters
such as Emmanuel de Sa (died 1596), Wilhehn
Estius (died 1613), and Tirin (died 1036), were
gathered together by Jean de la Haye in his
BiNia Hagna (1643) and Biblia, Maxima (1660).
Among the Protestants, Johannes Drusius (van
den Driesche, died 1616) ; Johannes Piscator
(Fischer, died 1626); Joseph Scaliger (died
1609), who first brought Israel's history into
connection with the history of Semitic antiquity;
Hugo Grotius (de Groot, died 1645), whose
sober exegesis eliminated a mass of supposed
Messianic prophecies; Louis de Dieu (died
1642) ; Johann Heinrich Hottinger (died 1667) ;
Samuel Bochart (died 1609) ; Sebastian Schmidt
(died 1606) ; and August Pfeiffer (died 1608)—
by their works contributed to the understanding
of the Bible. The most learned Hebraists of the
time were Johann Biixtorf (died 1629) and his
son, Joliann Biixtorf (died 1664). Their con-
tention for the high age of the vowel points in-
fluenced deeply theological thought. It is the
chief merit of Louis Cappel (died 1658) that he
upheld the truth, now universally recognized,
against their error. In England, Bryan Walton
(died 1661), the editor of the London polyglot;
the eminent Orientalists Edmund Castle (died
1635) and Edward Pocock (died 1691); John
Pearson (died 1680), one of the editors of the
great compilation Oritioi Sacri (1660) ; Matthew
Poole (died 1679), editor of the Synopsis Criti-
oorum (1669-76); John Selden (died 1654);
John Lightfoot (died 1675), the student of rab-
binic lore; John Spencer (died 1693), who first
viewed Hebrew ritual in the light of the customs
of other nations; Thomas Hobbee (died 1679),
whose Leviathan (1651) paved the way for a
more fruitful literary criticism; and Charles
Blount (died 1693), who showed the disparity
between the account of creation in Gene&is and
the facts discovered by science — all rendered
service in biblical interpretation.

Possibly the most important contributions of
Catholic scholars in the eighteenth century were
made by Charles Francois Houbigant (died
1783), whose Latin translation was made for the
first time throughout from a Hebrew text,
amended by conjectural criticism (1753); Jean
Astruc (died 1766), who in the same year pub-
lished his epoch-making conjectures as to the
documents used by Moses in the composition of

EXEGESIS

254

EXEGESIS

Genesis; Augustine Calmet (died 1757), who
published the first Bible dictionary; and Alex-
ander Geddes (died 1802), who first embodied in
a commentary (1792-97) the results of Penta-
teuchal documentary analysis. The intense study
of natural science in England caused the critical
inquiries of the Deists. After Herbert of Cher-
bury and Charles Blount it was especially An-
thony Collins (died 1729), the first in modern
times to recognize that Daniel was written in
the Maccaba?an age, though it had long been
perceived that the events of this time were re-
ferred to, and John Toland (died 1722), whose
labors advanced biblical science. On the other
hand, the Quaker movement developed a concep-
tion of religious liberty and a reliance upon sub-
jective judgment from which biblical interpre-
tation ultimately derived great benefit. For
the appreciation of Hebrew poetry Robert
Lowth's treatise upon the subject in 1753 was of
utmost importance. The Bible edition of Benja-
min Kennicott (1776-80), together with its
necessary supplement, G. B. de Rossi's Varice
Lcctiones (1784-88), made it evident that all
extant manuscripts represent substantially the
same text recension, though it was reserved for
scholars in recent times to see the value of the
numerous variants they presented. The still in-
dispensable edition of the Greek Bible by Holmes
and Parsons (1798-1827) was also begun in this
century J. Clericus (le Clerc, died 1736) made
the Continent acquainted with the work of the
English Deists and enriched science with excel-
lent commentaries. Hadrian Reland (died 1718)
and Albert Sclmltens (died 1751) elucidated the
text by their historical and philological investi-
gations. Campegius Vitringa {died 1722) wrote
a learned exposition of Isaiah, and J. G. Carpzov
(died 1767) an excellent introduction to the
Old Testament. Akin to the Deists, but more
learned, was Hermann Samuel Rcimarus (died
1768), whose Wolfeributtler Fragmente, published
by Lcssing in 1774, searehingly examined the
Pentateuch. Voltaire (died 1778) drew from
English thinkers many of the arguments with
which he undermined traditional beliefs con-
cerning the Bible. Meanwhile the Quaker leaven
was spreading. Pietistic exegesis was .at first
allegorizing, but gradually became infected with
rationalism. The transition may be seen in
Zinzendorf (died 1760), Edelonann (died 1767),
C. F. Bahrdt (died 1702), and J. D. Michaelis
(died 1791) ; but especially in Johann Salomo
Seinler (died 1701), whose discussion of the
canon proved of great value, and Heinrich Cor-
rodi (died 1793), whose studies of the chiliastic
movements prepared him to understand the
Book of Daniel. J. G. Herder (died 1803) con-
tributed greatly to an understanding of Canticles
and other poetic parts of the Bible. Influenced
by the philosophy of Christian Wolff (died
1754), and that of Immanuel Kant (died 1804),
a rationalistic school of biblical interpretation
was formed, among whose chief representatives
H. E. G. Paulus (died 1851), by his studies of
prophecy and of the Book of Joshua; Karl
David Ilgen, by his remarkable work on the
documents in the temple archives at Jerusalem
(1798) ; and Paulus's disciple, Johann Gottfried
Eichhorn, by his masterly introduction (1780-
83), particularly furthered biblical exegesis.

The nineteenth century witnessed a marked
progress in the interpretation of the Hebrew
Bible. Among the Catholic exegetes Johann Jahn
(died 1816), J. G. Herbst (died 1836), Franz

Kaulen, and J. Cornely, by their introductions;
Anton Scholtz, by his bold and thoiough textual
criticism; and Gustav Bickell, by his meritorious
studies of Hebrew poetiy, deserve special men-
tion, though many others made substantial con-
tributions. But the leadership in biblical exe-
gesis was maintained by Lutheran theologians
in Germany. It was largely, if not wholly, due
to their influence that competent and independent
interpreters appeared in other European coun-
tries and in America in the latter part of the
century. Hegel, Schlciermacher, and De Wette
made a deep impression upon theological thought,
and their disciples reached with a bound many
critical positions to which a later generation
lias been forced back after a significant and
valuable reaction. W. M. L. de Wette (died
1849) recognized the mythical and legendary
element in the Pentatouchal narratives, placed
the date of the Dcuteronomic law in the reign of
Josiah, and discussed the character of the
Chronicler's historiography. He became the, chief
representative of the fragmentaiy hypothesis of
Geddes, introduced into Germany by Johann
Sevcrin Vater in 1802, though the possibility
of a more extended document supplemented by
later hands, which was presented by Stiihclin,
Bleek, and Ewald, subsequently attracted him.
His pupils, C. P. W. Gramberg in 1829, Wilhelm
Vatke and J. F. L. George in 1835, under the
influence of Hegel's philosophy of history, traced
the growth of customs and ideas, anticipating
some important conclusions reached by later
exegetes under the influence of the philosophy of
evolution. Bruno Bauer in 1838 discussed 'the
true character of the Book of Job and advocated
its postexilic origin. The ripest exegetical fruit
of the rationalistic school was the commentary
on Isaiah published in 1821 by Eichhorn's pupil,
Wilhelm Gcsenius (died 1842). That some of
the critical positions were temporarily lost was
not so much due to the vain attempts of Hong-
stenberg (died 1869), Havernick (died 1845),
and Keil (died 1894) to rehabilitate traditional
views, as to the natural suspicion of a construc-
tion of Israel's history based on philosophical
assumptions and to a truer appreciation of the
potency of personality as against impersonal
force. Quite the most influential Old Testament
oxegete of the middle of the century was Hein-
rich Ewald (died 1875). His learning, insight,
and independence admirably fitted him to inter-
pret the prophets and poets of Israel, but his
sense of the historic development was not so
keen. His most eminent disciple, August Dill-
mann (died 1894), in his learned and critical
commentaries, maintained some of Ewald's con-
servatism. Justus Olshausen, in his commentary
on the Psalms (1853), first perceived clearly the
essentially Maccabopan background. Hermann
Hup f eld (died 1800) in the same year brought
Pentateuchal criticism back to the documentary
hypothesis by his characterization of the sources
of Genesis, and later wrote an excellent commen-
tary on the Psalms. The critical investigation
of Jeremiah, begun by F. C. Movers in 1837, was
carried on by Ferdinand Hitzig (died 1875),
who also elucidated the Psalms and the minor
prophets by his keen textual and literary criti-
cism. The commentaries of August Knobel
(died 1863) were marked by great erudition.
In I860 Karl Heinrich Graf maintained that
the laws of the so-called priestly code were post-
exilic; and the character of this literary stratum
was searchingly examined by the distinguished

EXEGESIS

255

EXEGESIS

Semitic scholar Theodor Ntfldeke in 1869. Of
great importance was the series of contributions
by Julius Wellhausen to Pentateuchal criticism,
begun in 1876, to which he added a, careful study
of the text of Samuel (1871) and suggestive
notes on the minor prophets (1892). The
brilliancy of his style, the cogency of his reason-
ing, and the harmony of his conception of his-
tory with the doctrine of evolution have given
a wide currency to his views. In 1881 the
Zeitschrift fur alttestamentliche Wissensohaft
was founded by Bcrnhard Stade (died 1906).
In it much valuable work has appeared — none
more important than that of the editor himself,
whose critical acumen not less than his historical
insight was also seen in his history of Israel
(1888). Another admirable historian, Eduard
Meyer, also enriched biblical criticism by many
a contribution, notably by his studies of Ezra
and Nehomiah (1896). Adalbert Merx, in an
exceedingly learned and valuable commentary on
Joel in 1879, paved the way for an understand-
ing of that book. Karl Budde, by his Biblische
UrgescJiichte in 1883 and his studies on Judges
and Samuel, as well as by his important dis-
covery of the Kina metre, has done good service
to biblical exegesis. Karl Siegfried by his
painstaking studies in Hellenistic philosophy
was admirably prepared for his thorough investi-
gation of Ecclesiastes (1893). An exegete of
marked originality and great ability is Bernhard
Duhm, whose commentaries on Isaiah in 1892,
on the Psalms in 1899, and on Jeremiah in 1901
have proved very helpful. Sympathetic insight
and critical independence also mark the com-
mentary on Genesis by Hermann Gunkel (1901;
3d ed., 1912). What is best in Bunsen's Bibel-
werk conies from Adolf Kamphausen's hand.
The contributions by Franz Delitzsch (died 1890)
to the Keil-Delitzsch commentaries are particu-
larly valuable for the author's profound knowl-
edge of rabbinic lore. August Klostermann's
commentary on Samuel and Kings (1887) ex-
hibits a textual criticism as startlingly bold as
the exegesis is conservative. Rudolf Smond's
commentary on Ezekiel (1880) is particularly
important. The series of commentaries edited
by Michael Wilhelm Nowack contains many
good expositions, and that edited by Karl Marti
contains, among others, good commentaries by
the editor himself on Isaiah (1900), the minor
prophets (1904), and Daniel (1896). Karl
Heinrich Cornill, in his study of the text of
Ezekiel (1886), showed himself an excellent tex-
tual critic. No contributions to textual criticism
during the nineteenth century were more signifi-
cant than those of Paul de Lagarde (died 1891),
whose marvelous native resources, philological
and philosophical, were mainly devoted to the
Greek version. In the twentieth century the
studies of the Greek text have been effectively
carried on by A. Rahlfs; and R. Kittel, with
several coadjutors, has furnished a convenient
edition of the Hebrew Bible, with a useful,
though necessarily limited, textual apparatus
(last ed., 1012). Luther-Meyer's Die Israelites
(Halle, 1906), Kittel's Geschiohte Israels (2d
ed., Gotha, 1912), Hugo Gressmann's Mose und
seme Zeit (1912), and the translations with
introductions and comments edited by Emil
Kautzsch, Karl Marti, and Hermann L. Strack,
have furthered exegesis.

In Holland Abraham Kuenen (died 1891), H.
Oort, W. H. Kosters (died 1897), J. 0. Matthes,
and G. Wildeboer have rendered especially valu-

able services to biblical interpretation. Kuenen,
a most conscientious and painstaking scholar,
was the first to maintain that the priestly sec-
tions, narrative as well as legislative, were post-
exilic. Kosters first searchingly inquired into
the historical character of the story of the return
from Babylon. In the present century B. D.
Eerdmans, by a searching criticism, has shown
the necessity for a new consideration of the
Pentateuchal problem. He is editor of the in-
fluential Theologisch Tijdschrift. In France
Eduard Reuss (died 1891) as early as 1833 ex-
pressed his conviction that Leviticus was post-
exilic, and by his excellent translation of the
entire Bible with commentary spread the results
of a more fruitful Bible study among his coun-
trymen. Ernest Renan (died 1892) commented
with particular success on Ecclesiastes. The
important epigraph ical labors of eminent French
scholars, particularly dermont-Ganneau, have
also been of considerable value to interpretation.
The Revue BibUque Internationale has become
the leading French journal devoted to biblical
exegesis and archeology; its editor, the learned
Dominican Joseph La grange, by his commentary
on Judges (Paris, 1903) and other works, and
Hugue Vincent by his archaeological studies have
greatly furthered biblical science. In Great
Britain Samuel Davidson, in editing the tenth
edition of Home's introduction (1856), intro-
duced a more scientific view of the Hebrew Bible.
More important, however, was the acute criti-
cism of the Pentateuch and Joshua by J. W.
Colenso (1862-79). Rowland Williams con-
tributed to the understanding of the prophets
(1866). By his thorough knowledge of Arabian
antiquity W. Robertson Smith (died 1894) was
able to throw much light upon the biblical writ-
ings. A. B. Davidson (died 1902) was a thought-
ful and independent expositor. Samuel R.
Driver (died 1914), by his introduction, his
commentaries, and his contributions to Hastings Js
Dictionary of the Bible (New York, 1904), of
which he was one of the editors, won well-de-
served confidence as an interpreter of the Bible.
Thomas K. Cheyno is an acute textual critic and
a resourceful and sympathetic expounder of the
thought. His earlier works upon Isaiah and the
Psalter and in the Encyclopaedia Biblica ( 4 vols.,
New York, 1899-1903) have distinctly advanced
biblical science. German methods of interpreta-
tion became known in America through an essay
on Messianic prophecy by George R. Noyes, in
1834, John G. Palfrey's lectures on Jewish his-
tory (1840), and Theodore Parker's translation
of De Wette's introduction (1840). Since
1881 the Society for Biblical Literature and
Exegesis has published a Journal of Billioal
Literature (Boston, 1882- ) distinctly de-
voted to the interpretation of the Bible, and
many valuable contributions have been made in
its pages by American scholars. Most of the
contributors to the International Critical Com-
mentary (New York 1895- ) are Americans.
The volumes of this work that have thus far
appeared are: Genesis by John Skinner, Numbers
by G. B. Gray, Deuteronomy by S. R. Driver,
Judges by George F. Moore, Samuel by Henry
P. Smith, Chronicles by A. B. Curtis, Ezra and
Nehemiah by L. W. Batten, Psalms by G. A.
Briggs, Proiwls by C. F. Toy, Ecclesiastes by
G. A. Barton, Isaiah by G. B. Gray, Amos and
Sosea by W. R. Harper, Hagyai, Zecnariah,
Malachi, and Jonah by Mitchell, Smith, and
Bewer, Micah, Zephaniah, Nahum> Habakkuk,

EXEGESIS

256

EXEGESIS

Obadiah, and Joel by Smith, Ward, and Bewer,
and Esther by L. B. Paton. The Messages of the
Bible (New York, 1899-1911) contains com-
mentaries on the Historians and Psalmists by
John E. McFayden, the Lawgivers by Charles
F. Kent, the Prophets by Frank K Sanders and
Kent, Daniel by F. C. Porter, Job, Canticles,
awl the Minor Poems by N. Schmidt; and the
Bible for Home and School (New York, 1908-13)
contains commentaries on Genesis by E. G.
Mitchell, Job by Barton, Judges by Curtis, Deu-
tcronomy by Jordan, and Isaiah by McFuyden.
Of the Polychrome Bible, edited by 'Paul Haupt,
presenting, in different colors to indicate the
different literary strata, a critically restored text
and the translation into modern English of this
text, a laige number of volumes has appeared,
though the work is not yet quite complete.
Among recent commentaries written by English
scholars the Pulpit Commentary (London, 1880-
) and the Expositor's Bible (New York,
1001- ), but especially the Cambridge Bible
for Schools and Colleges (Cambridge, 1905-
), and the Century Bible (New York, 1901-
13), should be mentioned, and among recent
excgetos particularly W. H. Bennett, H. A. A.
Kennedy, S. A. Peake, and R. H. Charles.

On the books not found in the Hebrew Bible,
but extant in the Greek Bible and included in
the canon of the Roman Catholic church, much
valuable work has been done by C. F. Fritzsche,
the contributors to Kautzsch's Apokryphcn, T.
Andre~e, John Howorth, C. C. Torrey, and the
contributors to 'Charles's Apocrypha ( see DEU-
TEROCANONICAL BOOKS) ; and on the books re-
garded by other early churches as belonging to
the Old Testament, especially by Friedrich Lticke,
Adolf Hilgenfeld, August Dillmann, Erail Schii-
rer, R, H. Char-lea, the contributors to ELautzsch's
Pseudepigraphen (Tubingen, 1902) and to
Charles's Pstcudcpigrapha (Oxford, 1913), and
Sze'kely's Bibliotheca, Apocrypha (Freiburg,
1913).

OF THE NEW TESTAMENT

To the Jewish Scriptures were gradually
added by the post-Apostolic Church the distinc-
tive writings of the Apostolic age, as of the
same authoritative inspiration as the older
writings, and, consequently, open equally with
them to the study of the Church. The first of
these Christian writings to be studied were
those which contained the life and teachings of
Jesus, the earliest-known example of such study
perhaps being the reputed work of Papias
(c. 140), entitled An Exegesis of the Sayings of
Our Lord, and based upon at least the Gospels
of Matthew and Mark. Other efforts at Gospel
exposition appear in the Evegetica, of the Gnos-
tic Basilides (died c.140), the Hypomnemata
of the Valentinian Heracleon (c.150), and in
the commentary on the Gospels held by some
critics to have been written by Marcion (c.150).
These works are preserved only in fragments,
and from the little known of them they seem
to have been written not only in a dogmatic
spirit, which was doubtless due to the heretical
position that most of the writers maintained
toward the Church, but also after the allegorical
method, which was the controlling principle of
all interpretation in that age.

Evidence of this tendency to study the Gos-
pels is further furnished by such works as
Tatian's Diatessaron (c.170), an attempt to
out of the four Gospels a single story

of the life and teaching of Christ, on which
composite Gospel Ephraem Syrus wrote a com-
mentary; and by Hurcion's reconstruction of
the Gospel of Luke as the sole basis for the
Gospel narrative. In fact, the numerous apoc-
ryphal Gospels are themselves witness to the
primary interest which the second century took
m the Gospel traditions.

No genuine exegesis of the New Testament
writings, however, was produced until the rise
of the Alexandrian school in the latter part of
the second century, the moat illustrative rep-
resentative of which was Origon (c.185-254).
His exegctical writings may be separated into
throe groups, which differ among themselves
largely in the object they have in view. The
first group (Scholia, Notes) consisted of brief
excgetical remarks intended mainly for the
elucidation of difficult passages; the second
group (Homiliai, Homilies) consisted of ex-
pository discourses delivered in connection with
public worship, and having as their purpose
the instruction and edification of the general
congregation; the third group (Towoi, Vol-
umes) consisted of elaborate treatments of en-
tire books of Scripture, with a view to making
them intelligible to the more educated class.
Of these groups only the last dealt in any
comprehensive way with the New Testament.
But in this group* all the Gospels were treated,
with the exception of Mark, and all the Epis-
tles, excepting 1 and 2 Corinthians and 1 and 2
Timothy. No commentary is known on Acts,
and it is uncertain whether he wrote on the
Catholic Epistles and the Apocrypha. The
spirit of this school's exegesis was, like that of
the previous writers, dominantly dogmatic,
while its method carried the use of allegory to
a further extreme.

More historical in both spirit and method
was the North African school, represented by such
men as Tertullian (c.200) and Cyprian (died
258), though it has left us nothing in the way
of specific expository or commentarial work.

Antagonistic to the Alexandrian school stood
the Syrian schools of Edessa and Antioch. The
former of these had as its leader Ephraem
Syrus (died 378), who produced both homilies
and commentaries, the latter extending over
the whole Bible, the portion on the Epistles
of Paul being preserved in an Armenian trans-
lation. The leader of the latter school was
Theodore of Mopsuestia (350-429), a scholar
of commanding influence in his day, whose
exegctical labors were extensive, though of his
New Testament work only a Latin translation
of his commentaries on Philippians, Colossians,
and the Thessalonians, together with numerous
Greek fragments from his treatment of other
portions of the canon, have been preserved.
The method of these schools, in distinction from
the allegorical method of the Alexandrian school,
was characteristically historical, having as its
aim the discovery of the literal sense of Scrip-
ture; at the same time their conception of the
doctrinal purpose of Scripture study compelled
them frequently to resort to the hidden sense
of the passage when the literal sense did not
suffice. The exegetical influence of these schools,
especially of the Antiochian, was far-reaching
among the scholars of that day. The most
illustrious example perhaps is found in Chry-
sostom (died 407), who, though developing his
work most conspicuously in the form of the
Origen homily, in which he covered almost the

EXEGESIS 3

entire New Testament, wrought it out under
the historical principles laid down by Theodore.
Under this same influence, to a larger or less
extent, stood also Athanasius (died 373), Basil
(died 379), Gregory of Nazianzus (died c.390),
Ambrose (died 397), Gregory of Nyssa (died
c.395), Isidore of Pelusium (died 431), and
Theodoret (died c.457). Unfortunately, how-
ever, this influence, while to some extent it
made itself felt with all scholars of the fifth
century, did not remain dominant with them.
Theodore's doctrinal opposition to Origen raised
against him the cry of heresy that finally
brought him and his exegesis into disfavor,
allowing Origen's allegorical principles to se-
cure for themselves again a position of power,
from which they were not dislodged until the
Renaissance brought a new learning to the aid
of a scientific method. This reviving influence
of Origen is seen as early as Jerome (died
c.420), whose exegetical labors, comprehending
most of the New Testament, as well as of the
Old, disclose a significant return to allegoriz-
ing; while it appears later in Augustine (died
430), who elaborated the threefold sense of
Scripture suggested by Origen into a fourfold
sense; and in Cyril of Alexandria (died 444),
who became one of the most pronounced oppo-
nents of the Antiochian school.

The complete control of the allegorical exe-
gesis, however, is seen in the mediaeval period,
which extended from the seventh to the four-
teenth century. Its chief contributions were
either excerpts from the exegetical writings
of the fathers, or glosses upon them, the dom-
inant purpose in all of which work was the
support of the doctrines of the Church, and
their method mainly the elucidation of the
hidden, allegorical sense. In the Eastern church
Origen, Chrysostom, and Cyril of Alexandria
formed the favorite sources for these compila-
tions, while the chief compilers in the New
Testament field were Nicetas of Heracleon
(eleventh century) and Macarios Chrysocepha-
los (fourteenth century). To these should be
added CEcumenius (died 990), Enthymius Zi-
gabenus (died 1118), and Theophylact (died
1107), whose commentaries, while possessing
considerable original material, were, after all,
compilative in character. In the Western
church, where the material was drawn mostly
from Ambrose, Hilary, Augustine, and Jerome,
this reproductive method was most extensively
followed, its more prominent examples in the
New Testament field being Cassiodorus (died
c,580), Bede (died 735), Alcuin (died 804),
Rabanus Maurus (died 856), Peter Lombard
(died c.1160), and Aquinas (died 1274); to
whose more or less excerptive works should be
added the distinctive glossaries of Strabo (died
849), Anselm of Laon (died 1117), Hugo of St.
Caro (died 1263), and Nicolas of Lyra (died
1340). With the last-named writer, however,
began the dawn of a better exegesis. He had a
knowledge of both Hebrew and Greek, which
enabled him to guard against the allegorical
absurdities that had been perpetrated upon the
Church by ignorant men. While, therefore, he
retained Augustine's conception of a fourfold
sense in Scripture, he gave such preference to
the literal sense as to make his glossary the
most important contribution to exegetical study
before the Reformation. With Nicolas of Lyra
should be placed Lorenzo Valla (1406-57),
whose independent spirit and liberal views made

57 EXEGESIS

his Annotations on tJie Xeio Testament a classic
in the early Reformation times.

The exegesis of this early Reformation period
was characterized by the revival of learning
which marked the age. This is clearly seen in
the exegetical work of Erasmus (c. 1466-1 536),
the most conspicuous figure in this age. His
publication of Valla's Annotations (1505), his
edition of the New Testament in Greek, with
comments on his emendations of the Vulgate
text and explanations of different Scripture
passages (1516), and even his more elaborate
paraphrases of the Gospels and Epistles (1517-
24), all of which had profound influence
upon the growing thought of the period, were
conceived more in appreciation of the scho-
lastic value of the original language of Scrip-
ture for doctrinal truth than in appreciation
of the doctrine itself. Under similar in-
fluence of humanism, but with more of the
Reformation attitude towards the doctrinal
truth, stood Faber Stapulensis (c.1450-1536),
who produced a new Latin translation of the
Pauline Epistles, accompanied by a commentary
(1512), a commentary on the Gospels (1522),
and also on the Catholic Epistles (1525), and
the first French version of the entire Scrip-
tures— the New Testament being issued in 1523,
five years before the Old — a version which
formed the basis of the translation of Olivetan
(1535); and also Justus Jonas (1493-1555),
the first of whose commentaries (Corinthians,
1520) represented the humanism of Erasmus,
but whose later work (Acts, 1524) was written
in the evangelical spirit of the Reformation.

With the Reformation came a new era of exe-
gesis. The scholarship of humanism continued,
but with it was united a new view, which re-
garded the Bible as the sole and infallible rule
of faith by personal interpretation. It was this
personal element which formed the soul of the
Protestant movement. The revival of learning
had made the Scriptures an object of extraor-
dinary study, but to the reformer these Scrip-
tures were not merely a book for learning; they
stood in a supreme way as a living revelation
from God, the centre and circumference of
which was Jesus Christ. Upon Him naturally,
therefore, all exegesis was focused, and from
Him it gathered a personal relation towards all
the Scriptures winch it could not otherwise
have had. This combination of the scholarly
and the personal produced a class of commen-
taries and expositions which, while burdened
with the great dogmatic controversies of the
times, were singularly direct in method and
personal in application. This is seen most
markedly in Luther (1483-1546) and Zwingli
(1484-1531), the former of whom in his com-
prehensive commentary on Galatians, and the
latter in his fragmentary expositions of Mat-
thew and Acts and some of the Epistles, made
the basis of their work the literal sense of
Scripture and its value for the individual reli-
gious life. These characteristics are evident
also in Melanchthon's (1497-1560) Expositions
(Romans, 1522; John, 1523; Colossians, 1527;
Gospels generally, 1544), the feature in which
is not so much the classical learning of this
remarkable scholar, who for two centuries ex-
erted such a commanding influence on German
education, as the rational method used and the
ethical emphasis given to the truth. And even
in the great commentaries (covering all the
New Testament executing the Apocalypse) of

EXEGESIS

258

EXEGESIS

Calvin (1509-64), who was preeminently the
theologian of the Reformation, this scientific
method and this practical element are persist-
ently in evidence. Yet with all the commenta-
tors and expositors of this period, the very
emphasizing of the religious purpose of their
work, and the centring of the idea with which
they worked upon Christ, made inevitable more
or less of a return to the old fault of allegoriz-
ing; though as between Lutheran and Reformed
scholars it was the former who fell more fre-
quently into this error, and the latter who
developed more consistently the grammatico-
historical principles of interpretation with
which humanism had endowed the Reformation.
These different tendencies are seen, on the one
side, in the New Testament work produced by
the following Lutheran exegetes: Strigel (died
1569), Brenz (died 1570), Camorarius (died
1574), Flacius Illyricus (died 1575), Chemnitz
(died 1586), Cruciger (died 1597), and Chy-
traus (died 1600) ; and, on the other side, in
the New Testament work of the following Re-
formed expositors: Pellicanus (died 1556),
Meusel (died 1563), Bullinger (died 1675), and
Beza (died 1605).

Humanism as a movement was too deep and
profound in character and too widespread in
extent not to have its influence within the
Catholic as well as the Protestant church, and
this influence had its bearing too directly upon
the study of the Scriptures not to affect sig-
nificantly the course of this church's exegesis.
The evidence of this is manifest in the period
of the Counter-Reformation, and especially at
its beginning. Cajetan (1469-1534), on the
threshold of the period, was liberal as a com-
mentator. He treated most of the New Testa-
ment books, including the Apocalypse, and did
not hesitate to differ in his interpretations from
schoolmen and fathers alike, while he wholly
abandoned their allegorizing manner of work.
With him stood Sodaletus (died 1547), whose
scholarly method in his commentary on Ro-
mans (1535) brought him to such vigorous
views of doctrinal truth as were possible with
loyalty to the church, and Maldonatus (died
1583), one of the most brilliant lecturers on
exegesis since Abelard's day, whose commentary
on the Four Gospels (first published in 1596)
shows not only a large freedom from the fathers,
but a marked ability in the explanation of the
literal sense of Scripture. To these might be
added, even in the later years of the period,
Estius (died 1613), Mariana (died 1624), and
Menochius (died 1655). As the period pro-
gressed, however, the doctrinal definitions and
elucidations of the Council of Trent led to
stricter methods. This is seen particularly in
the Jesuit scholars Bellarmine (died 1621),
who after approved scholastic manner made the
Scriptures an arsenal for the defense of the
Catholic faith; and Cornelius a Lapide (died
1037), who turned to the fathers for his ma-
terials; while it evidences itself more or less in
Tirin (died 1636), and even in the earlier
writers, Emmanuel de Sa (died 1596) and
Salmeron (died 1591). Against this dogmatic
position the Quictistic movement, first formally
introduced by a Spanish priest, Molinos (died
1696), was practically a protest, though its
spirit in handling the Scriptures tended rather
to vitiate than to vitalize the sounder methods
of interpretation. This is marked in the later
developments of the movement, as seen in Ques-

nel's (died 1719) Moral Reflections on the New
Testament (1687), the exegesis of which dis-
closed an ascetic spirit, and Madame Guy on 's
(died 1717) explications of the Holy Bible
(Paris, 1715), which ran riot in mystical
extravaganzas.

A development somewhat similar to this in
the Catholic church took place also in the Prot-
estant church. At the beginning of the Refor-
mation the supreme interest in the Scriptures
brought them into a place of high regard. As
the period progressed, however, this regard
grew and intensified until it became at last a
reverence that placed the Scriptures in a posi-
tion of supreme authority for the life and faith
of the church. In the same way the spiritual
value given to the Scriptures at the first brought
them into a place of practical ministry to the
church's faith and life. But with the progress
of the period this life and faith grew in doc-
trinal importance, until the ministry which the
Scriptures rendered came to be one of support
and proof for the church's dogmatic position.
The return to allegorizing methods was in real-
ity the threshold of this doctrinal development;
but the full growth is seen in the scholastic
exegesis of the seventeenth century, especially
among the Lutherans. Gerhard (died 1637),
in his most important work, Commentary on
tlie Harmony of the Gospel History of the
Passion, Resurt ection, and Ascension of Christ
(Jena, 1617), to which he added a completion
of the Chemnitz-Ley ser harmony, shows almost
a pietistic spirit and evidences remarkable
patristic learning, yet treats Scripture as
throughout the canonically authoritative source
for dogma; while Salonio Glass (died 1656),
in spite of comprehensive knowledge and gram-
matical method, burdens his Philologia- Sacra
(Jena, 1623-36) with casuistry and allegorism;
and Calovius (died 1686) conceived his chief
exegetical work, Bill fa Illustrata (Frankfort,
1672-76), in the bitterness of a dogmatic
polemic, dragging Scripture down to a mere col-
lection of proof texts for Lutheran orthodoxy.
Against this dogmatism arose the same protest
as in the latter stage of the Counter-Reforma-
tion. The first intimation of it appeared in
Calixtus (died 1656), who took an ironic posi-
tion between Lutherans and Reformed, a posi-
tion based on a lower estimate of Scripture
than was current in his day, in which the
almost idolatrous reverence for the book was
laid aside. This protest came to its full issue
in the pietistic school of Spener (died 1705),
who in his Misused Bible Passages (1693) sub-
ordinated the interpreting of Scripture for the
sake of the creeds to the study of Scripture for
the sake of the religious life. This principle
was carried forward and developed by his
pupils, Francke (died 1727), in his exegetical
lectures at Leipzig (1689) and his various hcr-
meneutical writings, and Anton (died 1730),
in his Bible lectures at Hallo (from 1695 on)
and his occasional writings in the field of the
devotional and practical life. In addition to
these, Rambach (died 1735) produced in his
Institute of Sacred Herme-neutics (Halle, 1724)
and allied writings the first comprehensive
presentation of the hermeneutical discipline, in
which, however, the science of the study was
endangered by the author's overpressure of the
idea of inspiration. Midway between this con-
fessional freedom of the Pietists and the symbol
worship of the Lutherans stood Bengel (died

EXEGESIS

359

EXEGESIS

1752), whose Gnomon of the New Testament
(Ttlbingen, 1742) is the best exegetical product
of the period. He had no extravagant ideas of
inspiration and yet was imbued with a pro-
found sense of the religious value of the revela-
tion contained in the words of Scripture; he was
conscientious in the details of scholarship and
yet comprehensive in the grasp of truth; he was
finished in style and yet full of spiritual power.
This dogmatic development and reaction did
not show itself so conspicuously among the Re-
formed exegetes, whether in Germany, Switzer-
land, or France. The New Testament work
done by Paraeus (died 1622), J. Cappel (died
1624), Piscator (died 1625), Raphel (died
1715), Lampe (died 1729), and Beausobre (died
1738), while burdened more or less with theo-
logical discussion and characterized by theolog-
ical analysis, is nevertheless devoid of con-
fessional motive and is remarkably true in
method. Even in Holland, where the contro-
versy between Arminians and Calvinists was
bitter in the extreme, Bible interpretation was
not distorted in the interests of party positions.
This is evident on the Calvinist side in the
exegetical work of Cocceius (died 1669), Epis-
tles, John's Gospel and Apocalypse, and in the
New Testament printed in his Opera (Amster-
dam, 1676-78), which was directed against the
dry scholasticism of Lutheranism and rein-
stated in a measure the early Reformation
methods, though its excessive typology opened
anew the way to the old error of allegorism.
It was also evident in the work of his pupils
Van Til (died 1713) and Vitringa (died 1722).
On the Arminian side it was equally evident in
the great interpretative production of Grotius
(died 1645), Annotations on the Old and New
Testament, printed in Opera (Amsterdam,
1679), which in its method was free from tlie
control of dogmatic prepossessions, the author's
aim being to get at the plain historical sense
of Scripture. The further fact that, among
Reformed scholars generally, there was pro-
duced a class of books called Observations,
which, while contributing to various phases of
Bible study, such as philology, chronology,
geography, and natural history, did so along

lines, is clear proof of how scholarly
their method was and how free it stood from
the slavery of symbolism. Workers in this
latter field were Scaliger (died 1609), Casau-
bon (died 1614), Drusius (died 1616), Bochart
(died 1667), and Eisner (died 1750), to whom
should be added Wetstein (died 1754), whose
critical edition of the New Testament (1751-
52) was one of the greatest contributions to
biblical scholarship in the century.

In England Lutheran scholasticism, with the
accompanying protest against it, did not ap-
pear. There were all phases of theological be-
lief, from hyper-Calvinism to Arianism, but
Bible study preserved itself from confessional-
ism. Nothing more practical and devotional —
and often nothing more scholarly — exists than
the work of the English exegetes of the seven-
teenth and eighteenth centuries, as Hall (died
1656), Hammond (died 1660), Trapp (died
1669), Lightfoot (died 1675), Poole (died
1679), Pearson (died 1686), Henry (died 1714),
Whitby (died 1726), Doddridge (died 1751),
Lowman (died 3752), and Gill (died 1771).

Against all the dead scholasticism of Ger-
man orthodoxy the devotional impulse of pie-
tism was of no permanent avail. Its power

was fully broken only by the deeper-reaching
principles of the rationalism represented by
such philosophers as Wolff (died 1754) and
Leasing (died 1781), and reproduced in the
work of such exegetes as Semler (died 1791),
Eichhorn (died 1827), and Eckerinann (died
1836) — a group of scholars whose New Testa-
ment expository work was founded on the idea,
not only that the Apostles and Evangelists were
influenced by their Jewish surroundings, but
that their writings could be properly inter-
preted only from the viewpoint of these sur-
roundings. The influence of Semler, Prepara-
tion for New Testament Sermeneutics (Halle,
1760), and his Commentaries on John's Gtospel,
Romans, and Corinthians (Halle, 1770-76), was
significant and can be said to have prepared
the way for all the later work of New Testa-
ment criticism, while in turn their inspiration
may be assigned to Baumgarten (died 1767),
Exposition of the Holy Soriptures (Halle, 1742),
and of Paul's Epistles (ib., 1749-67), who prop-
erly represents the translation from pietism to
rationalism. To this group should be added
Gabler (died 1826) and. Paulus (died 1851),
scholars more extreme in their views, whose
New Testament commentaries and hermeneuti-
cal writings, while marked by learning and
critical skill, were thoroughly committed to a
naturalistic exegesis and sympathized with the
mythical principles of Strauss (died 1874).
Fritzsche (died 1846), whose commentaries on
Matthew (1826), Mark (1830), and Romans
(1836-43) are characterized by great philolog-
ical ability, alone seems to have been uninfluenced
by this rationalism, unless with him might be
classed the earlier writer Koppe (died 1791),
whose contribution (Oalatianst JSphesians, Thes-
salonians, and Romans) to the Oreek New
Testament with Annotations, projected by Hein-
richs and Pott, but not completed (Gtittingen,
1783-98), is a piece of careful and impartial
exegetioal work; while Herder (died 1803)
shows in his Emanations of the New Testa-
ment (Riga, 3776), Letters of Two Brothers of
Jesus (Lemgo, 1775), and Apocalypse (Lon-
don, 1821), a combination of rationalistic and
mystical elements that makes him a forerunner
of the Schleiermachor school, to which school
should be assigned the later scholar De Wette
(died 1849), whose Eaegetioal Handbook on the
Neio Testament (Berlin, 1836-48) is remark-
able for its religious convictions and its natural-
istic results.

Naturally this rationalistic movement aroused
orthodoxy to protest; but orthodoxy's dying
powers were not equal to anything more than
a feeble effort. In fact, the scholarly work of
such men as Ernesti (died 1781), Institutes of
the New Testament Interpreter (Leipzig, 1761)
and Academic Lectures on Hebrews (ib., 1815) ;
his pupils, Morus (died 1792) and K. A. G. Keil
(died 1818); and of J. D. Michaelis (died
1701), Paraphrase of the New Testament, with
Annotations (Gttttingen, 1790^91), all of whom
belonged to orthodoxy and sought to defend it,
proved silent confessions of the hopelessness of
the cause and added rather to the rationalistic
impulse. Ernesti's New Testament work, in-
deed, formed an epoch in hermeneutics by es-
tablishing the principle that Scripture has but
a single sense — a literal one — and that this
sense can be discovered only by the same means
as are applicable to an ordinary human book;
but this principle, derived really from Wetstein

EXEGESIS

260

EXEGESIS

(died 1754), was in fact more opposed to the
mysticism of pietistic interpretation than it was
to the realism of rationalistic exposition. It
was the foundation of the subsequent school of
grammatico-historical exegesis, which was de-
veloped more fully by his immediate pupils,
Moras and Keil. *As a consequence, the later
members of this defensive group, J. G-. Roscn-
miiller (died 1815), and especially Kuinoel
(died 1841), were more in sympathy with ra-
tionalism than they were with orthodoxy.

The defense of the older Tubingen school dif-
fered from tbis weak effort of orthodoxy, inas-
much as its purpose was to support a supernat-
ural Christianity rather than an authoritative
conftissionalism. * Its best representatives in
New Testament exegesis are Storr (died 1805),
Commentary on Hebrews (Tubingen, 1780) ; his
pupil J. F. Flatt (died 1821), Commentaries
on most of the Epistles (ib., 1825-31), and
Hess (died 1828), Commentary on Acts (Zu-
rich, 1775) and Life of Jesus (ib., 1781). But
here, too, the late members of the school — e.g.,
the younger liengel (died 1826) and Steudel
(died 1S37) — became more independent and were
allied rather with the naturalism against which
they were supposed to stand.

What an orthodox and even a supernaturalis-
tic exegesis were not able in themselves to
effect against rationalism, however, was being
brought about by the critical philosophy of
Kant (died 1804), which in its unconscious
emphasis of skepticism destroyed the confidence
in reason as the criterion of revelation. The
destructive efforts of this philosophy were sup-
plemented constructively by the school of
Schleiermacher (died 1834), who, standing in
thr* midst of the rationalistic and evangelical
struggle, semcd to partake of both tendencies
and yet belonged really to neither. His New
Testament exposition, limited in amount (Com-
mentary on Timothy, Berlin, 1807; Hermeneu-
tics, ed. by Liicke, ib., 1838; Life of Jesus, ed.
by Rutenik, ib., 1864), is not the most valuable
part of his work; but its influence on subse-
quent exegesis was pronounced. This is evi-
dent in the exegetical writings of Olshausen
(died 1839; Commentary on the New Testa-
ment, continued by Ebrard and Wiesinger,
trans., Edinburgh, 1847-49; A Word on the
Deeper Sense of Scripture, ib., 1824; The Billi-
ool Exposition of Scripture, Hamburg, 1825) ;
Netmder (died 1850; Commentary on I. John,
Philippians, and James, trans., New York,
1859 ; Life of Jesus, trans., London, 1848 ) ;
Liicke (died 1855; Commentary on the Writ-
ings of John, trans., Edinburgh, 1837; Elements
of New Testament Hcrmeneutics, ib., 1816) ;
Riickert (died 1871; Commentary on Romans,
Leipzig, 1839; Qalatians, ib., 1833; Ephesians,
ib., 1834; Corinthians, ib., 1836-37); Tholuck
(died 1877; Commentary on Romans, trans.,
Edinburgh, 1848; John's Gospel, trans., ib.,
1836; Sermon on the Mount, trans., ib., 1860;
Hebrews, trans., ib., 1852). It is true that none
of those writers exactly represented Schleier-
macher's position. They carried out his method
of an organic interpretation of Scripture, but
they developed it to evangelical degrees which
Schleiermacher would not have accepted. This
is particularly true of Tholuck, whose commen-
taries are deeply spiritual in tone and based on
a profound conviction of the divine authority
of Scripture, though free from any mechanical
idea of inspiration.

Yet even the power of this profoundly influen-
tial school of exegetes was not sufficient to stop
the skeptical impulses started by Kant's phi-
losophy. Even before Schleiermacher's death
these had worked themselves out into the
systems of Fichte (died 1814) and Hegel (died
1831), the latter of which afterward formed the
background for the mythical theory of Strauss
(died 1874; Life of Jesus, trans., London, 1846)
and the critical work of the later Tubingen school
of Uaur (died 1860; Paul the Apostle, trans.,
London, 1873-75). This school devoted itself to
church history and criticism rather than to ex-
egesis. Only the following adherents of Baur
can be said to have contributed specifically to
New Testament exposition: Volkmar (died 1872;
Commentary on Apocalypse, Tubingen, 1862;
Romans, Zurich, 1875); Holsten (died 1897;
Commentary on Qalatians, Eostock, 1859; expo-
sition of Galatians, Corinthians, and Romans, in
his Oospel of Paul, i, Berlin, 1880; part ii post-
humously, ib., 1898). At the same time, how-
ever, it carried out to its results Semler's
principle of the emphasis of the historical ele-
ment in New Testament interpretation, but with
such a skeptical attitude of mind towards the
New Testament itself as to arouse the definite
and distinct opposition, not only of the closer
followers of Schleiermacher, but also of a group
of exegetes who, while not so profoundly influ-
enced by Schlcicrmachcr's spirit, yet followed in
the way of his organic treatment of Scripture.
The better representatives of this group are:
Winer (died 1858; Easegetical Studies, Leipzig,
1827; Commentary on Galatians, ib., 1859);
Block (died 1859; Commentary on Hebrews, Ber-
lin, 1828-40; Lectures on tlie Apocalypse, ib.,
1862; Colossians, fiphesians, Philemon, ib., 1865;
Hebrews, Elberfeld, 1868; Synoptical Explana-
tion of the First Three Gospels, Leipzig, 1862) ;
H. A. W. Meyer (died 1873) , editor of the Critical
Exegetical Commentary on the Xcw Testament
(trans., Edinburgh, 1873 ct scq.), to which he
personally contributed in the first edition Mat-
thew, Mark, Lulte, John, Acts, Romans, Corin-
thians, (JaJatians, Ephesians, Colossians, Phile-
mon, and PMlippians; Bock (died 1878; Exposi-
tion of Epistles to Timothy, Gtitersloh, 1879;
Apocalypse, ib., 1883; Commentary on Apoc-
alypse, ib., 1884; Exposition of Romans, ib.,
1884; Ephesians, ib., 1891; Epistles of Peter,
ib., 1896); Lange (died 1884), editor of the
Commentary on Holy Scripture (trans., New
Testament portion, Edinburgh, 1861-65), to
which he personally contributed Matthew, il/orfc,
John, Romans, James, and Apocalypse; Lechler
(died 1890; Commentary on Acts* in Lange,
Bielefeld, 1860); Ebrard (died 1888; Commen-
tary on Jlebrcics, Ktfnigsberg, 1850; Apocalypse,
ib., 1853 ; The First Three Gospels, trans., Edin-
burgh, 1853; Epistles of John, ib., 1859; Gospel
of John, ib., 1860); Beyschlag (died 1900; The
Pauline Theodicy, Berlin, 1869; The ParaUes
• of Jesus, trans., Edinburgh, 1875; Commentary
on Apocalypse, ib., 1876; Commentary on James.
in the last ed. of Meyer, Edinburgh, 1897) ; B.
Weiss (Commentary on Philippians, Berlin,
1859; The New Testament Text Critically In-
vestigated, with Eaegetical Notes, ib., 1894-
1900; Commentaries on Matthew, Mark, LuJce*
John, Romans, Hebrews, and "Epistles of John,
in the last ed. of Meyer, 1893-1901); Heinrici
(Commentary on Corinthians, 1880-87; Corin-
thians, in the last ed. of Meyer, 1896-1900).
Along with this opposition arose a more thor*

EXEGESIS

261

EXEGESIS

oughgoing one in the strictly conservative school
of Hengstenberg (died 1869; Commentary on
Apocalypse, trans., Edinburgh, 1851; Gospel of
John, trans., ib., 1865), to which more distinctly
belonged: Stier (died 1802; Words of the Lord
Jesus, trans., Edinburgh, 1869; Apostles, ib.,
1869; Angels, London, 1887; Commentary on
Hebrews, Brunswick, 1862; James, Epistles of
Peter and Jude, Berlin, 1850) ; Philippi (died
1882; Commentary on Romans, Giitersloh, 1878;
Galatians, ib., 1884); K. F. Keil (died 1888;
Commentary on Matthew, Leipzig, 1877; Mark
and Luke, ib., 1879; John, ib., 1881; Peter and
Jude, ib., 1883; Hebrews, ib., 1885). To these
should be added the following later writers, be-
longing to the same general conservative attitude,
though varying among themselves as to their
degree of conservatism: Franz Delitzsch (died
1890), whose chief New Testament work was a
Commentary on Hebrews (trans., Edinburgh,
1868-70) ; Luthardt (Commentary on John's
Gospel, Nuremberg, 1852-53; Apocalypse, Leip-
zig, 1861; Commentary on John's Q-ospel and
Acts, with Zo'ckler, trans., Edinburgh, 1878-79;
John's Epistles and Romans, in Strack and
Zockler, Munich, 1886-88); No'sgen (Commen-
tary on Acts, Leipzig, 1882; Commentary
on Matthew, Mark, and Luke, in Strack and
Zockler, Munich, 1886-88); ZSckler, editor
with Strack of the Concise Commentary on the
Holy Writings of the Old and New Testaments
(Munich, 1886-88), to which he personally con-
tributed John's Gospel and Acts (with Lut-
hardt), The Pastoral Epistles, Hebrews and
Apocalypse (with Riggenbach), Thessaloniana
and Galatians in the last edition (Munich,
1894r-98). Apart from all schools, occupying
an unafliliated and isolated position, yet bitterly
hostile to the Tubingen school, is to be placed
Ewald (died 1875; Commentary on the Apoc-
alypse, Leipzig, 1828; Eatposition of the First
Three Q-ospels, Gtfttingen, 1850).

In this struggle the followers of Baur were
not able to maintain their critical position, but
abandoned several points regarded as of im-
portance, suffering their greatest defeat in the
defection from their ranks of Ritschl (died
1889), who, in the second edition of his Old
Catholic Church (Bonn, 1857), undertook to
show that the historical premises on which the
exegesis of the school was founded were false.
While the change in position on the part of such
eminent disciples of Baur as Holtzmann (died
1910), Hilgenfeld (died 1907), and Pfieiderer
(died 1908) did not radically affect their ap-
proach to the problems of exegesis, and those
influenced by Ritschl did not accept all of his
conclusions on isagogical questions, the general
effect was the rise of a school of exegesis charac-
terized by a strict historico-critical method, but
also by an increased emphasis on the religious
evaluation reminding of the attitude of Schleier-
macher. This school, though differing from
many of Baur's conclusions and conscious of his
limitations, yet recognizes his great services and
quite agrees with Jtilicher that ffhe has taught
us to appreciate the books of the New Testament
in a truly historical way, as products of the
spirit of Christianity at a definite time and as
witnesses for it." It has gained great influence
and may be said to control the New Testament
interpretation of to-day. The more prominent
exegetes in recent years have been: H. J. Eoltz-
mann, editor of the Hand Commentary to the
Veto Testament (Freiburg, 1889-91), to 'which

he contributed personally in the first edition
Matthew, Mark, Luke, John's Gospel and
Epistles, the Apocalypse, and Acts; Lipsius
(died 1892; Commentary on Itomans, Galatians,
Philippians, 1st ed. of Holtzraann, ib., 1891);
Schmiedel (Commentary on Corinthians and
Tliessalonians, 1st ed. of Holtzmann, ib., 1890) ;
Von Soden (Commentary on Ephesians, Colos-
sians, Philemon, Timothy, Titus, Hebrews,
James, Peter, and Jude, 1st ed. of Holtzmann,
ib., 1891); Wendt (Acts, 9th ed. of Meyer,
Guttingen, 1913) ; B. Weiss (Matthetc, 10th
ed. of Meyer, ib., 1910; Mark and Luke, 9th ed.,
ib., 1901; John, 9th ed., ib., 1902; Romans,
9th ed., ib., 1899; Timothy and Titus, 7th ed.,
ib., 1902; Eelrews, 6th ed., ib., 1897; Johannine
Epistles, 6th ed., ib., 1900) ; J. Weiss (1 Co-
rinthians, 9th ed, of Meyer, ib., 1910; The
Apocalypse, ib., 1904; ed. of Schnften des N.
T.9 1906 if.) ; E. Haupt (The Captivity Epistles
of Paul, 8th ed. of Meyer, ib., 1902) ; Heinrici
(II Corinthians, 8th ed. of Meyer, ib., 1900) ;
Bousset (The Apocalypse of John, 6th ed. of
Meyer, ib., 1000) ; Dobschfitz (Thessalonians,
7th ed. of Meyer, ib., 1909) ; Beyschlag (James,
6th ed. of Meyer, ib., 1908) ; Knopf (Peter and
Jude, 7th ed. of Meyer, ib., 1912); Sieffert
(Galatians, 9th ed. of Meyer, ib., 1899). A
more conservative standpoint is occupied by
Theodpr Zahn, who, in addition to his learned
investigations as to the Canon and his Intro-
duction to the Nei& Testament (Leipzig, 1900),
has recently begun the publication of a series of
Commentaries to which he has himself con-
tributed one on Luke (ib., 1913), and Riggen-
bach one on Hebrews (ib., 1913). Valuable con-
tributions were made by Hilgenfeld, who for half
a century published the Zeitschrift fur Wissen-
scJiaftliche Theologie; by Pfleiderer, through his
work Das Urchristentum (2d ed., Berlin, 1902) ;
by Hamack, whose Beitrage snir Einleitung in
das Neue Testament (Leipzig, 1906-12) has
furthered especially the interpretation of the
synoptic Gospels and Acts; by Hans Lietzmann,
editor of a Handbook to the New Testament
(Tubingen, 1906 ff.), of which three volumes
were out in 1914; by Adalbert Merx (died
1909), whose commentaries on the Sinaitic
Syriac of Matthew (Berlin, 1902), Mark and
Luke (ib., 1905), and John (posthumously, ib.,
1912) are unique in their mastery of the early
versions; and by Julius Wellhausen, whose In-
troduction to the Three First Gospels (Berlin
1905) and commentaries on Mark (ib., 1903),
Matthew (ib., 1904), Luke (ib., 1904), and John
(ib., 1908) have stimulated research in these
fields. The last great edition of the text by
Von Soden was completed in 1913, under the
title Die 8ohriften des Neuen Testaments in ihrer
dltesten erreiohbaren TeatgestaU (GSttingen,
1913).

In France Renan (died 1892) interpreted the
life of Jesus (Vie de Jesus, Paris, 1863) and
the history of the early Church (Histoire des
origines du christianisme, ib., 1886) ; Albert
RSville (died 1906) published his studies of the
New Testament in Essais critiques sur St.
Matthieu' (ib., 1860), Origines du Wouveau
Testament (ib., 1864), and Jesus Christ (2d
ed., ib., 1906) ; his son, Jean Seville (died 1908),
occupied himself especially with John (La doc-
trine du Logos, ib., 1881; Le quatrieme ev&ngile
2d ed., ib., 1902) ; the conservative scholar F.
Godet published commentaries on Luke (trans*,
Edinburgh, 1875), John (trans., ib., 1879-80),

EXEGESIS

262

Romans (trans., ib., 1880), and / Corinthians
(trans., ib., 1886); and the modernist Alfred
Loisy has written Histoire du canon du Nouveau
Testament (ib., 1891), L'Evangile et Veglise
(ib., 1902), Etudes evangehques (ib., 1902), Le
quatricme evangile (ib., 1903), Les evangiles
synoptiques^ (ib., 1908). In Holland conserva-
tive exegesis was represented by Van Oosterzee
(died 1882) in his Commentary on Luke (trans.,
Edinburgh, 1863), the Pastoral Epistles, and,
with Lange, James (ib., 1858-62). The "founder
of the Leyden School," J. H. Scholton (died
1885), published an Introduction (2d ed., Leyden,
1856), Het evangehe naar Johannes (ib., 1864),
Uet oudste evangelic (ib., 1864), Het Paulmisch
evangelic (2d ed., ib., 1873). W. C. Van Manen
(died 1905) occupied a more radical standpoint
in his Handleidmg voor de oudohristelijke letter-
kunde (ib., 1900), Paulus (ib., 1890-96), and in
Encyclopedia Billica; and J. M. S. Baljon
(died 1908) made valuable contributions in his
Inleiding der boeJcen des N. T. (Utrecht, 1903),
Gneksch-theologisch worderiboek (ib., 1895-99),
and Oeschiedenis van de loeken des N. T. (ib.,
1901) and his commentaries on Matthew
(Groningen, 1900), John (Utrecht, 1902), Acts
(ib., 1903), and the Catholic Epistles and
Philippians (ib., 1904).

The New Testament exegesis produced in Great
Britain and America during the earlier part of
the nineteenth century was not noticeably
affected by the English deism which closed the
century preceding, nor to any degree by the
various rationalistic movements which so pro-
foundly influenced the exegesis of Germany. In
Great Britain such writers as Scott (died 1821;
Family Bible, London, 1796-1825) and Adam
Clarke (died 1832; Commentary on the Holy
Bible, ib., 1810-26) continued the popular work
of Henry, Doddridge, and Gill, but with better
critical results. Scholars like Alford (died
1871; The Greek New Testament with Com-
mentary, London, 1849-61), Ellicott (Commen-
tary on Galatians, Cambridge, 1854; Ephesians,
ib., 1855; the Pastorals, ib., 1856; Philippians,
Colossians, Philemon, ib., 1857; Thessalonians,
ib., 1858; I Corinthians, London, 1887), J. B.
Lightfoot (died 1889; Commentary on Galatians,
London, 1865; Philippians, ib., 1868; Colos-
sians, Philemon, ib., 1875 ; Notes on Paul's Epis-
tles, ib., 1895), Westcott (died 1901; Commen-
tary on John's Epistles, ib., 1883; Hebrews, ib.,
1889; John's (Jospel, ib., 1892), Eadie (died
1876; Commentary on Colossians, ib., 1856; Phi-
Uppians, ib., 1859; Ephesians, ib., 1861; Gala-
Hans, ib., 18G9; Thessalonians, ib., 1877),
Plumptre (died 1891; Commentary on Acts,
Cambridge, 1879; Mark, ib., 1879; H Corinthians,
ib., 1883), and MacPherson ( Commentary on
Ephesians, Edinburgh, 1892), produced works of
permanent value, though generally conservative
in their attitude. Stanley (died 1881; Com-
mentary on Corinthians, London, 1862) and
Jowett (died 1893; Commentary on Galatians,
Romans, Tliessalonians, ib., 1859) represent a
freer tendency. In America New Testament
exegesis was perhaps more conservative, though,
with noted exceptions, not so remarkable for
scholarship. Its best representatives were:
Moses Stuart (died 1852; Commentary on He-
brews, Andover, 1827-28; Romans, ib., 1832;
Apocalypse, ib., 1845; Principles of Interpreta-
tion, from the Latin of Ernesti, ib., 1842) ; J.
A. Alexander (died 1860; Commentary on Acts,
New York, 1856; Mark, ib., 1858; Matthew, ib.,

I860); Hackett (died 1875; Commentary on
Acts, Boston, 1851; Philemon, New York, 1860) ;
C. Hodge (died 1878; Commentary on Romans,
Philadelphia, 1835: Ephesians, New York, 1856;
Corinthians, ib., 1857-59); Cowlcs (died 1881;
~Notes on the Old and New Testaments, New
York, 1867-81); Conant (Annotated Version
of Matthew, ib., 1860; Revised Version of the
~Xcw Testament, icith Notes, ib., 1866) ; Broadus
(died 1895; Commentary on Matthew, Philadel-
phia, 1886) ; Hovey, editor of the American Com-
mentary on the New Testament (ib., 1887-90),
to which he personally contributed John's Qos-
pel and GaJatians (1890).

The growing needs of Sunday-school work pro-
duced in America a class of popular exegetical
works for the use of teachers and older scholars
in the school, such as Barnes's (died 1870) Notes
on the New Testament (New York, 1832-52);
Jacobus' (died 1876) Notes on the Gospels (ib.,
1848-56) and Acts (ib., 1859). At the present
time in Great Britain these needs are met by
such series as the Handbooks for Bible Classes
and Private Students, ed. by Marcus Dods and
Alexander Whyte (London, 1879-85) ; The Cam-
bridge Bible for Schools and Colleges, ed. by J.
J. S. Perowne (ib., 1878-1901); also, by the
same editor, The Cambridge Creek Testament for
Schools and Colleges (ib., 1881-91). In America
F. N. Peloubet has produced since 1875 a series
of compilative Notes on the Sunday School Les-
sons. In the same popular line, though for more
general use, arc: In Great Britain, The Pulpit
Commentary (London, 1880 et seq.)', ed. by Canon
Spcnce and J. S. Exell; The Library Commen-
tary, by Jameson, Faussct, and Brown (ib.,
1871); Commentary for English Readers (ib.,
1877-79), by Bishop Ellicott; Biblical Museum
(ib., 1871-81), ed. by J. C. Gray; The Exposi-
tor's Bible (ib., 1888 et scq.), ed. by W. Robert-
son Nicoll. In America: Commentary on the
Old and Kcw Testaments (New York, 1874-86),
ed. by D. D. Whedon; Bille Work (ib., 1887 et
seq.), by J. G. Butlor. For more advanced
scholarly use is The Holy Bible (Speaker's Com-
mentary, London, 1871-82), ed. by Canon Cook
(died 1889). In the latter part of the nine-
teenth century and the beginning of the twentieth
the influence of the hi stori co-critical school in
Germany was more distinctly felt in England
and America. In the front rank of critical and
exegetical scholarship of the present time stands
The International Critical Commentary (New
York, 1895 et seq,). The New Testament books
so far produced are: Marie, by E. P. Gould
(died 1902); Luke, by Alfred Plummer; Ro-
mans, by William Sanday; Philippia-ns and
Philemon, by Marvin R. Vincent ; Ephesians and
Colossians, by T. K. Abbott; Peter and Jude, by
Charles Bigg; / Corinthians, by Robertson and
A. Plummer; Matthew, by Allen; /-I/ Thessa-
lonians, by Frame; the Johannine Epistles, by
Brooke. With this may be ranked, in a way,
the more concise but none the less scholarly re-
working of Alford's Oreek Testament, under the
title The Expositor's Oreek Testament (Lon-
don, 1897 et seq.; New York, 1900), ed. by W.
Robertson Nicoll. More radical are the commen-
taries in the International ffandbooJcs to the New
Testament (London, 1900 et seq.), ed. by Orello
Cone. The modern critical standpoint is also
maintained in the Bille for Home and School
(New York, 1908-13), in which Matthew is by
Robertson (1911), Acts by Gilbert (1908), Co-
lossians and Ephesians by Alexander (1910),

EXEGESIS

263

EXEMPTION"

Galatians by Bacon (1900), and Hebrews by
Goodspeed (1908). Benjamin W. Bacon in
America and James Moffatt in England have
dealt especially with isagogical questions, and
made many valuable contributions. The co-
operation of Semitic scholarship in the inter-
pretation of the Gospels is exemplified in The
Prophet of Nazareth (New York, 1905; 2d ed.,
1907), by Nathaniel Schmidt; and the participa-
tion of Jewish scholars in this work by The
Synoptic Gospels (London, 1909 et seq.), by
Claude C. Montenoro.

Bibliography. OLD TESTAMENT INTRODUC-
TIONS: Richard Simon (Paris, 1678; 2d ed.,
Rotterdam, 1685) ; Carpzov (Leipzig, 1714-21) ;
Semlor (Halle, 1773); Eichhorn (Leipzig, 1780-
83; 4th ed., 1823); J. D. Michaelis (Hamburg,
1787); Jahn (Vienna, 1793; 2d ed., 1802-03);
Augusti (Leipzig, 1806); De Wette (Berlin,
1817; 7th ed., 1852; 8th ed. by Schrader, 1869) ;
Hug (Stuttgart, 1808; 4th ed., 1847); Ber-
tholdt (Erlangen, 1812-19); Hiivernick (ib.,
1835; 2d ed., 1854) ; Home (London, 1818; 9th
ed., 1846) ; Glaire (Paris, 1839 ff.) ; Herbst-
\Velte (Freiburg, 1840-44) ; Hupfeld (Halle,
]859); Keil (Frankfort, 1855; 3d ed., 1873);
Bleck (Berlin, 1860; 3d ed. by Kamphausen, ib.,
1870; 4th ed. by Wcllhausen, 1878; also 6th ed.,
1893); Kuenen (Leyden, 1861-65; 2d ed,, 1887;
of part iii by Matthes, 1893) ; Davidson (Lon-
don, 1862); Lamy (Mechlin, 1866-68); Fiirst
(Leipzig, 1867-70) ; Kauien (Freiburg, 1876 ff.;
4th ed., 1912) ; Ubaldi (Eome, 1877-81) ; Strack
(Nordlingen, 1882; 6th ed., 1906); Reuss
(Brunswick, 1881, 1890); Robertson Smith
(Edinburgh, 1881; 2d ed., 1892) ; Vatke (ed. by
Preiss, Bonn, 1886); Riehm (ed. by Brandt,
Leipzig, 1889); Driver (Edinburgh, 1891; 9th
ed., 1910); Cornill (Freiburg, 1891; 8th ed.,
1914); Konig (Bonn, 1893); Wildeboer (Gro-
ningcn, 1893) ; Comely (Paris, 1894-97) ; Briggs
(New York, 1899); Baudissin (Leipzig, 1901);
Budde (ib., 1906); Gautier (Lausanne, 1906);
Bennett and Adeney (London, 1908); Sellm
(Leipzig, 1911, 1914) ; Fowler (Boston, 1913) ;
G. F. Moore (New York, 1913).

NEW TESTAMENT JNTEODUCTIONS : Richard
Simon (Rotterdam, 1689); Semler (Halle,
1767) ; J. D. Michaelis (Gottingen, 1788) ; Eich-
horn (Leipzig, 1804-14; 3d ed., 1827) ; J. E. C.
Schmidt (Giessen, 1804-05); Hug (Freiburg,
1808; 4th ed., 1847); Bertholdt (Erlangen,
1812-19); De Wette (Berlin, 1826; 5th ed.,
1848); HQme (London, 1818; 10th ed. by
Tregelles, 1856) ; Credner (Halle, 1836) ; Reuss
(Brunswick, 1842; 6th ed., 1887); Scholz (Co-
logne, 1845); Scholten (Leyden, 1856); Bleek
(Berlin, 1862; 3d ed., 1875, ib., by Mangold, and
also 4th, 1886); Davidson (London, 1868; 3d
ed., 1894) ; Hilgenfeld (Halle, 1875) ; Kauien
(Freiburg, 1876; 4th ed., 1912); Salmon (Lon-
don, 1885; 8th ed., 1897); Holtzmann (Frei-
burg, 1885; 3d cd., 1892); B. Weiss (Berlin,
1886; 3d ed., 1897); Rovers (Leyden, 1888);
Comely (Paris, 1894-97); Zahn (Leipzig, 1897,
1900); Bacon (New York, 1900); Julicher
(Leipzig, 1894; 6th ed., 1906); Godet (Neucha-
tel, 1893); Baljon (Utrecht, 1901); Belser
(Freiburg, 1902) ; Jacquier (Paris, 1903-08) ;
Von Soden (Berlin, 1905) ; Wrede (Leipzig,
1907) ; Barth (Berlin, 1908) ; Gregory (Leipzig,
1909); Peake (London, 1909); Moffatt (New
York, 1911); Feine (Leipzig, 1913). Other
works: Hody, De BMiorum Tecotibus (Oxford,
1705); Wolf, Bibliotheca Hebraic** (Jena, 1715-

33), continued by Kocher as Nova Billiotheca
Helraica (ib., 1783-84); Rosenmuller, Uifttoria
Interpretations Librorum Racrorum (Hild-
burgshausen, 1795-1814) ; Geiger, Ursohrift <und
Uebersettsungen (Breslau, 1857); Fiirst. Biblio-
theca Judaica (Leipzig, 1863) ; Diestel, Oe-
schichte des Alten Testaments in der christlichen
Kirche (Jena, 1869); Farrar, The History of
Interpretation (London, 1886) ; Stickler, Hand-
buch dcr tJieoJogisohen Wissenschaften (Nfird-
lingen, 1890) ; Ginsburg, Introduction to the
Massoretio Critical Edition of the Hebrew JBille
(London, 1897); Swete, An Introduction to the
Old Testament in Greek (ib., 1900) ; Nestle,
Einfiihrung in das gricchische Neue Testament
(Leipzig, 1897, 1909); Pfleiderer, Das Urchns-
tent urn (Berlin, 1886, 1902); Bertholet and A.
Meyer, art. "Bibelwissenschaft," in Die Religion
in Oeschiclite ttnd Gegenwart (Tttbingen, 1909).

EXELMANS, ag'zeTmaNs', RI&MY JOSEPH
ISIDORE, COMTE (1775-1852). A marshal of
France. He was born at Bar-le-Duc, in the De-
partment of Meuse, and entered the army in
1791. He was promoted to the rank of captain
in 1799, served with distinction in the campaign
in Naples under Macdonald and Champ ionnet,
and in 1801 was attached as aid-de-camp to the
staff of Murat. In 1808, while witli Murat in
Spain, he was captured and sent to England,
where he remained a prisoner for three years.
Escaping, he rejoined Murat, who had become
King of Naples and who established him at
his court. But he left Italy to serve with
Napoleon in the Russian campaign in 1812. For
his brilliant conduct the Emperor created him
general of division and grand officer of the
Legion of Honor. He was active in the Dutch
campaign of 1814, and after Elba Napoleon
named nim a peer of France. Under the regime
of the Restoration after the fall of Napoleon
in 1815, attempts were made to win him to the
Bourbon side, but his negotiations with Murat
resulted in his exile from France. He was per-
mitted to return after several years, and in 1831
Louis Philippe restored him to the Chamber of
Peers, and under the presidency of Louis Na-
jjoloon he was made Grand Chancellor of the
Legion of Honor and marshal of France.

EXEMP'TIOW (Lat. eosemptiOy from earimere,
to take out, from ex, out + emere, to take,
buy). The legal right to be excused from ren-
dering certain services to the state, or to receive
or retain certain property free from the claims
of others. It is secured by a variety of statutes
(popularly called exemption laws). Some of
these designate the persons or classes who are
not liable to jury duty or to military service.
Others specify the portion of a decedent's estate
which is to be set apart for the use 'and benefit
of the widow and children, and which they are
allowed to retain even in preference to the
creditors of the deceased. Still others describe
the property of a tenant which is free from dis-
tress for rent, or the property which is free
from taxation, or from seizure under execution,
or which may be retained by a bankrupt free
from liability for his debts.

These statutes differ greatly in detail, but all
have the common object of saving the family of
a debtor from penury. The articles most gen-
erally exempted are necessary household furni-
ture, tools used in a trade, a team, certain do-
mestic animals, and a limited quantity of food
supplies for the debtor's family. In some of our
States the tendency is to increase exemptions

EXERCISE

264

EXETER

unduly ; but in all the courts are agreed that the
policy of exemption is humane and wise, and
that exemption laws should be very liberally
construed. Certain laws protect a debtor and
his family against an improvident attempt on
his part to waive the benefit of the statute.
For the particular exemption laws of any State,
consult the statutes of that State, or Hubbell,
Legal Directory for Lawyers and Business Men
(New York, annually). See HOMESTEAD.

EX'ERCISE (Lat. eatercitium, exercise, from
eacrccre, to exorcise, from ex, out + arcere, to
ward olF) . An important element in the preser-
vation of health and the prevention and cure of
disease. The physiological effects of exercise
when taken in proper therapeutic quantities
are increased excretory activity, together with
a correspondingly increased demand for oxygen
and food. Cellular destruction and rebuilding
— katabolism and anabolism — are stimulated.
The immediate phenomena of general muscular
exercise are increase in the respiratory move-
ments, in the heart action, and in the produc-
tion of sweat. Appetite is stimulated, sleep
promoted, and nervous equilibrium preserved.
Authorities are agreed that regular exercise
strengthens the defensive powers of the body
against disease; i.e., a certain degree of im-
munity is conferred. Outdoor exercise, particu-
larly when connected with some form of game,
such as golf or tennis, which engrosses the
mental faculties, is most beneficial. In the
treatment of diseases exercise has to be definitely
prescribed. Tn the treatment of chronic heart
disease from general obesity or fatty degenera-
tion, it lias bwn reduced to a system. Hyper-
trophy of the heart from gout, and chronic
valvular disease, especially when symptoms of
dropsy, renal disturbance, bronchial congestion,
or catarrh are present, are markedly improved
by Hpccidcd exorcises taken under careful direc-
tion. Other conditions which are benefited are
chronic bronchitis, atonic dyspepsia, hepatic
congestion, constipation, and anaemia. In cer-
tain cases of excessive weakness, advanced car-
diac or kidney disease and obesity, passive exer-
cise must be relied upon for a time at least.
Passive movements are also largely employed
to relax stiffened joints, restore paralyzed mus-
cles, and correct deformity. A series of in-
genious and highly complex machines have been
invented for this purpose. In other cases mas-
sage, electricity, and resistance exercises are in-
dicated. All of these must be carefully adopted
to meet the conditions present. When indulged
in to excess, exercise is capable of producing
serious harm. Among the commonly observed
injurious effects are muscular hypertrophy, suc-
ceeded by dilatation, of the heart, arterio-
sclerosis, hernia, etc. Overexercise is dangerous
in such conditions as endocarditis, myocarditis,
tuberculosis of the lungs and joints, chronic
bronchitis, varicose veins, chronic appendicitis,
chronic nephritis, and flat foot. In women
uterine displacement is sometimes made worse.
In all cases exercise must be carefully pre-
scribed and at times interdicted altogether. For
the forms and methods of exercise, see GYM-
NASTICS; PHYSICAL TRAINING. Consult chap-
ters on exercise in Hare's Modern Treatment,
vol. i (Now York, 1910).

EXETER. A city and a county and parliamen-
tary borough and river port, geographically in
the County of Devon, England, on the Exe, 10
miles northwest of its mouth, 172 miles west-

southwest of London, and 73 miles southwest of
Bristol (Map: England, C 6). It is the county
town of Devonshire. Exeter is a quaint old
town, picturesquely situated on a broad ridge of
land amid hills. Its principal edifice is the ca-
thedral, begun in 1100 and famed for the beauty
of its design and the richness of its decorations.
Its distinguishing external features are the two
transeptal towers, a unique conception of Eng-
lish cathedrals, dating from the early part of
the twelfth century, and the beautifully orna-
mented west front added in the fourteenth cen-
tury. The dimensions are 408 feet in length
by 140 feet across the transepts, The interior
is notable for its fine proportions and perfect
symmetry. Its special features are the long,
unbroken roof, carved minstrels* gallery, the
bishop's throne with a lofty spirelike canopy, the
sculptured stone choir screen, and the modern
reredos. The architectural symmetry and deco-
rative harmony of the church are perhaps un-
surpassed in England. The chapter house, with
a magnificent ceiling, contains a fine library,
and among many valuable ancient manuscripts
is Leofric's celebrated book of Saxon poetry. In
the cathedral close are the episcopal palace and
deanery.

High Street contains many ancient buildings,
the finest being the Guildhall, whose upper story
projects over the sidewalk and forms an arcade
supported by pillars. On an eminence near one
of the railway stations are the ruins of Rouge-
mont Castle, built by William the Conqueror,
and remains of the ancient city walls. Part of
the castle grounds now constitutes Northernlmy
Park. Among other buildings are St. John's
Hospital, founded in the reign of Henry III, the
Albert Memorial Museum, opened in 1868, the
Victoria Hall, lunatic asylum, and alinahouses.
Exeter owns its water supply and an electric
plant. It maintains a technical college, public
library and museum, public baths and wash-
houses, parks, an asylum, markets, a septic
tank system of sewage treatment, and a ceme-
tery. It sends one member to Parliament.
Exeter has a large floating basin accessible to
vessels of 350 tons, a canal extending to Tops-
ham, accessible to vessels of 14-foot draft, and
extensive rock-hewn wine vaults bordering its
quay. It carries on a considerable shipping
trade. Exeter has unsurpassed nurseries and
exports dairy, farm, and orchard produce. Its
manufactures include gloves, agricultural im-
plements, beer, paper, and iron goods. It is the
chief market for the celebrated Honiton lace.
Exeter is on the Great Western and the London
and South Western railways. The city embraces
3166 acres; pop., 1891, 45,766; 1901, 47,185;
1011, 48,664 (the increase in each decade being
3.1 per cent). The civil parish of St. Thomas
the 'Apostle, on the right bank of the Exe, is a
part of Exeter. Its area is 1270 acres; pop.,
1901, 9457; 1911, 11,381.

In early times Exeter, the Oaer fso of the
Britons, was most probably an important centre
of trade with the Greeks and the Phoenicians.
To the Romans it was known as /#ccr. Damno-
niorum. Exeter was for a long time the centre
of British resistance to the Anglo-Saxon in-
vaders, and in 926, when Athelstan visited
Exanceaster, he found it inhabited by British
and Saxons alike. Athelstan surrounded the
town with walls, so that it withstood an attack
of the Danes in 1001. Two years later, however,
they returned and plundered the town. In 1050

EXETER a(

Exeter, as affording greater security, replaced
Crediton as the episcopal see of Devonshire.
The city was taken by the Conqueror in 1068
and by Stephen in 1137. During the Middle
Ages it had a very important woolen trade, but
later lost it. During the Civil Wars it was
held by the Royalists from 1643 to 1646, when
it surrendered to Fairfax. Consult: Oliver,
The History of the Oity of Exeter (Exeter,
1821 ) ; id., Lives o/- the Bishops of Exeter and
History of the Cathedral (London, 1861-81);
Freeman, Hwtory of Exeter (ib., 1890); Pri-
deaux and Shafto, Bosses and Corlels of Exeter
Cathedral (ib., 1910).

EXETER. A town and one of the county
seats of Rockingham Co., N. H., 25 miles (direct)
east of Manchester, on the Squamscott River,
and on the Boston and Maine Railroad (Map:
New Hampshire, J 8). One of the oldest towns
in the State, Exeter contains a large number of
Colonial houses, a public library, and a hospital.
The Phillips Exeter Academy (q.v.) and the
Robinson Female Seminary are situated here.
The river affords good water power, which is
utilized in cotton manufacturing. Other im-
portant products are iron and brass goods, ma-
chinery, boxes, umbrellas, automobile tubes,
asbestos and rubber novelties, casings, and shoos.
The town was founded in 1638 by Rev. John
Wheelwright, banished from Massachusetts, and
was under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts from
1645 to 1680. During the Revolution it was the
seat of the 3STew Hampshire government. Pop.,
1900, 4922; 1910, 4897. Consult Bell, History
of the Town of Exeter (Exeter, 1888).

EX'ETEB,. A borough in Luzerne Co., Pa.,
about 10 miles west of Scranton, on the Lehigli
Valley Railroad ( Map : Pennsylvania, K 3 ) .
Points of interest in the vicinity are Fort Win-
termooth and Scovill and Wintermooth islands,
in the Susguehanna River. The borough is in a
fertile agricultural and timber region, and coal
mining is carried on. Pop., 1900, 1948; 1910,
3537.

EXETER BOOK, or CODEX EXONIENSIS. The
name given to a manuscript anthology of Old
English, or Anglo-Saxon, poetry, in possession
of Exeter Cathedral. The volume has been iden-
tified with a book presented to the cathedral by
Leofric, the first Bishop of Exeter (1050-72),
and described as "One great English book on
various topics, composed in verse/' The manu-
script, 55% X 7% inches, contains 123 leaves, or
246 pages, and is written on vellum. But for
this volume, some of the finest Old English
poems, as the Christ, would be lost to us. Con-
sult: Gollancz, The Exeter Book, containing both
the original text and a translation (London,
1895) ; the excellent account of the book and
of Leofric in the introduction by Cook to Cyne-
wulf's Christ (Boston, 1900) ; Riddles of the
Exeter Book, ed. by F. Tapper, Jr. (New York,
1910) ; Old English Riddles, ed. by A. J. Wyatt
(ib., 1912). See VERCELLI BOOK.

EXETER COLLEGE. A college of Oxford
University. It was founded about 1314 by Wal-
ter de Stapeldon, Bishop of Exeter, for a rector,
12 scholars from the diocese of Exeter, holding
degrees in arts, and a scholar chaplain. The
foundation was a self-governing corporation,
whose revenues, however, according to a some-
what frequent mediaeval custom, were vested in
another corporation, the dean and chapter of;
Exeter. Another curious provision was the an-
nual election of the rector. The scholars first

>5 EXHAUSTIONS

occupied two hostels, Hart Hall and Arthur
Hall, and the establishment seems to have been
called, from its founder, Stapeldon Hall. In
1565 Sir William Petre obtained a new charter
for the foundation from Queen Elizabeth and
completely reorganized it, on the model of other
Oxford colleges. The scholars were removed tn
buildings on the present site of the college, the
rector was made a permanent official, and the
name was changed to Exeter College. Scholar-
ships were added by Pctre and others, among
whom in later years Charles I was one, and the
institution took on a new lease of life. The
organization of the college was materially
changed by the general readjustments in the
university and colleges of recent years. New
buildings have been added to the already pic-
turesque quadrangle. Of these the chapel is
especially noteworthy. It was designed by Scott
pud Las, as part of its interior decoration, a
piece of splendid tapestry, designed by Burne-
Jones and executed by William Morris. Of the
oltler buildings, the hall is one of the most
notable in the university. Among the distin-
guished men who have been connected with the
college are Archbishops Seeker and Marsh;
Bishops Conybeare, Bull, Mackarness, Prideaux,
rind Hall; Anthony Ashley Cooper, first Earl of
Shaftesbury; John Ford the dramatist; Sir J.
T. Coleridge, Lord Colaridge: J. A. Proude the
historian; Burne-Jones, William Morris, F. D.
Maurice, and Sir Charles Lyell. There were in
the college, in 1913, 9 fellows, 8 honorary fel-
lows, 50 scholars and exhibitioners, and a total
of 212 undergraduates. Consult W. K. Stride,
Exeter Col'cgG (London, 1900).

EXETEE, or EX'Otf, DOMESDAY. See
DOMESDAY BOOK.

EXETER HALL. A large building, for-
merly standing on the north side of the Strand,
London, 131 feet long, 70 feet wide, and 45 feet
high. It was built in 1831 for the use of reli-
gious and charifcable societies and in 1880 pur-
chased for the Young Men's Christian Associa-
tion and used by that organization, and also
leased for the May meetings of certain religious
societies and for various musical organizations,
the hall having a seating capacity of 5000.
Often used by the dissenting bodies, by anti-
slavery reformers, and by total-abstinence so-
cieties for great public meetings, "Exeter Hall"
became a term to denote fanatical zeal, or the
sort of moral earnestness regarded by conserva-
tive or conventional people as "bad form." In
1908 it was sold and demolished.

EXHATJS'TIONS (from Lat. eoohaurire, to
exhaust, from ex, out + haurire, to draw),
METIIOD OF. A mode of proving certain mathe-
matical propositions, variously attributed to
Antiphon and Bryson, Hippocrates and Eudoxus.
The formal statement of this method may be
found in Euclid, xii, 2. A familiar example is
that of determining the area of a circle by means
of the areas of circumscribed and inscribed poly-
gons. The area of the circle lies between the
areas of the polygons, and the latter approach
indefinitely near it as the number of sides of
the polygons is indefinitely increased. Archi-
medes used this plan in determining thab ir lies
between SiJ- and Sff. However, the ideq, of a
circle being a polygon of an infinite number of
sides is an essentially modern one, due chiefly
to Kepler, and marks the passage of the method
of exhaustions into the modern infinitesimal
method. (See CALCULUS.) Crvnault: Chaales,

EXHIBITIONS

266

EXHIBITIONS

Apergu historique (3d ed., Paris, 1889); Heath,
The Thirteen BooJca of Euclid's Elements (3
vols,, Cambridge, 1908) ; Gow, History of Greek
Mathematics (Cambridge, 1884).

EX'HIBI'TIONS (Lat. eahibitio, from exhi-
here, exhibit, from e$< out + habere, to have),
ARCHITECTTJBE or. The great international ex-
hibitions, or world's fairs, have given rise to
some of the most interesting and important
developments of modern architecture along two
divergent lines. The first exemplifies the ef-
fort towards a free, original, and logical ex-
pression in architectural form of the special
conditions and materials of the building: this
was illustrated in the iron and glass build-
ings of London (crystal palaces of 1851 and
1862), Paris (expositions of 1867, 1878, and
1889), Vienna (1873), and New York (1858);
the stone, iron, and glass Palais de PIndustrie
at Paris (1855), and the iron, timber, and glass
buildings of the Philadelphia Centennial Exhi-
bition of 1876. The second type of architecture
is that which dresses the exterior of the build-
ings in a monumentally decorative apparel de-
signed for aesthetic and monumental effects,
quite independent of the materials employed.
This type made its first appearance in the
Columbian World's Fair at Chicago, the build-
ings of which were all designed as palaces of
neoclassic architecture in external appearance,
the interiors and roof construction being of iron,
timber, and glass. Staff, a material composed
largely of plaster of Paris, was employed for
this exterior decorative architecture, and ever
since has been largely used both in Europe and
in America for this purpose. Not only the
various American exhibitions (e.g., the Pan-
American of 1901 at Buffalo and the Louisiana
Purchase Exposition of 1004 at St. Louis), but
most of the European exhibitions, of recent
times, have followed the example of Chicago,
notably the great Paris Exposition of 1900.
Of these two systems of design the first is
the most logical; the second, proceeding upon
the theory that an exhibition is a temporary
affair of a more or less festival character, sacri-
fices logic to the production of a pleasing, festal,
decorative ensemble, and makes free use to that
end of perishable materials like staff and wood.
Buildings and grounds are together treated in
the spirit of a vast, artistic pleasure resort.

Nearly every great exhibition has occasioned
the erection of at least one permanent building;
the Memorial Art Gallery at Philadelphia, the
Trocadero hall and museum and the Eiffel Tower
at Paris, the Grand and the Petit Palais in
the same city, replacing the old Palais de PIn-
dustrie, and the elegant Alexander III bridge
across the Seine, the Columbian-Field Museum
at Chicago, and the Art Gallery at St. Louis,
are the permanent monuments of world's fairs
in their respective cities.

The original conception of an exhibition
housed all the exhibits under one roof, and Sir
Joseph Paxton designed the first Crystal Palace
(1851) as a single glazed shed, with a lofty
arched nave and transept 'and numerous lower
side aisles, constructed of a framework largely
of cast iron with fillings of glass like a huge
greenhouse. The exterior was the undisguised
form resulting from this construction. In the
next great exhibition, that of 1855 at Paris, the
Palais de PIndustrie was built with stone walls,
iron and glass being used for the interior courts
and roof. That of 1867 in the same city was

architecturally inconspicuous, consisting of con-
centric oval rings or aisles with plain gabled
roofs. The Paris exhibitions of 1878 and 1889
displayed an earnest effort to produce a new
and expressive architecture of metal and glass,
with some use of brick and tile; but the results,
though interesting, were not sufficiently monu-
mental to win popular approval. One of the
best of the single exhibition buildings of iron
and glass, though a small one, was that of the
New York exhibition in Bryant Park in 1858.

It was the Centennial at Philadelphia that
inaugurated the system of separate buildings
for distinct classes of exhibits, which has been
followed by all world's fairs since that date
except those of 1878 and 1889 ; but it was other-
wise inconspicuous architecturally. Three years
earlier for the Vienna exhibition of 1873 the
English engineer Scott Russell had constructed
a rotunda 324 feet in diameter, with a conical
roof of iron and glass, the broadest space ever
covered, up to that time, by a roof without in-
termediate supports. This was surpassed at
Paris in 1889 by the great Salle des Machines,
with a clear span of over 360 feet; and this
again by the central hall of the Liberal Arts
Building at Chicago in 1893, 1300 feet long and
386 feet wide, the largest area ever covered by
a roof of a single span. But in the artistic use
of metal in the interior construction of exhibi-
tion buildings the French have always led the
world. In the Salle des Machines, above referred
to, the circular Salle des Fetes of 1900, and the
interiors of the two palaces ( Grand Palais, Petit
Palais) remaining from that exhibition as per-
manent monuments, they produced admirable ex-
amples of artistic construction in metal and glass
quile unequaled elsewhere. See EXHIBITIONS.

EXHIBITI03STS, INDUSTRIAL. The beginning
of these exhibitions may be traced to the so-
called tf fairs" held in the earlier periods of
civilization, both in Asia and in Europe. These
arc supposed to have originated in religious
gatherings, which first gave an opportunity for
the exhibition and sale of wares to large num-
bers of people. From Italy they passed to
France, where in 620 that of Saint-Denis was
instituted by Dagobert. Those of Aix-la-Chapelle
and Troyes date from about 800, and they were
introduced into Great Britain by Alfred the
Great in 886, Towards the close of the tenth
century they became common throughout north-
ern Europe. Such fairs are still prevalent in
Holland, although Germany is best known as
the modern home of these institutions. The
fair of Leipzig, e.g., which dates from the
twelfth century, is held three times a year,
and attracts from 25,000 to 30,000 foreign mer-
chants at each gathering. The great Russian
fair at Nizhni Novgorod occurs in July and
August, and the sales during its continuance
are said to amount to many millions of dollars.
The improvements in the methods of commerce
have led to the institution of the more recent
industrial exhibitions. These have for their
chief object, not the immediate sale of articles,
but their exhibition to visitors as an advertise-
ment which may ultimately increase the manu-
facturer's sales. The first of these modern exhi-
bitions is believed to have been held in Paris in
1798, in the Maison d'Orsay, and included only
articles of local manufacture. This exhibition,
as well as another held in Paris during the same
year, was so successful that Napoleon inaugu-
rated a third exhibition in 1802, and this in

EXHIBITION'S

267

EXHIBITIONS

turn led to the establishment of similar trien-
nial exhibitions. The Royal Dublin Society be-
gan its series of triennial exhibitions in Dublin
in 1829. At first only specimens of native in-
dustry were shown, but afterward products of
foreign manufacture were shown as well. These
proved popular, and subsequently exhibitions
were held periodically in other cities of the
United Kingdom, notably in Birmingham, Liver-
pool, and Manchester. It was but natural that
such exhibitions should extend to the United
States, and the American Institute (q.v.) of
New York, founded in 1828, had among its ob-
jects the holding of annual fairs at which in-
ventors and manufacturers might exhibit their
productions. The Franklin Institute of Phila-
delphia, founded in 1824, is of a similar charac-
ter, and has from time to time had various
expositions, chiefly devoted to the presentation
of scientific developments. Also of a somewhat
similar nature is the St. Louis Exposition, which
was organized in 1883 and during each year
since its inception has held an exhibition of
industrial products, accompanied frequently by
a display of fine arts. The fairs of the* Me-
chanics' Institutes were a natural development
of such institutions and prevailed locally for
many years; but with the establishment of mu-
seums and libraries, which in recent years have
combined under their management special ex-
hibits organized for the occasion, the importance
of the larger exhibitions has waned, especially in
the United States. With the passing of these
local exhibitions there have come in the United
States expositions that have been sectional
rather than national or local in character, and
also commemorative of some historical event.
Among these may be mentioned the World's In-
dustrial Cotton Culturist Exposition, which was
held in New Orleans, La., from Dec. 16, 1883,
to June 30, 1884; the California Mid-Winter Ex-
position, held in San Francisco, from Jan. 1
to July 4, 1894. This was followed by the Cot-
ton States and Industrial Exposition, which was
hold in Atlanta, Ga., from Sept. 15 to Dec. 31,
1805; the Tennessee Centennial Exposition (q.v.),
held in Nashville, Tenn., from May 1 to Oct. 31,
1807; the Trans-Mississippi Exposition (q.v.),
held in Omaha, Neb., from June 1 to Nov. 1,
1808; the Pan-American Exposition (q.v.), held
in Buffalo. N. Y., from May 1 to Nov. 2, 1901;
the- South Carolina Interstate and West Indian
Exposition (q.v.), held in Charleston, S. C., from
Doc. 1, 1001, to June 1, 1902. The Lewis and
Clark Centennial American Pacific Exposition
and Oriental Fair (q.v.), held in Portland, Ore-
gon, from June 1 to Oct. 15, 1905; the James-
town Tercentennial Exposition (q.v.) held in
Hampton Roads, Va., from April 26 to Nov. 30,
1907, and the Alaska- Yukon Pacific Exposition
(see under SEATTLE), held in Seattle, Wash.,
from June 1 to Oct. 15, 1909. Of less importance
have been the special expositions, such as the
Chicago Railway Exhibition, held in Chicago,
111., in 1882; the Cincinnati Industrial Exposi-
tion, held in Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1883; the
Electrical Exhibition, held in Philadelphia, Pa.,
in 1884; the Marietta Centennial Exposition,
hold in Marietta, Ohio, in 1888; the Patent
Centennial Celebration, held in Washington City
in 1891; the National Export Exposition, held
in Philadelphia, Pa., in 1899; and the Printing
Exposition, hold in New York City in 1900.

Among the expositions, many of which were
international, that have been held in recent years
VOL. VTIL— 18

and were devoted to some special subjects, may
be mentioned the following: of articles con-
nected with the leather industry, in Berlin in
1877: of all kinds of paper and pasteboard, in
Berlin in 1878; of fisheries, in Berlin in 1880;
of electrical appliances, in Paris in 1881; of
geographical exhibits, in Venice in 1881; of cot-
ton, in Atlanta, Ga., in 1881; of early data in
American history, in Madrid in 1881; of fisher-
ies, in London in 1883; of historical matters
pertaining to Columbus and the discovery of
America, in Madrid in 1882; of hygienic, chem-
ical, pharmaceutical, and sanitary objects, in
Naples in 1894; of German products and indus-
tries, in Berlin in 1896; of fisheries, in Bergen,
Norway, in 1898 ; of maritime industries, in Bor-
deaux, France, in 1907.

The success of many of the earlier local ex-
positions led to the inauguration of a series
of expositions of international character. The
first of these, which was announced in 1840,
was hold under the direction of the Society of
Arts in London. The exhibition was openecl on
May 1, and continued until Oct. 15, 1851, dur-
ing which time 6,039,195 persons visited it. The
total number of exhibitors was 13,938, of whom
6556 were from foreign countries and the re-
mainder from Great Britain and her colonies.
The exposition was a financial success, the re-
ceipts from admission fees and subscriptions
amounting to $2,444,718, while the expenses were
nearly $1,600,000. The history of the exposition
has been preserved in several works, and per-
haps most fully in the 13 volumes of reports
issued by the commissioners. Its success led
the Royal Dublin Society to make its exhibition
in 1853 an international one. The exposition
was opened on May 12, 1853, and for tho first
time the display of paintings as a regular fea-
ture was introduced. The total number of visi-
tors was. about one million, but the exposition
proved a failure, as the receipts were less than
one-half of the expenditures.

During the same year an Exhibition of the
Industry of All Nations was held in New York
City. The site chosen was on Sixth Avenue be-
tween Fortieth and Forty-second streets, the
place being now known as Bryant Park. The
principal building was in the form of a Greek
cross surmounted by a dome in the centre, and
the triangular spaces between the arms of the
cross were roofed over at the first story for the
purpose of obtaining additional space. In the
allotment of space one-fourth of the building
was devoted to the exhibits of the United States,
one-fourth to those of Great Britain and Ireland,
ono-fourth to Germany, France, and Belgium,
and the remainder to the exhibits of other na-
tions. The exposition was opened with appro-
priate exercises by President Pierce on July 14,
1853. The cost of the building and running ex-
penses was raised by the issuing of stock to the
amount of $500,000, but, notwithstanding the
interest aroused, it was a financial failure.

The next exposition of importance was that
held in Paris in 1855 and known as the Paris
International Exposition. The site chosen was
tho Champs. Elyse'es, where the main building,
in the form of a parallelogram 827 feet long by
364 feet in width, was erected as a permanent
structure to receive future expositions or to
serve for great public ceremonies and for civil
and military fetes. In addition to the Palais
de Tlndustrie, -as the main building was called,
there were separate structures for the exhibi-

EXHIBITIONS

268

EXHIBITIONS

tion of the fine arts, agricultural implements
and products, etc. This exposition began on
May 15 and continued to Nov. 15, 1855, during
which time the visitors numbered about four
and one-half millions. The industrial and art
inhibits shown on this occasion were considered
superior to those of all previous international
expositions. The expenses amounted to upward
of $5,000,000, while the receipts were scarcely
• 'ne-tonth of that amount.

.Several minor expositions were held in Europe
during the years that followed, notably in Edin-
burgh and Manchester in Great Britain, and in
.Munich in Bavaria; but the next international
exhibition of importance was held in London in

1862. Tlie site chosen was a tract of land in
South Kensington, covering an area of about 24
acres, where a permanent structure was erected.
About one-half of the space was allotted to the
exhibits of the United kingdom and its colonies,
and the other half to foreign countries, and the
total number of exhibitors was 28,653. The ex-
hibition was opened on May 1, and closed on
Nov. 1, 1862. The number of visitors is given
as 6,21], 103. The total cost and expenses of
the exhibition amounted to nearly $5,000,000,
but the receipts failed to reach that sum by a
comparatively small amount.

Minor expositions, although of an interna-
tional character, were held in Constantinople in

1863, in Dublin and in Oporto in 1865, and in
Stockholm and Melbourne in 1866.

In 1864 it was decreed by Emperor Napoleon
III that an international exposition should be
held in Paris in 1867. A commission was ap-
pointed with Prince Jerome Napoleon as presi-
dent, under whose direction the preliminary
work was begun. The site chosen was the
Champs de Mars, the great military parade
ground of Paris, which covered an area of 119
acres and to which was added the island of
Billancourt, of 52 acres. The principal build-
ing was rectangular in shape with rounded ends,
having a length of 1608 feet and a width of
1247 feet, and in the centre was a pavilion
surmounted by a dome and surrounded by a
garden, 545 feet long and 184 feet wide, with a
gallery built completely around it. Tn this
building were seven concentric galleries, the cen-
tral space in each of which was allotted to the
exhibits of a country, while radial avenues ex-
tended from the garden, separating the sections
of the several nations from each other. This
arrangement was adopted so as to display simi-
lar goods from different nations in such a man-
ner that they could be readily compared and
studied. In addition to the main building there
were nearly 100 smaller structures on the
grounds. There were 50,226 exhibitors, of whom
15,055 were from France and her colonies, 6176
from Great Britain and Ireland, and 703 from
the United States. The funds for the construc-
tion and maintenance of the exposition consisted
of grants of $1,165,020 from the French govern-
ment, a like amount from the city of Paris,
$1,553,360 as a guarantee fund, and about
$2,000,000 from public subscription, making a
total of $5,883,400; while the receipts were esti-
mated to have been but $2,822,900, thus leaving
a deficit, which, however, was offset by the sub-
scriptions from the government and the city of
Paris, so that the final report was made to show
a gain. The exhibits were examined by a jury
which included some 600 experts, among whom
were many of the foremost scientific men of the

world. The exposition was formally opened on
April 1, and closed on Oct. 31, 1867, and was
visited by 9,238,967 persons, including exhibi-
tors and employees. This exposition was the
greatest up to its time of all international ex-
positions, both with respect to its extent and
to the scope of its plan.

After minor expositions held in Havre in 1868,
Amsterdam in 1869, Sydney in 1870, and Mos-
cow in 1872, the next great international exposi-
tion was that held in Vienna in 1873. Prelimi-
nary announcements were issued by the Austrian
government in 1871, and a commission, of which
Archduke Charles Louis was protector and Baron
de Schwartz Scnborn chief manager, was charged
with its inauguration. Accordingly a site on the
Prater was chosen, covering 280 acres, where an
Industrial Palace consisting of a central nave
2953 feet long, 83 feet, 8 inches wide, and 73
feet, 10 inches high, of six' intersecting transepts
each 572 feet, 6 inches long, 51 feet, 1 inch wide,
and 41 feet high, and of a great rotunda, the
largest in the world, of 354 feet diameter at
the middle of the nave, was built. Other im-
portant buildings were a Machinery Hall, an
Art Building, and Agricultural Halls, and also
a large number of smaller special buildings.
There were 65,492 exhibitors, whose exhibits
were classified into 26 groups, and were duly
examined by an international jury of awards,
who distributed diplomas of honor and medals
for progress, merit, good taste, fine arts, and
for corporators. There were 643 exhibits shown
by the United States, for which 349 awards were
made as well as 26 medals for good taste and
cooperation, making a total of 375. The cost of
the buildings and running expenses was nearly
$10,000,000, while the receipts were about
$2,000,000, leaving a deficit of nearly $8,000,000,
which was made up by government appro-
priation. The total number of visitors was
7,254,687. At this exposition was inaugurated
the custom of gathering together men interested
in various specialties, whose meetings took the
form of congresses. Among these were the In-
ternational Patent Congress, the International
Congress for National Economy, that for Com-
plex Instruction, Linen Industries, etc. The
exposition was opened with appropriate cere-
monies on May 1, and closed on Oct. 31, 1873.

The importance and value of international ex-
positions shown by those held abroad led to a-
determination on the part of the United States
to celebrate the centennial of the independence
of the United States by an international exposi-
tion to be held in Philadelphia in 1876, a de-
scription of which forms the subject of a special
article under the title of CENTENNIAL EXPOSI-
TION, INTERNATIONAL (q.v.).

The French government, desirous of showing
to the world the assured success of the "Republic,
and incidentally to recommend the French
system of industrial protection, determined to
hold a universal exposition in Paris in 1878, and
an invitation was issued by President MaeMa-
hon inviting all nations to participate. The
site selected was the Champs de Mars, as in
the exposition of 1867, to which was added an
elevated plateau on the opposite side of the
Seine, known as the Trocadero, and connected
by the historical bridge of Jena. The main
building, of iron and glass, was rectangular in
form and covered 27,900 square yards. The art
galleries and the buildings erected for the spe-
cial exhibits made by the authorities of the

EXHIBITIONS

269

TIONS

of Paris occupied a court in the centre of the
building. The Palace of the Trocadero was of
stone and remained as a permanent memorial of
the exposition. In addition there were numerous
smaller structures in which special exhibits were
shown, and the various buildings of foreign gov-
ernments. The cost of the exposition was over
$6,000,000, which sum was raised by grants
from the French government and the city of
Paris, but the receipts were only about $2,000,-
000. The total number of exhibitors was about
52,835, which was less than in Vienna, and was
explained by the fact that several governments,
including Germany, refused to participate in the
exposition. The exhibits were viewed by an in-
ternational jury who distributed among the
exhibitors from the United States 10 grand
prizes, 7 special prizes, 143 gold medals, 224
silver medals, 277 bronze medals, and 208 honor-
able mentions. International congresses were
hold continuously throughout the exposition, and
in all some 30 were convened at which represen-
tatives from foreign governments were present
and discussed the subjects under consideration.
The exposition was formally opened on May 1,
and continued until Oct. 31, 1878. The total
number of admissions to the exposition was
16,159,719.

Among the minor expositions that followed the
Paris Exposition may be mentioned those held in
Amsterdam in 1883, Calcutta in 1884, Antwerp in
1885, Edinburgh in 1886, and Melbourne in 1888.

It had become a custom for the French govern-
ment to hold an exposition every 11 years, and
accordingly invitations were issued to foreign
governments to attend a universal exposition
to be held in Paris in 1889, ostensibly to cele-
brate the centenary of French independence.
The grounds selected for the exposition were
the Champs de Mars, 128 acres; the Trocadero
Garden, 42 acres; the Esplanade des Invalides,
38 acres ; and the Quai d'Orsay from the Champs
de Mars to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 20
acres, making a total of 228 acres. The prin-
cipal building was the Palace of Industries,
which was a large parallelogram flanked by two
wings and covering 1,138,930 square feet. It
was surmounted by a central dome 195 feet high
und having an exterior diameter of 120 feet.
Beyond this were the twin palaces of the Fine
and Liberal Arts, each of which covered 202,232
square feet and was surmounted by a cupola
183 feet high. Numerous other smaller struc-
tures were on the grounds, including those of
various governments. The important architec-
tural feature of the exposition, however, was the
famous Eiffel Tower (j.v.), 984 feet high, which
remained as a memorial. The total number of
exhibitors was over 61,722, whose displays were
examined by a jury of awards who recommended
33,139 awards." More than 70 international con-
gresses convened during the exposition, and dele-
gates from various governments were appointed
to discuss the subjects that were brought before
them. The exposition was opened on May 6, and
closed Nov. 6, 1889, and was visited by 25,121,-
975 persons.

No expositions of importance took place in the
years that followed until 1893, when the four
hundredth anniversary of the discovery of
America was celebrated .in the United States by
the World's Columbian Exposition (q.v.)» held
in Chicago, 111.

Subsequent to the World's Fair held in Chi-
cago, many of the exhibits shown there were

taken to San Francisco, and an exhibition known
as the California Mid-Winter Exhibition was
held during 1894, and this was followed in the
United States by a series of commemorative ex-
positions, a list of which is given elsewhere in
this article. Likewise there were several minor
expositions abroad, of which perhaps the most
important was that held in Brussels in 1898, at
which commissioners representing the United
States were present.

The proposition of holding a World's Fair
in Paris in 1900 began to take shape as early
as 1892. The location chosen was that similar
to the previous expositions, and included the
Champs de Mars and the Trocadero Garden, the
Esplanade of the Invalides, together with nar-
row strips on each bank of the Seine, connecting
on the south side the Esplanade of the Invalides
with the Champs de Mars, and on the north side
connecting the park of the Art Palaces with the
Trocad&ro, making in all an area of 336 acres,
also with an annex in the Bois de Vincennes
devoted to exhibits of transportation and sports.
Across the river on the Esplanade of the Champs
de Mars were the special buildings devoted to
the exhibition of science and art, education, en-
gineering, and means of transportation, mechani-
cal industries, agriculture and food, chemistry,
mechanical appliances, textile industries, min-
ing and metallurgy, etc.; while those along the
south bank of the Seine were the buildings of
the naval and military exhibits, followed by the
structures erected by the various nations, until
the Esplanade des Invalides was reached, where
were the palaces of foreign industry and decora-
tive art. For the erection of these various build-
ings and running expenses of the exposition a
fund amounting to upward of $27,000,000 was
raised, part of which was contributed by the
national government, by the municipality of
Paris, and part by the issuing of bonds, each of
which had a face value of 20 francs, and con-
sisted of 20 admission tickets with numbers for
various lottery drawings, and also by a sum of
money advanced by the Bank of Franco. Ex-
hibits were classified into 18 groups, the sub-
divisions into 121 classes. The official catalogue
gave 79,712 exhibits, of which 31,946 were from
France and 6674 from the United States. An
international jury of awards examined the ex-
hibits, recommending 42,790 awards. The usual
series of international congresses were held, and
announcements for over 125 were made. The
exhibition was opened on April 14, and con-
tinued until Nov. 11, 1900, during which time
it was visited by more than 50,000,000 persons,
and, on Sept. 6, 600,528 were reported to have
passed through the gates, which was the largest
attendance for any single day. A financial state-
ment issued at the close of the fair showed a
deficit of about $400,000, so that the exposition
may be considered to have been a financial suc-
cess, especially when it is remembered that the
value of the permanent buildings was very much
greater than the deficit.

This summary of the history of world's fairs
may properly be closed with the mention of the
exposition held in St. Louis in 1904, known as
the Louisiana Purchase Exposition (q.v.), in
celebration of the centennial anniversary of the
purchase of the Territory of Louisiana from
France; to be followed by the Panama Pacific
International Exposition (q.v.), held in San
Francisco, Gal., from Feb. 20 to Dec. 4, 1915.

Among the recent minor expositions abroad

EXILE

270

EXMOOB

were the following; Lie*ge, Belgium, 1905;
Quito, Ecuador (celebrating the centenary of
independence), 1909; Brussels, Belgium, 1910;
Buenos .Aires, Argentina (celebrating the cen-
tenary of independence), 1910; Turin, Italy
(celebrating the semicentenary of proclamation
of independence of Kingdom of Italy), 1911;
and Ghent, Belgium, 1913.

Bibliography. Silliman and Goodrich, World
of Science, Art, and Industry (New York,
1853); Reports of the United States Commis-
sioners to the Paris Universal Exposition, 1867,
ed. by Blake (6 vols., Washington, 1870); Re-
ports of the Commissioners of the United States
to the International Exposition held at Vienna,
181 3, ed. by Thurston (4 vols., ib., 1876) ; Re-
ports of the United States Commissioners to Ihe
Pans Universal Exposition, 1S78, ed. by McCor-
mick (5 vols., ib., 1880) ; Reports of the United
States Commissioners to the Centennial Inter-
national Exposition at Melbourne (ib., 1889);
Reports of the United States Commissioners to
the Universal Exposition of 1889 (5 vols., ib.,
1891) ; Report of the Commissioner-General for
the United States to the International^ Univer-
sal Exposition, Paris, 1900, ed. by Skiff, Gore,
and Capdiart (6 vols., ib., 1901); Kunz, "The
Management and Uses of Expositions," in North
American Review, vol. clxxv (New York, 1902) ;
United States World's Columbian Exhibition
Commission, Executive Committee of Awards,
Final Repot t (Washington, 1895) ; Great Britain
Royal Commissioners' Report Paris Interna-
tional Exhibition, 1900 (London, 1901); Kim-
ball, "The Management and Design of Exposi-
tions," in American Institute of Architects9
Quarterly Bulletin, vol. ii (New York, 1901);
Partridge, "The Educational Value of World's
Fairs," in Forum, vol. xxxiii (ib., 1902) ; Graves,
A Century of Loan EaMbitions, vols. i, ii (Lon-
don, 1913).

EXTLE. See BABYLONISH CAPTIVITY.
EXILE. Expulsion from one's native coun-
try by government authority for a period or for
life; also, residence abroad in a foreign land
either under compulsion by law, or voluntarily
to avoid some form of punishment, exposure to
which would follow continued residence in the na-
tive land. Exile in the first sense (expulsion) may
be either simple exclusion upon pain of death
or some k'sser penalty, or may take the form of
transportation to some foreign or secluded land
to which the exiled person is confined.

Among the Greeks exile was the legal punish-
ment for homicide, murder of an alien, instiga-
tion to murder, and malicious wounding; but it
did not originally exist among the Romans,
although the interdiction of fire and water prac-
tically amounted to the same thing. As a polit-
ical measure, expulsion from the country was
resorted to in Greece, and it might involve loss
of the rights of citizenship and the forfeiture of
property, except in cases of ostracism (<i-v.).

At Some the interdiction of fire and water
(interdictio aquw et ignis) was the penalty for
such serious crimes as treason, arson, and poi-
soning; and the accused was at liberty to an-
ticipate an unfavorable result of a trial by go-
ing into voluntary exile. This voluntary exile
did not arise as a substitute for punishment at
home1, Imt from the fact that the interdict was
a Hurvival of a ruder form of justice in which
tho state merely outlawed the criminal and left
him to the private vengeance of the injured
parties, which he escaped by fleeing to the pro-

tection of foreign lands whither the state had
no reason to pursue him. Loss of civic rights,
therefore, did not follow voluntary exile unless
the exile was declared to be deserved, or the
interdiction was subsequently pronounced, or the
refugee became a citizen of a foreign state. Con-
fiscation of property took place only in extreme
cases. Sometimes the interdict was pronounced
for political purposes, as in the case of Cicero.
Originally it was pronounced by the Comitia
Centuriata, and later by the judicial commis-
sions appointed to try offenses.

Direct expulsion was first practiced under the
Empire under the names of deportatio and rele-
gatio. Deportatio was a form of banishment to
a specified locality (usually an island), involv-
ing loss of civic rights and usually forfeiture of
property; relegatio^ was a milder form which
did not affect the rights of the man as a citizen.
Among modern nations exile survives as a pun-
ishment in the form of transportation to penal
colonies or settlements, as in the case of the
former penal colonies of Australia and Tasmania
(Van Dieman's Land) of Great Britain, and the
Siberian colonies of Russia (sec AUSTRALIA;
TASMANIA; SIBERIA) ; but with the increase of
civilization this form of punishment is being
abandoned.

The right of an alien to demand and receive
protection for his person and property in the
country where he resides has always received
general recognition among civilized nations, and
aliens who are refugees from punishment for
political crimes or mala prohiftita and not mala
in se are not among the classes included in
the treaties for extradition now commonly ex-
isting between civilized nations. This protec-
tion, however, is territorial only and extends
solely to those aliens within the boundary of the
state, unlike the protection to citizens which
the state affords at all times and places. Such
a refugee is amenable to the laws of the country
where/ he resides, and may there be punished
for any acts there committed by him which are
crimes by the law of that land; but the fact
that he is an accomplice in plots against his
native countrv with others there is rarely con-
sidered a reason for surrendering him upon de-
mand, except when the demand is made by a
superior power which will not brook a refusal.
For further information, consult such related
articles as ALIEN; EXTRADITION; PUNISHMENT:
BANISHMENT; TRANSPORTATION, PENAL; and
consult the authorities referred to under ALIEN;
EXTRADITION ; PUNISHMENT ; INTERNATIONAL
LAW; ETC.

EXTNE (from Lat. etc, out). In plants, the
outer one of the two layers of a spore wall, the
inner one being called the intine. The exine is
the protective layer, being comparatively thick
and impervious and often developing a rough
surface or appendages of various kinds. It is
often called the exospore. See SPORE.

EX/MOOR. A former forest, but now a moor-
land region, 30 square miles in area, in the west
of Somersetshire and northeast of Devonshire
(Map: England, 05). It consists of dark
ranges of hills, deep wooded glens, and lonely
valleys. Its highest point is Dunkery Beacon,
1707 feet above sea level. It is the sole remain-
ing habitat of the wild red deer of England and
is known for distinctive breeds of sheep and
ponies. It has iron and copper mines and is
graphically and romantically described in Black-
more's Lorna Doone.

EXMOUTH

271

EXMOXTTH, eks'muth (AS. Exan mtlpa,
mouth of the Exe). A seaport, market town,
and watering place of Devonshire, England, on
the English Channel, at the mouth of the Exe,
10 miles southeast of Exeter (Map: England,
C 6 ) . Tt is picturesquely situated on a hill
rising from the sandy estuary of the Exe and
is noted for its mild climate. The Woodbury
hills, 800 feet high, protect it from the east
winds. It is an attractive little town, with a
good beach for bathing, a fine sea wall, hand-
Rome terraces and promenades, assembly rooms,
libraries, and the usual features of a watering
jjliice. New docks were opened in 1809. Its chief
industries are lace making and fisheries. Pop.,
1001, 10,485; 1911, 11,963. The town is of con-
siderable antiquity. Here Sweyn the Dane landed
in 1003. It was taken by the Royalists in 1G4G.

EXMOTTTH, EDWAED PELLEW, VISCOUNT
(1757-1833). An English admiral. He was
born at Dover, of a Cornish family. He was
educated at the Truro Grammar School and
entered the navy at 13 years of age. When only
19, he showed conspicuous gallantry, after his
superior officers had been severely wounded, by
saving his vessel, in the battle of Lake Cham-
plain, Oct. 11, 1776. In command of a naval
brigade he took part in Burgoyne's campaign in
the following year. In 1782 he attained the
rank of post captain, and in 1793 he captured
the Cteopatre, a French frigate. For this vic-
tory lie was knighted. In 1799, in command of
the Impetueuai, he harassed the French coast and
won several brilliant actions. In the same year
his personal influence and bravery quelled the
mutiny in Bantry Bav and saved the British
fleet to the country. In 1804 Sir Edward Pel-
lew was advanced to the rank of rear admiral,
and in 1814 was created Baron Exmouth of
Canonteign, Devonshire. In 1816 he went to
Algiers with a fleet of 16 vessels to enforce the
abolition of Christian slavery and the liberation
of all Christian slaves. Three thousand Chris-
tians, mostly Spaniards and Italians, were freed
and conveyed to their respective countries. Ex-
mouth received the thanks of Parliament on his
return to England and was promoted to the rank
of Viscount. In 1821 he retired from public
service, but shortly before his death, Jan. 23,
1833, he was honored with the rank of vico
admiral of England. Consult Osier, Life of Ad-
miral Viscount Easmouth (London, 1844) ; and
Mahan, Types of "Naval Officers (Boston, 1891).

EXITER, KABL (1842- ). An Austrian
physicist. He was born at Prague and was
educated at Vienna and Zurich. In 1885 he
became president of the Chemico-Physical So-
ciety in Vienna and in 1892 was appointed lec-
turer at the University of Innsbruck. From
1894 to 1904 he was professor of mathematical
physics at that university. In the latter year
he retired, though he continued to live at Inns-
bruck and to retain his interest in physics and
meteorology. His publications include: Ueber
die Frauenhoferschen Ringe (1877); Ueber das
Funkeln der Sterne ( 1881 ) ; Ueber Beugungser-
scheinungen (1885); Ueber die polarisierende
"Wirkung der Lichtbeugung (1890-92); Genesis
der Erklarung des Scintillation (1901).

EX15TEB., SIEGMUND (1846- ). An Aus-
trian physiologist. He was born at Vienna and
after studying there and at Heidelberg lectured
at Vienna University, where in 1875 he be-
came professor of physiology, and where in 1891
he was made a member of the board of direc-

tors of the Physiological Institute. He made
numerous investigations on the physiology of
the nervous system and twice received the prize
awarded by the Vienna Academy of Sciences for
original researches. His publications include:
Leitfaden bei der miJiroskopisclien Untcrfsuchung
tierfecher Gewebe (2d ed., 1878); Untcrsuchun-
gcn uber die Localisation der Funktionen in der
Grosshimrinde dcs Mensclien (1881) ; Die Inner-
vation des Kehlkopfes (1884); Die PJiysiologie
der facettiertcn Aitgen von Krcbsen iind Insek-
ien. (1891); Entwurf su einer physiologischen
Erklarung der psychiscJien Erscheinungen
(1894). In 1887 he became coeditor with Gad
of the Centralblatt fur Pliysiologie.

EXN"EK, WILIIELAI FRANZ (1840- ). An
Austrian technologist, born at Glinserndorf and
educated at the Polytechnic Institute of Vienna.
In 1874 he was appointed inspector of industrial
schools in the Ministry of Commerce. With
Banhans and others he founded in 1879 the In-
dustrial Museum at Vienna and became its direc-
tor. He was elected to the Austrian Chamber
of Deputies in 1882, 1885, and 1891. His works
include: Das moderne Transport icesen im Dienstc
der Land- und Forsticirtschaft (2d ed., 1880) ;
Werkzeiige und Maschinen zur Holybearbcitung
(1878-83); Die Hausindustrie Oesterreichs
(1890); Das A'. JT. TecJinologisclie Crewerbe-
Museum in Wien- im erstcn vierteljalirhimdert
seines Beistandes (1904).

EXOAS'CUS. A genus of parasitic fungi
causing various kinds of deformities on seed
plants, especially trees. One of the species
causes the disease known as peach curl, which
results in a characteristic crinkling and deform-
ity of the leaf. Another species forms the so-
called plum pockets, in which the young plums
become of abnormal size and shrivel. Other
species form brushlike deformities on certain
trees, known as witch brooms.

E37ODUS (Lat., from Gk. 2£o3os, exodos, way
out, from dfc ej?, out + 6S6s, hodos, way). The
Latin name of the second book of the Penta-
teuch, so called from the fact that it treats of
the deliverance of the Hebrews from Egypt.
It contains, however, much more than this.
Taking up the narrative with the death of
Joseph, where Genesis left off, it recounts the
oppression of the Hebrews by their Egyptian
taskmasters; the birth, youth, and call of Moses
(chaps, i-vi) ; the plagues and the deliverance
from Egypt (vii-xv) ; the way to Sinai and the
establishment of the Covenant with Yahwe, in-
cidental to which a series of laws is set forth
(xvi-xxiv) ; directions for the construction of
the tabernacle (xxv-xxxi) ; the sin of the golden
calf (xxxii-xxxiv) ; the making of the taber-
nacle and its furniture, and the setting up of
the edifice (xxxv-xl).

It will thus be seen that Exodus is a mix-
ture of historical narrative with legislative ma-
terial. The legal sections are (1) Ex. xx. 23-
xxiii. 19, known as the Book of the Covenant;
(2) the Decalogue, Ex. xx. 1-17; and (3) an
older Decalogue, Ex. xxxiv. 10-28. (See DECA-
LOGUE.) In the opinion of many scholars these
legal sections date from different periods, while
the historical sections also come from different
sources, and there are many interpolations, nota-
bly in chaps, xxxv-xl. (See PENTATEUCH.)
As to the historical character of the exodus
from Egypt, the legislation at Sinai, and the
tabernacle, there is much difference of opinion
among scholars. Some maintain that Israel as

EXOGAlttY

272

EXOGYBA

a whole, or at least the Joseph tribes, once lived
in Egypt and escaped from bondage across some
northern projection of the Gulf of Suez, while
others regard the Egyptian setting as secondary
i nri. think of a successful crossing of the Gulf of
Akabah (q.v.) ; some hold that the Decalogue in
"Exodus xx. 1-17 and the Book of the Covenant
were promulgated by Moses at Sinai, whether
this mountain be looked for east or west of the
Aelanitic Gulf (see SIXAI), while others con-
sider these laws as of Palestinian origin; and
though the description of the tabernacle is widely
recognized as idealized, there are those who as-
sign some such structure to the nomadic period,
while others ace in it only a reflection of Solo-
mon's temple projected into the past. Consult
the commentaries on Exodus, particularly those
of Dillmann (Leipzig, 1880), Ryssel (ib., 1897),
Bantsch (Guttingen, 1000), Holzinger (ib.,
1000); Bennett (Oxford, 1908), McNeile (New
York, 1908), Driver (ib., 1911); Popper, Der
oiblische Bericht liber die Stiftshiltte (Leipzig,
1862); Bacon, The Triple Tradition of Etcodus
(Hartford, 1894) ; Eduard Meyer, Die Israel-
ites, und ihre Nachftarstamme (Halle, 1906) ;
Grtasmann, Afose und seine Zeit (1913).

EXOGKAMT. Marriage outside of a group;
i.e., the system of permitting marriages only
between members not belonging to the same
group. The torm is correlative with endogamy
(q.y.). Etymologically it would be justifiable
to identify exogamy with the rules preventing
incest, and in this wide sense of the term prob-
ably every tribe in the world might be reckoned
as exogamous, since some sort of restrictions
of marriage seems to occur everywhere, though
the character of the incest group differs widely.
More particularly, however, modern usage re-
stricts the term'to definite social units of the
character of moieties, clans, gentcs, the Aus-
tralian classes, etc., though local exogamy like-
wise occurs.

The speculations of Lewis H. Morgan have
had great influence on the study of exogamy.
He held that there was a period in human his-
tory when brothers and sisters intermarried.
At a certain stage, practically universal except
in Polynesia, this was precluded by organizing
into a one-sided kinship group those connected
by descent from the same female through fe-
males and prohibiting marriage within this
group (clan). The same result might have been
achieved by a corresponding patrilineal group
(gens) ; but, according to Morgan, this could
develop only at a later stage, when fatherhood
had become less uncertain than in the primitive
conditions of sexual license upon which he as-
sumes the exogamous scheme to have been im-
posed. Morgan's theory presupposes the prac-
tical absence of marriage restrictions prior to
the institution of clan exogamy. It has been
discovered, however, that such restrictions, based
on blood kinship, not only coexist with clan or
gentilo marriage prohibitions, but exist in the
absence of clan or gentile systems, which are
lacking in North America precisely among the
most primitive tribes. In other continents some-
what similar results have been obtained; thus,
among some of the most primitive tribes of New
Guinea there are no exogampus clans or gentes,
yet there are incest prohibitions based on blood
relationship. In short, incest regulations are
universal, clan or gentile exogamy is not. More-
over, clan or gentile exogamy may be a secon-
dary result of relationship restrictions, as seems

to be the case among the Blackfoot and Todas,
where the prohibitions applying to blood rela-
tives exclude ipso facto all fellow gentiles. Illus-
trations of this type make it next to impossible
to give a single psychological explanation of
exogamy. Indeed, even to-day the psychological
nature of the exogamous clan or gentile rule is
by no means uniform. In Australia and north-
western America, e.g., it appears to approach in
rigor our own incest feelings; but among other
tribes, such as the Blackfoot or Crow Indians,
transgressions arc resented rather as breaches
of etiquette, and there is no proof of any earlier
sentiment akin to that of the above-mentioned
tribes. It will therefore hereafter be necessary
to seek for specific causes of exogamy in every
area studied, though common factors may be
determined as the result of such an inquiry.
More particularly the notion that members of
a totem group practice exogamy because of their
descent from the putative totem ancestor must
be considered untenable. Totemisni and exogamy
frequently coexist, but very often they do not*;
and in many instances the totemic exogamy
found is derivative, i.e., is a corollary of the
exogamous rule attached to a larger nontotemic
division.

Westermarck has suggested, as a cause of
incest regulations, a hypothetical instinct against
mating existing between those who are brought
up together in close familiarity. This sugges-
tion has been accepted by some other scholars,
but is not by any means established. Even less
satisfactory is the theory that primitive men
consciously sought to check the harm due to
marriages of near kin ; for it is not only doubtful
whether such marriages are really harmful, but
the theory assumes a degree of rationalizing
activity that is quite inadmissible in primitive
conditions.

Since exogamy is bound up with various other
ethnological phenomena, the literature bearing
on it is immense. The following list, therefore,
comprises only some of the most helpful general
treatises: Morgan, Ancient Society (New York,
1877); Lang, Social Origins (London, 1903);
Thomas, Kinship Organizations and Group Mar-
riage in Australia (Cambridge, 1906) : Frazer,
Totemism and Eaoogamy (London, 1910) ; Gol-
denweiser, "Totemism: An Analytical Study,"
Journal of American Folk-Lore, pp. 179-293
(1910) ; Cunow, Kur UrgeschicJite dcr Ehe und
der FamiHe (Stuttgart, 1912).

EX'OGKEN (from Gk. 2£w, easo, outside +
-Verys, -genes, producing, from ytyjfeff6atj gignes-
thai, to become). An obsolete term, formerly
applied to dicotyledons. See DICOTYLEDON.

EX'OGY'IfcA (Neo-Lat. nom. pi., from Gk.
g£w, ex6, outside + yvpos, gyros, circle). A genus
of fossil pelecypods of the oyster family (Os-
treidfe), found in the rocks of Upper Jurassic
and Cretaceous age. The shells are inequilateral,
with only one muscle, and they resemble some-
what the form of the young plicate shells of the
modern edible oyster, though they are larger
and more convex, and the beaks of their valves
are spiral. The left or larger valve is deeply
convex, often fixed by its apex, and is usually
strongly ornamented by radial folds of the sur-
face, and sometimes also by imbricating plates.
The right valve is flat or concave and oper-
culum-like, with a surface that is either smooth
or marked by faint radiating lines. Eaogyra
costata of Say, with a length of 3 to 8 inches,
is very abundant in certain beds of the Ore-

EXONERATION

taceous system of the Atlantic and Gulf coastal
plain. See OYSTER.

EXON'ERA'TION (Lat. exoneratio, from ex-
onerate, to unload, from ex, out + onerare, to
load, from onus* load). In its broadest sense,
the act of Discharging or the state of being dis-
charged fro 11 some liability or obligation. A
person who has become bail for another may
entitle himself to exoneration by surrendering
his principal. At common law the devisee of
lands which were subject to a mortgage given
by his devisor, or the heir of such person upon
inheriting the lands, was entitled to have the
land exonerated from the mortgage debt — i.e.,
to have that debt paid out of the personal estate
of the mortgagor. This rule has been changed in
England and in many of our States by statute.
At present the term is most frequently applied
to the right of a surety to call upon the princi-
pal debtor to pay the guaranteed debt and thus
relievo the surety from his liability thereupon.
This light accrues as soon as the surety is put
in danger of being compelled to pay his princi-
pal's debt. If the creditor will not proceed
against the principal, the surety may file his
bill in equity for the purpose of compelling the
principal to satisfy the debt, it being unreason-
able that a surety should always have such a
cloud hanging over him. Consult: Williams,
Principles of the Law of Real Property (22d ed.,
Toronto, 1914) ; Redfield, Law and Practice of
Surrogate's Courts (7th ed., New York, 1910) ;
De Colyar, Treatise on the Law of Guarantees
and of Principal and Surety (London, 1900).

EX'OPHTHAI/MIC GOITRE, goi'ter. See
BASEDOW'S DISEASE.

EX'ORCISM (Lat. exorcismus, from Gk. #-
opKLfffJt,6sj exorkismos, exorcism, from 3£opKt£6Lv}
exorkizein, to administer an oath, from ^£, ess,
out + 6pKt$eiv, horkisein, 6pKovv, horkoun, to ad-
minister an oath, from &PKOS, Jiorkos, oath).
The act of conjuring evil spirits, in the name
of God, to depart out of the person possessed.
It has been practiced in manjr religions and
was especially common in ancient Babylonia.
In the first Christian century it was a common
custom of both Gentiles and Jews. The first
Christians adjured evil spirits in the name of
Jesus Christ; but as the opinion was entertained
that all idolaters belonged to the kingdom of
Satan, it was customary to exorcise heathens
previous to their receiving Christian baptism;
and since, on the theory of original sin, all in-
fants were regarded as belonging to Satan's
kingdom, exorcism became general at the bap-
tism even of Christian children.

Of its exercise in the early Church, both in
relation to energumens (q.v.), or persons pos-
sessed, and in the administration of baptism,
there are numerous examples. The rite of
exorcism is used by the Catholic church in
three different cases: in the case of actual or
supposed demoniacal possession, in the admin-
istration of baptism, and in the blessing of the
chrism or holy oil, and of holy water, with the
view of withdrawing from the power of Satan
creatures which are to be used in the service
of God. Its use in cases of possession is now
extremely rare and in many diseases is pro-
hibited unless with the special permission of the
bishop. In baptism it precedes the ceremony of
applying the water with the baptismal form.
It is used equally in infant and in adult bap-
tism, and Roman Catholic writers appeal to the
earliest examples of the administration of the

273

EXPATRIATION

sacrament as evidence of the use of exorcism in
both alike. The rite of baptismal exorcism in
the Roman Catholic church follows closely the
scriptural model in Mark viii. 33. The exor-
cisms in the blessing of the oil and water re-
semble veiy closely the baptismal form, but are
more diffuse. See DEMONIAC.

EX'ORCIST. A title of the second of the
minor orders of the Roman Catholic church.
Down to the middle of the third century the
power of exorcism (q.v.) was exercised by Chris-
tians generally, without special authorization.
Pope Fabian (236-251) seems to have been the
first to assign a definite name and functions to
exorcists as a separate order. The Fourth Coun-
cil of Carthage (398) prescribed a rite of ordi-
nation for exorcists. The ceremonies of exorcism
may be performed by any priest, since he is or-
dained exorcist on his way to the priesthood; but
in many dioceses he must obtain special per-
mission'of the bishop. See ORDERS, HOLT.

EX'OSTEM/MA (Neo-Lat., from Gk. S&a,
ea?<J, outside + ar^u/jo, stemma, garland). A
genus of American trees and shrubs of the
family Rubiaceee, nearly allied to Cinchona.
Several species yield febrifugal barks, which,
however, do not contain the cinchona alkaloids.
The most valued of these are Caribbee bark,
Jamaica bark, and St. Lucia bark, the latter of
which is the produce of Exostemma floribun-
dum, a native of the more mountainous parts of
the West Indies.

EX'OSTO'SIS (Neo-Lat, from Gk. «, eao, out
-f Atrrtov, osteon, bone). A bony tumor or ex-
crescence growing from some of the osseous
structures of the body. See TUMOB.

EX'OTEBIC. See ESOTEBIC.

EXPANSION. See HEAT.

EXPANSION" (as a political term). See
IMPERIALISM; UNITED STATES, EXTENSION OF
THE TERRITORY OF THE.

EX PAB/TE (Lat., from a part). From or
on behalf of a designated party. The term is
frequently used in the title of a legal proceed-
ing. For example, if Shand is adjudged bank-
rupt the title of the bankruptcy proceedings is
In re Shand ; and if a creditor named Corbett
makes an application in the cause for an order
or determination in his behalf, his proceeding
is entitled, Mat parte Corbett in re Shand. So,
if Smith applies for leave to sue an official bond
or for some particular writ (q.v.)i this prelimi-
nary proceeding is entitled Eat parte Smith. The
term is also used to describe the application or
proceeding itself. Statements made in a judicial
proceeding under such circumstances that the
opposite party has no opportunity to challenge
their accuracy are often spoken of as ex parte.

EXPA'TBIA'TION" (from ML. eajpatriare, to
banish from one's country, from Lat. ex, out 4-
patria, fatherland, from pater, father). Change
of residence and allegiance from one's native or
adopted land to another country and government,
arising by voluntary act or by operation of law.
It has been declared by the United States Con-
gress to be "a natural and inherent right of all
people, indispensable to the enjoyment of the
rights of life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness."
(United States Revised Statutes, 1999, 2000.)
In the same statute Congress characterized
every opinion, order, or decision which denied,
restricted, impaired, or questioned the right of
expatriation, as inconsistent with the funda-
mental principles of the Republic. These statu-
tory declarations fairly represent the view now

EXPECXATIOtt a

prevailing in this country. In the War of 1812
Great Britain denied the right of expatriation
to her citizens, holding that they could not
renounce their native allegiance and assume a
new one without her consent. This doctrine was
accepted by Chancellor Kent as in accord with
the principles of the common law. It no longer
obtains, however, either in this country or in
Great Britain. In 1870 an Act of Parliament
and a treaty with the United States committed
the British government to an acceptance of the
rule contended for by her opponent in the War of
1812. Under this statute and treaty any British
subject who at any time may become naturalized
in a foreign state shall be deemed to have ceased
to be a British subject and shall be regarded
as an alien. Provision is also made for a for-
mal declaration of allegiance by a person who
is a British subject according to British law,
but a foreign subject according to foreign law.
It is further declared that a British woman by
marriage with a subject of a foreign state is
expatriated, and that a minor child changes its
nationality with the expatriation of its father
or widowed mother, provided it resides abroad
with such parent. Expatriation of American
citizens is regulated by the Law of March 2,
1907. By this law an American citizen is held
to have expatriated himself when he has been
naturalized in any foreign state. When a
naturalized citizen of the United States has
resided for two years in the foreign state from
which he- canio, or five years in any other foreign
state, he is presumed to have ceased to be an
American citizen. But no American citizen is
allowed to expatriate himself in time of war.

An -American woman who marries a foreigner
takes the nationality of her husband. Upon the
termination of the marital relation she may
resume her American citizenship, if residing in
the United States, by continuing to reside there ;
if residing abroad, by returning to reside in the
United States, or by registering as an American
citizen with an American consul within a year
of the termination of the marital relation. A
foreign woman who acquires American citizen-
ship by marriage to an American retains her
American citizenship upon the termination of
the marital relation if she continues to reside
in the United States. Consult the articles on
ALIEN; LAW; NATDRALizATioiir ; and the author-
ities referred to under those titles.

EXTECTATIOIT (Lat. etcpectatio, from eas-
pectare, to expect, from eao, out + spectare, to
beli old, from spicere, to look). The term is usu-
ally defined as an anticipatory attention, and the
expectant consciousness is said to be dominated
by an anticipatory image of the expected event.
Neither- of these statements, however, is strictly
true. Experiments have shown that there are
two situations in which expectation may arise.
1. The experience begins with a perception; the
observer, after the perception, awaits another
perception that in the past has followed the
first; e.g., when a step is heard at the door,
one expects a ring. The "awaiting" of the
second perception here constitutes the expectant
attitude. In consciousness this attitude is char-
acterized by strain and other organic sensations
and by verbal ideas; either of these complexes
may be predominant, and either of them may
retire to the background. An image of the
awaited perception may or may not be present;
it ia not essential, and usually it is absent. 2.
In the second situation there comes into con-

74 EXPECTATION

sciousness a perception which has not been
wrought by experience into a definite series.
In such a case one expects something, but does
not know what; one hears a ring, and expects
"somebody." Introspection shows, however, that
the pattern of consciousness is the same as be-
fore; the situations are different, but the ex-
pectant attitudes aroused by them are qualita-
tively the same. The sensational elements are
the conscious aspect of the perceptive determi-
nation; they are tbe vehicle of the meaning
*' so-and-so is going to happen." (See DETERMI-
NATION".) They derive in part from the bodily
attitude of attention: tense muscles, inhibited
breathing, accommodation of the sense organs.
The expectant consciousness can, neveitheless,
hardly be termed attentive; the kinsesthetic sen-
sations are, truly, at the focus, but are not focal
in their own light; they are given rather as con-
text, as meaning, than as independent processes.
Functionally the expectant consciousness lacks
definiteness and clearness because it exists not
for itself but for a consciousness about to be; it
is a preparatory, a transitional consciousness.

It is clear that a suitable direction of ex-
pectation is the sine qua non of a full appre-
hension or clear apperception of the awaited
impression. Hence it is customary, in all forms
of psychological experimentation, to give a sig-
nal (a spoken "Now!" or tlie stroke of an elec-
tric bell) to the observer, at such an interval
before the presentation of stimulus that expec-
tation may just have time to reach its maximum
without passing over into fatigue. The time
required, at least in the simpler departments of
experimental work, amounts to 1.5 or 2 seconds.
During this period the observer has an oppor-
tunity to concentrate himself upon the problem
in hand, either in a general way, by banishing
irrelevant ideas and thoughts, or, more specifi-
cally, by calling up a definite mental image of
the coming stimulus. Suppose, e.g., that the
two points of a pair of compasses are to be set
down simultaneously upon the skin of the wrist,
at a certain distance apart, and that the ob-
server is to say whether he senses one or two
pressures. On hearing the ready signal, he will
(a) devote his attention exclusively to the wiist
and purposely ignore any accidental stimulation
of eye or ear; while (&), if he has had previous
experience in the discrimination of two points
upon the skin, he will represent to himself, in
terms of pressure sensation or otherwise, the
various forms that cutaneous duality may take.

Expectation, then, if rightly directed, is of
essential service to the experimental psycholo-
gist. But predisposition may be a source of
error, as well as a help, in laboratory work.
Suppose that we wish to ascertain the least sepa-
ration of the compass points that can evoke the
introspective response C6two pressures." We
shall begin with a separation of the points at
which only one pressure is perceived and gradu-
ally increase this separation, in successive trials,
until the judgment "one" passes over into the
judgment "two." We secure the observer's full
attention, at each application of the instrument,
by means of our ready signal. Since, however,
we are making a series of tests, and the series is
progressing in a known direction (from one-
ness towards twoness), the observer may easily
become prejudiced; at each fresh step of the
series he may think, "This time there must be
two!" The judgment "two" will therefore come
too soon; our result is vitiated by the error of

EXPECTATION* WEEK

275

EXPERT

expectation. In all such cases some method
must be devised whereby this error may be
eliminated. In the present instance we seek to
eliminate it by reversing our series. We begin
a second set of tests with a separation of the
compass points that gives two clear pressures,
and work down, step by step, until "two" passes
over into "one." The "one" comes too soon, in
this reversed series, as the "two" came too soon
in the preceding series. By averaging the results
of the two procedures, in a number of series, we
may hope to rule out the expectation error.

Consult: Wundt, Outlines of Psychology
(Eng. trans., Leipzig, 1907) ; Kulpe, Outlines of
Psychology (Eng. trans., London, 1909); Tit-
chener, Experimental Psychology, II, ii (New
York, 1905) ; id., Text-Book of Psychology (ib.,
1910). See HABIT; PEACTICE; PSYCHOPHTSICS.

EXPECTATION" WEEK. A name some-
times given to the period between Ascension Day
and Whitsunday, because during this time the
Apostles continued praying in earnest expecta-
tion of the Comforter.

EXPEC'TORANT (from Lat. expectorare, to
drive from the breast, from eat, out + pectus,
breast). Any medicine given to carry off the
secretions of the respiratory tract. (See BRON-
CHUS; BBONCHITIS. ) The National Formulary
gives the following list of expectorants : Sedative,
antimon. et potas. tart, apomorphia, ipecac, potas.
citras; Stimulant, ammonii carbonas, ammonii
chloridum, benzoin, tolu, creosotum, eucalyptus,
grindelia, guaiacol, pix liquida, scilla, senega,
sangui naria, terebenum. and terpini hydras.

EXPEC'TORA'TION. The act of spitting;
also the sputum, which is the Latin name for the
mucus or other secretion discharged from the
air passages. The examination of expectoration
is of the utmost value in the diagnosis of diseases
of the chest. Often the nature of an ailment can
be determined or the diagnosis confirmed by the
examination of the expectoration. In simple
bronchitis the sputum is frothy and colorless
and floats on water. In chronic bronchitis it is
generally yellowish or greenish, and, owing to an
admixture of pus, it sinks in water. If the
sputum be tinged with dark blood, pneumonia Is
suspected. In tuberculosis of the lungs bright
blood may be coughed up, or mucus of a pink
tint from the coloring matter of blood, or the
sputum may be very abundant, viscid, or green-
ish. It may have an offensive odor in tubercu-
losis and is always so characterized in gangrene
of the lung. But the diagnosis does not rest
entirely on the appearance of the sputum or the
examination of the chest. Methods of staining
certain elements and the use of the microscope
will decide upon the presence or absence of the
tubercle bacillus; Pfeiffer's bacillus, of la
grippe; the pneumococcus and the pneumobacil-
lus, of pneumonia; streptococcus, of pus infec-
tion; or other bacilli, as well as elastic fibres
from the lung. In certain cases expectoration
of mucua is to be encouraged, and cough must
not be checked. In all cases of known or sus-
pected communicable disease, as influenza (la
grippe] , pneumonia, or tuberculosis, the" sputum
must be received in a vessel in which it is kept
moist until destroyed by disinfectants or burned.
Carpets, furniture, and bedding should be pro-
tected from expectoration in these cases of dis-
ease, and sheets, pillow cases, handkerchiefs,
napkins, and night clothing should be frequently
changed and dipped in boiling water before being
washed.

EX PEODE HER'CTJLEM (Lat. [know] Her-
cules from his foot). A modern Latin proverb,
meaning that the whole can be tested by a part.
The saying rests on a story told by Aulus Gel-
lius (Noctes Atticw, 1,1) on the basis of a work
by Plutarch, now lost, that Pythagoras deter-
mined the stature of Hercules as follows: Tra-
dition said that the stadium at Olympia meas-
ured just 600 times the length of Hercules' foot.
Since this stadium was larger than other stadia,
which represented 600 times the length of a nor-
mal man's foot, it was easy to tell how much
larger Hercules' foot was than the normal human
foot, and then, on principles of symmetry and
mathematics, to determine just how much larger
Hercules was than ordinary men. The saying
is paralleled by another modern Latin phrase,
Ex ungue leonem, '[Judge] a- lion by his claw.'
Similar in spirit, too, is the famous expression of
.'Eneas about Sinon, in Vergil, JSneid, ii, 65-66,
Ab uno disce omnes, i.e., 'From one [treacherous
Greek] know the whole Greek race.9

EXPEDIENCE MEETING. A name ap-
plied to religious gatherings at which one or
more of those present set forth their spiri-
tual history and experiences. In the Methodist
church class meetings are of this nature, and
some denominations have stated covenant or
conference meetings. The ordinary prayer
meeting of a church sometimes takes this
form.

EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY. See
PSYCHOLOGY, EXPERIMENTAL.

EXTPEBT (Lat. expertus, skilled, p.p. of eas-
periri, to test) . One who is specially experienced
in a particular subject matter of inquiry, as the
result of the previous habit or practice or study.
From the legal point of view the most important
function of the expert is that of witness in liti-
gated cases.

The earliest recorded appearance of the expert
in English judicial tribunals was in the capacity
of an adviser of the court. As early as 1353 we
are told that, in an appeal of mayhem, the sheriff
was ordered to summon skillful surgeons from
London to inform the court whether the wound
in question was mayhem or not. In the seven-
teenth century it became customary to call ex-
perts as helpers of the jury. When acting in
this capacity, they were sworn and examined by
counsel as witnesses. At the trial of the Suf-
folk witches, in 1665, Sir Thomas Browne, the
physician and natural philosopher, testified, after
examining the accused, that he was of the opin-
ion that they were bewitched. From that time
the medical expert has been an important figure
in criminal trials. But expert testimony is not
confined to members of the learned profession.
It may be given by farmers, mechanics, brokers,
lumbermen, physicians, clergymen, scientists,
lawyers, or any person qualified by special train-
ing and knowledge to answer questions requiring
such training and knowledge to answer them.
(See EVIDENCE.) When the case is before a
court and jury, it is for the court to say whether
the questions call for expert assistance, as well
as whether a particular witness is justified to
speak as an expert thereon. It is for the jury
to determine the worth of an expert opinion,
after it has been given. Such opinion (however
famous or learned or experienced the one who
utters it may be) is not binding upon the jury.
It may be accepted as helpful, or it may be
totally disregarded. At times the expert deposes
to facts rather than opinions; as when a chemist

EXPERT

276

EXPLOSION

explains the examination of an alleged blood
stain, or of parts of a human body- When his
opinion is called for, it is ordinarily based upon
a hypothetical question — i.e., a question which
supposes the statements of fact contained in it
to have been established by competent evidence.
Assuming the facts to be as stated in the ques-
tion, the expert is asked to tell the jury what,
in his opinion, is the correct inference to be
drawn from them. It will be observed, there-
fore, that he is not asked to invade the province
of the jury and decide the general question at
issue, but only to testify to the specific inference
that should be drawn from particular facts.

Whether a person can be compelled to attend
and testify as an expert for the fees of an ordi-
nary witness is a question upon which the au-
thorities are conflicting. In England and in
many of our States it has been answered in the
negative, either by judicial decision or by stat-
ute. This view is based upon two considerations :
First, that to compel a person to attend as a
witness merely because he is accomplished in a
particular science, art, or profession, would sub-
ject the same individual to be called upon in
every cause where his opinion would carry
weight. Second, that a person's special knowl-
edge and skill are property, which should be no
more at the mercy of the public than the goods
of the merchant or the crops of the farmer. On
the other hand, the view is maintained that the
law allows no excuse for withholding evidence,
and that the expert witness, in the performance
of his duty as a good citizen, should be compelled
to testify 'where his evidence would be helpful to
a court or jury, whether that evidence be based
upon personal observation of some fact connected
with the case or upon his accumulated knowledge
and experience. It is generally agreed, however,
that an expert cannot be required to make any
special preparation or investigation for the opin-
ion he is supposed to give, without extra
compensation.

The usefulness of expert evidence, and the ad-
visability of changing the present methods of
procuring and presenting it, are also questions
upon which widely different views are enter-
tained. A recent writer upon this subject, a
lawyer of high reputation and sound judgment,
has declared that "few judges have a good word
to say for expert testimony." Lord Campbell
once told the House of Lords that expert wit-
nesses "come with a bias on their minds to sup-
port the cause in which they are embarked, and
hardly any weight should be given to their evi-
dence." Quite recently a learned judge in New
York City advised the jury "to put all the expert
testimony out of their minds and pay no atten-
tion to it." This he did although a week had
been consumed in taking the expert testimony,
because "an equal number of doctors has testified
directly opposite to each other, and all with
equal "positiveness." On the other hand, the
present system has its strong advocates, and no
radical change is to be expected in the near
future, though there is a growing sentiment in
favor of the employment of expert witnesses by
the state. Consult: Rogers, LQM> of Eapert Tes-
timony (St. Louis, 1891) ; Lawson, Law of Ex-
pert and Opinion Evidence (2d ed., Chicago,
1900) ; Foster, "Expert Testimony, Prevalent
Complaints, and Proposed Remedies" (11 For-
vard Law Review, 169) ; Endlich, "Proposed
Changes in the Law of Expert Testimony" (32
American Law Review, 851). See EVIDENCE,

EX'PIA'TIOW, DAY OF. See ATONEMENT,
DAY OF.

EX'PLANA'TION1 (Lat. explanatio, from ex-
planarc, to explain, from e&, out + planare, to
level, from planus, plain) . In science, the giving
of a complete description of some object or event.
In certain cases this end is attained by the sub-
sumption of the phenomenon to a general law, as
when a physical fact is brought under one or
other of the general lawa of mechanics. The law
in such instances is mathematically exact; it
sums up in shorthand all the conditions under
which the phenomenon in question appears; it
sets the phenomenon in its right place within the
causal nexus of the material universe. In fields
of science that are less "exact" than physics,
such as biology and psychology, explanation takes
on a different form. The laws of these sciences
are, for the most part, hypothetical generaliza-
tions, or supplementings of the facts more or less
hypothetical in character, rather than short-
hand formula derived from the foots themselves;
so that subsumption to them, while it may help
to confirm a theory or to classify an otherwise
heterogeneous subject matter, docs not consti-
tute explanation. Nothing is more erroneous
than the popular belief that a given fact is
adequately explained when it is referred to a
"principle" of heredity or of memory. Explana-
tion consists rather in an accurate description
of the fact as observed, together with a state-
ment, as full as the circumstances permit, of the
proximate conditions under which it appears.
Thus, a fact of mind, a complex mental process,
is explained when we have (1) analyzed it into
its elements, sensation and affection, (2) form-
ulated the laws of connection of these con-
stituent processes, and (3) referred thorn to
their proximate physical conditions in the cere-
bral cortex. To explain, e.g., an impulse as a
"manifestation of our active nature" or of a
"faculty of will," or to account for the rise of an
idea in consciousness by a "law of telepathy,"
is to interpret a fact, a scientific datum, which
can be known, in terms of the less known and
hypothetical. Misunderstandings of this sort
have recently called forth emphatic protest from
men of eminence in scientific inquiry. "The
business of all science is the description of
facts*'; and when a scientific "theory" goes be-
yond the specification of the conditions under
which the facts are observable, it ceases to be an
aid to thought and becomes a positive hindrance.
Consult: Kfilpe, Outlines of Psychology (Eng.
trans., London, 1909); id., Introduction to
PUlosophy (Eng. trans., New York, 1901);
Mach, Contributions to tfie Analysis of the
Sensations (Eng. trans., Chicago, 1897) ; Pop-
ular Scientific Lectures (Eng. trans., ib., 1895) ;
Titchener, Text-Boole of Psychology (New York,
1910).

EXPLOITS' RIVER. A large river in New-
foundland, 160 miles long, rising in the south-
west part of the island, which it almost bisects
(Map: Newfoundland, E 4). It takes a north-
easterly course through the extensive Red Indian
Lake and flows into the Bay of Exploits on the
northeast coast. The fertile but sparsely settled
valley abounds with game, and the river with
fish. It is navigable for 12 miles from its
mouth by steamers, and small boats ascend
within 50 miles of the southwest coast.

EXPLOSION. Explosion is a sudden and
violent increase in the volume of a substance*
due to the rapid conversion of a solid or liquid

EXPLOSIVES

277

EXPLOSIVES

to the gaseous state, or to the instantaneous
combination of two or more gases accompanied
by increase of volume. Explosion is more rapid
than combustion and slower than detonation.
See BALLISTICS.

EXPLOSIVES (from Lat. escplosus, p.p. of
easplodere, to explode, from ex, out + plaudere,
to clap). Substances, either solid or liquid,
which, under the influence of some disturbing
agency, enter into a chemical reaction which
results in the production of gases and the evo-
lution of much heat.

History. Nothing definite is known about the
origin of explosives, and it is contended by some
that the invention of gunpowder was contempo-
raneous with the discovery of saltpetre. Greek
fire, which is believed to have been a preparation
of pitch, resin, saltpetre, and sulphur, was first
used during the defense of Constantinople about
660, and it is reasonable to believe that gun-
powder was a development of this mixture.
Manuscripts are in existence showing the use of
gunpowder among the Arabs prior to 1250. but
its discovery is generally attributed to Koger
Bacon, of Oxford, England, who mentioned it
about 1270, and to Berthold Schwartz, of Frei-
burg, Germany, who described it in 1328. Its
discovery has also been 'attributed to the Chinese,
and a description of its use at the siege of Pian-
king and Lo-yang in 1232 is contained in the
Chinese Annals, and its invention has been as-
cribed to the Hindus in consequence of certain
passages in Indian law books, but the authen-
ticity of these Oriental descriptions is doubted
by modern writers. In 1346 at the battle of
Crecy use was made of cannon (see ARTILLERY;
OBDNANCE) in which gunpowder was employed
as a propellant, and its use increased with
the subsequent development of firearms, though
it remained practically the same until the last
century. (See GUNPOWDER. ) In 1845 SchSnbein,
of Basel, discovered the explosive nature of gun-
cotton, and in 1847 Sobrero discovered nitro-
glycerin (q.v.). Alfred Nobel invented dyna-
mite (q.v.) in 1866, and to him also is due
the production in 1875 of blasting gelatin.
The explosive character of nitrated hydrocarbons
was indicated by Hermann Sprengel in 1873, and
in 1887 it was still further developed by Eugene
Turpin, while the now important smokeless pow-
ders should be credited to the inventive genius
of Vieille, who was the first, in 1886, to produce
a really successful military smokeless powder,
though previous investigators had been active in
this field and had achieved varying degrees of
success. See SMOKELESS POWDER.

Classification. Explosives are mechanical
mixtures or chemical compounds. The first
consist of certain chemical substances inti-
mately mixed by mechanical means, which at
an elevated temperature react upon each other
and pass into the gaseous state, causing the
explosion. Typical of this class is gunpowder.
Another example of this class is a mixture
of finely divided charcoal and liquid air. A
mixture of acetylene and ozone in the liquid
state, if it were employed, would constitute one
of the most powerful explosives of the same class,
A typical example of the second class of explo-
sives is nitroglycerin. Other examples of the
second class are guncotton, trinitrotoluene, "T.
1ST. T.," and mercury fulminate. The further
subdivisions of the two classes of explosives
include the following groups: nitrate mixtures,
chlorate mixtures, perchlorate mixtures, nitro-

substitution compounds, nitric esters, fulmi-
nates, amides, and amines, and triazotates.
Another classification in which explosives are
divided into "low" explosives and "high" rests
on the method by which the explosion is in-
itiated, low explosives being "fired" by ignition
and high explosives by detonation. Official
classification designates explosives acceptable to
the United States as "permissible" and those
acceptable in Great Britain as "permitted" ex-
plosives. See below.

Theory of Explosions. An explosion may be
defined as a chemical reaction which is effected
in an exceedingly short space of time with the
evolution of a large quantity of gas at a high
temperature and accompanied by a shock. When
this reaction occurs in a body which ia confined,
the expansive action of the heated gases pro-
duces disruptive effects. The force which is de-
veloped by the passage from the solid form to the
gaseous condition depends upon the ingredients
of the explosive and the way in which the
explosion is initiated. When 'the explosion is
progressive, i.e., starts at an initial point and
continues from one group of particles to the next,
and BO on through the explosive, the action is
termed 'burning and is analogous to ordinary
combustion. When, however, the combustion is
effected nearly simultaneously throughout the
mass in an extremely short space of time, the
action is called detonation. The development of
a detonation may often be explained as result-
ing from the transformation of a shock into
heat. This may be accomplished by the propa-
gation of the shock from particle to particle in
an explosive, or by a shock from one explosive
body to another not in direct contact. The latter
is the synchronous vibratory theory of Sir Fred-
erick A. Abel, who claims that the originating
cause of the detonation of an explosive lies in
the synchronism between the vibrations produced
by the body that provokes the detonation and
those that the first body would produce in det-
onation, just as the string of a musical instru-
ment resounds at a distance in unison with an-
other vibrating cord. Marcellin P. E. Berthelot,
on the other hand, contends that an explosion is
due to the transformation of mechanical energy
into heat, which during the explosion is again
transformed into mechanical energy; i.e., it is
dependent upon the production of two orders of
waves, one series of which represents the ex-
plosive waves developed in the midst of the
matter that detonates, and consists of a con-
tinually reproduced transformation of the chem-
ical actions into thermal and mechanical actions
which transmit equally the sudden pressure all
around the centre of the concussion to the ad-
joining bodies and thence to a new mass of ex-
plosive material. Most explosives consist es-
sentially of compounds containing carbon, oxy-
gen, and nitrogen, the last of which is in a
state of feeble combination with the whole or
part of the oxygen, thus constituting an un-
stable chemical system. When the explosion
takes place, the nitrogen gives up its oxygen to
the carbon, for which it has a greater affinity,
forming carbon-dioxide and carbon-monoxide
gases, the combination being attended by great
generation of heat, and the freeing of the nitro-
gen. In most explosives the carbon is accom-
panied by hydrogen, which by its combustion
produces an extremely high temperature -and
combines with a part of the oxygen to form
water in the state of greatly expanded vapor.

EXPLOSIVES

278

EXPLOSIVES

Other subordinate elements are often present;
thus, e.g., in gunpowder the potassium holds the
nitrogen and oxygen loosely together as salt-
petre, and there is sulphur, a second combustible
whose oxidation evolves even greater heat than
( arbon. When potassium chlorate is present,
i ho chlorine acts the same as the nitrogen and is
set free in the gaseous state. The foregoing de-
scription illustrates those explosives in which
the decomposition may be considered a process
of oxidation, but there are cases in which an ex-
plosion occurs by the simple dissociation of a
compound without oxidation; thus, nitrogen
chloride and nitrogen iodide contain neither
carbon nor oxygen, and their great explosive
\iolence is explained by the feeble affinities of
nitrogen for other elements.

Explosive Mixtures of the Nitrates. This
class consists of those compounds which are me-
chanical mixtures of nitrates with some base,
such as charcoal or other substance containing
carbon, and usually also sulphur. The nitrates
are the source of the oxygen which on explo-
e ion combines with the carbon of the charcoal,
producing large volumes of gases, so that the
mixture when confined will at the time of ex-
plosion be accompanied by a violent disrupting
action. The typical representative of this class
is black gunpowder, for a description of the
manufacture of which, see GUNPOWDEB. The
standard composition of gunpowder is potassium
nitrate (saltpetre) 75 parts, charcoal 15 parts,
and sulphur 10 parts; although these ingredi-
ents necessarily vary according to the uses for
which the powder is desired, i.e., whether for
blasting, sporting, or warfare. They must also
be so combined that (1) the combustion may be
complete and little residue left after explosion;
(2) that the powder shall not readily absorb or
retain moisture; (3) that its explosive proper-
tics shall not be greater than required; and (4)
it shall be hard and dense enough to bear trans-
portation without disintegrating. Excess of,
carbon and sulphur prevents perfect combustion
and lowers the explosive force, while too great
an amount of potassium or sodium chloride in
the saltpetre will make the powder hygroscopic.
Disintegration may be prevented by proper
incorporation and pressing. Good gunpowder
should have a density between 1.5 and 1.85, and
the most acceptable powders for use as propel-
lants arc those that are the most dense. Its ex-
ploding point ranges from 270° C. for blasting
powder, 275° 0. for rifle powder, and 315° C.
for the best sporting powder.

Among the explosive compounds in this class
may be mentioned: amAde powder^ consisting of
a mixture of ammonium and potassium nitrates
with charcoal; astatine, consisting of sodium ni-
trate 69.04 parts, carbon 15.23 parts, sulphur
11.43 parts, and petroleum, 4.29 parts; carlo-
asotine, consisting of potassium nitrate 61.04
parts, ferrous sulphate 13.58 parts, soot 24.65
parts, and sulphur 13.58 parts; diorearine, con-
wist ing of potassium nitrate 50 parts, sodium
nitrate 25 parts, sulphur 12 parts, and saw-
dust from hard wood 13 parts; joJwite, con-
sisting of potassium nitrate 75 parts, sulphur 10
parts, lignite 19 parts, sodium picrate 3 parts,
and potassium chlorate 2 parts; petralite, con-
sisting of potassium nitrate 64 parts, impreg-
nated wood or charcoal 30 parts, crude antimony
6 parts : pyrolite, consisting of potassium nitrate
51.50 parts, sodium nitrate 16 parts, sulphur
20 pnrtB, sawdust 11 parts, and charcoal 1,50

parts; and saxifragine, or poudre barytique, a
mixture of barium nitrate and charcoal with a
small portion of potassium nitrate.

Explosive Mixtures of the Chlorates and
Perchl orates. On account of the readiness with
which potassium chlorate lends itself to the pro-
duction of powerful explosives, it has been fre-
quently used by inventors to produce explosive
mixtures. It will react with almost any car-
bonaceous material, and most of its mixtures
will readily explode by friction. The tendency
of such mixtures to spontaneous ignition, as
well as their sensitiveness to percussion, has
till recently prevented their extensive adoption.
Among the mixtures in this class that may be
mentioned are the following: asphaline, consist-
ing of potassium chlorate 54 parts, potassium
nitrate and sulphate 4 parts, mixed with bran
42 parts; Ehrhardt powder, consisting of a mix-
ture of tannin, powdered nutgalls, or cream of
tartar, with potassium chlorate; Fontaine pow-
der, consisting of a mixture of potassium chlo-
rate and potassium picrate; Horseley powder,
consisting of potassium chlorate 6 parts, nut-
galls 1 part, and charcoal 1 part, mixed with
72 parts of nitroglycerin (this may also be
classed as a dynamite) ; Kellow safety powder,
consisting of spent tan -and sawdust saturated
with potassium or sodium nitrate and a little
potassium chlorate, and then mixed with sul-
phur; Michalowoski Wasting powder, consisting
of potassium chlorate 50 parts, manganese diox-
ide 5 parts, and finely pulverized organic matter,
as bran, 45 parts; Oriental powder, consisting of
potassium nitrate and crude gamboge mixed with
potassium chlorate; pyronomc, consisting of po-
tassium nitrate 69 parts, sulphur 9 parts, char-
coal 10 parts, metallic antimony 8 parts,
potassium chlorate 5 parts, rye flour 4 parts, and
a small quantity of potassium chromate; racka-
rock, consisting of potassium chlorate 79 parts,
and mononitrobenzene 21 parts, which are pre-
pared separately and combined only when about
to be used; tutonite, consisting of potassium
chlorate mixed with sulphur and metallic sul-
phides; and white powder, consisting of a mix-
ture of sugar, potassium ferrocyanide, and po-
tassium chlorate. A modern development has
resulted in the casting of the grains of the
components with a plastic and somewhat elastic
cover serving as a cushion and also in substi-
tuting perchlorates for chlorates, whereby ex-
plosives less sensitive to friction or percussion
have been obtained. These were styled ched-
dites, but there are now several variants.

Explosive Compounds Derived by Nitro-
SiibstitutiotL. This class consists of a series of
compounds formed by treating certain hydro-
carbons, usually coal-tar products, with nitric
acid, thereby producing new chemical compounds
which are relatively unstable, and contain ele-
ments that are capable of uniting to form stable
gases and produce high temperatures in the
process of reacting. These explosives accom-
plish their purpose by a dissociation of the con-
stituent elements of the compound, which then
rocombine into a variety of gaseous compounds.
These explosives are sometimes called "safety
explosives" and have considerable economic value,
especially for blasting purposes, largely owing
to the fact that they give off flames of short
duration and have a high rending or expan-
sive force. While used alone for military pur-
poses and in detonating fuse, they are usually,
in blasting, made components of mixtures such

EXPLOSIVES

279

EXPLOSIVES

as the following: ammonites, or Faiiet ejtplo-
ttirrs, consisting of ammonium nitrate 88 parts,
mixed into 12 parts of melted dinitronaphtha-
lene; tieltite, consisting of ammonium nitrate 5
parts, and metadinitrobenzene 1 part, melted
together, and potassium nitrate stirred into the
mixture; Borlinetto powder, consisting of picric
acid 10 parts, sodium nitrate 10 parts, and
potassium chromate 8% parts; extrahte, con-
sisting of a mixture of ammonium nitrate,
potassium chlorate, and naphthalene : joveite,
consisting of varying proportions of nitronaph-
thalene (8 to 6 parts), nitrophenol (1G to 30
parts), and sodium nitrate (76 to 64 parts) :
roburite, consisting of a mixture of ammonium
nitrate and well-purified chlorinated dinitro-
benzene; romite, consisting of a mixture of am-
monium nitrate, potassium chlorate, and naph-
thalene; securite, a mixture of ammonium ni-
trate and dmitrobenzene ; and Tolney powder,
consisting of potassium nitrate, sulphur, and
nitronaphthalene. Many of these pass into the
Sprengel class and the importance of ammonium
nitrate in military explosives is referred to later.

Explosive Compounds of the Nitric Deriva-
tives. This group of explosives consists of nitric
esters of cellulose, glycerin, or other hydroxy
compounds. In the first case the cellulose is
treated with nitric and sulphuric acids, forming
g unco t ton, and in the second case glycerin yields,
by the action of these acids, nitroglycerin.
According to the proportions used the mono-, di-,
or tri-nitro derivatives of glycerin or a multiple
of them for cellulose may be obtained. This
class is by far the largest one, and too nu-
merous to admit of a general description, in
consequence of which the peculiar properties of
each will be described under their special head-
ings. Guncotton is an important member of this
class. It consists of cellulose such, as pure
cotton treated with a mixture of nitric acid and
sulphuric acid. It is employed chiefly for mili-
tary purposes and is regarded as very safe.
(For a detailed account of its manufacture,
and of the various uses to which it is applied,
see the article GUNCOTTON. ) Among the various
guncotton mixtures, which differ from each other
in the proportions of their ingredients and
methods of preparation, are the following, which
are now seldom used, although valuable on ac-
count of their safety: potentite, a mixture of
62.2 parts guncotton and 33.8 parts potassium
nitrate compressed into cartridges; tonite, or
cotton poioder, a preparation consisting of 52.5
parts of finely divided or macerated guncotton
with 47.5 parts of barium nitrate, which is
made up into cartridges coated with paraffined
paper. A small percentage of fine metallic alu-
minum is sometimes added to these mixtures to
increase the energy of the explosion.

The value of cellulose nitrate as an explosive led
to its use in the manufacture of "blasting gelatin,
invented by Nobel in 1875, which is accomplished
by dissolving the soluble variety in nitroglycerin.
This has been made up into various forms and
also combined with absorbents, forming gelatin
dynamites, which have been used for blasting
purposes. In this class should be included
forcitc, consisting of blasting gelatin (nitro-
glycerin 98 parts, collodion cotton 2 parts) 50
parts and absorbent (sodium nitrate 76 parts,
sulphur 3 parts, wood tar 20 parts, wood pulp
1 part,) CO parts; and gelignite, consisting of
blasting gelatin (nitroglycerin 96 parts, collo-
dion cotton 4 parts) 65 parts, and absorbent

(sodium nitrate 75 parts, sodium carbonate 1
part, wood pulp 24 parts) 35 parts.

Smokeless Powders, rcpresentiug the latest
development of cellulose nitrates as explosives,
consist either of one which by the aid of a
solvent has been converted into a collodized
mass which has been formed into flakes or cords,
and dried into a hard hornlike material, or of a
powder in which a mixture of cellulose ni-
trate and nitroglycerin is transformed into a
similar hornlike substance either with or without
the aid of a solvent. In the first class are the
Abel poirflrr, consisting of a cellulose nitrate
brought into the colloidal condition superficially
by treatment with ether alcohol; poudre B of
Vieille, used in France, consisting of cellulose
nitrate mixed with barium nitrate, potassium
nitrate, and sodium carbonate, and treated with
either ether alcohol, ethyl acetate, or acetone;
indurite, consisting of cellulose nitrate of the
highest nitrate collodized and then indurated;
and Wetteren powder, used in Germany, and
consisting- of nitrocotton 48.15 parts, guncotton
30.73 parts, charcoal 12.12 parts, volatile matter
8.22 parts, and humus 0.77 part. The fore-
going are typical of the military smokeless pow-
ders. Sporting powders of similar character
are now made, in which the process of manu-
facture and the proportions of the ingredients
are changed to produce the desired results. Of
the second class, the most important are: am-
lerite, consisting of trinitrocellulose 44 parts,
di nitrocellulose 12 parts, and nitroglycerin 40
parts, formed into grains and treated with sol-
vent, consisting of sulphuric ether with a little
alcohol; ballistite, consisting of guncotton 40
parts, dissolved in nitroglycerin 60 parts, to
which a small quantity of aniline has been added
as a neutralizing agent; cordite (q.v.) originally
consisting of nitroglycerin 68 parts, guncotton
37 parts, vaseline 5 parts, dissolved in 19.2 parts
of acetone; filite is similar to ballistite and is
used in Italy for military purposes. Certain
varieties of smokeless powders consist of nitro-
cellulose combined with nitro derivatives of aro-
matic hydrocarbons, and included in this class
are Du Pont powder, consisting of nitrocellulose
brought into the colloidal condition by nitroben-
zene or other solvent; the last-named powder
is of American origin. See SMOKELESS POWDERS.
Nitroglycerin. This most powerful explosive,
which was discovered by Ascanio Sobrero, in
Turin, Italy, 1847, is a colorless or light yellow
oily liquid made by passing pure glycerin into
a mixture of concentrated nitric acid and sul-
phuric acid at low temperature. It explodes
violently at about 218° 0. Its liquid state
renders it dangerous in general use as an ex-
plosive, though it is still used in this state in
oil wells and under analogous conditions. When
absorbed with a suitable absorbent, this danger
is reduced, and this has given rise to the devis-
ing of a very important series of explosives
known generically as dynamites, which may be
again subdivided into two principal groups, viz.,
dynamites with an inert absorbent or "dope"
and dynamites with an active absorbent or
"dope." The type of the first group is the orig-
inal dynamite invented by Nobel in 1866, who
used for his absorbent diatomaceous silica, sili-
ceous marl, tripoli, or rotten-stone, commonly
called kieselguhr. It is made of various degrees
of strength, ranging from nitroglycerin 75 parts
and absorbent 25 parts, down to nitroglycerin
30 parts and absorbent 70 parts. Other explo-

EXPLOSIVES

280

EXPLOSIVES

sives of this class are carbodynamite, consisting
of nitroglycerin 90 parts and charcoal made from
cork 10 parts, and cerlerite, consisting of nitro-
glycerin modified with wood tar and nitro-
benzene with charcoal as an absorbent. The
second group comprises those dynamites that
are composed of nitroglycerin and an active ab-
sorbent, usually a nitrate mixture. The following
are among the better-known dynamites of this
group, the ingredients of which vary in amount
according to the special purpose for which they
are intended, so that the proportions mentioned
are typical of only one variety: atlas poicder,
consisting of nitroglycerin 75 parts, wood fibre
21 parts, sodium nitrate 2 parts, magnesium
carbonate 2 parts; carbonite, consisting of wood
meal 40^ parts, sodium nitrate 34 parts, nitro-
glycerin 25 parts, and sodium caibonate one-
half part; dualm, consisting of nitroglycerin 40
parts, sawdust 30 parts, potassium nitrate 20
parts; giant powder, consisting of nitroglycerin
40 parts, sodium nitrate 40 parts, powdered resin
8 parts, kieselgulir 8 parts, sulphur 6 parts;
Hercules powder, consisting of sodium nitrate
45 parts, nitroglycerin 40 parts, wood pulp 11
parts, sodium chloride 1 part, and magnesium
carbonate 1 part; Judson powder, consisting of
sodium nitrate 64 parts, sulphur 16 parts, cannel
coal 15 parts, nitroglycerin 5 parts; lithofrac-
teur, consisting of nitroglycerin 54% parts,
kieselguhr 10% parts, barium nitrate 1494 parts,
sulphur 7 parts, manganese 2 parts, soda 2 parts,
wood meal 2 parts, bran 1 part; weganite, con-
sisting of nitroglycerin 60 parts, sodium nitrate
20 parts, nitrated vegetable ivory 10 parts, ni-
trated wood 10 parts; vigorite, consisting of po-
tassium chlorate 49 parts, nitroglycerin 68 parts,
kieselguhr 20 parts, potassium nitrate 7 parts,
magnesium carbonate, moisture, etc., 5 p^arts;
and Vulcan poioder, consisting of sodium nitrate
52.5 parts, nitroglycerin 30 parts, charcoal 10.5
parts, and sulphur 7 parts. Mixtures to meet
special conditions in mining are now com-
pounded. Short-flame, cool explosives are es-
pecially desired in coal mining.

One of the objections to nitroglycerin as well
as to the dynamite formed from it has been the
freezing at low temperatures and the danger of
explosion when thawing it. This is now obvi-
ated in large degree by the use of dinitroglyc-
erin, nitro-substitution compounds, and other
chemicals in the mixtures. These are styled
L. F. dynamites.

Sprengel Explosives and Panclastites. In
1873 Dr. Hermann Sprengel described a class of
<*xplosives consisting of two inexplosive ingredi-
ents, which, when mixed together, yielded a com-
pound capable of violent detonation. The safety
with which the components of explosives could be
transported to the place of action and com-
pounded on the spot led to their study by the
experts on explosives of various governments, and
a number of valuable preparations of this class
have since been patented in different countries.
A number of these, such as rackarock, have al-
ready been described under Explosive Mixtures
of the Chlorates, and ammonites, beUite, roburite,
r&mite, and securite under Explosive Compounds
Derived ly Nitro Substitution. In addition to
these there should be mentioned heHhoffite, con-
sisting of nitric acid with a specific gravity of
1.5, 53 parts, and metadinitrobenzene 47 parts;
and panclastite, consisting of nitrotetroxide com-
bined with some combustible substance, such as
a hydrocarbon, vegetable, animal, and mineral

oils, fats, and their derivatives, but preferably
svitli carbon diaulphido. In this c-lasa may be in-
cluded the picric acid compounds, which consist
of trinitrophenol or picric acid brought into
a dense state by fusion and used as a filler for
shells. This explosive, differing only in the de-
tails of its manufacture, which arc kept secret by
the respective governments, is called lyddite in
England and melinite in France. The ammonia-
tion of picric acid gives ammonium picrate, a
compound less sensitive and less likely to form
sensitive salts with metals. It is used as an ex-
plosive charge of armor-piercing projectiles.

Fulminates and Amides. The fact that cer-
tain nitrates, when heated with alcohol and an
excess of nitric acid, yield peculiar crystalline,
easily detonating precipitates, has been known
for more than a century, and this property has
been taken advantage of in the preparation of ex-
plosives. The best-known member of this class
is the mercury fulminate t which is made by dis-
solving mercury in nitric acid, which solution,
when cool, is added to alcohol. The gray explo-
sive mercury fulminate is formed as a 'precipi-
tate by reaction between them. The precipitate
is then carefully washed and air-dried. It is ex-
ceedingly sensitive to heat and shock of any
kind, and may be detonated by heat at a tom-
porature variously given from 149° C. to 200° C.
The silver fulminate, which, is formed by heat-
ing an aqueous solution of silver nitrate with
strong nitric acid and alcohol, is similar. Mer-
cury fulminate finds an extensive application in
detonators for guncotton and nitroglycerin com-
pounds; also in percussion caps and primers.

Military Uses of Explosives. In times of
peace the principal use of explosives is in
mining and engineering enterprises. In the mili-
tary and naval services, as well as in sporting
rifles, they are employed as propelling and as
bursting charges for projectiles. An explosive
for use as a propelling charge in a gun "should
give in that gun as low maximum pressures and
as high projectile velocity as possible. The
older powders were finely pulverized. About
I860 and later it was customary to press the
powder mixture into a cake, that was afterward
broken between rollers into irregular grains
which were sorted by screens into different sizes —
musket, mortar, cannon, and mammoth ; the latter
from 0.6 inch to 0.9 inch. At this date (I860)
General Rodman proposed cylindrical cakes
nearly the diameter of the bore and 3 inches
long, pierced by ^-inch holes % inch apart,
reasoning that the burning on the inner surfaces
of those holes would give a constantly increasing
surface, and therefore an increasing rate of
generation of gas — a condition which he recog-
nized to be desirable. At the time this form was

A B

BLA.OE POWDBB.

At spherohexagonal grain. B, hexagonal grain.

not deemed preferable to the mammoth, and his
principle was adopted only after a number of
years, and was preceded by the use of other
powders — as the spherohexagonal — molded simply

EXPLOSIVES

281

EXPLOSIVES

for uniformity of size. His grain when adopted
was modified to a hexagonal prism about 1 inch
long and wide, pierced by one or several holes.

About 1882 the Germans introduced "brown"
or "cocoa'' powder in the same form grains, but
using charcoal not so -much baked and therefore
giving a slower powder. A "slow-burning" cocoa
powder soon came forward as an improvement.
Long-continued efforts were made to get a powder
of more power per unit of volume, which would
give in the reduced-calibre small arm a higher
velocity than gunpowder, with permissible pres-
sures. The high explosives were tried, especially
cellulose nitrate, in many forms, pressed and
mixed with other substances, but with resulting
high pressures and detonations, until, about

1 S S 4, dissolved

cellulose nitrate
gave after evapo-
ration of the sol-
vent a horny
mass, which
burned regularly
without detona-
tion. Similar
treatment of com-
binations of cel-
lulose nitrates
and nitroglycerin
gave similar re-
sults. It had been

BROWN OB COCOV POWDER.

Hexagonal pierced prism grain.

known that these explosives gave no smoke, their
products being gaseous, but it was the desire for
more power which brought them into use. The
French quickly recognized the value of smokeless-
ness as well as of power and soon extended the

A B

SMOKELESS POWDBB.

Pierced cylinder grains for large guns.
A, original grain. B, partly burned gram.

use of the poudre B of this class to all their can-
non. The Germans used Wetteren, and later bal-
listite. The English later adopted cordite. Of
these four powders the first
two are made of cellulose
nitrates and the others of
this and nitroglycerin. In
the United States it was
not until well after 1890
that smokeless powders
were adopted; for, al-
though their advantages
were recognized and many
kinds experimented with,
a later and more ad-
vanced stage of develop-
ment was awaited. The
navy adopted smokeless
powder earlier than the
army did. Cellulose ni-
trate powders are most generally used in the
United States. The forms of grain are many —
long cords, spaghetti-like tubes, thin flakes,

SMOKFSt-ESfl POWDBB.

Hexagonal prism with
one hole. Partly burned
grain.

(Outline skoioa original
farm.}

cubes, pierced prisms (generally for large guns),
and others. American smokeless powder and its
manufacture had reached such a stage of de-
velopment that when the United States entered
the World War in 1917, but little change in
product or methods of manufacture save in de-
tails were required. Following the example of
Germany it was determined to use cellulose pro-
duced from wood pulp in place of cotton.

A water-drying process was developed during
the World War which materially reduced the
time of drying and also an alcoholic drying
process, which in addition gave a better grade of
powder.

A B

CORDITE.

A, original grains. B, partly burned grains.

(The illustrations are approximately two-thirds actual size
of grains.}

For many years the Iwrstvng charges of shell
consisted of a fine-grain black powder. Seeking
a more destructive effect, experiments were made
in Germany and in Italy between 1880 and 1890
with shell loaded with guncotton and other high
explosives fired from common guns: These trials
met with partial success, and for a number of
years prior to the World War experiments in
firing recent improved high explosives from
common guns were in progress. Lyddite (used
by the English), melinite (used by the French
since 1887), explosives in which picric acid
figured were used in the World War while be-
fore that time thorite, joveite, etc., had been
tried by the United States. The Japanese Schi-
mose was melinite in the form of a practically
pure picric acid Special shells in the earlier
days wore ilv i -c-d with numerous separated

EXPLOSIVES 2

compartments. The intent was to keep the
charge from explosion from the shock pro-
duced by the settling down of a long column of
powder upon discharge, without interfering with
complete detonation upon impact. The Gath-
mau system comprised a large shell carrying
wet and dry guncotton carefully packed and
fired with a special fuse. The charge was ex-
pected to explode against the side of a vessel
with such force as to burst in her armored sides.
Tests mado in 1901-02 failed to demonstrate
the success of the system, and it was officially
decided to discontinue further experiments.

Meanwhile maximite and explosive "D," am-
monium picrate, had been developed which could
be fired safely in armor-piercing projectiles
through an 11% -inch plate of best modern
Krupp face-hardened armor and detonated on
the inside with most destructive effect by a
delay-action fuse. Explosive "D" was used by
the United States Army as the bursting charge
of sheila of 10-inch caliber and more in the
World War, and it figured extensively on the
programme of explosives.

During the World War the United States
Ordnance Department developed a standard
policy for the use of high explosives. Trinitro-
toluol or T. N. T. was selected for shell be-
tween and including the caliber of 75 millimeters
and 4.7 inches; Amatol for shell calibers be-
tween 4.7 inches and 9.2 inches, including the
latter; and ammonium picrate, or explosive
"D," for shells of 10-inch caliber and higher.
This conserved the T. N. T. supply.

In the World War T. N. T. or trinitrotoluol
was the high explosive used as a bursting charge
in the leading armies. It was adopted in the
United States as stated for shells between and
including the calibers of 75 millimeters and 4.7
inches, and, in combination with ammonium
nitrate, for amatol for larger caliber shells.
T. N. T. was made as early as 1880, and its
manufacture was started in Germany in 1891.
In 1902 the Germans adopted T. N. T. for filling
shell and other purposes, and in 1907 it was alao
adopted by Italy under the name of tritolo and
by Russia soon afterwards. In the British
service trinitrotoluol received its familiar name
of T. N. T., and it is also known as trotyl. Other
names for it arc trinol and trilite. In the manu-
facture of T. N". T. toluol is the basic raw ma-
terial and ordinarily is secured from by-product
coke ovens. During the World War methods
were developed whereby toluol also could be ob-
tained by the stripping or absorbing of it from
carbureted water and coal gas, and by the break-
ing down or cracking of oils. All of these
methods were employed extensively in the United
States during the war, and for the last named
three special operations were developed for treat-
ing petroleum distillate or naphtha. In the
United States three grades of T. N. T. were
produced: Grade I, used for booster charges,
that is, those charges which initiate the ex-
plosive wave in the main-shell charge; Grade II
was used as a shell filler, while Grade III was
employed with ammonium nitrate in the pro-
duction of amatol.

Amatol was a high explosive developed by the
British during the war and consisted of a mix-
ture of trinitrotoluol — T. N". T. — and ammonium
nitrate. In the United States ammunition pro-
gramme amatol was employed for shells of
caliber between 4.7 and 9.2 inches, including
the latter, and was particularly useful as it

fo EXPLOSIVES

was less expensive to prepare than T. K. T.
alone, and at the same time there were available
considerable supplies of ammonium nitrate.
Ammonal, a similar mixture, was used by the
Austrians.

Ammonium nitrate was used principally with
T. N. T. in the manufacture of amatol, and is
manufactured by neutralizing nitric acid by
ammonia, the resulting product being a crystal
which is available as a high explosive. During
the war new processes were developed in Eng-
land for the production of ammonium nitrate
and the commercial resources of the United
States for such production were vastly increased.
In the Scandinavian countries ammonium nitrate
is manufactured from nitric acid made by the
fixation process possible by the cheap water
power. It was to obtain adequate supplies of
ammonia that the large nitrogen fixation plants
were developed during the war, and special am-
monium nitrate fixation plants were built by
the United States government.

Tetryl, used by the French and English as a
bursting charge for shell during the World War,
was more sensitive than T. N. T. and had a high
rate of denotation, but in the United States was
employed only as a loading charge for boosters.
There was the further objection of its high cost
and lack of manufacturing facilities for its
production. T. N". A. or tetranitroanaline, an
explosive for the loading of boosters and fuses,
was employed by tho Russian government, being
manufactured in the United States. It was,
however, adopted for the United States service.
LyGoiriie was developed by the Du Pont Com-
pany and authorized by the United States Army
for use in the loading of drop bombs. Anilite
was a liquid explosive used by the French, but
improved so as to render it safer. It had not
been adopted by the United States Army prior
to the Armistice*

Nitrostarch was an explosive which had been
under development in the United States for com-
mercial purposes prior to the war, but with
limited success. However, after further experi-
ments and investigation, several nitrostarch ex-
plosives were adopted by the United States
Army for filling hand and rifle grenades, trench
mortar shells and drop bombs. The advantage
of this material was the ease of loading, the use
of materials generally available and their low
cost. During the war there were loaded with
nitrostarch explosive 7,244,569 defensive hand
grenades, 1,526,000 offensive hand grenades,
0,921,533 rifle grenades and 813,073 3-inch
trench-mortar shells. The average monthly pro-
duction of nitrostarch by November, 1918, was
1,720,000 pounds, and a nitrostarch explosive
known as grcnite was tested and authorized for
use during the war.

Manufacture of Explosives in the United
States, The manufacture of explosives is now
one of the most important of the chemical indus-
tries in the United States. Its growth, as will
be seen from the accompanying table from succes-
sive census reports, has been most rapid, and the
118 establishments manufacturing explosives in
1919 were located in 24 different States and had
a total production valued at $92,474,813. In
addition there wore factories belonging to the
government. That the production of explosives
in the United States is not entirely for domestic
consumption is shown by the fact that the ex-
ports of gunpowder in the year 1920 amounted
to 43,907,793 pounds, valued at $38,368,157;

EXPLOSIVES

those of dynamite amounted to l.),041,981
pounds valued at $3,210,481 and all other ex-
plosives were valued at $2,281,479, so that in-
cluding cartridges, shells and projectiles loaded,
and fuses, the total exports of explosives aggre-
gated in value $56,846,(>9S for the year.

TOTAL PRODUCTION AND VALUE OF EXPLO-
SIVES, BY DECADES: 1840 TO 1919

o° .

3ft %c

PRO

DUCTS

YEAR

£<"

Capital

fc-2*£

*r«

Pounds

Value

1840 .
1850

187
54

$875,875
1,179 223

496
579

8,977,348

' SI 690 332* "

I860

2 305 700

7-17

3 223 090

1870

4 099*900

973

4 237 539

1880.

6,585,185

1,340

5,802,029

1800. .
1900 .
l<lf)9t
1914ft
1919$

69
97
88
111
118

13,539,478
19,465,846
50,167,976
71,351,414
133,247,684

2,353
4,502
6,274
6,306
9,249

98,645,912
215,980,719
487,481,252
481,752,040

10,993,131
* 16,950,976
37,983,8681
41,432,970**
92,474,813

* This value b for the explosive substances only. When
materials of all kinds produced ia these establishments are
included, the value is 817,125,918.

t Thirteenth United States census, 1910, 124 plants were
represented.

t In addition 1,471,042 pounds, valued at $656,969, were
made by Federal establishments and 219,356 pounds, valued
at $ 135,979, were made by establishments engaged primarily
in the manufacture of "firearms and ammunition."

§ Census of manufacture.

* * In addition 5,072,387 pounds, to the value of SI ,632,335,
wore made by Federal establishments, comprising 4,998,537
pounds of smokeless powder and 73,850 pounds of other ex-
plosives.

The outbreak of the World War in 1914, nat-
urally gave a great impetus to the explosives
industry in the United States as considerable
quantities were manufactured for export to the
belligerent nations. The result was that the
interval prior to the entrance of the United
States into the war was one of considerable
growth and expansion, so that in 1917 when
America joined the Allies her private works
were in readiness for increased production while
government or government aided plants were
planned and built on a vast scale, many of which,
came into production before the Armistice was
declared. Manufacturing facilities were de-
veloped on such a scale that during the nineteen
months the United States was engaged in the
war American powder plants produced 632,504,-
000 pounds of propellants as compared with
342,155,000 for France and 291,706,000 for
Great Britain. At the signing of the Armistice
there were on hand approximately 200,000,000
pounds of smokeless powder and 6,850,000 pounds
of black powder. The American production of
ammonium nitrate from all sources at the time
of the signing of the Armistice was 20,000,000
pounds a month. The production of picric acid in
November, 1918, amounted to 11,300,000 pounds,
while the average monthly production of am-
monium picrate had increased to 950,000 pounds.

In the same space of time the United States
produced 375,656,000 pounds of high explosives
for loading into shells as compared with 65,110,-
000 pounds for England and 702,964,000 pounds
for France for the same period. At the time of
the Aj-mistice the United States had a monthly
capacity for manufacturing propellants of
42,775,000 pounds as compared with 17,311,000
pounds for France and 12,055,000 for England.
Daring the war the United States developed 53
new plants for making explosives and propellanta
v OL. VIII.—- ia

EXPLOSIVES

and loading them at a cost of approximately
$300,000,000. In August, 1914, the American
pioduction of trinitrotoluol for commercial pur-
poses amounted to approximately 600,000 pounds
a month, mostly used for making explosives for
blasting. By April, 1917, this production had
been increased to 1,000,000 pounds a month, ex-
clusive of that which was being used commerci-
ally, and by November, 1918, tke production had
been developed to 16,000,000 pounds a month, two
government plants being in course of erection,
one with a capacity of 4,000,000 pounds a month,
the other with 2,000,000 pounds a month.

The production of explosives in the United
States for the calendar year 1920, including
exports, amounted to 537,954,750 pounds of
which 254,879,825 pounds, or 47 per cent, was
black blasting powder; 229,112,084 pounds, or
43 per cent was high explosives other than per-
missible explosives, and 53,962,841 pounds, or
10 per cent, was permissible explosives. The
amount of permissible explosives sold in 1920
was never before equalled, and sales of black
powder were with one exception for 1917 higher
than for any other year.

Naturally the mining industry consumed the
greater part of the explosives, taking 75.1 per
cent of the total in 1920, The principal in-
crease was in coal mines, an industry that
ordinarily takes over 80 per cent each of all
black powder and permissible explosives and
about 15 per cent of high explosives, over one
half of these three classes combined.

The amount of explosives exported from the
United States in the year 1920, aggregated in
value $50,846,698. In 1919, the total value
of explosives exported were valued at $28,399,-
707; while in 1918 exports were $243,528,539;
in 1917, $639,934,405; in 1916, $715,575,306; in
1915, $188,969,893; in 1914, $10,037,587, and in
1913, $5,525,077.

Commercial Explosives Used in Engineer-
ing and Mining Operations. The manufac-
turers of commercial explosives have developed a
wide range of products so that for almost every
kind of operation requiring its use in engineer-
ing or mining a suitable explosive is available.
See BLASTING. Naturally there is a wide diver-
sity in their use and in the various explosives
appropriate for such uses. For example, many
explosives that can be employed for work can-
not be used in deep mines or in close workings,
while in such work as metal mining and in
driving tunnels it is necessary also to consider
the character of the gases evolved on detonation.
In coal mines, too, especially those that are
gaseous or dusty, an explosive must be employed
where the flame temperature and the height and
duration of the flame are sufficiently reduced to
permit of safe working. If the blasting is car-
ried on under conditions of dampness or in
water, a special explosive must be sought^ which
is impervious to moisture, while for use in cold
climates it is desirable to use explosives that do
not require thawing if they are satisfactory in
other respects. On the other hand in the tropics
care must be taken that the explosives selected
are not liable to change in their chemical or
physical characteristics or to other deterioration.

In open-air work, such as breaking down rock
in quarries, the explosives more generally em-
ployed are black blasting powder, granulated
nitroglycerin powder, containing from 5 to 15
per cent of nitroglyeerin, "nitroglyrerin dpa-
mites" containing 15 to 60 per cent of nitro-

EXPLOSIVES

glycerin, low-freezing dynamites, sold on a basis
of the equivalent percentage of the strength of the
"straight" nitrodynamites, and also ammonia ni-
trodynamites, which the explosive industry rates
in a similar commercial manner. Coal miners in
their blasting also employ blasting gelatin, gela-
tin dynamite*, ammonium nitrate powders, con-
taining nitro substitution powders, chlorate
powders, and the so-called nitro-starch powders.

In mining and tunneling some of the fore-
going explosives would not be suitable as they
do not develop the requisite disiuptive force, and
in many cases produce poisonous gases which
affect the atmosphere of the working place.
There is also an economic reason, namely, that
it is more economical in tunnel work to drill a
few holes and to load them with a more powerful
explosive of greater disruptive force than to
drill a large number of holes and to employ
weaker and cheaper explosives. Accordingly
there has been found that two main classes of
explosives develop the necessary disruptive force
required in blasting hard rock in metal mining
and tunneling. These are "straight" nitroglycerin
dynamites and gelatin dynamites which are
specially made from formulas that provide a
requisite amount of oxygen by supplying a de-
creased percentage of combustible materials. In
a gaseous or dusty coal mine it is also found
necessary, in addition to securing the requisite
qualities of strength and efficiency to break
down the coal, that there should be a relatively
short flame of relatively low temperature. Ac-
cordingly, what arc known as permissible ex-
plosives, referred to in the following paragraph,
have been developed and are now used in every
coal mining state in the Union. These are thor-
oughly tested by the United States Bureau of
Alines at its Pittsburgh testing station, where
there is a largo steel cylinder or gallery which
can be filled with fire damp or coal dust and air.

Permissible Explosives in the United States
are blasting explosives that, having passed cer-
tain tests prescribed by the United States Bu-
reau of Mines, are considered suitable for use
in gaseous or dusty coal mines, when used in the
manner prescribed by the bureau. The chief
characteristics that an explosive must possess
in order to pass the tests are: (1) Relatively
low temperature resulting on explosion, (2) a
minimum amount of explosion flame. Mixtures
of natural gas and air are exploded when ex-
posed to a temperature of about (J50° C. for
about one-tenth of a second, but are not acted
upon by flame of much higher temperature if
the flame is of sufficiently short duration. Thus,
although the flame temperature of most per-
missible explosives lies between 1500° and 2000°
C., they do not ignite the most explosive mix-
tures of gas and air because of the rapidity of
their explosion, the duration of their flame be-
ing only about two to five ten-thousandths of a
second. Black powder, on the other hand, has
a flame temperature of over 2200° C., and a
duration of name, under the same conditions of
test, of approximately one second. Ordinary 40
per cent nitroglycerin dynamite gives a flame
duration of only about four ten-thousandths of
a second, but its flame temperature is about
2900 degrees. Both black powder and dynamite,
then, fail to pass the tests for permissibility,
black powder because of the long duration of its
flame, and dynamite because of the high temper-
ature of its flame. The problem in producing
permissible explosives is therefore to formulate

EXPLOSIVES

explosive mixtuieK siu'li that, while giving a
minimum amount of fUune of short duration and
low temperature, they will develop sullicient
energy to do the work of breaking down coal in
an economical manner. An example is cited
below: By proper additions of various ingredi-
ents, ordinary dynamite can be so altered in
composition that its flame temperature will
be reduced sufficiently to render the resulting
explosive "permissible." If, for example, a large
excess of carbonaceous combustible material,
such as wood pulp, flour or corn meal, is added,
the gaseous products of explosion are so altered
that the flame temperature is greatly reduced.
The same effect is obtained by the addition of
water, either in the liquid state, in which form
it is absorbed by the other ingredients of the
explosive, or in the form of water of crystalliza-
tion in such crystalline salts as alum, or mag-
nesium sulphate, both of which contain about
50 per cent of water of crystallization. Simi-
larly, the addition of inert solid matter, such as
clay of powdered rock, which simply absorbs
part of the heat liberated by the explosive reac-
tion, or of readily volatile inert material such
as certain ammonium salts, which consume heat
in being volatilized, will also produce the charac-
teristics of permissible explosives. Although
such additions naturally lower the strength of
the explosive, it is possible to obtain the desired
end and still produce explosives entirely suit-
able for use in coal mining, as is evidenced by
the fact that there were on June 1, 1921, 154 ex-
plosives on the "permissible list." Careful
chemical analyses are made of every explosive
received for test, in order to determine whether
the explosive possesses any objectionable chem-
ical features. Field samples, collected from time
to time, are also analyzed in order to ascertain
whether the different permissible explosives are
being manufactured in accordance with the com-
position of tlie original sample submitted for
test. The difficulties encountered by the chemist
in analyzing such explosives may be realized
when it is known the manufacturers use a great
variety of ingredients in bringing about the
desired results. About 60 to 70 ingredients have
been found in the various permissible explosives
analyzed in the bureau laboratory.

Permitted Explosives. The term applied by
the English Government to explosives authorized
for usa in coal mining after they have successfully
passed the test prescribed by His Majesty's In-
spectors of Explosives, by which to fix their
degree of safety and the best conditions for use.
Transportation and Storage of Explosives.
Under Act of March 4, 1009, and Section 15 of
the Act to Regulate Commerce as amended June
18, 1910, the transportation of explosives in the
United States is forbidden except under condi-
tions prescribed by the Interstate Commerce
Commission, which has since then from time to
time formulated regulations tinder the advice of
the Bureau for the Safe Transportation of Ex-
plosives and other Dangerous Articles of the
American Railway Association, to which it has
delegated power of inspection and investigation.
For transportation purposes explosives are
divided into "forbidden explosives," such as
liquid nitroglycerin, and "acceptable explosives,"
such, as gunpowder and dynamite containing 60
or less per cent of nitroglycerin.

The storage of explosives is regulated by State
and rmmicipal laws and ordinances which relate
usually to the kind and location of magazines

EXPLOSIVES

283 EXPOSITION OF THE SACRAMEOT?

and particularly their nearness to highways and
habitations. In the years immediately preced-
ing the entrance o± the United States into the
Great War there were a number of serious
disasters due to explosions at factories and else-
where. In these criminal intent as well as ac-
cidental causes figured, and accordingly it was
found necessary to pass a "Federal Explosives
Act." This was approved Oct. 6, 1917, and
aimed to prohibit any manufacture, distribution,
storage, use and possession in time of war of
explosives, and at the same time provided regu-
lation for the safe manufacture, distribution,
storage, use and possession, and in other ways
aimed to protect the country and the public
generally. This involved a system of local
licenses administered by the Bureau of Mines
through various local agencies. Under this act
such matters as improper storage, thefts from
magazines, bomb outrages, magazine construc-
tion, transportation and general care in handling
were dealt with in an efficient and effective
manner. After the Armistice, however, the reg-
ulations established were gradually revoked, so
that by 1920 there was no federal supervision
and control of explosives, except in interstate
commerce. It was felt, however, that peace-
time legislation in this field was desirable, giv-
ing to the Bureau of Mines a general supervision
of explosives and the investigation of accidents.
Literature. The monographs of the leading
experts, such as Abel of England, Berthelot of
France, Munroe of the United States, and Von
Lenck of Austria, form valuable sources of in-
formation, in addition to which consult the fol-
lowing more significant modern works: Munroe
and Hall, A Primer on Explosives for Coal
Miners (Washington, 1909) ; id., A Primer on
Explosives for Metal Miners and Quarry men
(Washington, 1915) ; Hall and Howell, The Se-
lection of Explosives Used w Engineering and
Mining Operations (Washington, 1914); Weaver,
Notes on Military Explosives (4th ed., New
York, 1917) ; Brunswig, Explosives, trans, and
annotated by Charles E. Munroe and Alton
L. Kibler (New York, 1912) ; Cundill, A Die-
tionary of Explosives (rev. ed. by J. H. Thomp-
son, London, 1895) : Guttmann, Blasting: A
Handbook for the Use of Engineers and Others
Engaging in Mining, Tunneling, Quarrying, etc.
(Philadelphia, 1892) ; Berthelot, Explosives and
their Power, trans, from the French by Napier
Hooke and William MacNab (London, 1892);
Eissler, The Modern High Explosives (New
York, 1893; later ed., London, 1897); Munroe,
index to the Literature of Explosives, parts i
and ii (Baltimore, 1893) ; Guttmann, The Manur
faoture of Explosives; A Theoretical awef Practi-
cal Treatise on the History, the Physical and
Chemical Properties, and the Manufacture of
Explosives, with -full bibliography of the subject
from 1468 to 1895 (2 vols., London, 1895);
Walke, Lectures on Explosives (New York,
1897) ; DeKalb, Manual of Explosives (Toronto,
1900) ; A. Marshall, Explosives, Their Manufac-
ture, Properties, Test and History (London,
1917); id., Explosives (Philadelphia, 1917);
Z. de W. S. Colver, High Explosives (London
and New York, 1918); J. A. Marshall, The
Manufacture and Testing of Military Explosives
(New York, 1919) ; R. C. Farmer, The Manu-
facture and Uses of Explosives (London, 1921) ;
8. I. Levy, Modem Explosives (London, 1920) ;
G. C. Smith, T. N. T.t Trinitrotoluenes, etc. (New
York, 1918). Various reports during and sub-

sequent to the World War were issued by the
Ordnance Departments of the U. S. Army and
Navy, some of which are generally available.
See GUNPOWDER; GUN COTTON; DYNAMITE; NITRO-
GLYCEBIN; ARTILLERY; BALLISTICS ; ORDNANCE;
SHOELESS POWDERS; TRINITROTOLUENES.

EXPO/NENT and EXPONENTIAL (from
Lat. exponere, to set forth, from exs out +
ponere, to put). An exponent, in the primitive
sense, is a number symbol which shows how
many equal factors enter into a power; e.g., in
2s, 3 is the exponent of 2; in a6, 5 is the expo-
nent of a. The exponent affects only the letter
or number adjacent to which it stands, aft8 mean-
ing a&6&. While the various forms and the
theory of exponents have been matters of growth,
the notation as now used was introduced into
algebra by the mathematicians of the seven-
teenth century. Chuquet (1484) had used ex-
ponents, but not with the same significance as
at present, and a step towards the theory of the
subject, including the use of fractional expo-
nents, had long before been made by Oresme
(fourteenth century). Kepler (1619) speaks of
Biirgi as having written for xt oj3, x*, x*,...
1R. Lc, Ic, lz%, . . . whereas he himself prefers
lt I1, ln, lm, .... Biirgi, however, wrote
jg for Itte2, and |o for 20a3*- Harriot (q.v.)
wrote a?2 for xx, x9 for xxx. Wallis (1656) ex-
plained the expressions ar7* and X" as indicating

the same as — and \/~x. The theory of ex-

ponents has gradually received extensions until
it has become an important division of algebra.
The following equations show the meanings of
various exponents: - -

The fundamental laws of exponents in algebra
are:

am.an s am*'n*i am: an = am~^n]
(am)n = a™\ (ab)n = an&n;

for all values of in and n. These operations are
subject to the associative law (q.v.),
a= a^71)-^ ; to the commutative law,
= aP+n+m> lln<i to the distributive law,
s-amp+ni>m in quaternions (q.v.) and certain
other branches of modern mathematics the con-
ventions as to exponents differ.

Functions in which the variable or variables
are involved as exponents are called exponential
functions ; e.g., a* = c, Xs = 6, 2* = 8. In the
last example x evidently equals 3. When such
equations cannot be solved by factoring, it is
best to apply logarithms (q.v.). Thus, in

2* = 80, as- log 2 = log 80, and x =

= 6.322.

The series *

is called the exponential series. If x is
taken as 1, the series gives e = 2.718281828
. . . , the base of the hyperbolic logarithms
(q.v.).
EXPOSITION". See EXHIBITIONS, INDUS-

TRIAL.

EXPOSITION OF THE SACBAMEITC. In

the Roman Catholic service, the public exhibi-
tion of the Holy Sacrament, instituted with
certain ceremonies for the veneration of the
faithful. As early as the thirteenth century the

EX POST FACTO

284

EXPBESS COMPANY

Sacrament was thus exposed at least on Corpus
Chriati; but not until the sixteenth century did
it become customary to expose the Host at other
times, as on occasions of public distress, when
it is said to have been introduced by a Capuchin
of Milan, Father Joseph, who died in 1556. The
practice is still in use of placing the Host within
the monstrance above the altar and appointing
persons to relieve each other night and day in
watching and praying for a period of 40 hours.
On the second day a mass "for peace" is sung,
and it is again placed in the tabernacle after a
high mass (that of deposition) has been sung.
The exposition is not allowed without leave from
the Bishop or without an apostolic indult. Usii-
ally no mass is celebrated at the altar during
the exposition; the bells are not rung at masses
said at other altars. Consult Maier, Die litur-
giscJie Behandhwg des AUerheiligsten ausser
d(>w Opfrr dcr liciligen Messe (Ratisbon, 1860),
and Raible, Der TabernaLcl einst und jetzt
(Freiburg, 1908).

EX POST FACTO (Lat., from what is done
afterward). A legal term, designating some-
thing as done after or arising from or affecting
another thing that was committed before. In
this broad sense it is applied to the acceptance
of an estate by the grantee in a deed, conveying
it to him, which estate he had the right to re-
ject or accept. It is also applied to every act
of a legislative body, or of a court, having a
retroactive effect. The term is most frequently
used, however, in a narrower and more technical
sense. This is due to ccitain provisions of our
Federal and State constitutions, prohibiting the
enactment of ex post facto laws. The term in
tli is connection docs not embrace retrospective
laws in general, but is confined to laws of a
ciiminal or penal nature. Hence, a statute set-
ting aside a decree of the court of probate re-
jccting a will and directing a now hearing before
the court is not within this constitutional pro-
hibition, however repugnant it may be to the
principles of sound legislation. In order to come
within the prohibition, the law must render an
act punishable, as a crime which was not so
when the act was committed or punishable, in
a manner in which it was not punishable when
it was committed. Tt is not necessary, however,
that the punishment be of a strictly criminal
character. A law which excluded a minister of
the gospel from the exercise of his clerical func-
tions and a lawyer from practice in the courts
unless he would" take an oath that he had not
engaged in or encouraged armed hostilities
against the government of the United States,
was declared by the United States Supreme
Cuurt to be ex post facto because it punished in
a manner not before punishable by law offenses
committed before its passage, and because it
instituted a new rule of evidence in aid of con-
viction. On the other hand, a statute is not
ex post facto which mitigates instead of increas-
ing punishment, or which changes the rules of
evidence or procedure in matters of detail with-
out impairing any substantial right which the
law gave the accused at the time when his
alleged criminal act was done. In conclusion,
it should be remembered that the constitutional
provisions in question have always received a
liberal construction, with the view of giving full
effort to this avowed purpose of protecting the
individual right of life and liberty against hos-
tile retrospective legislation. Consult Cooley,
The General Principles of Constitutional Law in

the United States (3d ed., Boston, 1000), and
Kringo v. State of Missouri, 107 United States,
221.

EXPBESS COMPANY. An enterprise
which undertakes the transfer of parcels too
small or too valuable, or too greatly in need of
prompt transmission, to be intrusted directly to
the ordinary agencies of transportation. The
express company commonly arranges for the
collection and the safe delivery of parcels, and
their insurance against loss; it may also attend
to the collection of their price upon delivery, etc.
In the course of their history the express com-
panies became early a chief agency for the
transmission of specie and other currency from
one financial centre to another. Out of such
operations developed a financial branch, includ-
ing the sale of exchange, the issue of traveler's
checks, etc., only loosely allied to the proper
field of the express company. The ubiquity of
the express service and its responsible financial
standing have led to the assumption of yet more
remote functions, such as the transfer and plac-
ing on record of legal instruments of various
kinds.

The express business in the United States
came into existence shortly after the appearance
of the railway. The earliest-known express serv-
ice was organized in 1836 by Charles Daven-
port and N. S. Mason, to operate over the
Boston and Taunton Railway. In 1839 William
Harnden organized an express service, to operate
over railway and steamship lines between New
York and Boston. The business grew rapidly in
importance, and was extended to transportation
between the United States and European coun-
tries. Harnden's success excited competition,
and in 1840 Alvin Adams organized an express
service between New York and New England
points. In 1854 Harnden and Adams, with two
smaller concerns, joined to establish the Adams
Express Company. The American Express Com-
pany had already been established, in 1850; and
the Wells, Fargo & Co. in 1852, the latter com-
pany undertaking especially the lucrative and
dangerous business by stage and express riders
to the Pacific coast. In 1854 the United States
Express was founded, to operate chiefly in the
Middle West; the Pacific Express, for south-
western business, in 1879; the Southern Ex-
press in 1886, to serve the South east of the
Mississippi. Many other companies have been
organized, but the ones mentioned include all
those that maintained a strong position down
to 1912.

The earliest official statistics for all express
companies date from 1890. In that year 18
companies were enumerated, operating over a
mileage (steam railroads, water lines, and stage
lines) of 174,059. The number of employees was
45,718, and the value of equipment owned by
the companies was $4,598,567. The gross ex-
penditures exceeded $45,000,000. Receipts were
not recorded by the census. In 1907 the num-
ber of companies had increased to 34; their
operating mileage to 235,903; number of em-
ployees to 79,284; value of equipment to $14,-
014,960; and gross expenses to $115,633,204.
The gross receipts amounted to $128,117,176.

The relative magnitude of the four leading
express companies is fairly indicated by the
following figures for net capital and gross re-
ceipts from operation (1912). For the Adams
Express the figures are respectively $7.580,813
and $34,191,955; for the American, $9,058,377

EXPRESS COMPANY

285

EXPRESSION

and $43,714,874; for the United States Express,
$3,948,390 and $21,131,508; and for the Wells,
Fargo, $6,227,987 and $32,465,970.

In the early history of the express companies
it was not unusual for them to secure cars
from the railway companies, paying for their use
on a time and haulage basis. With the growth
of the business the arrangements between rail-
ways and express companies assumed the form
of a division of the receipts, the railway com-
pany stipulating that express rates should be
fixed at a level calculated to preclude direct
competition with the freight service. While no
uniformity exists in the division of receipts, it
has been customary for railway companies to
exact 40 per cent of the express receipts for their
service of haulage. Where agents of the rail-
way company perform services in hauling ex-
press matter, or where the railway stores ex-
press matter in its buildings, the share of the
railway company in the express receipts may
exceed 40 per cent very considerably.

Prior to the Interstate Commerce Act of
1906 the express companies were independent of
Federal supervision and control, and fixed rates
solely with a view to the general competitive
situation. The Act of 1906 extended the juris-
diction of the Interstate Commerce Commission
to the express companies. Under authority of
the Act the commission prepared forms for
annual reports from the companies, which have
been published since 1909, and, after thorough
examination of the structure of express rates,
issued an order, to take effect Feb. 1, 1914, pre-
scribing a new and lower schedule of rates,
based upon a zone system.

The natural field of the express service in
America lies between the freight service on the
one hand and the postal service on the other.
By their contracts with the railways the ex-
press companies are protected against serious
competition from the freight service. Competi-
tion with the postal service made its first ap-
pearance about 1845, when the express com-
panies conducted a letter express, by which
letters were carried for one-quarter of the postal
charge. Mr. Wells even proposed to the Post
Office Department to take over the whole mail
service of the United States. The government,
however, established its monopoly by law and
reduced its charges for letter carriage, to pre-
vent evasion of the law. The four-pound weight
limit upon parcels transmissible through the
post office assured the express companies of a
monopoly of the transmission of a vast class of
small parcels, until Jan. 1, 1912, when an act
raising the weight limit of mailable matter
went into effect. The express companies re-
main free to carry parcels in competition with
the government, but such competition involves
the fixing of a much lower level of charges
than had prevailed. In consequence of the loss
of profits due to postal competition and low-
ered rate schedules the United States Express
Company decided in 1913 to wind up its busi-
ness. In 1914 the reports of nearly all ex-
press companies made to the Interstate Com-
merce Commission showed expenditures in excess
of receipts. See POST OFFICE; RAILWAYS; PUB-
LIC UTILITIES, REGULATION OF. Consult Stimson,
Ewpress History (New York, 1858) ; Johnson,
American Railway Transportation (New York,
1903) ; Special Reports of the Bureau of the
Census, Express Business in the United States,
190V (Washington, 1908); Atwood, "The Great

Express Monopoly," American Magazine (New
York, February to April, 1912); Interstate
Commerce Commission, Annual Reports of Sta-
tistics of Express Companies in the United
States (Washington, 1909- ).

EXPRESSION, EXPRESSIVE MOVE-
MENTS. That bodily movements may serve
as indexes of mental states is a matter of daily
observation. The smiling face, the bright eye,
the animated gestures characteristic of joy and
pleasantness, contrast sharply with the attitude
of dejection which sorrow and grief entail. Ex-
perimental methods have shown that even the
simplest modes of affective experience, the pleas-
ure of an agreeable odor, the unpleasantness of
a discord, are accompanied by measurable al-
terations of certain physiological functions.
There is variation in strength and rate of pulse
and respiration, in the flow of blood into the
peripheral blood vessels, and in the tonus of
the^ voluntary and involuntary muscles. But
it is naturally in the more complex and far-
reaching nervous disturbance of the emotion
(q.v.) that bodily expression becomes so well
marked as to be accessible to external ob-
servation.

One of the peculiar features of emotional ex-
pression is the seemingly useless and even
positively disadvantageous nature of certain of
the bodily disturbances. Why should we curl
our lip in scorn? Why should we clap our
hands for joy, or blush for shame, or tremble
for fear? It is in answer to such questions
that various authorities have deduced what are
called e'the principles of expression," with the
aim at once of classifying and of explaining the
genesis of the expressive movements. The best-
known and most important contributions to
this subject are those of Darwin, Wundt, and
James.

In 1873 Darwin brought forward three prin-
ciples, by which he hoped to account for most,
if not all, of the expressive gestures involun-
tarily used by man and the lower animals under
the influence* of the emotions. Darwin's princi-
ples are as follows: 1. The principle of service-
able associated habits. Many complicated move-
ments which under certain circumstances were
of direct or indirect use are retained when their
use is no longer apparent, in consequence of the
general laws of association, habit, and inherit-
ance. Thus the cat executes peculiar "pawing"
movements with the forefeet when it is pleased.
Theso movements are the relic of the purposeful
use of the same movements to start or increase
the flow of milk from the mammary glands of the
mother. The movements became thereby asso-
ciated with a pleasurable and satisfied conscious-
ness, and tend to recur whenever such a con-
sciousness recurs. Wundt considers that this
principle is but a special case of Darwin's third,
the direct action of the nervous system; for the
overflow of nervous energy takes those paths
which are habitual and most frequently used.
2. The principle of antithesis. As Darwin ex-
plains it, "every movement which we have volun-
tarily performed throughout our lives has re-
quired the action of certain muscles; and when
we have performed a directly opposite movement,
an opposite set of muscles has been habitually
brought into play. ... So when actions of one
kind have become firmly associated with any
sensation or emotion, it appears natural that
actions of a directly opposite kind, though of
ao use, should be unconsciously performed

EXPRESSION

286

EXPULSION

through habit and association under the influence
of a directly opposite sensation or ^notion."
Thus, impotence is expressed by raised eyebrows,
shrugged shoulders, and open palms; since these
are the antithesis of the frowning brow, the
thrown-back shoulders, and the clenched fists,
symbolic of rage and power. James says in
comment: "No doubt a certain number of move-
ments can be formulated under this law; but
whether it expresses a causal principle is more
doubtful. It has been by most critics con-
sidered the least successful of Darwin's specula-
tions on this subject." 3. The principle of the
direct action of the nervous system; or of actions
due to the constitution of the nervous system,
independent from the first of the will and inde-
pendent to a certain extent of habit. The sud-
den release of large quantities of nervous energy
demands unusual outlet from the central nervous
system. This overflow takes place according to
the preformed connections of the nervous ele-
ments. Its results are visible in the general dis-
turbance of organic function due to the exciting
or inhibitory effects of these irradiations of
energy from the central nervous system. On
this principle are explained such phenomena as
the muscular tremors of fear or of great joy;
the increased glandular activity of the liver,
kidneys, and mammse; the alterations in cardiac
and vasomotor functions; and such movements
as the clapping of the hands for joy. It is ad-
mitted by James, and is practically identical
with the "first principle of Wundt.

Wundt's principles are likewise three in num-
ber: 1. The principle of direct change of inner-
vatton. This is but a different wording of what
we have just discussed as the third principle of
Darwin. It involves the principle of the heredi-
tary transmission of certain nervous connections;
thus, the reflex of weeping, which probably falls
in origin under the third principle, has by inher-
itance come to take its place under the first.
The transmission of a characteristic family
physiognomy or general expressive attitude is
very common; and we invariably argue from the
physical similarity to a similarity of mood,
even though there be no possibility of imitation
of the parents by the children. These direct
changes in innervation are almost always ac-
companied by a noticeable reactionary effect
upon the ideational course of the emotion. The
frightened man stutters, not merely because his
tongue mechanically refuses service, but also be-
cause his thoughts are really brought to a stand-
still. 2. The prmciple of the association of
analogous sensations is based upon the fact that
sensations of similar feeling tone easily asso-
ciate and regnforce one another. This process
forms the basis of the most characteristic of all
emotive expressions, the "mimetic movements."
These are physiologically conditioned by reflex
movements in and about the facial sense organs;
thus the expression which stands for "bitter"
is an arrangement of the parts of the buccal
cavity most sensitive to bitter in such a way as
to prevent their excessive stimulation by the
unpleasant taste. The "sweet" expression, on
the contrary, is that calculated to favor the con-
tinued stimulation of the tip of the tongue, the
part most sensitive to sweet substances. By
virtue of the second principle these reactions
have come to appear in response not only to an
actually bitter taste, but also to an emotional
condition which possesses the same general feel-
ing tone, So the expression has become symbolic.

A wry face may denote a mental as well as a
physical pain. 3. The principle of the connec-
tion of movement with sense ideas explains all
the facial expressions and gestures which are
not included under the two previous principles.
Here belong the "pantomimic movements" ( such
as pointing, and the imitative representation, by
movements of arms and hands, of the object
which arouses the feeling), the clenching of
the fists in anger, and also certain facial ex-
pressions, such as the curling of the lip in
scorn and the staring eyes of surprise. The
principle seems closely allied to Darwin's first.
It is not to be thought that any complex expres-
sion of emotion must be explained by a single
principle. Such phenomena as laughing and
weeping demand the use of all three principles
for their elucidation.

James proposes the five following principles:
1. The weakened repetition of movements which
formerly were of utility to the subject. This
is equivalent to Darwin's first proposition. 2.
The principle of reacting similarly to analogous-
feeling stimuli. This is identical with Wundt's
second principle- 3. The principle of weakened
repetition of movements which under other con-
ditions were physiologically necessary effects.
The respiratory disturbances of anger and fear,
e.g., may be considered as "organic reminiscences
... of the blowings of the man making a
series of combative efforts, of the pantings of
one in precipitate flight." 4. The principle of
the mechanically determined idiopathic effects
of the stimulus, i.e., the physiological outpour-
ings of excess of nervous energy through the
easiest drainage channels (cf. Wundt's first and
Darwin's third law). 5. The principle of the
mechanical perpetuation of emotional reactions
which may oe called accidental as far as their
origin goes. For some of our emotional reactions
no plausible reason can be conceived. "In fact,
in an organism as complex as the nervous system
there must be many such reactions, incidental to
others evolved for utility's sake, which would
never themselves have been evolved independ-
ently, for any utility they might possess.'* In
conclusion it may be said that no one of these
explanatory series of principles is logically com-
plete. There is need of further observation, and
perhaps of a new construction of principles upon
the basis of the psychology of action (q.v.).
Consult: Darwin, The Expression of the Emo-
tions in Man and Animals (London, 1890) ;
Wundt, G-rundgiige der physiologischen Psycholo-
gic (Leipzig, 1911) and Volkerpsychologie (ib.,
1900) ; James, Principles of Psychology (New
York, 1890); Titchener, Primer of Psychology
(ib., 1909). See GESTUBE.

EXPTJI/SION" (Lat. expulsio, from eaepellere,
to drive out, from ex, out + pe/Zere, to drive).
The act of removing one from the possession of
real property, or from an office, or from member-
ship in a body or association, or of depriving
him of a right, privilege, or license. Expul-
sion of the first sort is called eviction (q.v.).
The manner in which a public officer may be
expelled or removed is generally regulated in
this country by constitutional or legislative pro-
vision. For example, the Federal Constitution
secures to each House of Congress the power to
expel a member with the concurrence of two-
thirds. In the exercise of this authority it may
proceed summarily and need not observe the
formalities of judicial procedure. Nor does any
appeal lie from its decision* The same Con-

EXTENDED ORDER

287

EXTENSION

stitution secures to Federal judges both of the
supreme and inferior courts tenure of office
during good behavior. Recently many statutes
have been passed by Congress and by State legis-
latures limiting or qualifying the power of re-
moving persons from office in certain lines of the
civil service (q.v.).

Members of a corporation may be expelled in
certain cases, as where they have been convicted
of an infamous crime or have been guilty of
some corrupt or dishonorable conduct in connec-
tion with the affairs of the corporation. A
partner cannot be lawfully expelled from his
firm unless the partnership contract expressly
authoiizes expulsion. In such a case, as well
as in all other cases of unincorporated associa-
tions, the member proceeded against is entitled
to notice of charges and an opportunity to defend
himself as well as to a fair and impartial
decision. See CLUB.

Persons who are not members of a public body
or of a private corporation or association may
be expelled from its meetings at any time.
Even though their attendance has been 'induced
by an authorized invitation, the license or privi-
lege may be withdrawn at any moment; and if
they refuse to leave they may be forcibly re-
moved. The same rule holds good in the case
of other meetings. Those who convene them
have the right to expel objectionable persons,
provided they use no more force than is neces-
sary for that purpose. Consult Thompson,
Commentaries on the Law of Private Corpora-
tions (2d ed., 7 vols., Indianapolis, 1908-10),
and Pollock, Treatise on the Law of Torts (9th
ed., London, 1912).

EXTENDED ORDER. The formation in
which the units are separated by intervals
greater than in close order. The purpose of ex-
tended older drill is to teach the mechanism
of deployment, of the firings, and, in general, of
the employment of troops in combat. Such drills
are executed at ease. The company is the largest
unit which executes extended order drill. Con-
sult United States Army Infantry Drill Regula-
tions (Washington, 1911). See INFANTBY; TAC-
TICS, MILITARY.

EXTENSION, IN LOGIC. See DENOTATION.

EXTENSION, EXTENT (Lat. evtensio,
from extendere, to stretch out, from ex, out +
tendere, to stretch). The simplest spatial deter-
mination of mental processes, as duration ( q.v. )
is their simplest temporal determination. Not
all psychologists are agreed upon the existence
of extent as an intrinsic attribute of sensation;
but for the present purpose we may provision-
ally assume that extent, in the sense of "spread-
outness," is a characteristic feature, at least, of
visual and cutaneous sensations. The validity
of this assumption will be discussed latet. Of
the psychological problems concerned with spa-
tial relations, the majority, such as the percep-
tion of form, of distance, position, order,
arrangement, the geometrical-optical illusions,
etc., take us beyond the treatment of extent as
an attribute of sensation. Within the sphere of
sensation there are theoretically tliree problems
to be solved: (1) that of the smallest noticeable
extent; (2) that of the largest noticeable ex-
tent; and (3) that of the just noticeable differ-
ence of extents, or the sensible discrimination
(q.v.) for extent. These problems must be at-
tacked in the sphere both of visual and of hapti-
cal sensations, though the latter are, for practical
limited to a aiagle quality, pressure.

The second question is at once the least im-
portant theoretically and the least difficult of
solution. Maximal extent of pressure may be
obtained, e.g., bv immersion of the entire body
in water. The 'maximum visibile'' is obviously
measured by the total area of the "field of
vision." This embraces for a single eye a region
delimited by the following angles (based upon
the straight* line joining the centre of the pupil
with the centre of the "yellow spot") : outward,
70°-85°; inward, 60°-50°; upward, 45°-55°;
downward 65°. Hence the maximal field is, for
a single eye, an oval measured by a visual angle
of 130°-135° horizontally and 110°-120e ver-
tically.

The first problem, that of the smallest notice-
able extent, brings us to the well-worn question
of the ''minimum visibile." Two factors must be
constantly regarded: 1. In the neighborhood of
the stimulus limen, extent and intensity play
into each other's hands. An imperceptibly small
area may become perceptible with increased illu-
mination; an imperceptible degree of illumina-
tion may become perceptible with an increase
in its area. 2. Owing to the error of dispersion
(diffusion of stimulation upon the retina), the
extent of the object used as a stimulus may not
correctly indicate the extent of the stimulated
portion of the eye. In the method of Helmholtz
the least noticeable visual extent is determined
by approximating two luminous points or lines
placed at a constant distance from the eye and
recording the limit (expressed by the visual
angle or the distance between the two retinal
images) at which they are just distinguishable.
The 'keenness of vision, thus measured, varies
with the part of the retina stimulated; it is
greatest at the fovea (where an angular dif-
ference of about 1 minute of are, or a distance
between images of 0.004 mm., is just per-
ceptible) and falls to 1/100 of this maximal
capacity at 30° to 40° from the fovea. More
rwent determinations, excluding the error of
dispersion, indicate that a lateral displacement
in the relative position of two vertical, end-on-
end lines is detected when the visual angle is but
7 'seconds of arc. Hence, it is argued, the
'•'minimum visibile" is distinctly smaller (0.0005
mm.) than the diameter of a single cone (esti-
mated at from 0.0015 to 0.0044 mm.) . But it is
doubtful whether these figures, expressing as
they do the limen for separation of points, give
us any indication of the least visible extent; any
more than the least distance for the cutaneous
discrimination of two points can be regarded as
the least perceptible cutaneous extent. The
judgment of two lines or two points does not
necessarily carry with it any reference to space.
We shall do tetter, perhaps, to consider the
retinal cone as affording the unit of visual
extent; although, as is shown later in this
article, a limited extent may be less, under
certain conditions, than the diameter of a single
cone. The limen is further dependent upon the
quality of the stimulus. Thus, the space limen
for colors must be expressed in terms of three
values: (1) the achromatic limen, at which
light appears; (2) the chromatic limen, at
which color of any sort is seen; and (3) the
"characteristic" limen, at which the actual color
tone of the stimulus is perceptible; though, in
certain cases, two or even all three of these
limens may coincide.

We may regard the pressure spot as the unit
of cutaneous extent, a» the retinal eon« i*

EXTENSION

288

EXTERRITORIALITY

of visual extent. The limen of pressure separa-
tion, falsely assumed to be identical with the
iiminal extent, was first investigated by E. H.
Weber. Weber's results show clearly the de-
pendence of the limen of separation upon the
place stimulated. The following values, taken
from his classical table, illustrate this point:
tip of tongue, 1 mm.; tip of linger, 2 mm.:
cheek, 11 mm.; forehead, 23 mm.; middle of
back, 68 mm. By the stimulation of individual
pressure spots much lower values have been
found: chin, 0.3 mm.; cheek, 0.4 mm.; forehead,
0.7 min.; back, 5,0 mm. Subsequent work upon
sethesiometry, or "Weber's sensory circles," as
these experiments are called, has emphasized
the law of Tierordt that the space limen at any
point ;n the length of a limb is inversely pro-
portional to the distance of the stimulated
part from the axis of rotation, and has called
attention to the increase of the limen of sepa-
ration with fatigue — an increase so characteris-
tic as to be urged by certain investigators as
a practical test for degree of general fatigue.
See FATIGUE.

The third problem, discriminability, is termed
in the sphere of vision "eye measurement."
The results of many investigations made are
often different, since they depend upon manv
factors difficult of isolation even under experi-
mental conditions. These factors are eye move-
ment, the quality of the compared extents (see
under ILLUSION), their absolute length, their
distance from the eye, their direction (vertical,
horizontal, etc.), the use of monocular or binoc-
ular vision, etc. Running the eyes along the
Lines, i.e., the introduction of the strain sensa-
tions set up in the eye muscles, appears to aid
discrimination of linear extent. When we esti-
mate extent in this way, i.e., partly in terms of
intensity, the relative difference limen is ap-
proximately constant at 1/50; two lines seem
different if one is 1/50 longer or shorter than
the other. Recent work has demonstrated that,
with the resting eye, one can discriminate at
least four different extents, all of which fall
within the limits of a single retinal cone, al-
though the actual basis of this discrimination
is the quantity of light which falls upon the
cone. The discrimination of tactual, like that of
visual, extents is complicated by extraneous fac-
tors; arm-movement measurements involve the
factors of the duration and intensity of strain
sensations, while in cutaneous experiments
proper it is difficult to exclude judgments
couched in visual terms. Two circular surfaces
applied to the tip of the tongue may be recog-
nized as different when their diameters are no
more than 0.5 mm. and 1 mm.; but on the back
they must be 2 mm. and 25 mm. respectively.
Cold surfaces appear larger than warm surfaces
of equal size.

Our provisional assumption posited extent as
an ultimate property of certain sensation sys-
tems, as irreducible and unanalyzable as quality
or intensity. This view regards the perception
of depth and all other spatial relations as
derivative products of associations formed by
experience. Thus, the quasi-spatial nature of
certain sense qualities, e.g., the seeming differ-
ences in the '^bigness3' of sounds, does not de-
mand the assumption of any elementary spatial
attribute in these sensations. It remains to be
pointed out that this view of extent has not
gained universal acceptance. At the one ex-
treme certain psychologists, notably Wundt,

seek to derive all spatial determinations of men-
tal processes from other nonspatial contents of
consciousness. (See FUSION.) They do not,
therefore, postulate a special attribute for any
sensation system. At the other extreme certain
psychologists, of whom James may be considered
typical, ascribe an elementary spatial attribute
not only to visual and cutaneous but to all
sensations. James prefers the term "volumi-
nousness." ''This element, discernible in every
sensation, though more developed in some than
in others, is the original sensation of space. . . .
This 'vastness* is as great in one direction as
another. Its dimensions are so vague that in it
there is no question as yet of surface as opposed
to depth ; 'volume' being the best short name for
the sensation in question." From the psycho-
logical standpoint the merit of these three posi-
tions can be adjudicated only upon the verdict
of trained introspection as aided by the experi-
mental method. The principle of parsimony
must incline us to the simplest consistent theoiy.
From this point of view the merit appears to
lie with those who maintain the middle posi-
tion, though from the genetic side the Wundtian
explanation is, perhaps, the most satisfactory.
In other words, we may consider that the adult
human consciousness is unable by introspection
to get behind extent of "spreadoutness" as an
ultimate datum of experience, although we may
construct a theory of its genesis from other, sim-
pler, nonspatial processes.

Consult: KUlpe, Outlines of Psychology (Lon-
don, 1909) ; James, Principles of Psychology
(New York, 1890) ; Titchener, Text-Book of
Psychology (ib., 1910); Wundt, Qrund&uge der
physiologischen Psychologie (Leipzig, 1908-11) ;
id., Introduction to Psychology (London, 1912).

EXTERIOR BALLISTICS. See BALLISTICS.

EXTERRITORIALITY. The fiction or rule
of law by which certain classes of aliens in a
country are more or less exempted from its
jurisdiction and are governed by the laws of
their own country. The right to this exemption
is not absolute, but arises from, and is made
possible by, the comity of nations-, and the
reasons for its existence are to be found partly
in the survival of ancient laws, partly in reasons
of state, and partly in the purpose of protecting
the citizens of civilized nations against the un-
suitable laws of more barbarous countries.

Entrance into a country, on which the privi-
leges of exterritoriality are based, may be sus-
pended or entirely refused (see ALIEN) ; as, e.g.,
the entrance of a foreign sovereign or prince
may be prohibited for reasons of state, or of
foreign armed ships or armies.

The privileges arising from exterritoriality
are extended particularly to sovereigns, diplo-
matic agents, especially ambassadors and their
suites, family, and servants, and to public armed
vessels and armies in permitted transit. The
person of a sovereign traveling in a foreign
country is inviolate, and he is exempt from
the law of the land; but he has no greater
powers than he would have at home and has
no authority over any except his own subjects
who form part of his suite, retinue, or servants.
This privilege does not at any time extend,
either in the case of sovereigns or any other, so
as to exempt from the local laws any property,
real or personal, belonging to such person except
the effects brought with him. Public armed
vessels are to be distinguished from vessels of
private citizens. Although the latter, so long

EXTItf Cl! ANIMALS

289

EXTINCT ANIMALS

as they are upon the high seas, remain fully
subject to the jurisdiction of their own country,
whenever they enter within the waters of a
foreign country they become, with all on board,
subject to the laws of the country within whose
waters they are as fully as if ashore. A public
armed vesael, hoviever, and vessels chartered to
convey a sovereign or his representatives, con-
tinue subject, with their crews, to the law of
their own country. When ashore, the crew be-
come subject to the local administrative law,
and, if guilty of aggression or hostility, can be
arrested forcibly if necessary, and punished ac-
cording to the law affecting the aggression com-
mitted. Such transgressions expose the guilty
persons not only to arrest and trial, but to com-
plaint to their own sovereigns. The public ves-
sel, however, may not exceed the privileges ex-
tended to it on account of its character, nor
exercise other rights which it would have on
the high seas, such as committing an act of
war, or the capture of foreign vessels while
within the waters of a foreign state. The per-
mission to an army to go through a foreign
country carries with it the right to maintain its
discipline and do all other thing's connected with
the passage of the troops which may be necessary
to maintain the integrity of the army during
its passage. This may extend to the purchase
of provisions, but will not excuse crimes or
breaches of the public law of the land. The
permission is rarely extended; and when it
is, it is usually by treaty. The privileges ex-
tended to an ambassador or other diplomatic
agent arise partly from the consideration that
they are essential to the proper conduct of the
business intrusted to him and partly from con-
siderations of respect to the foreign sovereignty
represented. They begin when he enters the
country and continue till his departure, or until
a reasonable opportunity for it has elapsed. See
DIPLOMATIC AGENTS.

Analogous to these privileges arising out of
the comity of nations are those which are se-
cured by treaty for foreigners from Christian
lands in certain Oriental countries, where the
prevailing laws and usages are unlike those
of Christendom, or are so barbarous that there
is reason to fear that justice will not be done,
or that it will be administered in such a manner
as not to protect life, limb, and property accord-
ing to the standards of civilization existing in
Christendom. By treaties between the United
States and China, Korea, Borneo, Madagascar,
Persia, Turkey, Samoa, Siam, Zanzibar, and
Tonga, the citizens of the United States are
more or less fully exempted from local juris-
diction and are allowed to remain under the
jurisdiction of the United States. Formerly
the United States had such a treaty with Japan;
but when that nation attained the dignity of a
great power, the treaty was abrogated. See
CONSUL. Consult: Woolsey, Introduction to
the Study of International LOAD (7th ed., New
York, 1902) ; Phillimore, Commentaries on
International Law (London, 1889); the au-
thorities referred to under CONSUL, MEBCAN-
TILE; DIPLOMATIC AGENTS; INTERNATIONAL
LAW; ETC.

EXTINCT A-NrriurAT.fi. Extinct animals, as
the term is used in the present article, means
those whose species have been exterminated since
the advent of man upon the earth, and in most
cases, as a matter of fact, by his agency, directly
or indirectly. It is not to be presumed that a

complete list of species so exterminated could be
given, bince many, no doubt, completely disap-
peared before any sort of record began. Others,
as we know or suspect, survived into the era of
prehistoric man, but not later. Many species,
however, have disappeared, not only since writ-
ten records began, but within the past century or
even within the memory of men now living j and
it is these which will demand most attention.

Exterminating Influences. The causes of
the disappearance noted arise from man's varied
utilization of nature for his benefit or pleasure.
Directly, he destroys animals (1) for the sake
of their flesh as food, or of their skins as cloth-
ing, bedding, or shelter, and for various utiliza-
tions of other parts and products; (2) because
they may be dangerous to his lite or troublesome
to his enterprises or comfort; (3) in sport; (4)
by domestication. Indirectly animals suffer,
sometimes to the extinction of their species, by
man's clearing of the forests, draining of
marshes, burning over areas by prairie and for-
est fires, damming or divergence of rivers, fenc-
ing in and cultivation of the ground, thus de-
stroying pasturage and other food, limiting
movement, and in many ways interfering with
animal methods and means of obtaining a liveli-
hood. Another potent influence is man's turning
loose upon wild life new enemies in the shape of
his domestic dogs, cats, rats, goats, or hogs, or
of introduced exotic animals, all of which, in-
tentionally or otherwise, are injurious to some
or many wild creatures, and in some instances
have been the principal agent in the extermina-
tion of lost forms. Many minor circumstances
have contributed to the depletion or disappear-
ance of animals in all the more civilized parts
of the earth; and it must be remembered that
the extinction of any species has a distinct effect
upon some or many others. Thus, the removal
of the herbivorous quadrupeds from a region
would result in death by starvation of all the
larger carnivores of that region.

Extermination of Animals by Prehistoric
3ffen. Just how far we are to attribute to the
direct agency of primitive man the extinction of
forms that evidently survived until after his
advent upon the earth must be a matter largely
of opinion. There seems good reason to suppose
that the last of various species of moalike birds
were destroyed by the primitive inhabitants of
New Zealand and Madagascar; but there is a
fair possibility that the cold of the Glacial period
is wholly responsible for the end of a group
that no doubt was waning. The same remarks
apply to the mammoth and mastodon. That man
was contemporary with the last of the mam-
moths in southern Europe seems indubitable;
that the American mastodon was ever seen alive
by human eyes is, on the other hand, very doubt-
ful. At any rate, the termination of their career
over the vast areas of the northern half of our
hemisphere cannot be attributed .to human hands.
Paleolithic man probably hunted not only the
mammoth, but several other animals whose early
extinction may have been hastened in southern
Europe, such as the huge sabre-toothed tigers
' (Afacharrodus) , the ancient grizzly and brown
bear, the larger varieties of the lion and spotted
and striped hyenas, the woolly rhinoceros (Rhi-
noceros tiohorinus) and related species, and
various smaller animals long extinct. Some of
these were northern, like the musk ox, reindeer,
Arctic fox, etc. ; others southern, like the African
elephant and hippopotamus. In the changes of

EXTINCT ANIMALS

300

EXTINCT

climate which accompanied and fallowed the
Glacial period these and other species disap-
peared from southern Europe, to survive, if at
all,_ only in the north or in Africa, as their adap-
tations required. Certain species we know or
may feel sure survived until destroyed by man-
kind. Such was the case with the great-horned
Irish deer (see DEEB: ELK), which assuredly
survived until the close of the Bronze age. The
two most interesting instances of prehistoric ex-
termination, however, are those of the horse and
the camel. The wild stock of neither of those
has been certainly known within historic times.
How long it may have survived in Asia or north-
ern Africa we have no present means of know-
ing; still less of answering the question whether
any indigenous horse was contemporary with
early man in South America, Much evidence
exists, however, of the presence of native horses
in Europe well on into the Neolithic period of
human settlement there. They were hunted and
killed mainly for food, no doubt, but seem to
some extent to have been domesticated. Just
how long they lasted is uncertain, but it seems
indubitable that man is responsible for their
ultimate extinction. Whether, at some earlier
period, a separate species of dog, the founder of
the races of domestic dogs, ever existed, or if so
was exterminated after partial domestication by
man, is purely conjectural. (See DOG.) The
saiga was killed off in southwestern Europe pre-
historically, but lias survived eastward.

Extermination in, tlie Old World within
Historic Times. Since written records began,
several species have vanished from the fauna of
Europe, but remain elsewhere, or axe preserved
in carefully guarded remnants. The lion, tiger,
leopard, and various wild cats once inhabited the
valley of the Danube, and the lion was common
there in Roman times. When the Romans first
penetrated central and western Europe, they
found numerous not only the "bonasus," which
we now mistakenly call the aurochs, but a race
of great wild cattle. Mere remnants of these
(see BISON; CATTLE) remain in a more or less
impure condition on private preserves. The na-
tive roe and fallow deer (qq.v.) would long ago
have perished had they not been protected and
bred in parks and hunting forests. The chamois
of the -Alps survives only under legal protection,
which has not sufficed to keep the ibex, now
utterly extinct. The same might be said of cer-
tain lesser animals. Brown bears existed in
Scotland up to the time of Edward the Con-
fessor, but not later, and the last reindeer dis-
appeared from Caithness about the same time.
The beaver probably remained in Scotland and
Wales until the thirteenth century. . Wild boars
were hunted until the end of the seventeenth
century, and the wolf eluded his doom much
longer, the last one being killed in England dur-
ing the reign of Henry VIII, in Scotland in 1740,
and in Ireland in 17 1 5.

Asia furnishes few or no examples of animal
extinction of importance since written records
began, with the exception of the rhythm and a
cormorant, both of which once dwelt on islands
off the coast of Kamchatka. The rhytina was
a sea cow, closely related to the manatee (q.v.),
but much larger, which was confined to the Com-
mander Islands in Bering- Sea, where it was dis-
covered by the expedition of Bering, which was
wrecked there in 1741. During the next 20
years these islands were constantly visited by
seal and fur hunters, who slaughtered the ani-

mals to obtain their bceflike flesh. It has been
estimated by Stejneger (American Naturalist,
vol. xxii, Philadelphia, 1887), who made local
investigations, that not more than 3000 rhy-
tinas horded there altogether, and the last one
was killed about 1768. In the same island group,
and nowhere else, there dwelt a very large but
Fiiuall-winrred cormorant (q.v.), called Pallas's,
after the Russian naturalist, its first describer.
Jt was stupid and slow in its movements, fur-
nished excellent ilesh, and although a few sur-
vived the occasional visits of hungry sea hun-
ters until 1830, at least, the end then came.

Liability of Insular Faunas to Destruction,
The examples just recounted illustrate many
cases in which inhabitants of small islands have
succumbed to changes in their limited circum-
stances. Thus, the New Zealand group has lost
several birds which were either confined to iso-
lated and limited places or were helpless to
escape from European colonists. A certain quail
(Coturnix) and the owl parrot (Nestor) are
gone; and of two species of kaka parrots (Nes-
tor proflnctus and norfolkensis) none remains
upon either Philip or Norfolk Island, where
they abounded respectively previous to 1850.
Several other Australasian species which spend
their lives upon the ground are weak of flight
and, unaccustomed to such enemies, are rapidly
disappearing under persecution by rats and by
imported ferrets, weasels, etc., introduced by the
English settlers in an unwise attempt to sub-
due the plague of rabbits, which they had pre*
viously "acclimatized." One of the forms most
threatened are the curious flightless weka (q.v.)
rails, of which closely allied species once existed
on Norfolk Island, on Lord Howe Island, and
on one of the Chatham Islands. Dixon quotes
Dr. Forbes in the statement that 17 species of
birds that formerly lived on Chatham Islands
have become extinct. The civilization of the
Sandwich Islands has led to the destruction of
several birds, one of which, the mamo (q.v.),
was sought for the sake of its rich yellow
feathers, used as an ornament of the cloaks of
the chiefs, until none remained; another, re-
lated to the wattle crows, succumbed to the
clearing of certain brushy woods by cattle and
goats. Tahiti seems to have lost utterly a cer-
tain rail (Prosolonia leucoptera) and Latham's
white- winged sandpiper (Hypotcenidia pacified) ;
and anotner shore bird (JEchmorynchus) has
died out in the Christmas Island group.

The most conspicuous examples of island birds
extinguished sinco white men discovered their
isolated homes are afforded, however, by Mauri-
tius and the neighboring islands of the Indian
Ocean. Mauritius, when rediscovered by the
Dutch at the end of the sixteenth century, was
inhabited by that singular and inept bird the
dodo (q.v.), relations of which (see SOLITAIRE)
have perished likewise in the islands of Reunion
and Kodrigucz. In Mauritius, besides the dodo,
at least two species of parrot, a dove, a large
coot, and a second ralline bird, abnormally
flightless and long-billed, called Aphanapteryao,
have become extinct. Reunion, also, once had
other birds now lost, and so had Rodriguez. In
Reunion, a somewhat abnormal starling, Fregi-
Iupus9 existed until about 1850, while from
Rodriguez the greater part of its original avi-
fauna has vanished. There were a small but
peculiar owl (Athene murivora,), a big parrot
(Necropsittacus rodericanus) , a dove (SrytJi-
rcena, sp. ign.), a large brevipennatfe J^eron

EXTINCT

(Ardea megacephala), and a singular rail, be-
sides other birds of which we know from the
old voyagers.

The destruction of bird life in these islands
was due not only to direct chase by man, but
indirectly to the introduction of domestic or
other animals. The hogs let loose in the Mas-
carene Islands finished the dodos and their rela-
tives, and rats have done great mischief in
Oceanica. Fires, too, have burned the coverts,
destroyed nests and eggs, and killed much or all of
the food of many species by consuming reptiles,
insects, mollusks, worms, etc., great numbers of
species of which are also to be counted among the
animals recently extinct. This agency was espe-
cially potent in the Antilles.

The turtle tribe presents a parallel case of
extinction in the island-inhabiting species of
gigantic tortoise (q.v.) — isolated survivors of
forms widespread during the later Tertiary age.
During the historic period various species of
these gigantic tortoises have been numerous on
the Mascarene Islands, on Aldabara, a small
island northwest of Madagascar, and on the
Galfipagos Islands, west of South America. At
the end of the seventeenth century they existed
by thousands in Mauritius (three species),
Rodriguez (one species), and Reunion (one
species). In Mauritius they were still abun-
dant until about 1750, when they became so
scarce that importations from Rodriguez were
made by the shipload, as food for the garrison;
and the continuance of these supplies (also sent
to the Seychelles), together with the constant
destruction of the eggs, exhausted the stock of
tortoises about the end of the eighteenth cen-
tury. Those of Reunion had vanished long be-
fore; and a single aged captive at Saint-Louis,
Mauritius, still alive in 1895, at an age probably
approaching 200 years, is the sole survivor of
the great herds of Rodriguez. Aldabara had
originally four species, only one of which, the
elephant tortoise, survives and is very scarce.
The Galfipagos possessed several species, all good
for food, and now destroyed with the exception
of a few on Albemarle Island and about 100
specimens living in various zoological gardens.
See TORTOISE.

Africa has been the scene of extraordinarily
rapid changes in faunal characteristics during
the last century, and its later decades have wit-
nessed the extermination as wild game, if not
absolutely, of many of the largest and finest
quadrupeds in its list. The herds of elephants,
buffaloes, antelopes, and other grazers which
thronged upon the plains and in the forests of
South and Central Africa when Europeans began
to colonize there, were past counting.

This wealth of game was ruthlessly destroyed
by Arab and Portuguese traders and Dutch
farmers, and then by English and German
sportsmen, settlers, and hide hunters — the last
the worst agents of destruction, as has been the
case in America. The result has been the de-
pletion of game throughout all the more open
regions, until now many species, exceedingly
numerous previous to 1850, have become rare,
and obtainable only in remote districts, while
several species of the finest of African quadru-
peds have totally vanished. One of these is the
square-mouthed rhinoceros (Rhinoceros simus),
none of which has been seen for several years.
Another lost species, and one greatly to be re-
gretted, is the true quagga (Eqwus quagga)9 a
magnificent wild horse which originally roamed

»z EXTlftTOT AireH/TALS

over South Africa, but was killed off by the
Boers, first as food for their black servants, and
later for the hides, until it utterly disappeared
by 1875 or 1880. An even earlier date had wit-
nessed the extermination of the true or moun-
tain zebra (q.v.), which lingered somewhat
longer in the Abyssinian interior, but seems now
entirely gone. Several of the larger antelopes
have met or seem about to share the fate of
these lost horses. The eland has been nearly
extirpated by Dutch hide hunters. The blaubok
(Hippotragus leucophccus) has long been ex-
tinct, and its relatives the magnificent sable
and roan antelopes (qq.v.) are growing rare;
the white-tailed gnu (q.v.) is on the verge of
extinction, except for a few preserved as cap-
tives; the bontebok and blesbok (qq.v.) are
rapidly approaching the same fate; and the
giraffe, on account of its incessant persecution
by men in search of its valuable hide, remains
numerous only in the remote waterless regions
of the northern Kalahari Desert. A monkey
(Cololus kirki) of limited distribution on the
West Coast and the island of Zanzibar is now
supposed to be extinct. See HABTBEEST.

Extermination in America. The list of the
larger animals lost to America since its redis-
covery and settlement by Europeans is a long
one. Whether or not a native horse lingered in
small numbers in South America is a matter of
dispute. If there was such an animal, it so
quickly disappeared and was replaced by herds
of escaped Spanish horses as to have left no
trace of itself. The story of the extermination
of the bison, of which the only remaining wild
remnant at the opening of the twentieth century
was a herd of about 250 in the forests north of
the North Saskatchewan, is familiar to most
readers. (See BISON.) Several marine mam-
mals of our shore have suffered or are doomed
to speedy extinction. The case of the rhytina of
Bering Sea has been noticed. Its relative, the
manatee, is all but extinct in Florida and rare
elsewhere. The fur seal of the North Pacific
(see SEAL) seems likely to die out within a few
years, as also does the walrus, now wholly Arc-
tic, except in the neighborhood of Bering Strait.
There formerly existed in great numbers along
the Calif ornian coast a local sea elephant (see
ELEPHANT SEAL) which until about 1850 fur-
nished profitable sealing. A herd of about 150
individuals on the small island of Guadaloupe,
off Lower California, represents all that is left
of this species. The few elephant seals still
remaining about Cape Horn and small isolated
South Pacific islands, represent a.n expiring
race. The West Indian monk seal (Monachus
tropical/Is), once common around the Gulf ot
Mexico and the Caribbean Sea, had been mainly
killed off by 1850, and since then has lingered
only on a small group of islets, the Triangles,
north of Yucatan, where an accident may easily
put an end to the small band.

In respect to birds the New World has suf-
fered much loss by the changes incident to civi-
lization. The best-known case, perhaps, is that
of the great auk (see GABEFOWL) , which was lit-
erally hunted off the face of the earth. It should
be said, however, as in several other cases, that
this species had a very limited distribution and
was waning. Its migrations once extended
southward along the west coast of Great Brit-
ain to the Bay of Biscay in Europe, and in
America southward to Cape Hatteras. Evidence
of this is derived from finding its bones in pre-

EXTINCT ANIMALS

historic shell heaps along the coast. It seems
to huve occasionally visited Norway, but it never
was an Arctic bird. Its extermination was no
doubt largely effected prehistorically, for within
the time of recoids it has rarely been known to
visit even the Hebrides, and its breeding places
wore few. It had bred abundantly from time
immemorial on the G-arefowl Skerries, off the
southwest coast of Iceland, and might have re-
mained there yet, had not a volcanic disturb-
ance in 1S30 destroyed the islets. The surviv-
ors tied to Eldey Island; but as this was more
accessible, the colony was raided repeatedly by
fishermen, and in 1844 the last pair of auks
was killed. This ended the history of the gare-
fowl in Europe. How long certain Greenland
colonies lasted is not known. In 1534 the men
sailing with Jacques Cartier to the discovery of
the St. Lawrence River found on Funk Island,
off Cape Bonavista, on the northeastern coast
of Newfoundland, a resort of these and other
sea birds, where the "penguins" (for this term
was flrst applied to this species and later trans-
ferred to the Spheniscidee ) were breeding in
thousands. The indiscriminate slaughter of
these birds came to an end at an. uncertain time,
probably about 1840. According to a list pub-
lished in England in 1888, 79 skins were known
to exist, with 10 skeletons and 68 eggs. A third
of these are preserved in public museums in
various parts of the world, and the remainder
are privately owned. When by chance these
remains are 'sold, very high and rapidly increas-
ing prices are paid. At a notable auction sale
of an ornithological collection in London in 1895,
one skin in excellent condition was sold for
360 guineas (about $1800), and an egg brought
180 guineas (about $900). A very complete
account of the history of the great auk, together
with a full bibliography, may be found in F. A.
Lucas's account of his expedition to Funk Island,
in 1887, to recover relics of the bird, published
in the Annual Report of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution for 1888.

The next most conspicuous instance of the loss
of an American species of bird is the case of
the wild or "passenger" pigeon, which within
the last half of the nineteenth century disap-
peared (but not completely), in a, manner not
easily accounted for, from a great region in the
central United States where previously it had
been surpassingly numerous. Its history will
be found in the article PIGEON. The Eastern
pinnated grouse (see article GROUSE) survives
only in few examples on Martha's Vineyard,
which, in spite of legal protection, seem des-
tined to early extinction by semiwild house cats.
The Carolina parrakeet (q.v.) is a small par-
rot once very common throughout the lower
Mississippi valley, now to be found (if at all)
only in a few remote swamps of the Gulf coast;
and the large Cuban macaw (Ara tricolor) is
wholly extinct. Another bird of that region,
the ivory-billed woodpecker (q.v.), is probably
wholly gone. It is believed that the Antilles
and lesser of the West Indian islands have been
deprived of many species of birds and other
animals since they were first colonized, because
recent collectors have been unable to find several
species described by early writers, and others
have become extremely rare. Newton mentions
the loss of a species of petrel (JBstrelata hccsi-
tata) of Dominica killed off by a carnivorous
marsupial unintentionally introduced into that
island; and the mongoose (q.v.) is extirpating

292

EXTINCTION 0$ SPECIES

a related petrel in Jamaica. Finally, the Cali-
fornia condor ( q.v. ) has been added most lately
to the list of vanishing American birds, only a
few pairs remaining, in the mountains of South-
ern California.

For the decrease or disappearance of certain
fishes, see FISHEBIES; FISH CULTURE.

Bibliography. Boyd Dawkins, Cave Hunting
(London, 1874) ; Harting, British Ammals Ex-
tinct within Historic Times (ib., 1880); Wal-
lace, Island Life (London and New York, 1880) j
Grieve, The Great Auk (London, 1885) ; Buller,
Birds of Xeiv Zealand (2d ed., ib., 1888) ; New-
ton, Dictionary of Birds (London and New York,
1803-96) ; Bryden, Nature and Sport in South
Africa (London, 1897) ; Dixon, Lost and Vanish-
ing Birds (ib., 1898) ; Annual Report of Smith-
sonian Institution for 1888 (Washington, 1889) ;
Lankester, Extinct Animals (New York, 1905) ;
Rothschild, Extinct. Birds (London, 1907);
Hutchinson, E&tinct Monsters and Creatures of
Other Days (new ed., New York, 1911) ; Looinis,
Hunting Extinct Animals in the Patagonian
Pampas (ib., 1913); Finn, Wild Animals of
Yesterday and To-day (London, 1913). Con-
sult also the bibliography under DOMESTIC
ANIMALS, and the various titles referred to in
that article.

EXTINCT BIBBS. Various birds may be
called ''extinct" instead of "fossil," because their
species have expired since the present geological
era began, or, in several cases, since written
records began to be made. In most cases these
were birds that belonged to ancient and senes-
cent races, such as the ratite moas (q.v.) and
their kindred; or they were species of extremely
limited range, or of degenerate powers, due to
an insular habitat or other unfavorable sur-
roundings. Consult Rothschild, Extinct Birds
(London, 1907). See EXTINCT ANIMALS.

EXTINCTION" OE SPECIES. The extinc-
tion of species and higher groups has been due
to two causes — first, changes in the physical
geography and other environmental conditions
of the globe during past geological time, and,
second, to changes in the biological environment.

Geological Extinction. The primary factor,
therefore, in the extinction as well as the origin
of life forms is geological changes. If we glance
back through the geological ages, we shall see
that there were instances of the comparatively
rapid extinction of types or whole groups (or-
ders and classes) of animals. The more remark-
able were the death and disappearance of the
trilobites and ammonites. Darwin remarks:
"The extermination of whole groups, as of am-
monites towards the close of the Secondary
period, has been wonderfully sudden." The tri-
lobites as well as the important order of Euryp-
terida ceased to exist at the end of the Paleozoic
era; the Silurian graptolites, that very consider-
able group of hydroids, disappeared with com-
parative suddenness. Coming down to the
Mesozoic age, there was a remarkable extinction
of types. The greater number of crinoids and
brachiopods, and all the dinosaurs and ornitho-
saurs, as well as the pythonomorphs, these
groups comprising the most highly organized
reptiles which have ever lived, wholly perished
towards or at the close of the Cretaceous period.

It should be borne in mind that these facts of
comparatively rapid extinction have nothing in
common with the Cuvierian catastrophic doctrine
of sudden wholesale extinctions and recreations.
But blown facts of geology postulate long peri-

EXTINCTION OF SPECIES

293

EXTINCTION OP SPECIES

ods of quiet preparation, succeeded by more or
less ^sudden crises, or radical changes in the
physical structure of continents, resulting in
catastrophes, both local and general, to certain
faunas or groups of animals as well as individ-
ual species. These so-called catastrophes, though
geologically sudden, may have required thou-
sands of years for accomplishment.

There have been in the course of the earth's
history a number of crises or revolutions which
were attended with the loss and extinction of
types.

There were enormous changes in the relative
distribution of land and sea in pre-Cambrian
times. The strata of the Lower and Upper Huro-
nian are unconformable to each other, the Ke-
weenawan beds are unconformable to the Huro-
nian. Between each two series is an unconform-
ity representing an interval of time long enough
for the land to have been raised above the seas,
for the rocks to have been folded and to have
lost by erosion thousands of feet, and for the
land to have sunk below the surface of the ocean.
Again, between the pre-Cambrian and Cambrian
eras there was a great uplifting and folding of
rock, succeeded by long-sustained erosion, over
all the continental era.

At the end of the Paleozoic era occurred the
Appalachian revolution. This was a period of
mountain building and of continent making, and
on the whole was the most extensive and bio-
logicnlly notable event in geological history. In
its effects on life, whether indirect or direct, it
was of vastly greater significance than any
period since, for contemporaneous with, and as
a probable consequence of, this revolution was
the incoming of the vertebrates with limbs and
lungs, adapted to a terrestrial life. The Appa-
lachians of the Paleozoic times were perhaps as
high as the Sierra Nevada or Andean Cordillera
of the present time. During this period the
cryptogamous forests and their animal life may
haVe been confined to the coastal plains and
lowlands, while on the higher, cooler levels may
have existed a different assemblage of life; and
it is not beyond the reach of possibility that a
scanty subalpine flora and fauna peopled the
still cooler summits. But this process of moun-
tain building and erosion was not confined to the
end of the Paleozoic era. Since that period
there have been along the Atlantic border of the
growing and changing continent several suc-
cessive cycles of denudation extending down to
the present time. The great Appalachian pla-
teau with its lofty mountain ranges and peaks
rising from the shores of the Atlantic probably-
presented during the Mesozoic era different cli-
matic zones, from tropical lowlands with their
vast swamps, to temperate uplands, stretching
perhaps up to Alpine summits. New Zealand
at the present day has a subtropical belt of tree
forns, while the mountains bear glaciers on their
summits. The Jurassic was a time of great
denudation, when the high ranges of the Appala-
chian plateau were worn down, and the newly up-
heaved, tilted, and vaulted beds of the Trias
were deeply eroded. During the Cretaceous
period this region was a peneplain, the scenic
features roughly recalling those of North Caro-
lina and New England at the present day.
Then there was a reSlevation, and in the Eocene
Tertiary period the swelling and upheaval of
tho Appalachian dome began again.

We can in imagination see, as the result of
these changes in a comparatively restricted por-

tion of the earth's surface, resulting in the
formation of separate basins or areas inclosed
by mountain ranges, with different climates and
zones on land, what a profound influence must
have been exerted in the origination and also the
extinction of species. In other parts of the
world there were corresponding changes. The
later revolutions, as those of Tertiary times,
were perhaps less marked and extensive. Yet
towards the close of this period the great moun-
tain ranges of Asia and Europe, the Alps, Pyre-
nees, Caucasus, Himalayas, as well as the Atlas
of North Africa and the Cordilleras of North
and South America were upheaved. The western
Alps rose to a height of 11,000 feet, and tho
Himalayas to a horizon 16,000 feet above the
sea, while there were corresponding elevations in
western North America and in the Rocky Moun-
tain region.

The last great revolution, which, profound
and widespread as it was in the Northern Hemi-
sphere, did not apparently affect life and nature
in the tropical zone, was the Glacial period.
During this time there was, besides extensive
migrations southward, and consequent modifica-
tions of species which could not resist the cold,
a widespread extinction, not only of numberless
individuals, but of floras and faunas, a few
forms becoming adapted to a circumpolar climate.

Biological Extinction Due to Competition.
During all these changes, as the result of the
struggle for existence, the competition between
the outgoing and the incoming types and floras
and faunas, there resulted vast biological changes,
i.e., extinctions and recreations.

In summing up the grand results of the Ap-
palachian revolution and of the times immedi-
ately succeeding, Packard states that we should
not lose sight of the fact that the changes in
the earth's population were due to biological as
well as geological and topographical factors.
The process of extinction was favored and
hastened by the incoming of more specialized
forms, many of them being carnivorous and
destructive. For example, nearly all fishes and
reptiles live on other animals. The struggle for
existence between those which became unadapted
and useless in the new order of things went on
more actively than at present. The process of
extinction of the higher, more composite am-
phibians (the labyrinthodonts ) was largely com-
pleted by the multitude of theromorpha and
dinosaurs which overcame the colossal Ch&iro-
therium, MastodowawruS) and their allies.
Woodworth also states that "the exact cause of
their decline is probably to be sought in the
development of the more powerful reptiles."
The demise of the oraithosaurs or pterodactyls
was assisted, says Packard, in two ways: those
with a feebler flight succumbed to the agile,
tree-climbing dinosaurs; while the avian type,
waxing stronger in numbers and powers of
flight and exceeding in intelligence, exhausted
the food supply of volant insects, and drove
their clumsier reptilian cousins to the wall,
fairly starving them out; just as at the present
day the birds give the bats scarcely a raison
d'ttre.

At the close of the Jura-Trias period there
was a widespread extinction of the peculiar
coniferous plants of the Mesozoic, and they
wore succeeded by forests of deciduous trees of
modern types. Vast forests of deciduous trees,
such as the oak, sassafras, poplar, willow, maple,
elm, beech, chestnut, and many others, as well

EXTINCTION OP SPECIES

294

EXTINCTION OP SPECIES

as of conifers and palms, clothed the uplands,
while in the jungles, on the plains, and in the
openings of the forests, gay flowers bloomed.
The flora must even then have been, compara-
tively speaking, one of long existence, because
highly differentiated composite plants, like the
sunflower, occur in the Upper Cretaceous or
Raritan clays of the New Jersey coast.

While the changes of level did not affect the
abysses of the sea, the topography of the shal-
lows and coast was materially modified, and to
this was perhaps largely due the extinction of
the ammonites and their allies.

In 1862 Wood more fully discussed this mat-
ter and mentioned the same cause as suggested
by Packard. "This disappearance/' says Wood,
"of the Ammonitidae, and preservation of the
Nautilidce, we may infer was due to the entire
change which took place in the condition of the
shores at the close of the Cretaceous period; and
this change was so complete that such of the
shore followers as were unable to adapt them-
selves to it succumbed, while the others that
adapted themselves to the change altered their
specific characters altogether. The Nautilidse
having come into existence long prior to the in-
troduction of the AmjTionitidae, and having also
survived the destruction of the latter family,
must have possessed in a remarkable degree a
power of adapting themselves to altered condi-
tions." On the other hand, the dibranchiate
cephalopods (cuttles or squids), living in deeper
water, being "ocean rangers," were quite inde-
pendent of such geographical changes. Wood
then goes on to say that the disappearance of
the tetrabranchiate group affords a clew to that
of the Mesozoic saurians, and also of cestraciont
sharks, whose food probably consisted mainly of
the tetrabranchiate cephalopods. "Now the dis-
appearance of the Tetrabranchiata, of the cestra-
cionts, and of the marine saurians, was con-
tomporaneous ; and we can hardly refuse to
admit that such a triple destruction must have
arisen either from some common cause or from
these forms being successively dependent for
existence upon each other/'

Woodworth suggests that mammalian life in
the Mesozoic age was unfavorably affected by
the nature of the peneplain of the Atlantic coast
and by reptilian life.

"The weak marsupials or low mammals, which
first appear in this country with Dromatherium
in the tolerably high relief of the Trias, were
apparently driven to the uplands by the more
puissant and numerous reptilia of the peneplain.
Their development seems also to have been re-
tarded." Again he says: "To sum up the faunal
history of the Mesozoic alone, wo have seen
that pari passu with the creation of broad low-
lands there was -brought on to the stage a re-
markable production of reptiles, a characteristic
lowland life; and we note that the humble mam-
malia were excluded from the peneplain or held
back in their development, so far as we know
them by actual remains, during this condition
of affairs until the very highest Cretaceous. At
the close of the Mesozoic, the area of the pene-
plain was uplifted and there came into it the
new life. Not only the changed geographic con-
ditions, but the better fitted mammalia also were
probably factors in terminating the life of the
peneplains."

After the placental mammals once became es-
tablished, as the result of favorable geographical
conditions of migration, isolation, and second-

arily of competition, the evolution as well as the
elimination of forms, as is well known, went on
most rapidly. Remains of over 2000 species of
extinct mammals during Tertiary times which
existed in America north of Mexico have been
already described, where at present there are
scarcely more than 300. This is an example of
the amount of extinction which went on in a
single class of animals. There must have been
corresponding rates of extinction in the case of
birds, fishes, and insects.

The rapid summary we have given of the suc-
cessive changes and revolutions in the earth's
history, and the fact that they are accompanied
or followed by the process of the extinction of
the unadapted, and their replacement by the
more specialized and better adapted, show that
there is between these two sets of phenomena a
relation of cause and effect. The subject is
further illustrated by the extinction of life in
South America.

The Andean plateau during the Quaternary
period was paroxysmally elevated into the air
some 12,000 feet. Packard calls attention to
the possible results of such an enormous up-
heaval on the plants and animals of this region.
Before and at the time this movement began,
when the land was 12,000 feet lower than now,
the Atlantic trade winds, which now cross Brazil,
impinge upon the Andes, and drop their mois-
ture on the eastern slopes alone, favored as
well the western slopes and Pacific coast. The
tropical flora and fauna now confined to the
neighborhood of Guayaquil on the coast of Peru
then probably spread over Bolivia, Ecuador,
Peru, and Chile to Patagonia. At Riobamba,
altitude 9200 feet, the climate and vegetation
are temperate ; here occur bones of the mastodon,
horse, deer, and llama — animals which may have
lived in a temperate climate. But was not their
extinction and that of the colossal sloths, arma-
dillos, and other animals of the pampas, largely
due to a change of climate resulting from the
elevation of the Andean plateau? As the land
gradually rose, the atmosphere would become
more rarefied and insupportable to tropical life;
the animals and plants would either seek lower
levels or undergo extinction, or in certain cases
become modified into species suited to a tem-
perate climate. As the plateau rose still higher,
the air would become too cold and rarefied for
even the mastodon and horse. Gradually an
alpine zone became established, and finally the
higher peaks of the Andes, at an elevation of
15,000 feet, became mantled with perennial snow,
and on Chimborazo glaciers established them-
selves. We thus see how, within Quaternary
times, temperate and alpine zones became es-
tablished over the vast Andean plateau, origi-
nally, perhaps at the end of the Pliocene, a
plateau of the third order, clothed with vast
forests like those of Brazil and Venezuela.

Another, but more local, cause of extinction
is seen in Great Salt Lake, Utah. Formerly
this was a vast fresh-water lake, abounding in
fish, insects, mollusks, and plants. When it was
by elevation of the lake basin transformed into a
brine pool, all life was extinguished, except a
shrimp, a single species of fly, and an alga. So
with deserts; when they are formed, life is re-
duced to a relatively small proportion.

That there is a limit to the age of species as
well as to individuals almost goes without say-
ing. As there is in each individual a youth,
manhood, and old age, so species and orders rise,

EXTORTION

295

EXTBADITION

culminate, and decline, and nations have risen,
reached a maximum of development, and then
decayed. The causes, however complex, are, in
the case of plants and animals, apparently
physical; they are general and pervasive in their
effects, and have been in operation since life
began; there have been critical periods in pale-
ontological as well as geological history, and
periods of rapid and widespread extinction as
well as a continual, progressive dying-out of
isolated species. Such extinction was, so to
speak, a biological necessity, for otherwise there
would have been no progress, no evolution of
higher types.

Bibliography. Darwin, Origin of Species
<0th ed., London, 1882) ; Searles V. Wood, e'0n
the Form and Distribution of the Land Tracts
during the Secondary and Tertiary Periods re-
spectively, and on the Effects upon Animal Life
which Great Changes in Geographical Configura-
tion have probably Produced," in Philosophical
Magazine, vol. xxiii, p. 161 (Edinburgh, 1862);
A. S. Packard, "Geological Extinction and Some
of its Apparent Causes," in American Naturalist,
vol. xx, pp. 29-40 (Philadelphia, January, 1886) ;
"A Half-Century of Evolution, with Special
Reference to the Effects of Geological Changes
on Animal Life," in Proceedings of the American
Association for the Advancement of Science
(Boston, 1898); J. B. Woodworth, "Base-Level-
ling and Organic Evolution," in American Geolo-
gist, vol. xiv (October, 1894). The best recent
discussion of the subject, containing many addi-
tional titles of reference, is Osborn's The Age of
Mammals, p. 615, title "Extinction," in index
(New York, 1910).

EXTOB/TION (ML. eatortio, Lat. eatorsio,
from eactorquere, to extort, from ex, out -+• *or-
gucre, to twist) . In its widest sense, any form
of taking or obtaining anything from another
by means of illegal compulsion or oppressive ex-
action. As a technical term of the common law,
it has been judicially defined as the "crime com-
mitted by an officer of the law, who under color
of his office unlawfully and corruptly takes any
money or thing of value that is not due to him,
or more than is due, or before it is due." It is
by the common law a misdemeanor punishable
by fine and imprisonment, and subjecting the
offender to removal from office. In most of the
United States the term has received statutory
definition. For example, in New York it is de-
fined as "the obtaining of property from an-
other, with Ms consent, induced by a wrongful
use of force or fear, or under cover of official
right" (New York Penal Code, § 552.) Con-
sult Encyclopaedia of Pleading and Practice, vol.
viii (23 vols., Northport, N. Y., 1894-1909).

lEX'TRACT (ML. esotractua, extract, -from
Lat. eaotractus, p.p. of extraUere, to draw out,
from e&, out + trahere, to draw) . In a medical
or pharmaceutical sense, any vegetable prepara-
tion obtained by treating a plant with a solvent
and -evaporating the solution to about the con-
sistency of honey; or by expressing the juice
of the plant and evaporating — forming respec-
tively liquid and solid extracts. Extracts con-
tain only those vegetable principles that are
either held in solution in the juices of the plants
themselves, or are soluble in the liquid employed
in extracting them, and at the same time are
not so volatile as to be lost during evaporation.
Since many extractive matters are more or less
volatile, it makes a great difference whether the
operation is conducted at a low or at a high

temperature. Extracts are called watery or
aqueous, alcoholic, or ethereal, according to the
menstruum employed. Extracts are liable to
great uncertainty in point of strength and com
position, and require to be prepared with great
care. Evaporation in vacuo is found to be a
great improvement, as it may be effected at
relatively low temperatures.

EXTRACT OP JCEAT. An extract obtained
by treating chopped meat (beef) with cold
water, then very gradually raising the tempera-
ture, when about one-eighth of the weight of
the meat is dissolved, leaving an almost taste-
less insoluble fibrine. (See BEEF TEA; BROTH.)
Heating coagulates the nutritious albumen,
which forms a scum and is removed along with
any fat. The liquid may be concentrated into
small bulk, either in an open pan or in partial
vacuum, yielding a more or less thick paste or
thick liquid which consists of the so-called meat
extractives, including substances which give fla-
vor to meat. Bouillon Cubes, Soup Tablets, etc..
are made from meat extract concentrated until
very thick and sometimes specially flavored. Ex-
tract of beef is used to make beef tea, bouillon
soups, to flavor gravies, and in many similar
ways in cookery. It has almost no nutritive
value, although it stimulates a normal flow of
gastric juice and so may aid the digestion of
other foods. It is for such stimulating proper-
ties that it is used in the sick room. Consult
United States Department of Agriculture, Bu-
reau of Chemistry, Bulletin 114, "Meat Extract
and Similar Preparations." See MEAT EXTBACT;
FOOD, PRESERVATION OF.

EXTBA CTJRBBM'T. See ELECTRICITY.

EX'TRADFTION (from Lat. ex, out +
traditio, delivery, from tradere, to give over).
The sm render by one state or nation to an-
other of a fugitive from justice. Strictly speak-
ing, extradition is a modern practice, although
Hannibal's delivery was stipulated for in a
Roman treaty, and more than once Roman
citizens were surrendered to a foreign power.
These acts, like many others in ancient, medise-
val, and early modern times, were confined to
those who were considered enemies of the state.
The right to deny the privilege of asylum was
a prerogative of the sovereign, and sovereigns
frequently used it so as best to secure their
personal interests. Thus, extradition was con-
fined to what we should now call political
offenses.

It is -mainly within the last 100 years that
a deeper international comity has developed.
Increased intercourse and modern means of
transportation have greatly facilitated flights
from justice, while a sense of common interest
has done much to diminish international jealousy
and distrust. Each decade it has become more
evident that the failure of civil justice in one
country is likely to result unfavorably to its
neighbor. No country has ever willingly re-
ceived the convicts of another, and it was not
possible that nations with liberal ideas should
long fail to perceive that there was no great
difference between encouraging crime and fur-
nishing an asylum for fugitives from justice.
If, then, there was a common national interest
in the punishment of criminals, and if offenders
against foreign laws were undesirable immi-
grants, extradition was both an advantage and
a duty.

The great writers on international law have
not been in harmony on the question &s to

EXTRADITION

296

EXTRADITION

whether extradition is, in the absence of agree-
ment, a matter of international obligation.
Some of the ablest have argued in the affirma-
tive, but the modern writers, like Bluntschli,
Fiore, Philhmore, Westlake, Hall, and Moore,
who have so successfully labored to place the
law of nations on a sound legal basis, are agreed
that the obligation is a purely moral one. But
the wisdom of the practice is generally recog-
nized, as is the principle that, owing to the great
difference between the political systems and
penal codes of different nations, it was better
for them to give their mutual obligations in this
respect definite expression in treaties. The real
history of extradition in England begins with
the Ashbnrton Treaty of 1842 with the United
States. Excepting the Jay Treaty of 1794,
which contained provisions for extradition lim-
ited to 12 years, all the other treaties covering
this subject made by the United States are of a
subsequent date. The conventions between the
United States and Great Britain, in 1842, 1889,
and 1900, show what offenses two leading na-
tions of to-day consider extraditable. The first
covered the crimes of murder, assault with in-
tent to commit murder, piracy, arson, robbery,
forgery, and the utterance of forged papers; that
of 1889 added voluntary manslaughter, counter-
feiting, or altering money, embezzlement, lar-
ceny, fraud by a bailee, banker, etc., perjury or
subornation of perjury, rape, abduction, child
stealing, kidnapping, burglary, etc., piracy by
the law of nations, revolt or conspiracy to revolt
by two or more persons on board a ship on the
high seas, crimes and offenses against the laws
of botb countries for the suppression of slavery
and slave trading; and the supplementary
Treaty of 1900 added the crimes of obtaining
money, valuable securities, or other property by
false pretenses, willful and unlawful destruction
or obstruction of railroads endangering human
life, and procuring abortion.

The tendency is to enlarge the list of extradit-
able crimes: but there are many offenses which,
for obvious reasons, cannot properly be included.
Such are political crimes and offenses against
religion and marriage laws. The general rule is
that an extraditable crime must be one com-
monly recognized by civilized nations as malum
in se, and not merely malum prohibitum.

The method and prerequisites of extradition
may, perhaps, best be shown by a quotation from
the Ashburton Treaty. It provides that the two
powers shall, upon mutual requisitions, deliver
up to justice all persons charged with the com-
mission of certain crimes, "provided that this
shall only be done upon such evidence of crim-
inality as, according to the laws of the place
where the fugitive or person so charged shall be
found, would justify his apprehension and com-
mitment for trial if the crime or offense had
there been committed; and the respective judges
and other magistrates of the two governments
shall have power, jurisdiction, and authority,
upon complaint made under oath, to issue a
warrant for the apprehension of the fugitive or
person so charged, that he may be brought before
such judges or other magistrates respectively, to
the end that the evidence of such criminality
shall be heard and considered; and if, on such
-hearing, the evidence be deemed sufficient to sus-
tain the charge, it shall be the duty of the
examining judge or magistrate to certify the
same to the proper executive authority, that a
warrant may issue for the surrender of such

fugitive." The complaint under oath is com-
monly made by a consular officer of the state
asking for extradition. If all the proceedings
arc satisfactory, the President of the United
States (in our practice) causes the surrender
to be made to the agent of the demanding power.
The expenses are borne by the party making
the requisition.

There are two limitations on the practice of
extradition which are worthy of notice: 1. It
is an almost universal rule that a state will not
surrender its own citizens to a foreign power.
This is due to the national sentiment that leads
each nation to regard its own laws and ad-
ministration of justice as superior to those of
foreign powers, and to the equally natural de-
sire to give its own citizens the benefit of
those laws. 2. It is generally regarded as
an abuse of the principle of extradition for a
state to secure the rendition of a criminal for
an extraditable offense and then to try and
punish him" for an offense not included in the
treaty.

From the fact that difficulties in regard to
extradition are most satisfactorily anticipated
by treaties, it should not be inferred that ex-
tradition has not taken place without them.
Spain and other countries having no treaty of
extradition with Great Britain have surrendered
criminals upon her requisition. The rule in the
United States is neither to ask nor to grant
extradition in the absence of a treaty, but this
country has not disdained to accept this evidence
of international comity from other states — as
when Spain of her own volition surrendered the
notorious William M. Tweed to the New York
authorities in 1876 — and has acted on the prin-
ciple herself in the surrender of Arguelles to
Spain in 1863.

The law of extradition between the different
States of the United States is laid down in Art.
IV, sec. 2, of the Constitution, and in a law of
Congress of Feb. 12, 1793. The former reads:
"A person charged in any State with treason,
felony, or other crime, who shall flee from justice
and be found in another State, shall, on demand
of the executive authority of the State from
which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed
to the State having jurisdiction of the crime."
The latter provides for the form in which the
demand shall be made, whereupon it shall be the
duty of the Governor to whom it is addressed
to cause the fugitive to be arrested and delivered
over to the agent of the other State. The pre-
requisites of a valid demand are a formal charge
that a crime has been committed against the
laws of the demanding State, and that the per-
son charged has fled to the State on whose
executive the demand is made. It is the duty
of the Governor on whom the demand is made,
although the alleged offense may not be a
crime in the State where the fugitive has sought
an asylum, to deliver the fugitive, but its per-
formance which is sometimes refused cannot be
compelled.

Consult: Moore, Treatise on Extradition and
Interstate Rendition (Boston, 1891); Hawley,
Interstate Extraditions (Detroit, 1890) ; Spear,
Law of Extraditions, International and Inter-
state (2d eel., Albany, 1884) ; Rorer, American
Interstate Law (2d ed., Chicago, 1893); Biron
and Chalmers, The Law and Practice of Extra-
dition (London, 1903); Clarke, The Law of
Extradition (ib., 1903) ; Bailey, Treatise on the
Law of Habeas Corpus (2 volsv Chicago, 1913) ;

EXTRALITE >

and the authorities referred to under INTEB-

NATIONAL LAW.

EX'TRALITE. See EXPLOSIVES.
EXTRAORDINARY RAY. See LIGHT.
EXTRATERRITORIALITY. See EXTEBBI-

TOBIALTTY.

EXTRA V'AGAW'TES COWSTITU'TIO'-

NES (Lat. extra, outside + lagan, wander).
Papal constitutions of John XXII and some of
his successors, supplemental to the "Corpus
Juris Canonici." They got their name from the
fact that they were not arranged in order with
the other constitutions, but were "outside wan-
derers" from the general code.

EXTRAVAGANT A (It., extravagance). A
musical or dramatic piece of great wildness or
absurdity, characterized by extravagant and
fantastic qualities. The term is often applied
to various other kinds of writing marked by
unbridled or eccentric fantasy.

EXTRAVASATION (from ML. extravasa-
tus, extravasated, from Lat. extra, beyond +
vast vessel). The escape of any of the fluids of
the living body from their proper vessels through
a rupture or injury in their walls. Excrementi-
tious matter thus sometimes escapes into the
abdomen through a wound or ulceration of the
bowels. But the term is oftenest used in speak-
ing of the escape of blood from injured blood
vessels. Extravasation is distinguished from
exudation by this, that in the last the vessels
remain entire, and the effusion takes place by
filtration through their walls; nor does more
than a part of the blood so escape, the blood
globules being retained, while in extravasation
entire blood is effused. Many kinds of extrava-
sation arc rapidly fatal, such as that of urine
or of bile into the abdomen, or of blood from
the vessels of the brain in many cases of apo-
plexy. The dark color resulting from a bruise
is due to extravasated blood from lacerated
capillaries.

EXTREME UNCTION (Lat. extreme unc-
tio). A sacrament of the Roman Catholic
church, which, as the other sacraments supply
spiritual aid in the various circumstances of
life, is believed to impart to the Christian grace
and strength to encounter the struggle, as well
spiritual as bodily, of the dying hour. The
rite of unction or anointing in different forms
is common to four of the sacraments; the
name "extreme" is given to that of the present
sacrament because it is reserved for the last act
of the Christian career. The Council of Trent
declares this sacrament, although "promulgated"
in the well-known passage of St. James v. 14, 15,
to have been "instituted" by Christ. The fathers
frequently allude to the rite of unction, and al-
though many of these allusions certainly refer
to the unctions of baptism and confirmation, yet
several passages in Origen, Chrysostom, Csesarius
of Aries, and Pope Innocent I, are interpreted
as referring to the unction of the dying. In the
various separated churches of Oriental Chris-
tians— Greek, Coptic, Armenian, and Nestorian
— the rite is found, although with many cere-
monial variations. In the Roman Catholic
church the sacrament is administered by the
priest, who, "dipping his thumb in the holy oil,
anoints the sick person, in the form of the
cross, upon the eyes, ears, nose, mouth, hands,
and feet, at each anointing making use of this
form of prayer : 'Through this holy unction, and
His most, tender mercy, may the Lord pardon
thee whatever sins thou hast committed by thy
VOL. VIII.— 20

)7 EYCK

sight. Amen.' " And so of the hearing and the
rest, adapting the form to the several senses.
Extreme unction is reputed by Catholics one of
the sacraments ''of the living"; i.e., it oidinarily
requires that the recipient should be in a state
of grace, or, in other words, should have received
the remission of his sins by absolution or by
perfect contrition; but it is hold to remit, in-
directly, actual sins not previously remitted, and
also (although not infalliblv, but according to
the merciful designs of Providence) to alleviate,
and even to dispel, the pains of bodily disease.
The holy oil which forms the "matter" of this
sacrament must be blessed by the bishop — a
ceremony which is performed with great solem-
nity once each year by the bishop, attended by
a number of piiests, on Maundy Thursday. The
oil so blessed is reserved for use during the year.
Formerly several priests united in the adminis-
tration of the sacrament, and the custom is still
maintained in the Greek church; among Roman
Catholics one priest now administers it. The
Greek form of words also differs, although not
substantially, from that of the Latin church.
The Greeks call this sacrament "the holy oil"
and sometimes "the oil of prayer." Consult:
Schanz, Die Lehre von den heiligen Kacramenten
(Freiburg, 1S93) ; Schmitz, De Effectibus Sacra-
vncnti Extremes Unctionis (ib., 1893); Kern,
De Sacramenti Extreme Unotionis (Ratisbon,
1907 ) ; Puller, The Anointing of the 8ick in
Scripture and Tradition (London, 1904). See
UNCTION.

EXTTKEAS, e"ks-oo/maz. An archipelago in
the British West Indies, part of the Bahamas
(q.v.), between Andros and Long Island (Map:
West Indies, C 1 ) . It comprises the islands of
Great Exuona, Little Exuma, and the Exuma
Kevs, occupying a total area of about 150 square
miles. Little Exuma has one of the best har-
bors in the Bahama group. The inhabitants are
employed partly in agriculture, but chiefly in
salt making. Pop. (of group)', 1901, 3086;
1011, 3405.

EX TTWGTCJE LEONEM. See Ex PEDE
HERCULEM.

EYAS, I'as. See FALCONET.

EYB, ib, ALBKECHT VON (1420-75). A Ger-
man writer and humanist, born in Franconia.
He studied at Pavia, became Archdeacon of
Wtirzburg in 1449, and later entered the service
of Pope Pius II. His work on marriage, entitled
JBhestandsbuch (1472), has frequently been re-
printed. The most recent editions are those of
K. Muller (in modern German) ( Sondershausen,
1879) and Herrmann (Berlin, 1890). Consult
Herrmann, Albrcoht von Eyb und die Fruhsseit
des deutsohen Eumanismus (1893)*

EYCK, Sk, HUYBREOHT (HUBERT) (c.1365-

1426), and JABT (Joipr) (c.1385-1441) VAN.
Brothers, Flemish painters, founders of the
school of painting of the Netherlands. Their
fame rests upon some of the greatest services to
modern art that it is possible to conceive. They
were the first to perfect and successfully use oil
as a medium for mixing colors, which revolu-
tionized the painting of Europe; to use the land-
scape as an accessory, which contributed to the
harmony of the painting; and to discover aSrial
perspective, learned by the Italians 50 years
later. The figures of their panels were thor-
oughly naturalistic — real Flemish men and
women. As there are practically no survivals
of Flemish painting preceding theirs, it is diffi-
cult to ascertain the evolution of their art: but

EYCK

398

EYCK

from a study of the illuminated manuscripts
and tapestries of the late fifteenth and early
sixteenth centuries it is evident that Hubert's
art represents the culmination of mediaeval
painting in northern Europe; while Jan, like
Leonardo in Italy, incorporated in his art the
naturalistic and technical elements of all that
preceded in northern France and the Nether-
lands. The perfection of the oil technique was
probably due to Hubert, who was much the
cklder ; but the other innovations were due to Jan.
The brothers Van Eyck take their name from
a little town on the Haas, near Maastricht, called
Maaseyck, where they were born. The dates of
their birth are variously assigned. There is no
proof for the assumption that Hubert trav-
eled widely in Europe. From reliable documen-
tary evidence we know only that in 1425 he was
paid for two sketches of a painting ordered
by the city council of Ghent, and that in the
same year he was employed on a large altarpiece
for Kobert Poortier and" his wife in St. Savior's,
Ghent. Before this time he had begun the great
altarpiece of Ghent upon which his fame chiefly
rests. Between Aug. 1, 1425, and the same date,
1426, the magistrates of Ghent visited his work-
shop, probably to inspect the altarpiece. He did
not live to finish this work, but died on Sept. 18,
1426, and was buried in the crypt directly under
the chapel, which was afterward adorned with
his masterpiece. As regards the life of Jan, we
are better informed. He was probably the pupil
of his brother, who much exceeded him in years.
From c.1422 till 1424 he was in the service of
John of Bavaria, then living as Count of Hol-
land at The Hague, employed in decorating his
palace. After this patron's death, in 1425, he
was appointed court painter and valet de
chambre (a sort of chamberlain), with a salary
of 100 livres a year, to Philip the Good, Duke
of Burgundy. He lived at Lille with the Duke,
who employed him upon various diplomatic mis-
sions— in 1426-27, e.g., on two secret missions
of importance, for which he was liberally re-
warded. In 1428-29 he was one of the embassy
sent to Lisbon to negotiate the marriage of the
Princess Isabella of Portugal to his master, and
painted a portrait of the princess, which con-
firmed the Duke's choice. During his stay in
Portugal he became acquainted with the south-
ern landscape and vegetation which henceforth
appear in his pictures. He made a pilgrimage
to Santiago di Compostella and visited the Al-
hambra. After his return to Flanders, Christ-
mas Day, 1429, he settled at Bruges, and there
he finished the altarpiece which his brother had
left incomplete, on May 6, 1432. From 1430
till his death, was the period of Ms ripest and
best work. He was visited and honored, not
only by the magistrates of Bruges, but by Duke
Philip, who stood sponsor to his son in bap-
tism and finally increased his yearly pension
to 4320 livres (Parisian). In 1436 he was sent
upon another distant diplomatic mission. He
died at Bruges on July 9, 1441, and lies buried
in the church of St. Donatus.

The great polyptych in the church of St.
Bavon, now the cathedral of Ghent, is the mas-
terpiece of the brothers Van Eyck. It is not
known who gave the original commission; but
it was certainly completed at the expense of
Jodoc Vydt, Lord of Pamele, etc., a prominent
burgher of Ghent. It contains more than 20
panels portraying the central dogma of the
Chrifitian religion, the "Redemption from Sin

through the Sacrifice of the Lamb." Both ex-
terior and interior of the altar are painted. The
pmlella, now lost, represented "Purgatory" ; the
central part of the exterior is the "Annuncia-
tion/' of wondrous charm, and above it the proph-
ets "Micah" and "Zachariah" and the "Two
Sibyls," who foretold Christ's birth and sacrifice.
In the centre, below the "Annunciation," are
"John the Baptist" and "John the Evangelist,"
the patrons of the church, painted like contem-
porary stone statues, and on either side of them
kneeling figures of the donors, Jodoc Vydt and
Isabella Burluut, his wife — portraits of admira-
ble realism. The interior of the altar, opened
only on great occasions, reveals the central truth
of the Christian faith, for which the exterior
prepares us. Tt is painted in two tiers, the
upper representing heaven. The central panel is
the majestic figure of "The Almighty En-
throned"; on the left is the "Virgin," wearing a
precioiis diadem, on the right the austere figure
of "St. John Baptist" — all more than life size.
There follow the "Angel Musicians" and the
"Angel Singers" — delightful Flemish maidens —
and at the extreme ends arc the panels of Adam
and Eve — the first important nudes in northern
painting. The central and principal panel of the
lower tier is the "Mystic Sacrifice of the Lamb,"
in a marvelous southern landscape, and with a
multitude of Apostles, saints, prophets, and
heathen seers who foretold the sacrifice. The
two panels on the left typify the laity — the
"Knights of Christ," riding majestically for-
ward, and the "Just Judges," with supposed
portraits of the brothers Van Eyck. On the
right the clergy — the "Holy Hermits" and the
"Holy Pilgrims" — march sturdily forward.

The part taken by the two brothers in this
groat work is a subject of much controversy.
The general plan is due to Hubert, but most of
the execution to Jan. From Jan's other works
we know that his art was very minute and real-
istic, and it is reasonable to suppose that Hu-
bert, who was much older, approximated more
closely to the mediaeval manner, which was more
monumental. Applying this criterion to the
Ghent altar, the central figures of the "Al-
mighty," the "Virgin," and "John the Baptist"
must be assigned to Hubert, and part at least of
the "Adoration of the Lamb." The attribution
of other works to Hubert is very doiibtful —
such as certain miniatures in the celebrated
Book of Hours of Due Jean du Berry, photo-
graphed before they were destroyed by fire at
Turin in 1904; and numerous recent attribu-
tions of paintings, more probably to be ascribed
to Jan.

The Ghent altar is the most impressive re-
ligious monument of northern painting and ranks
in importance with the Brancacci Chapel in
Florence. It was held in the highest repute,
both when it was executed and in the centuries
following. It survived the Burgundian wars
and the iconoclastic riots of the Reformation.
Philip II in vain attempted to acquire it for
Spain, but had to content himself with a copy
finished by Michiel Coxcie (q.v.) in 1550. The
original was taken, in part, to Paris during the
French Kevolution, but was returned to Ghent.
After its return the wings were sold, and are in
the Museum of Berlin, except "Adam" and
"Eve," which are nowtat Brussels. The central
panels are still in Ghent Cathedral, the wings
being supplied by Coxcie's copies.

A far larger number of paintings may be

EYCK

safely ascribed to Jan. A charming little Ma-
donna (1432), characteristic of his early work,
is at Ince Hall, near Liverpool. The National
Gallery (London) has three good portraits — an
unknown man (1432), called the "Scholar"; the
"Man with a Turban" (1433), supposed to be
Jan van Eyck himself; and the newly married
"Giovanni Arnolfini and his Wife," a wonderful
piece of realism. At Paris there are "Madonna
with the Child," in the Rothschild collection,
and the "Madonna of the Chancellor Rollin," in
the Louvre. The Antwerp Museum possesses "St.
Barbara" ( 1439 ) , while Bruges has the powerful
"Madonna of Canon George van der Pael" (1436)
and the portrait of "The Artist's Wife" (1439).
In Vienna are the portraits of Nicolas Albergati,
Cardinal of Santa Croce (1432), and Jan de
Leeuw (1436), and at Frankfort is a delightful
"Madonna Suckling the Child" of the early
period. At Dresden there is a small triptych,
which, according to the legend, was used by
Charles V on his travels. The central panel
shows the Madonna in a beautiful Gothic chapel ;
on one wing are "St. Michael and the Donor," on
the other ''St. Catharine." St. Petersburg pos-
sesses an "Annunciation," a "Crucifixion," and
a "Last Judgment." The Berlin Museum is rich-
est of all in works of Jan van Eyck. Besides
the parts of the Ghent altar, and other works of
more doubtful authenticity, it possesses the por-
traits of an "Esquire of the Order of St. An-
thony," "Giovanni Arnolfini," and a "Knight of
the Golden Fleece." In the Metropolitan Mu-
seum, New York, is a head of Thomas a Becket
(Morgan collection), besides a school piece (the
"Virgin and Child"), while the Johnson collec-
tion, Philadelphia, possesses "St. Francis Re-
ceiving the Stigmata" — one of the artist's finest
portraits.

A prominent characteristic of Jan van Eyck's
panels is their detailed finish, almost like the
miniatures of a manuscript. They are like ex-
quisitely wrought jewels. Such detail, of course,
precludes emphasis, which is only in part atoned
for by beauty and delicacy. His realism, as
evinced in such figures as "Adam" and "Eve,"
must have been a revelation to contemporaries.
His landscapes are well selected and, like his
interiors, form admirable backgrounds for his
pictures, giving unity to the composition. He
did not understand linear perspective, but ren-
dered atmospheric gradations with great skill and
understood to a remarkable degree the handling
of light and shade. Most charming of all is his
color — bright, but in a low key, and pervaded
by reddish-brown tone, full of light. He was,
moreover, an excellent draftsman. Although the
influence of his art was unbounded — extending
through Germany, France, Spain, and southern
Italy-~Jan van Eyck never founded a school in
the strict sense of the term.

Bibliography. The documentary evidence on
the life of the Van Eyck brothers has been col-
lected from the archives of Ghent and Bruges,
published by Weale, and utilized in his John
and Hubert van Eyck (London, 1908; 1912).
The best critical discussion of their art is the
lengthy account by Professor Dvorak, "Das Rat-
zel der ELunst der Briider van Eyck," in Jahr-
ouch kunsthistorischen Sammlungen (Vienna,
1903). Other good monographs are by Kam-
merer, in Knackfuss, Eftnstler Monographien
(Bielefeld, 1898); Hyman (Paris, 1908); Du-
rand-Gr£ville (Brussels, 1910). Consult also
Lalaing, Jean van Eyck (Lille, 1887), and Voll,

EYE

Die altniederldndische Malerei von van Eyck bis
Memling (Leipzig, 1906).

EYDE, SAMUEL (1866- ). A Norwegian
electrochemist, engineer, inventor, and manufac-
turer, born at Arendal. He studied for his pro-
fession in Norway and Berlin, where he obtained
his doctor's degree, and practiced engineering
in Germany, Sweden, and Norway. Realizing
that the soils of nations greatly needed fertili-
zation, he and Prof. Kristian Birkeland of the
University of Christiania conceived the idea of
producing fertilizers from the air (azote or ni-
trogen) and limestone by electricity. After
much labor they succeeded in the invention and
(1003) began manufacturing with a 5 horse-
power motor and three men. Nine years later
(1912), Dr. Eyde owned three waterfalls, pro-
ducing a total of 200,000 horse power, a factory
employing 400 chemists, engineers, etc., and
1340 laborers, producing 2000 barrels of Norway
saltpetre a day. In 1914 Dr. Eyde had secured
another waterfall and built another factory using
200,000 horse power, giving his plants a capac-
ity of 400,000 horse power. Still another 150,000
horse power he reserved. The plants represented
a capital of 100,000,000 crowns, and around them
the three towns — Notodden, Saaheim, and Eyde-
havn, where high explosives are also manufac-
tured— had sprung up as results of the industry.

EYE (AS. Gage, Goth, augo, OHG. ouga, Ger.
Auge, Icel. auga, OSw. ouga, Sw. ogat Dan. Nor.
die, Lat, oculu8> eye, Gk. #<r<re, osse, the two eyes,
OChurch Slav, oito, Skt. aksan, eye). The organ
of sight. In this article we shall consider the
structure of the human eyeball, and of certain
accessory parts or appendages which serve to
protect that organ and are essential to the due
performance of its functions.

The glo'be of the eye is placed in the an-
terior part of the cavity of the orbit, in which
it is held in position by its connection with the
optic nerve posteriorly, and with the muscles
which surround it, and by the eyelids in front.
It is further supported behind and on the sides
by a quantity of loose fat, which fills up all the
interstices of the orbit and facilitates the va-
rious movements of which the eye is capable.
The form of the eyeball is nearly spherical;
but on viewing the organ in profile we see that
it is composed of segments of two spheres of
different diameters. Of these the anterior,
formed by the transparent cornea, has the
smaller diameter and is therefore more promi-
nent, and hence the anteroposterior slightly ex-
ceeds (by about a line) the transverse diam-
eter. The radius of the posterior or sclerotic
segment is about ^J, and that of the anterior
segment about J$, of an inch. When the eyes
are in a state of repose, their anteroposterior
axes are parallel; the optic nerves, on the
other hand, diverge considerably from their
commissure within the cavity of the skull to
the point where they enter the globe; conse-
quently their direction does not coincide with
that of the eye. Each nerve enters the back of
the globe at a distance of about % of an inch
on the inner side of the anteroposterior axis of
the eye.

The eyeball is composed of several investing
membranes and of certain transparent struc-
tures which are inclosed within them, and
which, together with the cornea, act as refractive
media of various densities upon the rays of
light which enter the eye.

The outermost coat of the eye is the sclerotic

EYE

300

EYE

(from Gk. ffK\w6s, skleros, hard). It is a strong,
dense, white, fibrous structure, covering about
four-fifths of the eyeball, and leaving a circular
deficiency anteriorly, which is occupied by the

vcurxoryc

SECTION OP EYEBALL.

cornea. Posteriorly it is perforated by the

r1 * 3 nerve, and it 'is there continuous -with the
th which that nerve derives from the dura
mater, the fibrous investment of the brain and
spinal cord. Near the entrance of the nerve
its thickness is about -fa of an inch; from
this it diminishes to about J$-; but in front
it again becomes thicker, from the tendinous
insertions of the straight muscles which blend
with it. This coat, by its great strength and
comparatively unyielding structure, maintains
the inclosed parts in their proper form and
serves to protect them from external injuries.

The cornea, (so called from its horny appear-
ance) is a transparent structure, filling up the
aperture left in the anterior part of the sclerotic.
Its circumference is overlain by the free edge of
the sclerotic, which in some parts presents a
groove, so as to retain it more firmly; and the
connection by continuity of texture between the
two structures is so close that they cannot be
separated in the dead body without considerable
maceration. The cornea, in consequence of its
greater convexity, projects beyond the line of the
sclerotic; the degree of convexity, however, va-
ries in different persons and at different periods
of life. It is thicker than any part of the
sclerotic, and so strong as to be able to resist
a force capable of rupturing that tunic. Al-
though perfectly transparent and apparently
homogeneous, it is in reality composed of five
layers, clearly distinguishable from one an-
other— viz. (proceeding from the front back-
ward) : 1. The conjunctival layer of epithelium.
It is in this epithelium that particles of iron,
stone, etc., forcibly driven against the eye usu-
ally lodge, and it is a highly sensitive mem-
brane. 2. The anterior elastic lamina forming
the anterior boundary of the cornea proper; it
is not more than ^fa of an inch in thick-
ness, and its function seems to be that of main-
taining the exact curvature of the front of the
cornea. 3. The cornea proper, on which the
thickness and strength of the cornea, mainly de-
pend. 4. The posterior elastic lamina, which is
an extremely thin membrane, in which no struc-
ture can be detected. It probably contributes,
like the anterior lamina, to the exact mainte-
nance of the curvature of the cornea, so necessary
for 'correct vision. 5. The posterior endothelium
of the aqueous humor, which is probably con-
cerned in the secretion of that fluid.

The choroid coat is a dark-colored vascular
membrane, which is brought into view on the re-
moval of the sclerotic. Its outer surface, which
is nearly black, is loosely connected with the
sclerotic by connective tissue, in which are con-
tained certain nerves and vessels (termed the
ciliary nerves and vessels) which go to the iris.
Its inner surface is soft, villous, and dark-
colored. In front it is attached to the membrane
of the vitreous humor by means of the ciliary
processes, which consist of about CO or 70 radi-
ating folds. These are alternately long and
short, each of them being terminated by a
small, free, interior extremity, and they are
lodged in corresponding folds in the membrane
of the vitreous humor. In other parts it is
loosely connected with the retina. The choroid
is composed of minute ramifications of vessels
(especially of veins which, from their whorl-like
arrangement, are termed vasa vorticosa), of con*
nective tissue, and of piffment cells, which
usually approximate to the hexagonal form and
are about y^j- of an inch in diameter. In
albinos this pigment is absent, and hence their
eyes have a pink appearance, which is due to
the unconcealed blood in the capillaries of the
choroid and iris. See ALBINO.

The ins may be regarded as a process of the
choroid, with which it is continuous, although
there are differences of structure in the two
membranes. It is a thin, flat, membranous cur-
tain, hanging vertically in the aqueous humor
in front of the lens and perforated by the pupil
for the transmission of light. It divides the
space between the cornea and the lens into an
anterior (the larger) and a posterior (the
smaller) chamber, these two chambers freely
communicating through the pupil. The outer
and larger border is attached all round to the
line of junction of the sclerotic and the cornea,
while the inner edge forms the boundary of the
pupil, which is nearly circular, and varies in
size according to the action of the muscular
fibres of the iris, so as to admit more or less
light into the interior of the eyeball, its di-
ameter varying, under these circumstances, from
about -J to A of an inch. It is muscular in
its structures one set of fibres being arranged
circularly round the pupil and, when necessary,
effecting its contraction -, while another set lies
in a radiating direction from within outward
and by its action dilates the pupil. These fibres
are of the unstriped and involuntary variety.
The nerves which are concerned in these move-
ments will be presently noticed.

The ciliary muscle is a thin band or ring of
nonstriated muscular fibres which lies between
the iris and the choroid. Its posterior attach-
ment is to the anterior margin of the choroid,
while anteriorly it is attached by an annular
ligament to the outer margin of the iris and to
the adjacent portions of the cornea and sclera.
By the contraction of this muscle the choroid is
drawn forward, the suspensory ligament of the
lens is relaxed, and accommodation of the eye is
effected. The varieties of 'color in the eyes of
different individuals, and of different kinds of
animals, depend mainly upon the color of the
pigment which is deposited in cells in the sub-
stance of the iris.

Within the choroid is the retina, which, al-
though continuous with the optic nerve — of
which it is usually regarded as a cuplike ex-
pansion— differs very materially from it in struc-
ture. Before noticing the elaborate microscopical

EYE

301

EYE

structure of this part of the eye, we shall briefly
mention those points regarding it which can he
established by ordinary examination. It is a
delicate semitransparent sheet of nervous mat-

DIAGBAM ILIjtrSTBATINQ THE MECHANISM OP ACCOMMODATION
OF THE BYE.

In B the lens is accommodated for near objects; in. A it
is accommodated for objects at a distance.

tor, lying immediately behind the vitreous hu-
mor, and extending from the optic nerve nearly
as far as the lens. On examining p the concave
inner surface of the retina at the 'back of the
eye, we observe, directly in a line with the axis
of the globe, a circular yellow spot called "mac-
ula lutea," and known, after its discoverer, as
"the yellow spot of Sommering," of about A
of an inch in diameter. The only mammals in
which it exists are man and the monkey. It is
the area of most distinct vision — a circumstance
which may partly be accounted for by the fact
that it is singularly free from blood vessels,
which curve round it and apparently avoid it.
The structure of the retina, as revealed by the
microscope, is remarkable. Although its greatest
thickness (at the entrance of the optic nerve)
is only about -fa of an inch, and as it extends
anteriorly it soon diminishes to ^ of an inch,
the following layers from without inward may
be distinguished in all parts of it: (1) the layer
of rods and cones, termed, from its discoverer,
the membrane of Jacob; (2) the external limit-
ing membrane; (3) the outer nuclear layer;
(4) the outer molecular layer; (5) the inner
nuclear layer; (6) the inner molecular layer;
(7) the layer of ganglion cells; (8) the layer
of nerve fibres; (9) the internal limiting mem-
brane.

It now remains to describe the transparent
media which occupy the interior of the globe,
and through which the rays of light must pass
before they can reach the retina and form on
it the images of external objects.

Immediately behind the transparent cornea is
the aqueous humor, which fills up the anterior
and posterior chambers which lie between, the
cornea, and the lens. As its name implies, it is
very nearly pure water, with a mere trace of
albumen and chloride of sodium. As no epithe-
lium exists in front of the iris, or on the an-
terior surface of the lens, it is most probably
secreted by the cells on the posterior surface of
the cornea.

The orystalUne lens lies opposite to and behind
the pupil, almost in contact with the iris, and
its posterior surface is received into a corre-
sponding depression in the vitreous humor. In
form, it is a double-convex lens, with surfaces of
unequal curvature, the posterior being the most
convex. It is inclosed in a transparent capsule,
of which the part covering the anterior surface
is nearly four times thicker than that at the
posterior aspect, in consequence, doubtless, of
greater strength being required in front, where
there is no support, than behind, where the lens
Is adherent to the vitreous membrane. The

microscopic examination of the substance or
body of the lens shows it to be composed of
extremely minute, elongated, ribbon-like struc-
tures, commonly called the fibres of the lens,
which are developed from cells. These fibres are
arranged side by side in lamellae, of which many
hundred exist in every lens, and which are so
placed as to give to the anterior and posterior
surfaces the appearance of a central star, with
meridian lines. The lens gradually increases in
density, and at the same time in refracting
power, towards the centre; by this means the
convergence of the central rays is increased, and
they are brought to the same focus as the rays
passing through the more circumferential por-
tions of the lens. (According to Brewster, the
refracting power at the surface is 1.3767, and at
the centre 1.3090.) The lens contains 58 per
cent of water, 36 of albumen, with minute
quantities of salts. In consequence of its pro-
teid constituent, it becomes hard and opaque
on boiling, as we familiarly see in the case of
the eyes of boiled fish. In the adult its long
diameter ranges from % to %, and its antero-
posterior diameter from % to % of an inch, and
it weighs three or four grains.

The vitreous humor lies in the concavity of the
retina and occupies about four-fifths of the eye
posteriorly. It is inclosed in the hyaloid mem-
brane, which sends numerous processes inward,
so as to divide the cavity into a series of com-
partments, and thus to equalize the pressure
exerted by the inclosed soft, gelatinous mass.
Between the anterior border of the retina and
the border of the lens we have a series of radiat-
ing folds, or plaitings, termed the ciliary proc-
esses of the vitreous lody, into which the
ciliary processes of the choroid dovetail. The
vitreous humor contains 98.4 per cent of water,
with a trace of albumen and salts, and hence, as
might be expected, its refractive index is almost
identical with that of water.

The appendages of the eye may now be de-
scribed. The most important of these are the
muscles toithin the orbit, the eyelids, the lachry-
mal apparatus, and the conjunctiva, to which
(although less important) we may add the eye-
brows.

The muscles by which the eye is moved are
four straight (or recti) muscles, and two oblique
(the superior and inferior). The former rise
from the margin of the optic foramen at the
apex of the orbit and are inserted into the
sclerotic near the cornea, above, below, and on
either side. The superior oblique arises with
the straight muscles, but, after running to the
upper edge of the orbit, has its direction changed
by a pulley and proceeds backward, outward, and
downward. The inferior oblique arises from the
lower part of the orbit and passes backward,
outward, and upward. The action of the straight
muscles is sufficiently obvious from their direc-
tion— when acting collectively they fix and re-
tract the eye, and when acting singly they turn
it towards their respective sides. The oblique
muscles antagonize the recti and draw the eye
forward; the superior, acting above, directs 'the
front of the eye downward and outward, and the
inferior upward and inward. By the duly as-
sociated action of these muscles, the eye is
enabled to move (within definite limits) in
every direction.

The eyelids are two thin, movable folds placed
in front of the eye to shield it from too strong
light and to protect its anterior surface. They

EYE

are composed (1) of skin; (2) of a thin plate of
fibrocartilage, termed the tarsal cartilage, the
inner surface of which is grooved by 30 or 40
parallel vertical lines, in which the Meibomian
glands are embedded; and (3) of a layer of
mueous membrane, continuous, as we shall
presently see, with that which lines the nostrils
and which joins the skin at the margin of the
lids, in which the eyelashes (cilia) are arranged
iu two or more rows. The upper lid is much
the larger, and to the posterior border of its
cartilage a special muscle is attached, termed
the lecator palpebrce superioris, whose object is
to elevate the lid and thus open the eye; while
there is another muscle, the orbicular is palpe-
Irarum, which surrounds the orbit and eyelids
and by its contraction closes the eye. The
Meibomian glands secrete a sebaceous matter,
which facilitates the free motion of the lids and
prevents their adhesion. The eyelashes inter-
cept the entrance of foreign particles directed
against the eye and assist in shading that organ
from an excess of light.

The lachrymal apparatus consists of the lach-
rymal gland, by which the tears are secreted;
two canals, into which the tears are received
near the inner angle of the eye; the sac, into
which these canals open; and the duct, through
which the tears pass from the sac into the nose.
The gland is an oblong body, about the size of a
small almond, lying in a depression in the upper
and outer part of the orbit. The fluid secreted
by it reaches the surface of the eye by seven or
eight ducts, which open on the conjunctiva at its
upper and outer part. The constant motion of
the upper eyelid induces a continuous gentle
current of tears over the surface, which carry
away any foreign particles that may have been
deposited on it. The fluid then passes through
two small openings (termed the puncta lachry-
malm) into the canals; whence its further
course into the lower portion of the nose is
through the lachrymal duct. The conjunctiva
(or mucous coat), which covers the front of the
eyeball and lines the inner surface of the lids,
passes down and lines the canals, sac, and duct,
and is thus seen to be continuous with the nasal
mucous membrane, of which it may be regarded
as an offshoot or digital prolongation. See
Mucous MEMBRANES.

We shall conclude this sketch of the anatomy
of the human eye with a brief mention of the
•nerves going to this organ and its appendages.
Into each orbit there enters a nerve of special
sense, viz., the optic nerve; a nerve of ordinary
sensation, viz,, the ophthalmic branch of the
fifth nerve; and certain nerves of motion going
to the muscular tissues and regulating the move-
ments of the various parts, viz., the third,
fourth, and sixth nerves. As the optic tracts
from which the optic nerves originate are noticed
in the article NEBVOUS SYSTEM, we shall merely
trace these nerves from their ohiasma, or com-
missure, forward. This commissure results from
the junction of the optic tracts of the two sides,
and it is especially remarkable for the fact that
it presents a partial decussation of the nervous
fibres, the central fibres of each tract passing
into the nerve of the opposite side, and crossing
the corresponding fibres of the other tract; while
the outermost fibres, which are much fewer in
number than the central ones, pass to the optic
nerve of the same side. In front of the com-
missure the nerves enter the optic foramen at
the apex of the orbit, receive a. sheath or in-

302

EYE

vestment from the dura mater, acquire increased
firmness, and finally terminate in the retina.
The peculiar mode of termination of the optic
nerves in the cuplike expansion of the retina,
the impairment or loss of vision which follows
any morbid affection of them, and the constant
relation in size which is observed in comparative
anatomy between them and the organs of vision,
afford sufficient evidence that they are the proper
conductors of visual impressions to the sen-
Korium.

The first or ophthalmic division of the tri-
facial nerve sends branches to the skin of the
eyelids and to the conjunctiva. It is the nerve
of ordinary sensation of the eye. The most im-
portant of the nerves of motion of the eye is the
third nerve, or motor oculi. It supplies with
motor power the elevator of the upper eyelid
and all the muscles of the globe, except the
superior oblique and the external rectus muscle,
and, in addition to this, it sends filaments to the
iris and other muscular fibres within the eye.
Irritation of its trunk induces convulsive con-
traction of the principal muscles of the ball and
of the iris; while division of the trunk occa-
sions an external squint, with paralysis of the
upper eyelid and fixed dilatation of the pupil.
The squint is caused by the action of the ex-
ternal straight and the superior oblique muscles,
while the other muscles are paralyzed by the
operation. The normal motor action of the
nerve upon the iris in causing contraction of the
pupil is excited through the optic nerve and
affords a good illustration of reflea action, the
stimulus of light falling upon the retina and,
through it, exciting that portion of the brain
from which the third nerve takes its origin.
This nerve exerts a double influence in relation
to vision: (1) it mainly controls the move-
ments of the eyeball and the upper eyelid; and
(2) from its connection with the muscular
structures in the interior it regulates the amount
of light that can enter the pupil and probably
takes part in the adjusting power of the eye
to various distances.

The fourth nerve supplies the superior oblique
muscle, the sixth nerve regulates the movements
of the external rectus — the only two muscles in
the orbit which are not supplied by the third
pair. The facial nerve sends a motor branch
to the orbicularis muscle, by which the eye is
closed.

Physiology. A general knowledge of the
ordinary laws of geometrical optics (see LIGHT;
LENS; ETC.) is assumed. If a luminous object
— as, e.g., a lighted candle — be placed at about
the ordinary distance of distinct vision (about
10 inches) from the front of the eye, some rays
fall on the sclerotic and, being reflected, take
no part in vision. The more central ones fall
upon the cornea, and of these some also are
reflected, giving to the surface of the eye its
characteristic glistening appearance; while
others pass through it, are converged by it, and
enter the aqueous humor, which probably exerts
no perceptible effect on their direction. Those
which fall on and pass through the outer part
of the cornea are stopped by the iris, and are
either reflected or absorbed; while those which
fall upon its more central part pass through
the pupil and are concerned in vision. In con-
sequence of its refractive power the rays pass-
ing through a comparatively large surface of the
cornea are converged so as to pass through the
relatively small pupil and impinge upon the

EYE 3<

lend, which, by the convexity of its surface and
by its greater density towards the centre, in-
creases the convergence of the rays passing
through it. They then traverse the vitreous
humor, whose principal use appears to be to
afford support to the retina, and are brought
to a focus upon that tunic, forming there an
inverted image of the object.

This inversion of the image may be easily ex-
hibited in the eye of a white rabbit or other
albino, after removing the muscles, etc., from
the back part of the globe. The flame of a can-
dle held before the cornea may be seen inverted
at the back of the eye, increasing in size as the
candle is brought near, diminishing as it re-
tires, and always moving in a direction opposite
to that of the flame.

The adaptation of the eye to distinct vision at
every distance beyond that of a few inches is
brought about by a process known as accommo-
dation. The essential factor in the process is
the contraction of the ciliary muscle, which, as
previously noted, allows the suspensory liga-
ment of the lens to relax, with a resultant bulge
of its anterior surface and a decrease in its
focal length. According to Helmholtz, the radius
of curvature of the anterior surface of the lens
diminishes on turning the eye to a near object
from 10 to 6 millimeters (from about 0.4 to 0.24
of an inch), while the most projecting point of
the same surface is brought forward about 0.2
of an inch. According to the observations of
Hueck, the focal distance may be changed about
three times in a second. The accommodation
from a near to a distant object is effected much
more rapidly than the converse process.

There are two forms of defective vision in
which this power of adaptation is very much
limited — viz., shortsightedness, or myopia, and
longsightedness, or hypermetropia. The limita-
tion, however, is not due to a defect in the
muscular apparatus to which we have referred,
but to an abnormality either in the curves of
the refracting media or to congenital or acquired
changes in the anteroposterior diameter of the
eyeball. In shortsightedness from too great a
refractive power from either cause, the rays
from objects at the ordinary range of distinct
vision are brought too soon to a focus, so as to
cross one another, and begin to diverge before
they fall on the retina, the eye in this case
being able to bring to the proper focus on the
retina only those rays which were previously
diverging at a large angle from a very near
object. The correction for this deficiency is
accomplished by interposing between the eye
and indistinctly seen objects a concave lens,
with a curvature just sufficient to throw the
images of external objects at the ordinary dis-
tance of distinct vision backward upon the
retina. In farsightedness, on the other hand,
there is an abnormal diminution of the refrac-
tive power from too flat a cornea, a deficient
aqueous humor, or a flattening of the lens, so
that the focus is behind the retina. This defect
is corrected by convex lenses, which increase the
convergence of the* rays of light. Presbyopia,
as its name indicates, usually comes on at a
comparatively advanced period of life and is
due to senile changes affecting the elasticity of
the lens and its attachments.

We have already noted the most essential use
of the iris — viz., its power, under the influence
of light upon the retina, of modifying the size
of the pupil so as to regulate the amount of

light entering the eye. But this is not its only
use, one of its offices being to prevent the pas-
sage of rays through the circumferential part
of the lens, and thus to obviate the indistinctness
of vision which would arise from spherical aber-
ration (the unequal refraction of the rays pass-
ing through the centre and near the margin of
the lens) , in the same manner as the diaphragms
employed by the optician. But there are two
other means by which this spherical aberration
is prevented, which admirably illustrate the
marvelous mechanism of the eye. They are
described by Wharton Jones as follows:

1. "The surfaces of the dioptric parts of the
eye are not spherical, but those of the cornea
and posterior surface of the lens are hyperboli-
cal, and that of the anterior surface of the lens
elliptical — configurations found by theory fitted
to prevent spherical aberration. This discoverv
was made at a time when it was not known but
that the dioptric parts of the eye had spherical
surfaces.

2. "The density of the lens diminishing from
the centre to its periphery, the circumferential
rays are less refracted than they would have
been by a homogeneous lens with similar sur-
faces."

Chromatic aberration, which is caused by the
unequal refrangibility of the primitive rays of
which white light is composed, when transmitted
through an ordinary lens, whereby colored
fringes are produced, is practically coVrected in
the eye, although it is doubtful whether it is
entirely absent. The provision, however, on
which the achromatism depends has not been
determined with certainty, probably because we
do not yet know the relative refractive and dis-
persive powers of the cornea and humors of the
eye. Sir David Brewster denies that the chro-
matic aberration receives any correction in the
eye and maintains that it is imperceptible only
in consequence of its being extremely slight.
See also VISION.

EYE. A loop, ring, or hole through a sub-
stance; also direction, as in the toind's eye.
The extreme forward part of a ship is called the
eyes of the ship. Chinese junks and other native
craft have blocks of wood shaped and painted
to resemble human eyes placed on each side of
the bow, and the hawse holes of ships of Europe
and America are sometimes compared to eyes
and may at one time have been so called. The
eyes of the rigging are loops formed in the
shrouds or stays for fitting around the mast-
heads. A deadeye is a block of hard wood (usu-
ally lignum vitse) pierced with several holes.
Two deadeyes are made to form a sort of tackle
by reeving 'a rope through them; in rigged ships
of old type the lower ends of shrouds and stays
were secured to such tackles, which were kept
in place permanently. An eyebolt is a bolt that
has a projecting end formed in the shape of a
ring for the purpose of hooking a tackle or at-
taching a rope. Eyelets, or eyelet holes, are
small circular holes in sails, awnings, etc.,
through which pass small ropes. An eye-splice
is an eye formed at the end of a rope by sepa-
rating the strands at the end and sticking them
between the strands in a special manner at the
proper place.

EYE, COMPABATIVE ANATOMY OF THE. How
far down in the scale it is necessary to go to find
animals which have no eyes depends upon
whether we mean by "eye" an organ capable of
forming optical images, or simply an organ

EYE

304

EYE

capable of responding to the stimulus of light.
If the latter is really an eye, then we are justi-
fied in saying that all the large groups of ani-
mals higher than sponges have eyes, though
many families and even some orders may lack
them. Among coelenterates, simple light-detect-
ing organs, known as pigment spots, or "pig-
ment eyes/3 and consisting of groups of pigment
cells associated with sensory cells, occur in many
medusse and in ctenophores. In some cases the
cuticle over these spots is specially thickened
to form a sort of lens. Similar pigment eyes
uc'cur among the flatworms (Platoda), and in
some cases they are somewhat more complicated
by the addition of so-called retinal cells with
rodlike processes. It is very doubtful, however,
whether these eves are really anything more
than light-detecting organs. Pigment eyes very
similar to these, though often somewhat more
complicated, occur in many worms, crustaceans,
insects, and mollusks, and in a few echinoderms.
The eyes of tunicates and of Amplvioants are not
of any higher degree of organization. In crus-
taceans the pigment eye is known as the "un-
paired" eye and is apparently made up of three
simple eyes fused together. In insects the pig-
ment eyes are called kfocelli," and these also
occur in spiders and scorpions. Pigment eyes
are of service to their possessors in enabling
them to distinguish between light and shade and
in detecting different degrees of light. Thus,
shadows cast by an approaching enemy would
be noticed, and, in aquatic animals, approach
to the surface would be quickly indicated.

Turning now to those organs which unques-
tionably form some sort of image, we find
there are two very distinct kinds — '"simple" and
"'compound" eyes. Simple eyes correspond in
structure to a greater or less degree with the
eye of man, while compound eyes are of a totally
different kind. The latter are found only among
arthropods, where they reach a high degree of
development, the so-called compound eyes of
some mollusks and sea urchins being really much
less complex. In arthropods the optic nerve
bears two noticeable swellings — the optic gan-
glion, really a part of the brain, and the retinal
ganglion, from which radiate the nerve fibres,
entering the retinal cells. The retinal cells are
grouped in clusters of four to seven, known as
"retinulas," which are more or less heavily pig-
mcnted distally. Each retinula is the basal
part of a single eye, the upper portion of which
consists of a crystal cone (wanting in the eyes
of many insects) and of nyjjodermal elements
covered'with the chitinous cuticle developed as a
cornea. These single eyes are crowded together,
though separated from each other by pigment
cells, on a strongly convex basal membrane, thus
forming a more or less convex compound eye.
Rays of light falling on. the eye are absorbed
without giving rise to a visual stimulus, except
such as are directly parallel to the long axis of
the single eyes. Each of these eyes therefore
forms an image of that which lies directly be-
fore it, and the whole compound eye thus forms
a mosaic, probably with sharp outlines, but
wholly lacking perspective.

Imag^-Pormingp Eyes. Such are first found
in the animal kingdom in the group of Cubo-
mcdusse, where, especially in the genus Charyb-
dea, each individual possesses several quite
complex eyes provided with lens, vitreous body,
and retina. Many worms have very well-formed
and often large eyes. It is among mollusks

that we find the best-developed eyes among in-
vertebrates. The eyes of dibranchiate cephalo-
pods, as the squid, 'have a very complex struc-
ture, all of the parts essential to good sight in
man's eye being present. There is, however, one
very important difference between the ccphalopod
and the vertebrate eye, and that is that in the
former the retinal-cell rods lie inside the limit-
ing membrane and are thus turned towards the
light, while in vertebrates these visual rods are
turned away from the light. In some mollusks,
with much simpler eyes, the retinal-cell rods are
turned away from the light, as in vertebrates.

Eye in Vertebrates. Passing now to the con-
sideration of the vertebrate eye, we find that the
structure is in all cases essentially similar to
that of the human eye, though many cases of
degenerate eyes are known, associated with some
peculiarities of habit, as, in the hagfish, with a
parasitic mode of life; or, as in the cave sala-
manders and fishes, with living in the dark.
(See CAVE ANIMALS.) In fishes the eyes have
little power of movement* the cornea is very flat,
and the lens is globular; the eyes are thus ac-
commodated, when at rest, for seeing near
objects. The sclerotic is frequently calcified or
ossified, and there is no ciliary muscle. In
amphibians the eyes are somewhat simpler than
in fishes, but the ciliary muscle is present as in
all higher vertebrates. In both fishes and am-
phibians we find examples of angular pupils.
In reptiles the eye shows slight advance in
structure, in respect to some special peculiari-
ties; thus, in lizards there is a ring of bony
sclerotic plates and a curious structure, the
"pecten" (also present in snakes, crocodilians,
and especially in birds), the function of which
is in dispute, some saying it is concerned solely
with the nutrition of the eye, others that it
aids in accommodation. In birds the eyeball is
not nearly spherical (as in other vertebrates),
but is elongated so that it is much deeper than
high. This is most marked in owls. In mam-
mals the sclerotic is entirely fibrous, the exter-
nal surface of the lens is less convex than the
internal, and there is no pecten. The pupil is
variously shaped. In aquatic mammals the
cornea is flattened as in fishes.

Bibliography. Lang, Teat-Book of Compara-
tive Anatomy (New York, 1896) ; Wiedersheim,
Vergleichende Anatomie der 'WirbeltMere (Jena,
1902), contains a bibliography; Carriere, Die
Sehorgane der TJiiere (Munich, 1885); Gegen-
baur, VergleicJiende Anatomie der Wirbelthiere
(Leipzig, 1898).

EYE, DISEASES OF THE. The diseases of the
eye are very numerous, owing to the variety of
the tissues and parts of which the eye is formed.
Nearly all its parts are liable to inflamma-
tion and its consequences. (See OPHTHALMIA;
RETINITIS.) The eyelids are liable to various
diseases, morbid growths, most of which the
surgeon may remove, and inflammation (see
BLEPHARITIS; STYE); they may be misdirected
inward or outward, entropion and ectropion
(qq.v.); and the upper eyelid may droop
(ptosis) from paralysis of the motor oculi nerve,
increased weight of the lid, or atrophy or loss
of the eyeball. The eyelashes may grow in upon
the eye (tricMasis, q.v.) and produce serious
results. The duct whose function is to convey
the tears to the nose is liable to inflammation
and obstruction. (See LACHRYMAL OBGANS.)
The cornea is liable to ulceration and opacity
in various degrees. (See COBNEA.) Collections

EYE

305

EYLATT

of pus (fiypopyon) are found in the anterior
chamber, as the result of corneal ulceration and
iritis. (For inflammation of the mucous mem-
brane covering the eyeball and eyelids, see CON-
JUNCTIVITIS.) The pupil may be closed as the
result of iritis (q.v.) or of operations for
cataract. (For opacities of the crystalline lens,
see CATARACT. For an account of inflammation
of the optic nerve, see OPTIC NEURITIS.) An
important disease of the eye is glaucoma (q.v.).
Various affections of vision may arise from
peculiar or altered conditions of refraction,
changes in the nerves, or in the action of the
muscles moving the eyeball. (See SIGHT, DE-
FECTS OF.) The parts between the eye and its
bony orbit may be the seat of inflammation,
abscess, or tumor, making the eye protrude.
The movements of the eyeballs may be affected
from paralysis of the motor nerves, or from eon-
traction or weakness of the muscles, causing
squinting. (See STBABISMUS.) The eye may
become insensible from paralysis of the fifth
pair of nerves. Substances thrown against the
eye may injure it. If a caustic alkaline sub-
stance has entered the eye, weak vinegar or
milk is the best thing to introduce until the
physician arrives. If oil of vitriol (sulphuric
acid) has been the cause of the injury, a weak
solution of soda may be used in the first place
to neutralize the acid. In gunpowder explo-
sions near the eye, besides the burn, the par-
ticles are driven into the surface of it and will
cause permanent bluish stains over the white
of the eye unless they are carefully removed
at the time. When chips of glass, stone, etc.,
are driven into the interior of the eye, there
is great danger of destructive inflammation,
and sympathetic ophthalmia. (See OPHTHAL-
MIA.) Commonly foreign bodies, as dust, sand,
seeds, flies, etc., enter the space between the
eyeball and the lids, almost always concealed
under the upper, as it is the larger and sweeps
the eye. They cause great pain, from the firm-
ness and sensitiveness of the papillary surface
of the lid, soon excite inflammation, and their
presence is apt to be overlooked. The lid must
be turned over to find them. To do this, pull
the edge of the lid forward by the eyelashes and
at the same time press down the back part of the
lid with the tip of the left forefinger or with a
small pencil or key. The lid will readily turn
over, when the body may be seen and removed
with a corner of a handkerchief. In other cases
a solution of cocaine must be instilled and a
needle used to dislodge the particle. After re-
moval irritation may persist for some time."
Particles of steel penetrating the interior of the
eyeball may be removed by means of a powerful
magnet, often with comparatively little damage
to sight. Consult May, Manual of Diseases of
the Eye (New York, 1909), and Weeks, Diseases
of the Eye (Philadelphia, 1912).

EYE, I'e, AUGUST VON (1825-96). A Ger-
man art historian, born at Ftirstenau, Hanover.
He was educated at Gtfttingen and Berlin, and
in 1853 was appointed superintendent of the
department of art and antiquities in the Ger-
manic Museum, Nuremberg; in 1875 became pro-
fessor in the School of Decorative Arts, Dres-
den; and in 1879 he emigrated to Brazil, return-
ing after a few years to settle at Nordhausen.
He wrote valuable works on ancient and modern
art and on philosophical subjects. The best
known of his works is his Le'ben imd Werke
AXbrecht Durers (NSrdlingen, 1860; 2d ed.,

1869). He also edited a number of illustrated
works treating the history of art and culture,
including . Kunst und Leben dcr Vorzeit ( Nurem-
berg, IS 68); Gallerie der It eistertcerkc alt-
deut&cher UolxsclmeideLunst (ib., 1858-61),
written in collaboration with Jacob Falke;
Deutschland vor 300 Jahren in Leben und Kunst
(Leipzig, 1857) ; Die ncue Weltauscliaming (ib.,
1891) ; Allrecht Durers Leben und kunstlerische
Tatigkeit (Wandsbeck, 1892). His principal
philosophical work is Das Reich des Schonen
(Berlin, 1878).

EYE OF GREECE. An ancient epithet of
Athens.

EYEPIECE', or OCULAB. The lens or lenses
by means of which the image of the object
formed at the focus of a telescope or microscope
is observed. See TELESCOPE; MICBOSCOPE.

There are two forms of eyepieces in general
use, each of which possesses advantages for cer-
tain classes of work. In the Ramsden eyepiece
there are two planoconvex lenses of equal focus
placed with their curved sides towards each
other. As the image is formed beyond the
lenses, this eyepiece can be used in micrometer
microscopes. ( See MICBOMETEBS. ) In the Huy-
genian eyepiece there are two planoconvex
lenses, the lower of which has a focal length
several times greater than that of the upper.
The curved face of the upper lens faces towards
the plane face of the lower, and the image is
formed between the two. Consult Carpenter,
The Microscope (8th ed., Philadelphia, 1901).

EYEBMAN, t'Sr-man, JOHN (1867- ).
An American geologist and genealogical writer.
He was born at Easton, Pa., of Pennsylvania
Dutch ancestry, was educated at Lafayette Col-
lege, and continued his studies at Harvard and
Princeton universities. He was a lecturer on
determinative mineralogy at Lafayette College,
and in 1890 became associate editor of the
American Geologist. His publications include:
The Mineralogy of Pennsylvania (1891) ; A.
Course in Determinative Mineralogy (1892);
The Old Graveyards of Northampton (2 vols.,
1899-1901); Some Letters and Documents (2
vols., 1900); Genealogical Studies (1902).

EYE STRAIN. A term for the result of
using the eyes under improper conditions; an
important cause of waste of nerve force, fre-
quently the reason for neurasthenia, headache,
chorea, hysteria, convulsions, and dementia. It
may be occasioned by the need of glasses or by
the use of improper glasses, but is often pro-
duced by lack of balance of tLe ocular muscles.
Proper glasses or ocular tenotomy constitute the
remedy.

EYETEETH, also called CANINE or CUSPI-
DATE TEETH. The two teeth in the upper ja\?
next to the premolars, one on each side, the fangs
of which extend far upward in the direction of
the eye. See TEETH,

EYLATT, Ilou, or PRETTSSISCH-EYLATT,
proi'slsh-llou. A town of some 3000 inhabitants,
situated on the Pasmar, about 24 miles south of
KOnigsberg, Prussia. It is noted as the scene
of a sanguinary battle between the French under
Napoleon and a combined force of Russians and
Prussians under Bennigsen and Lestocq, Feb.
7-8, 1807, which took place during the war with
Prussia which marked the close of the struggle
of Napoleon with tht Third Coalition (1805-
07). On the night of February 7 the French
army came in touch with the rear guard of the
Russians at Eylau. After a murderous fight,

EYLATJ

306

EYBA

during which the Russian position was thrice
taken and lost, Soult succeeded in driving the
enemy from the town. The following morning
found the two armies drawn up at close range.
Soult held the left wing of the French army;
in the centre was the corps of Augereau; on
the right flank was the division of Saint-Hilaire.
Behind Augereau was Murat with his cavalry.
On the extreme left and some 10 miles in ad-
vance of the main battle line was the corps of
Ney, engaged in hot pursuit of 8000 Prussians
under Lestocq. On the extreme right and also
in advance was the corps of Davout. It was
Napoleon's intention to throw Davout'a forces
against the extreme left flank of the Russians
and hy pressing it back upon the centre to send
the entire hostile army flying in confusion to-
wards Konigsberg, where they would be inter-
cepted by Ney. The plan miscarried, however,
for Davout, delayed by a blinding snowstorm,
did not deliver his attack before 1 o'clock in the
afternoon. The battle began early in the morn-
ing with a furious cannonade, lasting several
hours. Augereau's corps was then aent against
the Russian centre, but was met with a terrific
cannon fire and was almost annihilated. For a
time the centre of the French army was threat-
ened, and, to save the day, Murat's cavalry was
hurled against the advancing forces of the
Russians. They drove back the Russian cavalry,
broke through the first two lines of infantry,
bxit recoiled before the third, and could only
regain their position by cutting their way
through the lines of the enemy which had formed
again behind them. Davout finally struck the
enemy's left and succeeded in driving them from
their position, and it seemed as if in spite of
delay Napoleon's plan would be carried out after
all. * But at three o'clock in the afternoon Les-
tocq, who had succeeded in escaping from Ney,
arrived on the battlefield with 5500 men and,
passing in the rear of the entire Russian army,
assailed Davout with his fresh troops. Davout's
forces were slowly pushed back from the most
advanced of the positions they had captured, but
both sides were soon too exhausted to do more
than hold each other in check. Late at night
Ney arrived on the field, too late to bring vic-
tory to the French, but still in time to prevent
a defeat which might have resulted from a
concerted move on the part of the Russians.
The numbers engaged were about 70,000 on
either side. The losses were 18,000 for the
Russians and Prussians and somewhat more for
the French. Against the advice of his lieu-
tenants, Bennigsen retreated during the night,
leaving the French masters of the field. Direct
results the battle had none, and Eylau has

?assed into history as a huge, profitless carnage,
ndirectly, however, it strengthened the enemies
of Napoleon by breaking the charm of his seem-
ing invincibility. Napoleon had failed for the
first time in a pitched battle, and his diplomatic
standing, suffered in consequence. A few days
after the battle he started negotiations for
peace with Frederick William. He was willing
to surrender claim to all Prussian territory east
of the Elbe and not to ask Prussia to holp him
in war with Russia. Prussia, through Harden-
bergh, refused these terms. Napoleon then pro-
posed an armistice for joint negotiations, a move
which indicated his critical position. Consult:
Oneken, Das Leitalter der Revolution, des
KaiserreicJis und der Befreiungakriege (2 vols.,
Berlin, 1884-87)5 Von Senachtmeyer, Die

Schlacht bei preussisch Eylau (ib., 1857);
Duncker, AbhancJlungen aus der neueren tie*
schivhte (Leipzig, 1887); M. Dumas, Prtoia des
tenements militaires de 1199 a 1814 ( 19 vols.,
Paris, 1810-26).

EYLAYET. See VILAYET.

EYMEB/ICTTS, NICOLAS (1320-99). A Span-
ish theologian. He was born at Gerona, Cata-
lonia, and entered the Dominican Order in 1334,
rising to the rank of Grand Inquisitor, chap-
lain of Pope Gregory XI, and judge of heretics,
in 1356. He lived 'successively in Aragon and
Avignon, where he enjoyed the fullest confidence
of Clement VI and his successor, Benedict XIII.
He was considered the greatest canonist of his
time and wrote the famous Directorium Inquiai-
toruni (1503), which laid down the regulative
maxims for inquisitors. Although very harsh,
it was not enough so for Torquemada, who pro-
mulgated in 1484 a new code of procedure.

EYNARD, a'nar', JEAN GABBIEL (1775-1803).
A French banker, interested in the cause of
Greek independence. He was born at Lyons,
took part in the Lyons rising against the Con-
vention, lived in Switzerland and then in Genoa,
where he grew rich, and settled at Geneva in
1810. He was the Ambassador of the Republic
of Geneva to the Congress of Vienna and in
1816 was appointed to assist in organizing the
administration of Tuscany. He was the dele-
gate of Tuscany at the Congress of Aix-la-
Chapclle in 1818. In 1821 he became one of the
foremost advocates of Greek independence and
for his services was naturalized as a Greek citi-
zen. He did not succeed in negotiating a loan
for the revolutionary government in Paris and
London, but personally contributed 700,000
francs. After conducting a sort of crusade
throughout western Europe in behalf of the
Greeks, he was instrumental in securing the
throne of Greece for Otho of Bavaria. His for-
tune of 60,000,000 francs was bequeathed largely
to charitable enterprises. He wrote Lettres et
documents officiels relatifs aux divers tene-
ments de Q-rtce (1831) and Vie de la baronne
Kriidencr (1849). Consult Rothpletz, Der Gen-
fer Jean Gabriel JSynard als Philhellene (Zurich,
1900).

EYRA, a'r& (South American name). A re-
markable cat (Felia eyra) of eastern South
America, Central America, and Mexico. It is
about the size of the domestic cat, but its legs
are much shorter, and its body, neck, and head
so slender and elongated as to present a striking
similarity in form to a civet, increased by the
extraordinary length and thickness of its tail.
The pupil of the eye is round, the ears rounded,
and the muzzle compressed. The fur is soft, of
a uniform reddish-yellow or chestnut color, with
a whitish spot on each side of the upper lip and
on the chin. It is most common in Brazil and
Paraguay, but is known as far north as the
borders of the United States. This is the cat to
which the name represented by our word "cou-
gar" (see COXTGAB) was first applied; and it is
known in Mexico as "apache." It seems easily
capable of domestication, since the few speci-
mens kept in zoological gardens have quickly be-
come gentle and playful and sometimes have
been at liberty about the buildings; and it is
therefore sometimes adopted into the homes of
the South Americans, but is likely to be mis-
chievous to poultry. Eyras are expert hunters
for small mammals and birds. Consult Azara,
ffistoria Natural de lott Pdjaros del Paragtiay,

EYRE

307

EYBE

etc. (Madrid, 1805), and Alston, "Mammals," in
Biologia Cent rah- Americana (London, 1879).
See Plate of WILD CATS with CAT.

EYRE, ar. A large salt lake in the north-
eastern part of the State of South Australia.
It is the centre of the Salt Lake River system,
the rivers belonging to which either rise in the
southern and western slopes of the Great Divid-
ing Kange, or in the central group of the Mc-
Donnell ranges. They discharge into Lake Eyre
through many devious .channels so connected as
to form a perfect network of interlacing water-
courses. The lake (which receives most of the
rivers of Central Australia) is 80 miles long
by 40 wide, and its surface, below sea level,
oscillates considerably between the wet season,
when the rivers are bank-full, and the dry
season, when much of the area is an arid desert.

EYRE, &r (Scottish variants also air, aire,
from AF. eire, OF. erre, owe, journey, from
Lat. iter, road), or EntE, JUSTICES IN (corrup-
tion of Lat. in itinere). Itinerant, or, as we
should say, circuit judges. By this term, both
in England and Scotland, the judges of assize
(q.v.) were formerly designated. Justices in
eyre were first regularly established in England
by Henry II, in the sixteenth year of his reign
(1170). The inconveniences and the denials of
justice resulting from the infrequency and ir-
regularity of the royal progresses, at which
justice was dispensed by the Curia Regis,
throughout the kingdom, called for the institu-
tion of a different system. Accordingly, Henry
appointed 12 justices to perambulate all the
counties of England regidarly and to hear the
complaints of his subjects. The number of
these itinerant judges was in 1176 increased to
18, and at the Grand Council at Windsor in
1170, to 21. The subsequent rapid development
of the regular common-law courts, which re-
sulted from the division of the Curia Regis and
the institution of circuits regularly held by
these, gradually threw the courts of the justices
in eyre into the shade. They came to be re-
garded as of inferior position and authority and
in 1335 ceased to be appointed. Thereafter the
expression had no precise meaning in England,
but was sometimes loosely employed to describe
the judges of the King's Bench, Common Pleas,
and Exchequer, when on circuit.

In Scotland the chief justiciar, says Erskine,
i, 3, s. 25, was originally bound to hold yearly
two justice courts or "aires" at Edinburgh and
Peebles. This court gradually became fixed at
Edinburgh. Besides this court, special "justice
aires" were frequently held in the more remote
parts of the country by the King in person, or
by judges named by him, twice in the year— in
spring and autumn (Stat. Rob. Ill, 1400, c. 30).
These courts wore discontinued, but revived by
Statute of 1587, c. 81. The term is still in use
in Scotland, where at the commencement of
every circuit, proclamation is made to the lieges
to attend the "circuit aire." See CIRCUIT;
CTJBIA REGIS: COUBT, and the authorities there
referred to.

EYRE, ar, EDWAED JOHN (1815-1901). An
English explorer and colonial governor. He was
born in Yorkshire, England, but at 17 emigrated
to Australia, where he soon became a magis-
trate and in 1845 published Discoveries in Cen-
tral Australia. For his achievements he was
honored by the Royal Geographical Society and
received the appointment of Lieutenant Governor
of ST«w Belaud to 1846 and of Si Vincent in

1854. In 1864, after being acting Governor, he
was made actual Governor of Jamaica, where in
1865 he used vigorous measures to suppress a
negro insurrection. For the execution by court-
martial of Gordon, who was thought to be one
of the leaders, Eyre was censured and recalled
on the ground that he had acted without suffi-
cient evidence. On his return he was prose-
cuted for murder by a committee, of which John
Stuart Mill was the most prominent member;
but the charge was eventually dismissed, partly
on the ground that the Jamaica Act of 186(5
(which indemnified Eyre for his acts during the
rising) protected him from civil suit or criminal
prosecution. Ruskin, Tennyson, Thomas Car-
lyle, and Charles Kingsley were ardent defenders
of Eyre, who retired from public service in 1874.
Consult Hume's Life of Edward John Eyre
(London, 1867).

EYRE, SIB JAMES (1734-99). An English
judge, the son of Rev. Thomas Eyre, prebendary
of Salisbury. He was born at Wells, Somerset-
shire, in 1734; became a scholar of Winchester
in 1747, and a student of St. John's College,
Oxford, in 1749. At the age of 19, without
waiting to take his degree, he went to London
and commenced to study law, being called to
the bar in 1755. A few years later he became
counsel to the Corporation of London, and in
1763 was made recorder. In the same year he
gained a great reputation through the skill and
eloquence with which he conducted the famous
suit of Wilkes v. Wood, in which he successfully
attacked the unconstitutional practice of the
government in issuing general search warrants.
(State Trials, xix. 1154.)

Eyre was knighted and made Baron of the
Exchequer in 1772, became Chief Baron in 1787,
and in 1793 was appointed Chief Justice of the
Court of Common Pleas. In the latter capacity
he presided at the famous state trials of Hardy,
Home Tooke, and others, for treasonable con-
spiracy, which resulted in the acquittal of the
prisoners. For a short time, between the resig-
nation of Lord Chancellor Thurlow, on June
15, 1792, and the accession of Lord Lough-
borough to the chancellorship on Jan. 21, 1793,
Chief Justice Eyre held the highest judicial posi-
tion in England, as Chief Commissioner of the
Great Seal. As a lawyer and as judge he dis-
played the highest legal and judicial qualities.
Though not profoundly learned, he was well
versed in the common law, and his patience,,
tact, and ingenuity, combined with an extraor-
dinary power of sifting evidence and a lumi-
nous style, made him one of the ornaments of
the English bench. He died July 1, 1799.
Consult Howell's State Trials, xix, 1154-55;
xxiv, 199; xxv, 2, 748 (London, 1809-26), and
FOBS, Lives of the Judges of England (1848-64).

EYRE, JANE. See JANE EYRE.

EYRE, Sn& ROBEBT (1666-1735). An English
judge, son of Sir Samuel Eyre, of Newhouse,
Wiltshire, who was himself a judge of the King's
Bench. Robert was born in 1666, entered Lin-
coln's Inn in 1683, and was admitted to the bar
in 1689. Seven years later he became recorder
of Salisbury, and from 1698 to 1710 represented
that borough in Parliament. In 1707 he be-
came Queen's counsel and the next year was
appointed Solicitor-General. In that capacity
it fell to his lot to conduct the celebrated
Sacheverell case. He was knighted and made a
justice of the Queen's Bench in 1710. He be-
came Chief Baron of the Court of Exchequer

EYEE

308

in 1723 and Chief Justice of the Common Pleas
in 1725. Having been accused of official miscon-
duct in connection with a case of malfeasance
tried before him, his conduct was investigated
by a committee of the House of Commons,
which completely exonerated him. He was the
intimate friend and associate of the great men
of his time, and wielded considerable influence
at court, but he never attained to the first rank
among English judges. He died in 1735. Con-
sult: Howell's State Trials, xv, xvii (London,
1809-26) ; Burnet, History of his own Time
(ill., 1723-34) ; Foss, Lives of the Judges of
England (ib., 1848-64).

EYRE, WILSON (1858- ). An American
architect, born in Florence, Italy. He was edu-
cated in Italy until 1869, then at Newport,
E.. T., for three years, at Lenoxville, Canada, for
two years, and finally he graduated from the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1876.
After spending five years with James P. Sims,
architect, he was in independent practice from
1881 to 1012 and then became the partner
(senior) of John Gilbert Mcllvaine. He planned
buildings for the Newcomb Memorial College,
Now Orleans, and the Detroit Club, Detroit,
Mich. ; many structures in Philadelphia and New
York; and numerous country houses of unusual
artistic merit. In 1910 he became an Associate
National Academician and a member of the
Ameriran Institute of Architects.

EYTELWEIN, I'tel-vln, JOHAJW ALBERT
(1764-1848). A German engineer, born in
Frankfort-on-the-Main. He was appointed di-
rector of the architectural school in Berlin, upon
the opening of that institution in 1799. He con-
ducted the hydraulic operations for the improve-
ment of navigation on the Warthe, Weichsel,
Oder, and Niemen; built the harbor extensions
of Memel, Pillau, and Swinemiindc; determined
the boundaries of the Rhine Province; and
established a system of weights and meas-
ures for Prussia. His principal works are the
following: Praktische Anweisung ssur Bauartder
Faschincmcerke an Flussen und Stromen (2d
ed., 1818) ; Vergleiohung der in den preussischen
Staaten eingefuhrten Masse und Q-ewichte (2d
ed., ]810); Handbuch der Statistik fester Eb'r-
per (2d ed., 1832) ; Handbuch der Hydrostatik
(1826) ; Aufloswng der hohern nwnerisclien
Gleichunc/en (1837).

EYTH, it, MAX (1836-1906). A German en-
gineer and author, born at Kirchheim-unter-
Teck. In 1861 he became engineer in Fowler's
manufactory of agricultural implements at
Leeds, for which he traveled extensively abroad.
He was chief engineer of Halim Pasha from 1863
to 1860, during which years the steam plow was
introduced into Egypt. He was one of the
founders of the German Agricultural Society.
His principal works include: Das Agrikultur-
wescn in Aegypten (1867) ; Steam Cable Towing
(1868) ; Das Wasser im alten und neuen Aegyp-
ten (1891); Wanderbuch ewes Ingeniews: In
Brief en (J871-84), an interesting illustrated
description of his travels; Volhmar (3d ed.,
1876), an historical poem; Monch und Lands-
knecJtt (2d ed., 1886); Lebendige Krafte
(1905).

EYTESTGE, I'titaft ROSE (183&-1911). An
American actress and author, born in Phila-
delphia. From 1862 to 1869 she played in vari-
ous theatres in New York City and then went
abroad with her second husband, Col. George H.
Butler, Consul General to Egypt. Q» her re-

turn thence in 1871 she took the r61e of Cleo-
patra at the Broadway Theatre, to the Antony
of Frederick Warde. Among her principal later
parts were Nancy Sykes in Oliver Twist, Ger-
vaise in Drink, Ophelia to the Hamlet of E. L.
Davenport, and Desdemona with James W. Wai-
lack as Othello and Davenport as lago. Her
literary works include adaptations of Dickens's
Oliver Twist and Dombey and Son, Browning's
Colombe's Birthday, her personal Recollections,
published serially, and Memories (1905). Con-
sult Clapp and Edgett, Players of the Present
(Dunlap Society, New York, 1899), and Winter,
The Wallet of Time (2 vols., ib., 1913).

EYUK, a-yook'. A village in Asia Minor,
built upon the small plateau of a hill, 75 miles
west-southwest of Amasia. It has only about 30
houses, but is important as containing some of
the most remarkable ruins in the East. They
are the remains of a palace of enormous extent
and consist of colossal walls and blocks of
granite containing a great variety of sculptures,
chiefly gods, processions, and religious rites,
many of which are in an admirable state of
preservation. The building is one of the most
significant monuments left by the Hittites,
whose art and architecture as illustrated in the
palace at Eyuk are chiefly derived from Assyria,
though betraying Egyptian influences. Eyuk
is located only a short distance from Boghaz
K5i, which is now known, from the large finds
of inscribed tablets made there by Winckler,
to have been the ancient Hatti, capital of the
Hittite Empire. (See HITTITES.) Consult:
Perrot, Exploration de la G-alatie et de la
Bit/iynie (Paris, 1872) ; Perrot and Chipiez,
History of Art in Sardinia, Judcea, Syria, and
Asia Minor (Eng. trans., London, 1890); Hu-
mann and Puchstein, Reisen in Kleinasien und
Nordsyrien (Berlin, 1890); Garstang, The Land
of the Hittites (New York, 1910) ; Olmstead,
Charles, and Wrench, Hittite Inscriptions
(1911); Wincklcr, Nach Boghaz Kdi (1914).

EYZAGTTIRBE, a'S-tha-ge'ra, AGUSTIN ( 1766-
1837). A Chilean statesman. He was one of
the principal leaders in the movement for na-
tional independence in 1810 and in 1813 was a
member of the first national Junta. He was
taken prisoner by the Spaniards at the battle of
Rancagua in October, 1814, and was imprisoned
on the island of Juan Fernandez for three years.
He was subsequently engaged in an enterprise
for the establishment of trade between Chile and
India. On the downfall of the O'Higgins ad-
ministration in 1823 he was elected President
of the provisional Junta and soon afterward
was elected to the office of Vice President. On
the resiapiation of President Freire (Sept. 10,
1826) he became acting President and retained
this position until January, 18257, when he was
deposed by a military mutiny.

EZE'KIEL (Heb. Yehessqel, God makes
strong). One of the four "greater" prophets.
He was the son of the priest Buzi, a member of
the Zadokite clan, which towards the close of
the seventh century B.C. began to obtain com-
plete control of the Yahwe cult in Jerusalem.
He probably spent his youth in the temple at
Jerusalem until the year 597 B.C., when, with
Jehoiachin, King of Judah, and a large number
of the people, he was 'carried captive to Baby-
lonia by order of Nebuchadnezzar. There the
Jews formed a separate community under the
government of elders and engaged in agriculture.
They prpbably paid a tax to the government,

EZEKEBL

309

but in other ways were left unmolested. Ezekiel
settled at Tel-Abib on the banks of the river
Chebar. This river has been identified with the
canal Kabaru mentioned in cuneiform documents
of the time of Artaxerxes I (465-425 B.O.). It
apparently lay somewhat to the east of Nippur
(q.v.). He probably appeared as a prophet
about the year 503 B.C. and continued to give
oracles from time to time until 571 B.C. Tho
date of his death is not recorded.

Ezekiel's life was short, as is evidenced by his
book; but he spent his days in comforting and
encouraging his people, while endeavoring to
open their eyes to the real significance of cur-
rent events and particularly of the national
catastrophe with the resultant captivity of the
people. Respected by the people, his influence
was profound, though his task was a difficult
one in rousing the masses, who were indifferent
to the religious aspects of the situation. Ezekiel
was essentially a priest. His interest is largely
in matters connected with the ritual, but he
also possesses the traits of a prophet. His
imagination is impetuous, and features of his
discourses are the visions, parables, and alle-
gories with which they are filled. His style,
while vigorous, lacks simplicity, and, on the
whole, his moral tone, while strong, is also
severe. He is a particularly interesting figure
as representing the transition from the pro-
phetic to the priestly period. His elaborate
programme for the cult foreshadows the post-
exilic history of Judaism which centres around
the observance of the minutia of religious cere-
monialism. See TCETr.Trnirr.j BOOK OF.

EZEKIEL, BOOK OF. The third of the so-
called greater prophets. It is held by most
scholars that the prophecies of Ezekiel have
come down to us, as concerns the subject mat-
ter, substantially in the form in which the
prophet himself left them, though doubts have
recently been cast on this point. The Hebrew
text has not been well preserved and contains
many additions by scribes and changes which
indicate that a revision was made subsequent to
the prophet's death, or possibly more than one
revision. By means of the Greek translation,
which is based on a text varying considerably
from the Hebrew, many of the original readings
can be restored, and the Hebrew text otherwise
improved. The book, consisting of 48 chapters,
may be divided into four sections, the contents
of which may be summarized as follows:

Fart i (chaps, i-xxiy) consists of an intro-
duction reciting the vision of Yahwe seated on a
celestial chariot throne supported and set in mo-
tion by four creatures, each having four wings
and the face, respectively, of a man, a lion, an ox,
and an eagle. (See CHEKDB.) From the mouth
of Yahwe Ezekiel receives his call to the pro
•phetic office, his commission to act as a guide
to Israel. There follow prophecies against the
people of Israel (chaps, iv-xxiv), subdivided into
18 sections: 1. The siege of Jerusalem, repre-
sented by a picture drawn on a tablet; the pro-
longed transgressions of the people; and the
hardships they should suffer, by the eating of a
coarse and loathsome bread. 2. Judgments
on the city by famine, war, and dispersion
abroad, signified by hair and beard cut off,

* hed, scattered, and burned. 3. Judgments
b idolatry, with a promise that a remnant

be saved. 4. Captivity, inevitable, and

severe, under the emblem of a chain. 5. Trans-
gressions of Judah, represented by the image of

jealousy, and consequent judgments, typified
by the scattering of fire, and the departure of
the sheJrinah, or divine glory. 6. The captivity
of Zedekiah, represented by the removal of
household goods, and bread eaten with trem-
bling. 7. False prophets reproved and threat-
ened. 8. Idolatrous elders condemned. 9. The
rejection of Jerusalem, represented by the burn-
ing of ail unfruitful vine. 10. God's compas-
sionate love, against which Israel had sinned,
compared to kind care shown to a child cast
out at its birth. 11. Judgments on Israel for
turning to Egypt for help against Babylon,
denounced under the emblem of two great eagles,
one representing Nebuchadnezzar and the other
Pharaoh. 12. Judgment denounced on every
transgressor for his own sins, contrary to the
common proverb implying that children suffer
for their fathers' faults. 13. Captivity of the
Jewish kings, represented by lions pursued and
captured, and of the Jewish people, by a vine
scorched, torn up, and planted in the wilderness.
14. God's mercies to Israel, and their continued
transgression reviewed; and, while final forgive-
ness is promised to the penitent, impending
judgments are declared. 15. A consumed forest
represents Jerusalem destroyed, and a sharp
sword, Nebuchadnezzar cutting down Ammonites
and Jews. 10. Recital of sins committed in
Jerusalem by all classes of the people, and judg-
ments on them denounced. 17. Idolatries of
Samaria and Jerusalem, and their punishment.
18. Dreadful destruction of Jerusalem again
proclaimed.

Part ii consists of prophecies against various
nations around Judaea (chaps, xxv-xxxii), sub-
divided into three sections: I. Against the Am-
monites, Moabites, Edomites, and Philistines.
2. Against Tyre (represented, in its beauty,
wealth, and renown, as the anointed cherub on
the mountain of God), with a promise of return-
ing prosperity to Israel. 3. Against Egypt. In
the last two prophecies Nebuchadnezzar is
named as the instrument appointed to carry out
God's purposes.

Part iii embodies the promises of future de-
liverance to Israel (chaps, xxxiii-xxxix) , subdi-
vided into five sections: 1. The prophet is com-
pared to a watchman appointed to give warning
of danger and is exhorted to be faithful. While
under the power of the prophetic spirit, being
informed that Jerusalem had been taken by
Nebuchadnezzar, he foretells the desolation of
the land and reproves the hypocrisy of the cap-
tives around Mm. 2. The rulers, civil and ec-
clesiastical, condemned as unfaithful shepherds,
and a general restoration of the people promised
under the guidance of the good shepherd, David
the prince. 3. Judgments against Edom again
foretold. 4. Promises of restoration renewed to
Israel, under the emblems of fruitful mountains,
sprinkled water, a new heart, dry bones raised to
life, and two sticks united together. 5. Destruc-
tion of Gog, followed by blessings to Israel*

The fourth series of discourses (chaps, xl-
xlviii), while forming part of the general pic-
ture of the restoration, is separated by its char-
acter from the rest of the book. It gives (1)
an elaborate picture of the future temple, based
apparently on the temple of Solomon; (2) a
description of the altar and offerings; (3) the
functions of the priest j (4) the territorial
distribution of the tribes and boundaries of
the land.

There are two features of Ezekiel's prophecies

310

EZRA

that arc of special significance: (1) the visions,
and (2) the descriptions of the temple cult.
The former marks the beginning of that tendency
in Jewish thought that led to the production
of the extensive apocalyptic literature (q.v.),
chiefly between the second century B.C. and the
second century A.D. (See APOCRYPHA.) The
latter stands midway between the Deutero-
nomic code and the final priestly legislation,
for which it paves the way. Ezekiel's pro-
gramme and general notions of the functions
and privileges of the priest agree largely with
the so-called Holiness Code (Lev. xvii-xxvi),
though the latter is thought by many scholars
to represent an even more advanced ritualistic
standpoint. A notable difference, however, be-
tween Deuteronomy and Ezekiel is that, whereas
according to the former all Levites are priests,
according to Ezekiel only the Zadokites are
recognized, while in the Holiness Code only
descendants of Aaron are regarded as priests.
Again, as regards festive seasons, Deuteronomy
mentions three great festivals — Passover, Weeks,
and Booths — whereas Ezekiel omits the second,
but adds a special ceremony of purification for
the first days of the first and seventh months,
and the Holiness Code has, in addition to the
three given in Deuteronomy, the Feast of
Trumpets (the postexilic New Year's Day) and
the Day of Atonement.

The direction thus given by Ezekiel to the
elaboration of the cult was followed in suc-
ceeding generations. It is his spirit that per-
vades the perfected law (see EZRA; PENTA-
TEUCH), and in a significant sense Ezekiel may
be designated as the forerunner of that Judaism
which centres arpund the temple cult and
ceremonial minutiae. This constitutes his main
claim to an important position in Hebrew his-
tory. In moral sublimity and in eloquence he
is surpassed by Isaiah and in profundity of
feeling and the truest patriotism by Jeremiah.
But it is Ezekiel who draws from the past,
with its many tribulations and final catastrophe,
the lesson that a future restoration must de-
pend upon observance of Yahwe's decrees, and
suggests, as their most important task, that
the leaders determine in the most minute way
what Yahwe has commanded and how he is to
be worshiped, and then spare no efforts to
have these regulations carried out. Salvation
depends upon the temple cult, the constitution
of a legitimate priesthood, and the strict obe-
dience of the people to all such laws as are
laid before it by its recognized religious leaders
in the name of Yahwe.

Josephus (Ant., x, 5, 1) declares that Ezekiel
wrote and left behind him two books. It was
supposed by Wildeboer, De Lett&rkimde des
Ouden, Verbonfo, p. 296 (Groningen, 1893),
that chaps, i-xxxix and xl-xlviii constitute
these two books. Zunz, Geiger, Seinecke, Vernes,
and most recently Torrey (Transactions of the
Connecticut Academy, New Haven, 1909), have
regarded the entire book as the product of a
later time. Manchot (Jahrbiicher filr protes-
tantische Theologie, xiv, 423 ff.) and Bertholet
have questioned Ezek. xxvii. 9 b-25 a. Poly-
chronius and Grotiua regarded the prophecy
against Gog and Magog (Ezek. xxxviii-xxxix)
as referring to Antiochus III; Winckler (Alt-
orientalische Forschungen, ii, 160 ff., Leipzig,
1803) interpreted it as occasioned by the career
of Alexander; N. Schmidt (Encyclopedia Bib-
lioa, iv, 4332 f., New York, 1903) suggested

that Mithradates VI of Pontus is the "prince
of Meshech and Tubal." But, as a rule, the
unity of the book is maintained by the inter-
preters. Consult the commentaries, particularly
those of Smund, Keil, Davidson, Bertholet, Toy,
Kratschmar, and the most recent ones by Loft-
house (Oxford, 1907) and Redpath (New York,
1907) ; also Cornill, Das Buch des Propheten
Esechiel (Leipzig, 1886); D. H. Mtiller, Ece-
chielstudien (Berlin, 1894) ; Jahn, Das Buch
EzecJnel auf Orund der 8eptuaginta hergestellt
(Leipzig, 1905) ; Herrmann, Esechielstudien
(ib., 1908).

EZEKIEL, MOSES JACOB (1844-1917). An
American sculptor. He was born in Richmond,
Va., was educated in his native city, and fought
in the Civil War. In 1869 he entered the
Academy of Art in Berlin, where he studied
under Wolf, and in 1873 he received the Michael
Beer prize for sculpture, the first American to
obtain that distinction. He then went to Rome,
where he continued to reside. His first large
work was a group representing "Religious Lib-
erty" (1874), which is now in Fairmount Park,
Philadelphia. Among other works by him are
the much-discussed "Christ," Peabody Institute,
Baltimore; "The Daughter of Eve"; "Judith,"
Cincinnati Museum; a Madonna for a church in
Tivoli; 11 statues of famous artists for the
Corcoran Gallery, Washington; the Jefferson
Monument in Louisville, KLy.; "Eve," exhibited
at the St. Louis Exposition in 1904; "Apollo
and Mercury," in Berlin; a statue of "Faith,"
in the cemetery at Rome; a "Homer" group,
at the University of Virginia; '^Virginia
Mourning her Dead," at Lexington, Va. ; and
"Napoleon at St. Helena." His portraits, in
the round and relief, include those of Liszt,
Cardinal Hohenlohe, Longfellow, Lee, Farragut,
and the statue of Mrs. Andrew D. White, at
Cornell University. The work of Ezekiel is
little known in this country, for the best of it
remains abroad, but by his initial exhibit at
the Centennial in 1876 he helped to destroy
the prevailing classicism of American sculpture
by introducing German and new Italian meth-
ods. His work departs from the conventional
standard in many cases, is original in sentiment,
and clever in workmanship. It shows the influ-
ence of Michelangelo rather than of the Greek
models, although such works as "Consolation,"
"Pan and Cupid," and "Apollo and Mercury"
are classical in tendency. He received many
medals, the order of Pour le M6rite in art from
the Emperor of Germany, and was knighted by
the King of Italy.

EZION-GEBER, S'zt-5n gS'bSr (Heb., where
Geber trees grow). A station of the Israelites
on their road from Egypt (Num. xxxiii. 35;
Dcut. ii. 8). It was originally a city of Edom,
which David conquered (2 Sam. viii. 14). Later
it was the station of Solomon's navy, which was
engaged in the gold trade with Ophir (1 Kings
ix. 26; 2 Chron. viii. 17); when Jehoshaphat
fitted out ships for a similar purpose, they were
broken at this port (1 Kings xxii. 48; 2 Chron.
xx. 36-37). Josephus (An*v viii, 6, 4) says
the place was called Berenice in his day. Ezion-
Geber is probably identical with the modern
Ain-el-Ghudyan, where is now the dry bed of
the Arabah near Elath (q.v.). Consult Musil,
Arabia Petrcsa II: Edom (Vienna, 1908).

EZOEfcA (perhaps shortened from Aeariah,
Yahwe helps). A prominent figure in Jewish
history, living in the Ach&menian period, leader

EZBA 3

of a, band of exiles ret u ruing from Babylonia,
legislative wiiter, and reformer. Little is known
concerning his ])rivate life. He belonged to a
priestly family and resided in Babylon in the
reign of a king whose name is given as Arta-
xerxes. It is not certain whether Artaxerxes I
(4G5-425 B.O.) or Artaxerxes II (404-359 B.C.)
is meant. Most scholars think the former,
but there is much to be said in favor of the
latter. With Artaxerxes Ezra seems to have
been in considerable favor, and he obtained per-
mission to return to Jerusalem with a company
of his countrymen, 1754 in number. Ezra was
authorized to carry offerings to the temple
made by the King and by the Jews who re-
mained in Babylonia, to purchase sacrificial
animals, and to use the rest of the money that
was given to him as he saw fit. He is also
represented as the "writer of the law of the
God of heaven" (Ezra vii. 21) and is said to
Imve been instructed and given power to carry
out the laws of the Persian King and the law
of God. The more commonly accepted date
for his departure from Babylonia is 458 B.C.,
but it is not impossible that it was 398 B.C.

Ezra, on his arrival in Palestine, found the
Jewish population, priests and Levites included,
contracting marriages with foreign women. To
one profoundly impressed with the fundamental
principle that Yahwe's people must remain pure,
such a state of affairs was intensely distress-
ing. The question was taken up in an assembly
of the people held in the year when Ezra ar-
rived; and a commission of inquiry was ap-
pointed which drew up a list of persons who
had entered upon mixed marriages. Nehemiah
(q.v.j, who had been governor in the time of
Artaxerxes I, apparently from 445 to 433, had
strongly objected to the mixed marriages, but
without insisting upon their dissolution, had
urged sabbath observance, rest for the land in
the seventh year, and the payment of tithes, and
had pledged the people to certain reforms (Neh.
x). But Ezra went further. He forced the
Jews who had married foreign women to divorce
their wives, and he laid the foundation for a
more accurate fulfillment of the will of Yahwe
by presenting to the whole people on a solemn
occasion the law of Moses. Most scholars are
of the opinion that this event took place in the
year 444 B.C. and is the one described in Neh.
viii-x, where Ezra is pictured as gathering the
people on the plateau before the Water Gate
and reading to them the Book of the Law. It
is possible, however, as some scholars think,
that the assembly was held in 397; Nehemiah's
name does not seem to have occurred originally
in Neh. viii. 2, as it is not found in 3 Esdras
ix. 49 ; and Neh. x appears to relate to a pledge
given by the community, while Nehemiah was
governor, before the time of Ezra. The im-
pressive scene is described in detail. Two days
are consumed in the reading. The men of
Judah are profoundly impressed, and portrayed
us moved to tears at the thought of their past
disobedience. Preparations are at once made to
carry out the law, and as a symbol of repentance
a great fast is held. There is no reason to
doubt that Ezra used some of his time in
Jerusalem in preparing an elaborate code, and
that this code was promulgated on the occasion
described. How extensive the law book was,
and whether all of it was read, cannot be deter-
mined. Some scholars think that practically
all of our present Pentateuch was read 5 others

rr EZBA

maintain that only those sections to which the
name of the Priestly Code has been given were
read. There is reason to doubt, however, that
any such code ever existed as a separate docu-
ment; and it is not necessary to suppose that
all the narratives, or oven all the legal enact-
ments, were publicly read. Exactly what part
Ezra had in the production of the Pentateuch
cannot be ascertained from the phrase desig-
nating him as "the writer of the law." That
may moan anything, from mere copying to ab-
solute authorship. According to a plausible
theory it implies that Ezra wrote out a copy
of the law more complete than any existing
before his time, as various glosses, notes, and
longer additions of different nature, which had
grown up in the reading of the groundwork,
were inserted in it. (See PEXTATEUCII. ) The
new law book was formally recognized, and the
temple service was regulated according to its
prescriptions. Naturally not all the laws were
carried out or could be, and it is doubtful
whether at any time in the history of Israel
all the pentateuchal regulations were adhered
to in their detail; but what is important to
note is that Ezra gave the strongest impetus
to those tendencies which led to a conception
of Judaism as identical with the observance of
canonical minutiae. Though the word "writer"
does not have exactly the samo connotation as
the later ''scribe/' Ezra may be regarded as the
forerunner of the rabbis who in the succeeding
centuries took the place of the priests, and as
students and interpreters of the law became,
until recent times, so characteristic a feature
of Judaism. Consult: Van Hoonacker, Zoro-
baoel ei le second temple (Ghent, 1892) ; Kos-
ters, Het lierstel van Israel in het Perzisohe
tijdvaJt (Leiden, 1894) ; Bertholet, Esra und
Nehemia (Tubingen, 1902) ; id., in Die Religion
in Cescliichte und Gegenwart (ib., 1910) ; Tor-
rev, Esra Studies (Chicago, 1910) ; Herford,
Pharisaism, (New York, 1912).

EZBA, BOOK OF. A record of portions of
Jewish history after the Babylonian exile. It
originally formed in the Jewish canon one book
with Nehemiah, bearing the name of Ezra. This
book is supposed to have been compiled by the
author of Chronicles from various documents,
such as: (a) the memoirs of Ezra and Nehe-
miah; {&) accounts of the building of the
temple at Jerusalem in the reign of Darius;

(d) lists of heads of priestly and Levitical
families; (e) lists of returned exiles — to all
of which sources the editor has made additions
of his own. In the Greek version the two books
are still one and are called Esdras B, while
Esdras A, or 3 Esdras, is essentially another,
and possibly older translation. (See ESDRAS,
BOOKS OF.) In the early printed Hebrew Bibles
Ezra was still used as a heading for both,
but the distinction is now made universally
between Ezra and Nehemiah.

A division of the Book of Ezra into two parts
suggests itself, the first of which (chaps, i-vi)
contains: (1) the decree of Cyrus, dated in
the first year of his reign and giving permis-
sion to the Jews to return to their own land
and rebuild their temple; (2) the record of
his restoration of the sacred vessels of silver
and gold which Nebuchadnezzar had taken from
the temple and brought to Babylon; (3) the
return of a .portion of the people and the com-

EZRA 3

mencement of the work; (4) the obstacles
placed in their wa,y, chiefly by the Samaritans,
in consequence of the refusal of the Jews to
allow them to share in the work; and (5)
the interruption of the work till the second year
of Darius Hystaspes, who, having found the
decree of Cyrus, confirmed it and gave the Jews
additional privileges and help by which they
were enabled to complete their temple in the
sixth year of Darius and to reestablish divine
worship. This part thus comprises the history
of the Jews from 538 to 516 B.C. The second
part (chaps, vii-x) contains: (1) the decree
of Artaxerxes, giving Ezra authority to pro-
ceed to Jerusalem with all Jews who wished to
accompany him, and an account of the large
sums of silver and gold added by the King and
his counselors to the free-will offerings of the
people, and his order to his treasurers in the
provinces intervening between Babylon and
Jerusalem to furnish the expedition liberally
with needed supplies; (2) the arrival of Ezra,
accompanied by 600 chief men and 200 priests
and Levites; and (3) the measures taken by
Ezra for the suppression of mixed marriages.
This part is supposed bo refer to events taking
place in 458 and 445 B.C., or if Artaxerxes II
is meant, most likely in 397 B.a. (See EZRA.)

It is generally recognized that the historical
value of the narratives in this book depends
upon the character of the sources used by the
author of Chronicles rather than upon anything
that conies from his hand, and also that the
work has suffered from various transpositions
in the text, often indicated by the more correct
arrangement in 3 Esdras. While it is not so
universally admitted as in the case of the me-
moirs of Nehemiah, the majority of scholars
believe that in Ezra vii. 27-ix. 15, and probably
also in Ezra x, Neh. vii. 73 b-ix. 37, Memoirs
of Ezra have been used, and that there is no
reason to doubt the accuracy of his statements.
The story of the return under Cyrus was ques-
tioned by Kosters and other scholars, but there
is a disposition at present to assume that per-
mission was given by Cyrus and that a small
number availed themselves of it. Haggai, Zech.
i-yiii, and Neh. i. 2 flf. still render it difficult to
think of large numbers returning in 538 and an
attempt then to rebuild the temple. Since Edu-
ard Meyer's defense of the Aramaic decrees in
1896 and the discovery of the Elephantine
papyri ( q.v. ) , which come from the fifth century
and refer to Johanan the high priest and the
sons of Sanballat of Samaria, the authenticity
of the decrees of Cyrus, Darius, and Artaxerxes,
as well as the Aramaic correspondence in general,
has been more widely accepted than formerly.
It should be noted, however, that Torrey has
recently adduced important evidence that the
language of the whole Aramaic section is of a
considerably later type than that of the Ele-
phantine documents, and numerous analogies
showing that the production of letters and de-
crees was regarded as a legitimate method of
historic composition. Van Hoonacker held on
strong grounds that Nehemiah preceded Ezra,
the former leaving Susa in 445, the second Baby-
lon in the seventh year of Artaxerxes II (397
B.C.). Torrey and Schmidt gave various rea-
sons for regarding Artaxerxes II as Nehemiah's
King. In view of the Elephantine records this
can be maintained to-day only if there were two
Sanballats, which is not impossible, but cannot
be proved. On the whole Van Eoonacker's

[2 EZRA

opinion commends itself. Nehemiah's visits to
Jerusalem would then be in 445 and 433, and
Ezra's in 397. Bertholet has pointed out that
Ezra at his arrival evidently found no governor
in Jerusalem, while Nehemiah refers to a num-
ber of governors before him in such a manner
as to make it clear that Ezra was not among
them (Neh. v. 15), that Ezra presupposes the
repairs and the rebuilding of the wall which was
accomplished by Nehemiah (Ezra ix. 9), that
Nehemiah's name did not originally occur in
Neh. viii. 9, as the parallel passage in 3 Esdras
shows, and that Neh. x has to do with the pledge
taken by Nehemiah from the people that they
would enforce certain reforms, and not with the
introduction of the law by Ezra. As to the
lists of the returned exiles, in the time of
Cyrus (Ezra ii and Neh. vii), there is a tend-
ency among scholars to regard them as in
reality giving a census of the "children of the
province" in the sense of citizens in the time of
Nehemiah or Ezra. The attitude of scholars to-
wards the Greek text designated by the early
Church as Esdras A, but called 3 Esdras in the
Vulgate, is undergoing a change. The older
view of Grotius, Whiston, Ewald, and La-
garde has been reaffirmed by Howorth and
Torrey, who have presented weighty reasons for
believing that the earliest Greek version has
been preserved in 3 Esdras. In this version
Ezra iv. 5 is immediately followed by v. 1, and
Neh. vii. 73 b-viii. 13 a immediately follows
Ezra x. 44. It has long been felt that the
correspondence with Artaxerxes (Ezra iv. 6-23)
in the Masoretic text is out of place; and that
the reading of the law (Neh. vii. 73-ix. 37) in
reality belongs to the Book of Ezra. As 3 Es-
dras ends in the midst of Neh. viii. 13, it is a
matter of conjecture how much of what follows
this verse preceded Neh. i. 1. Bertholet plau-
sibly argues that the list of those who entered
into an agreement and the pledge they gave not
to marry foreign women, to keep the sabbath,
etc., in Neh. x, originally had its place after
the reference to this pledge in Neh. xiii. Ac-
cording to Torrey the translator found in his
Aramaic text the story of the three pages and
Darius, which consequently was an early inter-
polation. That the Chronicler used his sources
for this period with as much freedom as those
he employed for earlier times (see CHBONICLES)
is generally recognized, but there is still a dif-
ference of opinion as to the extent of his work.
See also NEHEMIAH, BOOK OP. Consult: Schra-
der, in Theologische Studien und Kritiken
(Vienna, 1867) ; Smend, Die Listen der Bilcher
Esra und Nehemia( Basel, 1881) ; Van Hoonacker,
Nehemie et Esdras (Ghent, 1890); id., Nehe-
mie en Van 20 d'ArtatBerves I et Esdras en Van
7 d'Artaaerwes II (ib., 1892) ; Kosters, Het
Herstel van Israel in het Perzische Tijdvak
(Leiden, 1894) ; Ed. Meyer, Entstehung des
Judentums (Halle, 1896); Torrey, The Compo-
sition and Historical Value of Ezra and Nehe-
miah (Giessen, 1896); id., Ezra Studies (Chi-
cago, 1910) ; Howorth, in Proceedings of the
Society of Biblical Archeology (London, 1901-
02); Schmidt, in Biblical World (Chicago,
1899) ; Ryle, E&ra and Nehemiah (New York,
1893) ; Siegfried, Esra und Nehemia (GQttin-
gen, 1901) ; Bertholet, Esra und Nehemia
(Tttbingen, 1902); id., in Die Religion in Ge-
tchichte und Gegenwart (ib., 1910) ; Rothstein,
Juden und Samaritaner (Leipzig, 1908); Bat-
ten, Etsiv and Nehemiah (New York, 1913);

EZZELIBFO

313

EZJZJELIlffO

Cook, in Charles, The Apocrypha and Pseude-
pigrapha of the Old Testament (2 vols., Oxford,
1913).

EZZELINO, et'se-le'no, or ECCELOTO, DA
ROMANO. An Italian Ghibelline family. — The
first Ezzelmo was a German cavalier who settled
in Italy at the time of the Hohenstaufen dynasty
and gained possession of the castle of Romano;
hence the name. — Ezzelino II was, against all
the family traditions, a Guelph. He lived about
1180. — His son, Ezzelino III, was podestil of
Vicenza until a Guelph success (1194) caused
his downfall. With the protection of the Em-
peror, Otto IV, he regained his position, but
finally abdicated (1215). — Ezzelino IV (1194-
1259), Ms son, the most celebrated of the family,

became podesta of Vicenza upon the abdication of
his father and directed all his energies against
the enemies of his house. He established his
capital at Padua, and by the victory of the
Emperor Frederick II at Cortenuova (1237)
became master of northern Italy from Milan to
the Adriatic. After the death of Frederick II
he acted as an independent prince. His cruelty
and impiety, which gain him mention in Dante's
Inferno, caused him to be excommunicated in
1252, and the Lombard cities made a league
against him which he could not resist. He was
taken prisoner in 1259 and died of voluntary
starvation. His brother and all his family were
murdered. Consult Stieve, Ezzelino von Romano
(Leipzig, 1909).

FThe sixth letter and fourth conso-
nant in the Greece-Roman alphabet.
The Phoenicians called the letter vau
(or wau). Tliis has usually been
supposed to mean a nail or peg. As
the Hebrew is the only Semitic
tongue in which vau occurs as a word, it is prob-
able that the name of this letter was not origi-
nally a word, but merely the sound of u or 10.
Some authorities hold that the top-stroke F is
merely a modification of the consonant E, hav-
ing no relation with the symbol vau. Flinders
Petrie (The Formation of the Alphabet, Lon-
don, 1912) states that the symbol F was a
common sign in Asia Minor and has a long his-
tory in Egypt. According to this same author-
ity it passed to Crete and Phylakopi, but was
avoided by most of the Greeks, appearing solely
at Corinth and Elis under the name digamma,
which arose from a fancied resemblance to a
pair of gammas (F). From Greece it passed
into Italy, from which it was inherited by
modern Europe. It should be noted that the
value of the Greek symbol was the bilabial voiced
sound of w, and not the labiodental voiceless
sound of our modern F. Already in the second
century of the Christian era the cursive cap-
ital / made its appearance, of which our small /
is an outgrowth. There is, furthermore, a mid-
stroke symbol, #| or |^ also found in ancient Egypt,
which has been preserved notably in Etruscan,
the Runic Inscriptions, and at Elis in Greece,
but was finally driven out by the top-stroke
form. See ALPHABET; LETTERS.

Phonetic Character. F is pronounced b;
joining the lower lip and the upper teeth, an!
it is a labiodental voiceless aspirate. Its cor-
responding voiced labiodental is v. Latin / was
practically the same sound as English /, and
was not like the Greek 4, which was distinctly
a double sound (p + h), pronounced as in top-
heavy. Under certain circumstances / may take
the place of any of the mutes. Original Ih, gh,
and dh (in English 6, g, d) may be represented
by Latin /, as Skt Ihwrati, 'he bears/ Lat. fert,
Eng. bears; Skt. gharmas, Lat. fonms, Eng.
warm. English / represents (1) an original p:
Skt. pitar, Eng. father; Skt. p&da, Eng. foot;
(2) a guttural: Lat. gitafuor, Eng. four; Lat.
qumque, Eng. five. The pronunciation of gut-
turals has a tendency to lapse into the easier
sound; cf. cough, laugh) pronounced as if spelled
with an /. Anglo-Saxon f sometimes disappears
in modern English, e,g,, wif-man, and hUford,
now woman and lord.
As a Symbol. F, in music, is the fourth

note of the natural diatonic scale of C and stands
in the treble clef in the first space or in the
fifth line; in the bass clef it stands on the
fourth line or in the first space below. In
chemistry F =: fluorine. F a* a mediaeval Ro-
man numeral stands for 40; with a bar above F
it is 40,000. In algebra it serves as the sign of
an operation in general, and particularly of a
function haying a differential coefficient. As
an abbreviation, it stands for Fellow (in F. R.
H.t etc.), in fisheries for full fish, in physics for
Fahrenheit, and in a ship's log book for fog.

FATCELL, PETEE. A personage born and
buried at Edmonton, Middlesex, England, men-
tioned as having died during the reign of Henry
"VII (1485-1509). He was said to have sold
his soul to the devil, and after him is named the
chief character in the once popular play The
Merry Devil of Edmonton.

FABEB, fl/blr, CECILIA B6nL VON. See CA-
BALLEBO, FEBN!N.

EABEB, fa'bgr, FREDERICK WILLIAM (1814-
63). An English theologian, He was born at
Calvcrley, Yorkshire; studied afc Harrow and at
Balliol College, Oxford, where he became an
enthusiastic admirer of John Henry Newman;
and was ordained priest in 1839. After some
years spent in traveling on the Continent, and
having published a Life of 8t. Wilfrid (1844),
he became a convert to the Roman Catholic
church (1845) and founded the Wilfridians, or
Brothers of the Will of God, at Birmingham.
This community was ultimately merged in the
Oratory of St, Philip Neri, of which Newman
was the head, and over a branch of which,
established in London in 1849, Faber presided
till his death. Pope Pius IX in 1854 made him
a D.D. He published lives of the saints and a
number of theological works, but it is mainly
as a writer of fervent and graceful hymns that
he will be remembered. He wrote "0 Gift of
Gifts, 0 Grace of Faith," "Paradise, 0 Para-
dise," and other hymns in familiar use even in
Protestant churches. Consult the Life cmd
Letters (London, 1869; newed., 1888) by Father
Bowden.

EABEB, fttjgr, FBEDEBIK (1795-1828). A
Danish zoologist. He was born at Odense on
the island of Funen, and graduated in law in
1818. From early youth he displayed a great
interest in zoology and published his first book
on that subject in 1815, under the title In-
dledmng til Dyrelaeren til Brug ved den Natur-
historiske Undervimng. From 1819 to 1821 he
traveled through Iceland, and he published his
investigations in a work of permanent value, en-

314

titled Ueb&r das Leben der hoohnordischen Vogel
Islands (1825-26). His other works include:
Prodromus islandischer Ornithologie ( 1822 ) ,
with the supplement entitled Nachtrag zur
tslandischen Ornithologie ( 1824 ) ; Naturge-
schichte der Fische Islands (1829) ; and numer-
ous contributions to Oken's 2sis and the periodi-
cal entitled Tidsskrif for Naturvidenskalerne.
His name has been applied to several zoological
species.

EA'BER, GEORGE STANLEY (1773-1854). A
1 earned divine of the Anglican church. He was
the eldest son of the Rev. Thomas Faber and
was born at Calverley, Yorkshire, Oct. 25, 1773.
He entered University College, Oxford, in 1789.
In 1796 he took his degree of M.A., was Bamp-
ton lecturer for 1801, and in 1805 became vicar
of Stockton-on-Tees, Durham. After swrnl
changes he received from Bishop Van Mildert,
in 1832, the mastership of Sherburn Hospital,
near the city of Durham, where he died, Jan. 27,
1854. His management of the hospital estates
was very judicious and successful. Faber wrote
upward of 40 works, several of which enjoyed
an extensive popularity, but have little per-
manent value. His theories of idolatry and his
interpretations of prophecy are fanciful. The
principal are: The Genius and Object of the
Patriarchal, the Levitical, and the Christian
Dispensation (1823); The Difficulties of Infi-
delity (1824); The Difficulties of Romanism
(1826; 3d ed., 1853); The Sacred Calendar of
Prophecy (1828); The Primitive Doctrine of
Election (1830); The Primitive Doctrine of
Justification (1837); Eight Dissertations upon
the Prophetical Promises of a Mighty Deliverer
(1845). Consult the memoir by F. A. Faber in
G. S. Faber's posthumous Many Mansions in the
House of the Father (1854).

FABER, fa'bar', or FABBI, JACQUES LEFEVEE
D'ESTAPLES, Lat. JACOBTTS STAPULENSIS (c.1450-
c.1536). A French Roman Catholic, one of the
first scholars and exegetes of his time. He was
born at Estaples (Staples), near Boulogne,
about 1450. He studied at the University of
Paris and became professor in the College of
Cardinal Lemoine. He visited Italy, studying
Aristotle with the Italian humanists. When
his former pupil, William Brigonnet, became
abbot of the Parisian Benedictine Abbey of
Saint-Germain-des-Pres in 1507, he secured for
Faber a home there, which he retained till 1520.
Then he became director of the leper hospital at
Meaux. His works were obnoxious to some of
the church authorities, but he was safe from
molestation under the King's authority till
Francis I was taken prisoner at Pavia in 1525.
Faber was then formally condemned, and his
works were suppressed. He fled to Blois and
to Guienne, or, according to some accounts, to
Strassburg. On the return of Francis such pro-
ceedings were stopped, and he was made tutor
of the King's children and royal librarian at
Blois. When the Princess Margaret became
Queen of Navarre, she received Faber in her
city of Nerac, and there he passed his old age
in quiet. • He1 died there in 1536. Among
Faber's works were the Physics, Metaphysics,
and Ethics of Aristotle, and a psalter in five
languages. In 1512 he issued a translation into
French of the Epistles of St. Paul, in 1523 of
the whole New Testament, in 1528 of the Penta-
teuch, and in 1530 of the entire Bible. These
translations were from the Vulgate, with refer-
ence, however, to the originals, and corrections

[5 FABER

where Faber deomed them necessary. He also
added short notes and comments, in which there
were some indications of Protestant leanings.
Faber's work has been the basis of all subse-
quent French versions. For his life, consult
De Labatier Plantin (Montauban, 1870) and
Prossdij (Loyden, 1000).

FABER, fitter, JOHANN LOTIL\H VON (1817-
96 ). A German manuf actuver. He was the pro-
prietor of a small lead-pencil manufactory at
Stein (Bavaria), which he enlarged to inter-
national proportions. He established offices in
Berlin, Paris, London, and New York, and ad-
ditional manufactories at Geroldsgrlin (Upper
Franconia, Bavaria), Noisy-le-Sec, near Paris,
and New York (with cedar yard and mills at
Cedar Keys, Fla.). To the manufacturing of
load pencils he added that of all sorts of writ-
ing, drawing, and painting materials. He re-
ceived a patent of nobility and an appointment
as counselor of state for his services to German
industry.

FAOBER, or FABRI, fsrbre, JOHANNES (1478-
1541). A Roman Catholic bishop, called the
"Hammer of Heretics." His family name was
Heigerlin, which he changed to Faber. He was
born at Leutkirch, near Lake Constance, in
147S. He studied theology and canon law in
Tubingen and Freiburg in Breisgau and became
doctor in canon law. After parochial and ca-
thedral service he was appointed in 1518 vicar-
general of the diocese of Constance. He enjoyed
the friendship of such men as Erasmus, Me-
lanchthon, and Zwingli, and seemed likely to
agree with them fully. But when the breach
with the church became too wide, he chose the
side of the latter, and in 1522 issued a work
against Luther, and ever afterward was one of
the most indefatigable, learned, and formidable
opponents of the movement. His epithet comes
from his work Malleus in hceresim LutJieranan
(Cologne, 1524), but it is only one of many
such writings. At the last disputation in
Zurich (January, 1523) and the diets of Nurem-
berg (1523), Speier (1529), and Augsburg
(1530), he bore a leading part and won general
applause. In 1531 he became Bishop of Vienna,
and in this exposed position the Turks gave
him as much, to do as the Reformers. He died
at Baden, near Vienna, May 21, 1541. His
collected works, so called, but really only the
homilctical, appeared in Cologne (3 vols., 1537-
41). The polemical works, Opuscula Qucedam
J. Fabri Viennensis (Leipzig, 1537), are more
valuable. There is no complete biography of
him. A. Horawitz, in his JoJiannes Heigerlin
genannt Faber, Bisohof von Wien, bis zwn
Regensburger Convent (Vienna, 1884), traced
his life to 1524 only. Consult Janssen, History
of the German People, vol. xiv (Eng. trans.,
London, 1909).

FABER. JOHW, the elder (c.l 660-1721).
An English draftsman and mezzotint engraver.
He was born at The Hague and settled in Eng-
land probably in 1698. He was especially cele-
brated for the small pen portraits on vellum
which he drew from life. One of the finest ex-
amples of this kind is the portrait of Simon
Episcopius in the British Museum. In 1712
Faber was employed at Oxford and at Cambridge
to engrave a set of 45 portraits representing
the founders of the colleges. Other portraits
engraved by Mm from life are those of Bishop
Atterbury, Count Bothmer, John Caspar, Dr.
Sacheverell, and Bishop Hough. Though some-

1TABEH 316

what stiff in execution, his mezzotints ure much
prized.

JOHN FABEB, the younger (c.1095-1756), a
mezzotint engraver, studied under his father
and at Vanderbank's Academy, London. His
work consists chiefly of portraits, of which more
than 400 have been preserved. These include
plates of Ignatius Loyola (after Titian), Charles
II (after Lely), Carreras (after Sir Godfrey
Kneller), and the series of the CkBeautios of
Hampton Court" and "The Members of the Kit-
Cat Club" (also after Kneller). Among the en-
gravings of his which are not portraits are f'St.
Peter" (after Van Dyck) and "The Taking of
Naniur" (after Wyck). His works exhibit a
high degree of excellence and, when arranged
chronologically, a constant improvement in
technique. They represent admirably the Eng-
lish manner of portraiture characteristic of the
period immediately following Kneller.

FABER, PIEBRE (1506-46). See LEFEVBE.

FA'BIAJST. Bishop of Rome (236-250), reck-
oned as the twentieth Pope. He fell as one
of the first martyrs in the Decian persecution
after an efficient pontificate.

FABIA3ST GENS. See FABIUS.

FABIAN SOCIETY, THE. An organization
for the advancement of Socialism. Tlius far it
has been the moat important socialistic society
in England. It started in London, but similar
organizations are now found in many other
cities. Tn 1883 an American, Thomas Davidson,
who chanced to be in London, held parlor confer-
ences with a group of literary workers chiefly,
on the social duties of the times. This group
continued to hold informal conferences. Social-
istic theories gradually gained the upper hand
in one section, and it finally became definitely
socialistic. The name of the society, derived
from that of the Roman general Fabius, who
saved the state by his policy of delay, indicates
the tactics of the party, the support of meliora-
tive tendencies instead of revolutionary tenden-
cies. In 1888 the society began holding public
meetings. The addresses have since been pub-
lished as the Fabian Essays (Amer. ed., Boston,
1S94). The society carries on an active propa-
ganda through the press, free lectures, etc.
It seeks the nationalization of land and of such
industries as can be "conveniently managed so-
cially." Rent and interest must be added to the
reward of labor. The idle class must disappear
and practical equality of opportunity be gained*
Consult: G-. B. Shaw, The Fabian Society (Lon-
don, 1892) ; Edouard Pfeiffer, La Sotiete fa-
lienne et le mouvement socialist anglais con-
tcmporain (Paris, 1911). See SOCIALISM.

PABII, fiVbl-I, ARCH OF THE. An arch on
tho Sacra Via, at the entrance to the Roman
Forum, erected by Quintus Fabius Maximus
Allobrpgicus, about 120 B.C., to commemorate his
campaign against the Arverni and the Allo-
broges. The only remains are a few blocks of
travertine discovered in 1882 near the site of
the arch, which appears to have been small
and of very simple architecture. Consult Plat-
ner, The Topography and Monuments of Ancient
Rome (2d ed., Now York, 1911).

FA^BITTS. The name of one of the oldest and
most illustrious patrician clans of Rome. This
family claimed descent from Hercules and a
daughter of Evander. (See LUPEBCALIA.) Three
brothers of this clan — Quiutus, Marcus, and
Kirso Fabius Vibulanus — alternately held the
office of consul for seven years (484-470 B.C.).

FABIUS

In 47!) the Kaljii, uticler Klflsso FABIUS
NUS, migrated to the banks of the Ciemera, a
small stream that flows into the Tiber a few
miles above Rome. Here, two years after, they
were decoyed into an ambuscade by the Voientes,
with whom they had been at war, and, with the
exception of one member, Quintua Fab ins Vibu-
lanus, through whom tho race was perpetuated,
the entire gens, consisting of 300 men, was
put to the sword. The most eminent of the Fabii
were QUINTUS FABIUS RULLIANUS — supposed to
have been the first who obtained for himself
and his family the surname of Maximus — and
his descendant, QUINT CTS FAUIUS MAXEHUS VEB-
BUCOSUS, named CUNCTATOB, 'the delayer.' The
former was the most eminent of the Roman
generals in the second Samnite War (c.326-304
B.C.) and was twice dictator and six times con-
sul. At Sentinum, in 295 B.C., he defeated tho
Samnites and their allies. (See ROME, History.)
The latter, who, in the course of his career, was
five times consul and twice censor, was ap-
pointed dictator immediately after the defeat
of the Romans by Hannibal at Lake TraHimenus,
in 217 B.C. The pecular line of tactics which he
observed in the second Punic War obtained for
him the surname by which he is best known in
history. Hanging on the heights like a thunder-
cloud, to which Hannibal himself compared him,
and avoiding a direct engagement, he tantalized
the enemy with his caution, harassed them by
marches and countermarches, and cut off their
stragglers and foragers, while at the same time
his delay allowed Rome to assemble her forces
in greater strength. This policy — which has be-
come proverbial as "Fabian policy" — although
the wisest in the circumstances, was appreciated
neither in the camp nor at home; and shortly
after, Marcus Minucius Rufus, master of the
horse, was raised to an equal share in the dicta-
torship— a position, however, which he occupied
for but a short time. At the end of six months,
the legal period for holding the dictatorship,
Fabius laid down the office. The consuls took
command, and the defeat at Cannae (q.v.) fol-
lowed (216 B.C.). During his fifth consulship
(c.210 B.C.) Fabius recovered Tarentiun, which
had long been one of Hannibal's important posi-
tions. He died in 203 B.C.— C. FABIUS, sur-
named PICTOB, executed upon the walls of the
temple of Salus (dedicated by the dictator C.
Junius Brutus Bubulus in 302 B.C.) the earliest
Roman paintings of which we have any record;
and his grandson, QUINTUS FABIUS PICTOB, was
the first writer of a Roman history in prose;
he used Greek, Latin not yet being fit for prose
writing. Fabius' work was much used by later
authors, including Livy. The fragments of his
Annals may be found in Peter, Historicorum
Romanorum Fragtnenta (Leipzig, 1883). Q.
FABIUS MAXIMUS ALLOBBOGICUS defeated the
Allobroges in 121 B.C. (See FABII, ARCH OP
THE.) Consult Peter, Veterum Historicorum Ro-
manorum ReUquicB, vol. i (Leipzig, 1870). On
the Fabii in general, consult Du Rien, Disputatio
de OenteFalia (Leiden, 1856); Pauly-Wissowa,
Real-Encyolopddie tier classisohen Altertwns-
wissenschaft, vol. vi (Stuttgart, 1909).

FABIT7S, THE AMERICAN. A name applied
to Washington because, like Fabius Cunctator,
he followed a policy of avoiding pitched battles,
particularly in the campaigns of 1776 and the
winter of 1778,

FABIITS, THE FBENCH. Anne, Due de Mont-
morency, Grand Constable of France (c.1492-

FABLE

317

FABLE

1507), so called from his policy of delay in
Provence in 1536.

FA'BLE (ME. fable, from OF. fable, fauNe,
from Lat. fabula, narrative, from fari, to speak;
connected with Lat. Jama, fame, Gk. 0^Att, phcmi,
I say, Skt. Widnati, he says). A word of two-
fold signification. First, it is employed by some
writers in a general sense to denote any fictitious
narrative, as, e.g., the incidents in an epic or
dramatic poem. At one time, also, when the
myths of the Greeks and Romans were thought
to be satisfactorily accounted for by regarding
them as conscious inventions of the ancient poets
and priests, it was customary to speak of them
as faWcs, but this application of the term is now
abandoned by scholars. (See MYTH.) Accord-
ing to the second and more frequent significa-
tion of the word, it denotes a special kind of
literary composition, either prose or verse, in
which a story of some kind is made the vehicle
for conveying a universal truth. It differs from
a parable in this respect, that, while the latter
never transcends in conception the bounds of the
probable or the possible, the former always and
of necessity does. The peculiarity of the struc-
ture of the fable consists in the transference
to inanimate objects, or, more frequently, to the
lower animals, of the qualities of rational beings.
By the very novelty and utter impossibility of
the representation the interest of the hearer or
reader is excited, and thus its symbolic mean-
ing and moral become transparent to him, at
least if the fable is well contrived. The ancient
fabulists were simple, clear, and earnest in their
representations. They seem to have sprung up
in the Bast, and India was in all probability
their home. From the rich collections of fables
in the Sanskrit Pancatantra and Hitopadesa
(qq.v.) came, it would seem, the JSsopic beast
stories. Other celebrated Oriental collections
of fables, based directly upon the Sanskrit, are
those of Bidpai (q.v.), or Pilpai, and of the
Arabian Lokman. Among the Greeks the great-
est name is that of ^Esop (q.v.), whose fables
at a much later period were versified by Babrius
(q.v.). Among the Romans Phsedrus cleverly
imitated -3Csop, but with considerable modifica-
tions, thus giving a certain amount of independ-
ent value to his work. It is perhaps worth
mentioning here that the well-known fable of
the Town Mouse and Country Mouse, told by
Horace, is of purely Roman origin and is prob-
ably the only one in existence of which this
can be affirmed.

Leaving the classical period, and before enter-
ing on the Dark Ages, we encounter the name
of Aphthonius, who flourished in the early part
of the fourth century, and who wrote indifferent
fables in Greek prose; and still later, the name
of Flavius Avianus, who composed 42, no better,
in Latin elegiacs. During the Dark Ages the
fable in various forms appears to have been
cultivated in the monasteries, although nothing
meritorious has survived; but later in the Mid-
dle Ages it acquired fresh life and vigor. In this
form of literature the French have shown an
undoubted superiority. From Marie de France,
the most famous fabulist of the twelfth century,
who claims to have translated her Isopet from
the English, there has been a steady stream
of fable literature unequaled in any other nation.
The collection known as the Roman de Ren&rt,
which had the widest vogue all over Europe,
makes its appearance in France between the
twelfth and the fourteenth centuries. Many

collections of apologues were published in the
sixteenth century, the most important of which
being those of Guillaume Gueroult, Barthelemy
Aneau, Gilles Corrozet, and Guillaume Haudent,
while the poet Ole'ment Marot was in several
instances the immediate source of the great La
Fontaine (q.v.). In the eighteenth century
fable literature was produced in abundance by
Dorat, Piron, Colardeau, and others. The most
prominent of all was Florian, who ranks next
to La Fontaine, but whose indebtedness to
the master was very great. The oldest-known
German fabulist is Strieker, who lived about the
middle of the thirteenth century; but tho fa-
mous Reineke Fuchs, or the History of Reynard
the Fox (q.v.), goes in some of its numerous
primitive forms much farther back in Germany.
In the eighteenth century the fables of Gellert,
Hagedorn, and Lessing, in his earlier style,
are modeled directly on those of La Fontaine.
However, in his Faleln, published in 1759,
Lessing sought to base his apologues on common
sense, considering Phtpdrus and La Fontaine
as mere perversions of the ideal contained in
JEsop. In England the best known of the early
examples of the apologue is found in Chaucer's
Nonne Preste's Tale, which is but an enlarge-
ment of Marie de France's Don Coc et don Wer-
pieL Lydgate's The Churl and the Bird is an-
other good example of the English apoloprue,
while Gay takes precedence as the leading Eng-
lish fabulist. In Spain, Italy, and Russia the
most important names are those of Yriarte,
whose fables are still enjoyed because of their
sprightliness and charm, Pignotti, and Krylov.
Many of Andersen's wonder stories are fables,
in which the weaknesses of human nature are
treated with an exquisite humor and sarcasm,
not inferior to those of La Fontaine.

The stories of Bror Rabbit and the other ani-
mals by Joel Chandler Harris (q.v.) do not be-
long under the fable proper, as they are not the
invention of the writer, but are valuable records
of the folklore (q.v.) of the African- Americans.
The same is true of similar stories gathered
from the Indian tribes.

Consult: Lessing, TJeber das fVcsen der Fabel
(1700); Robert, Fables inedites des dousitme,
treisidwe, et quatorstieme siecles, et fa-lies de La
Fontaine rapprocliees de celles de tous les au-
teurs (Paris, 1825) ; Loiseleur Deslongehamps,
Essai sur les fables indiennes et sur leur intro-
duction en Europe (ib., 1838) ; Bechstein, My the,
Sage, Mare and Fafiel im Lelben und Beiousstsein
des deutschen Volkes (3 vols., Leipzig, 1854-
55); Benfey, Pantschatantra (ib., 1859);
Schlenker, Collection of Temne Traditions, Fa-
Ues, and Proverbs (London, 1861) ; Bleek, Rey-
nard the Fox in South Africa (ib., 1864) ; Her-
vieux, Les fabulistes latins depuis le siccle d'Au-
guste jusqu'a- la fin du moyen age (5 vols.,
Paris, 1884-99) ; Weddigen, Das Wesen und die
Theorie der Falel (Leipzig, 1893) ; Hirsch, Die
Falel (CSthen, 1894); Bieber, 8tudien sur Ge-
schichte der FaJbel in den ersten Jalirhunderten
der Eaisenseit (Munich, 1900) ; Levrault, La
fakel, evolution du genre (Paris, 1905) ; Revil-
lout, CfLa fable en Egypte," in the Revue des
Questions historiques, vol. Ixrsii (ib., 1907) ;
Plessow, Gesohichte der Faficldichtung in Eng-
land Us &u John Gay, lim (Berlin, 1906) ;
Marchiano, L'Origine della favola greoa e i suoi
rapporti con le favole orientali (Trani, 1900) ;
Archibald, The Fable as a Stylistic Test m
Classical Greek Literature (Baltimore, 1912);

FABLE FOR CRITICS 3

Macdonnell, History of Sanskrit Literature
(London, 1013).

FABLE FOR CRITICS, A. A satirical poem
by James Russell Lowell (1848), reviewing
American writers and critics.

FABLIATTX, fa'blyo' (Fr., from OF. falliaus,
fallel, Prov. fablel, short story; connected with
Lat. fabella, diminutive of f alula, story) . Short
stories in French octosyllabic verse, chiefly of
the thirteenth century, frankly coarse, often
brutal, usually comic and ironical, often cyni-
cally skeptical and bitter in their treatment of
women, intensely satirical when describing the
hypocrisy and vices of the weaker brethren of
the clergy. They are realistic stories of every-
day life, 'almost never touching upon the super-
natural, and give a melancholy, possibly too
dark, picture of national morals. They typify
the esprit gaulois in their mocking disrespect
for higher authority and their humorous treat-
ment of salacious subjects. They appealed es-
pecially to the middle and lower classes, as a
healthv reaction against the lackadaisical senti-
mentality of the lais, and have proved a store-
house to the novelists and dramatists of later
times. Modern short-story writers are but the
disciples of these early jongleurs (who both com-
posed and recited the fabliaux) when they make
everything subservient to the interest and climax
of their story. From them Boccaccio, Chaucer,
Shakespeare abroad, and in France the "nouvel-
listes en prose" of the fourteenth to the sixteenth
century (e.g., La Salle, Marguerite de Navarre),
later even Moliere, drew some of their best ma-
terial. The best collection of them is the Recueil
general et complet des fabliau® des XHIeme
et XIV erne sideles , by Montaiglon and Ray-
naud (6 vols., Paris, 1872-90). Consult: BeMier,
Les faUia'uos (ib., 1893); W. M. Hart, "The
Fabliau and Popular Literature" in Publications
of the^ Modern Language Association of America
(Baltimore, 1908) ; Gaston Paris, La litterature
[ran^aisc au wot/en, age (Xle-XIVe sifccle)
(Paris, 1909).

FABRE, fa/or', FEBDHTATTO (1830-98). A
realistic Frerieh novelist, distinguished for his
psychologic analysis of priestly character. Un-
able to follow his vocation, the priesthood, he
devoted himself at first to descriptions of clerical
life, as in Les Oourbezon, scenes de la vie cleri-
cule (1862), whose minute analysis made him
seem to Sainte-Beuve "a strong pupil of Bal-
zac." Rustic sketches of his native southern
France, as minute in their observation, followed.
In this movement of "regionalism" tacitly as-
serting that Parisian life is not the only exclu-
sively interesting aspect of French life, he
easily proved himself to be a most powerful and
inspiring factor. His most noteworthy novels
are Mon oncle Celestin: moBura clericales (1881)
and Z/M.J&6 Tigrane, candidat & la papaute
(1873), both clerical in subject and both trans-
lated into English. All his novels are directed,
in one way or another, against ascetic pride
and self-deception. They show a robust, healthy
sympathy with life, a rather heavy playfulness,
and a divination of the celibate clerical mind
that is unique in this generation. Consult E.
W. Gosse, French Profiles (London, 1905), and
G. Pellissier, Etudes de Uttfoatwre contempo-
rame (Paris, 1898).

FABRE, FBANQOIS XAVIEB PASCAL (1766-
1837). A French painter, born at Montpellier.
He was a pupil of David and won the Prix de
Rome in 1787. Afterward he lived in Florence,

18 FABRE

where he painted principally portraits and be-
came professor at the Academy. It is supposed
that he privately married the Duchess of Al-
bany, the widow of the "Young Pretender,"
who at her death made him her sole heir. The
collection of works of art she left him he added
to considerably and bequeathed to the city of
Montpellier to form the nucleus of the Musee
Fabre. He also established a school of design
at Montpellier in connection with the museum,
and was himself its first director. Most of his
works are at Montpellier. They include "Death
of Abel," "Saul's Remorse," and a portrait of
Canova. His "Neoptolemus and Ulysses" is in
the Louvre. The paintings of Fabre are in the
classical style and, though highly finished, are
relatively good in color.

FABRE, HECTOB (1834-1910). A Canadian
journalist. He was born in Montreal and was
educated at L'Assomption and St. Hyacinthe
Colleges, and at St. StQpice College in his native
city. He studied laW and was called to the
bar in 1856; but he relinquished the legal pro-
fession and entered journalism, becoming editor
of L'Qrdre (Montreal). In 1863-66 lie edited
the well-known Le Canadien (Quebec) and in
1869 founded L'flv&iement in that city. In
1873 he was an unsuccessful Liberal candidate
for the House of Commons, but in 1875 he was
appointed a member of the Dominion Senate.
In. 1882 he became resident agent in Paris for
the Quebec and Dominion governments and re-
signed his seat in the Senate. In Paris he
founded the French-Canadian journal, Paris-
Canada. He was elected a fellow of the Royal
Society of Canada and in 1886 was appointed a
companion of the Order of St. Michael and St.
George. His writings, especially the Chro-
niques, were remarkable for vivacity and wit.
He published: Esquisse liographie sur Chevalier
de Loriniier (1856); JEcrivains Canadiens
(1865); Confederation, Independence, Annexa-
tion (1871); Chroniques (1877).

FABRE, JEAN HENBI (1823-1915). A dis-
tinguished French entomologist, born at Saint-
Leons, Aveyron. For some years he was a
teacher in the Lyce*e of Avignon and professor
of physics at the College of Ajaccio. He became
a corresponding member of the Institute and a
chevalier of the Legion of Honor. In retire-
ment at Sdrignan he produced his greatest work,
Souvenirs entomologiques (10 vols., 1879-1907),
which was crowned by the Institute. His works •
also include: La science 6l6mentaire (1862-65) ;
Histoire de la luche (1866) ; Notions prelimin-
naires de physique (1867-70); Le lime d'his-
toire (1868); Les ravageurs (1870); Astro-
nomie elementaire (1872); Les aumliavres
(1873) ; Lectures scientifiques : ssoblogie (1873) ;
Bolanique (1874) ; Premiers 6l6ments de physique
(1874); De chimie (1875), De sciences natu-
relles (1875) ; Les serviteurs (1875) ; La plante
(1875); L'Industrie (1875); Cours complet
d'en&eignement litteraire et soientifique (1876);
Lvore des champs (1879) ; Les inventeurs et
leurs inventions (1880) ; Le vie des insects
(1910). Parts of Ms writings have been pub*
lished in English as Insect Life, trans, by the
author of Mile. Mori (1901) ; The Life and Love
of the Insect, trans, by A. T. de Mattos (1911) ;
Social Life in the Insect World, trans, by Ber-
nard Miall (1913) ; The Life of the Spider, trans,
by A. T. de Mattos (1913) ; The Life of the Fly,
trans, by A, T. de Mattos (1913) ,• etc.
FABRE, IVUttTF, JOSEPH VIOTOBIN (1785*

FABBE D'ECKLANTINE

319

FABBICE

1831). A French poet, born at Jaujao (Ar-
diehe). The brilliant success achieved in his
youth with his Eloge de Boileau ( 1805) , crowned
by the Academy, did not continue beyond a few
years. He died practically forgotten. His
works were collected (1844-45) by one of his
pupils, JT. Sabbatier. They include the best
poems, Discours en vers sur les voyages (1807) ;
Mloge sur Pierre Corneille (1808) ; La mort de
Henri IV (1808); Opuscules en vers et en
prose (1806) ; Eloge de La Bruyere (1810).

FABRE D'EGLANTOTE, fVbr' da'glaN'tgn',
PHILIPPE FBANC?OIS NAZAIBE (1750-94). A
French dramatist, born at Carcassonne. He was
an actor in his youth and did not establish him-
self in Paris until 1787. During the next seven
years he produced 27 plays, the best known of
which are Le Philinte de Holier e, or La suite du
Misanthrope (1790) ; Le convalescent de qualitt
ou I'aristocrate (1791), and Les prfoepteurs, a
posthumous comedy (1799). He was an ardent
Revolutionist, a friend of Danton and Desmou-
lins, and president of the Cordeliers. Sent as a
deputy to the Convention, he voted for the death
of the King. He was accused of corruption by
his enemies and of -moderation by Robespierre,
and with Danton and Desmoulins was con-
demned and executed. The accusation was after-
ward disproved. His GEuvres mSlees et postumes
(2 vols.) were published in 1892 and his Corre-
spondance amoureuse (3 vols.) in 1796 and a
second edition in 1899.

FABRETTI, fa-brSt't$, ABIODANTO (1816-
94). An Italian antiquary. He was born at
Perugia, and became professor of archaeology in
the University of Turin in 1860 and director of
the museum of Antiquities there in 1868. He
was the author of Corpus Inscriptionum ItaU-
carum Antiquioris Mvi ( 1867 ) , and manv works
on the history and antiquities of Perugia. He
was made a senator of Italy in 1889.

FABBETTI, RATPAELE (1618-1700). A dis-
tinguished Italian antiquary and archaeologist,
born at Urbino, in Umbria. While a student of
law at Rome he was attracted to the study of
the ancient ruins and from that time devoted
himself as far as possible to classical and anti-
quarian research. Under Pope Alexander VII
he became treasurer and subsequently auditor to
the Papal Embassy at Madrid. After 13 years
at Madrid he returned to Rome, taking advan-
tage of his journey through Spain and France
to become acquainted with the Roman remains
in those countries. At Rome he was made judge.
Later, after a short residence at the Papal
Legation in Urbino, he returned once more to
Rome and devoted himself to his favorite pur-
suits until he was appointed by Innocent XII
keeper of the papal archives of the castle of St.
Angelo — a post of great responsibility, which
he held till his death. His more important
works are: "De Aquis et Aquae Ductibus Veteris
Romae," in Grsevius, Thesaurus, vol. iv (1680);
De Columna Traiani Syntagma (1683; 2d ed.,
1790), containing also a discussion of the so-
called Tabula Iliaoa (q.v.) ; and Inscriptionum
Antiquarum Eaplicatio (1699). ^ His collection
of inscriptions and monuments is deposited in
the Ducal Palace of Urbino.

FABRI, fa'bre, FELIX (German name, Sokrnid}
(?-1502). A German monk and author. He
was lector in the Dominican monastery in Ulm,
and made two voyages to the Holy Land — the
first to Jerusalem (1480), and the second
(1483), upon which he had entered as chaplain

to Johann von Waldburg, to Jerusalem and Mt.
Sinai and thence by way of Cairo and Alex-
andria to Venice, where he arrived Jan. 8, 1484.
After his return to Ulm lie published an account
of this tour, which is probably the most impor-
tant work of the kind that appeared during the
latter part of the Middle Ages. The German
version was published in Feyrabend's Reyssbuch
des keiliff&t Lands (Frankfort, 1584), the Latin
version in vols. ii, iii, and iv of tli*1 BiUiothels
des litterarischen Vereins (Stuttgart, 1843-49).

FABRI, FBIEDEICH (1824-91). A German
Protestant theologian and promoter of coloniza-
tion. He was born at Schweinfurt and was
educated at Erlangen and Berlin. After holding
several pastorates he was appointed director of
the Missionary Society at Barmen in 1857. He
retained this post until 1884, when he retired to
Godesberg-on-the-Rhine, where he developed a
beneficent activity as president of the Evangeli-
cal Society for the German Protestants in
America. He was appointed to an honorary
professorship at Bonn in 1889 and attracted at-
tention by his numerous writings on religious
subjects and on Germany's colonial policy, of
which the most important are Bedarf Deutsch-
land der Kolonien? (3d ed., 1884) and Ftinf
Jahre deutscher Kolonialpolitik (1889). His
other literary works include: Brief e gegen den
Materialismus (1856) ; Die Entstehung des Bei-
dentums und die Aufgabe der Seidenmission
(1859) ; Die politische Lage und die ZuJcunft
der evangelischen Kirohe in DeutscMand (3d ed.,
1874) ; 8taat und Kirche (3d ed., 1872).

FABRI, JACQUES L. D'ESTAPLES. See FABEB.

FABRI, JOHANNES. See FABEB.

FABRIACTO, fa'bre-a7n6. An episcopal city
of Ancona, central Italy, 1066 feet, above sea
level, at the foot of the Apennines', 44 miles
southwest of Ancona (Map: Italy, D 3). In the
city hall and in several churches and private
houses are paintings by the local school, of
which Allegretto Nuzi (1308-85) was the head,
followed by his pupil, Gentile da Fabriano
(1370-1451). The paper and gunpowder manu-
factories of the city have been famous since
the fourteenth century; it also manufactures
parchment leather, and has trade in grain and
cattle. Pop. (commune), 1901, 21,096; 1911,
23,752.

FATyRTATTO, GENTILE DA. See GENTILE DA
FABBIANO.

FABRICS, fa-breV, GEOBG FEIKDEICH ALFRED,
COUNT ( 1818-91) . A German soldier and states-
man, born at Quesnoy-sur-Deule, France. In
1834 he entered the Saxon cavalry and by 1865
had become chief of the general staff with rank
of major general. When Saxony joined Austria
against Prussia in 1866, he was appointed chief
of staff to the Crown Prince Albert, commander
of the forces of Saxony in Bohemia. After the
war, in October, 1866, he became Minister of
War of Saxony. He acted as the representative
of Saxony in the negotiation of the military
convention with Prussia and reorganized the
army of Saxony after the Prussian type. He
took a prominent part in the Franco-German
War, and in 1871, after the preliminaries at
Versailles, which he largely conducted, he was
in command of the German army of occupation
in France and later in the same year was a
second time appointed Minister of War of Sax-
ony. He became Prime Minister of the Kingdom
in 1876 and Minister for Foreign Affairs in 1882
and was made Baron in 1878 and Count hi

FABBICIAH BBIDGE

320

FABBicrcrs

1884. Consult Dittrich, General von Fabrice
(Dresden, 1884).

FABBICIAtf (fa-brish'an) BBIDGffl. A
stone bridge at Rome, joining the island of ^E3scu-
lapius with the left bank of the Tiber, built by
Lucius Fabricius in 62 B.C., to replace a wooden
bridge dating from about 192 B.C. It is the only
ancient Roman bridge that has endured. Of its
four arches, one is hidden by the modern em-
bankment. It is now the Ponte dei Quattro
Capi. Consult Platner, The Topography and
Monuments of Ancient Rome (2d ed., New York,
1911).

PABBICItTS, fa-bre'tsS-us, DAVID (1564-
1C17). A German theologian and astronomer,
born at Esens, East Friesland. In 1584 he be-
came pastor at Resterhaave and in 1G03 at Os-
teel, where on May 7, 1617, he was murdered by
a peasant whom he had accused from the pulpit
of theft. The variable star Mira, in the constel-
lation Ceti, was discovered by him (Aug. 3,
1596) ; and his astronomical and meteorological
observations were of service to Kepler in the
investigation of the planet Mars. In 1895 a
monument was erected to his memory in the
churchyard of Osteel.

FABBICITTS, fa-brlsh'us, GAIUS FABBICIUS
Luscraus. A Roman general and statesman of
the fourth and third centuries B.C., who became
for later ages a model of incorruptibility. He
was consul in 282 B.C. and again in 278. In
282 he defeated the Bruttians and the Lucan-
ians. He commanded in the war against Pyrrhus
(q.v.). Tradition declared that, when, after the
defeat of the Romans at Heraclea in 286, he
was sent to treat for the ransoming of the pris-
oners, Pyrrhus sought to bribe him in order
to gain a favorable peace, but that Fabricius
scorned the bribe and made such an impression
on the King that the -Roman prisoners were im-
mediately released. On another occasion the
physician of Pyrrhus offered to Fabricius to
poison his master; but, said the story, the up-
right Roman sent information of the treachery
to the King, whereupon Pyrrhus again released
all his Roman prisoners, in order not to fall
behind in this contest of generosity. In 278
Fabriciua concluded a peace with Pyrrhus, who
left Italy. In 276 Fabricius was censor, together
with Quintus JEmilius Papus, and as such
carried out with great vigor the old Roman
sumptuary laws. For victories over the Brut-
tians, the Lucanians, and the Samnites he was
honored with a triumph. He died poor, and it
is said that his daughter was aided by a grant
from state funds.

FABBICITTS, fa-brS'tsS-us, GEOBQ (1516-
71). A German, scholar and Neo-Latin poet,
born in Chemnitz, Saxony. He became rector of
the College of Meissen in 1546, and in 1570 was
appointed poet laureate by Maximilian II. He
owes his reputation to his Latin poetry, pub-
lished in Poematum Sacrorwn Libri XV (1560).
He also prepared an edition of the scholia to
Horace (1555); he edited Terence (1548) and
Vergil (1551). He wrote three elaborate works
on Roman archaeology, Antiqwtatu/ni Libri II
(1549), Itinerum Liber Unus (1551), and Roma
(1551). In his Roma he described the remains
of ancient Rome and collected the references to
them in Roman literature. He -wrote also on
the history of Saxony. Consult Baumgarten-
Crusius, De Georgti Fabririi Vita et Scriptis
(Meissen, 1839).
FABRICItrS, or FABBIZIO, fa-brS'tsS-o',

GIROLAMO (1537-1619). An Italian anatomist
and surgeon, commonly named, from his birth-
place, Fabricius ab Aquapendente. He was the
son of humble parents, who sent him to the Uni-
versity of Padua, where, in addition to the
usual instruction in the classics, he studied anat-
omy and surgery under Fallopius. On the
death of the latter, in 1562, Fabricius was ap-
pointed to fill the vacant professorship. He
continued to hold this oflice for nearly half a
century, during which period his high reputation
for eloquence, general and professional knowl-
edge, attracted students from all parts of the
civilized world to Padua. Among these students
was Harvey (q.v.), who derived from Fabricius'
observations on the valves of the veins the first
clew to his great discovery of the circulation of
the blood. Fabricius was a most laborious stu-
dent of comparative anatomy, from the stand-
point of which he treated the eye, the larynx,
the ear, the intestinal canal, the development of
the foBtus, and many other subjects. The im-
provements which his knowledge of anatomy en-
abled him to introduce into the practice of sur-
gery were very great; and his Opera Chirurgica
(1617), which embraced every complaint curable
by manual operation, passed through 17 editions.
The Venetian Republic erected for him a spa-
cious anatomical amphitheatre, gave him an an-
nual stipend of 1000 crowns, and created him a
knight of the Order of St. Mark.

FABBICITTS, Ger. pron. ffc-brS'tsS-oos, Jo-
IIANN AJDBERT ( 1668-1736 ) . A German classical
scholar, born at Leipzig. He was professor of
rhetoric and ethics at Hamburg from 1699 to his
death. He stands preeminent among scholars
for his two literary synopses, Bibliotheca Latina
(3 vols., 1697, revised and improved by Brnesti,
Leipzig, 1773), and Bibliotheca Graca (H vols.,
1705-28, revised by Harlcs, Hamburg, 1790), his
greatest work. These two works give respec-
tively the history of Latin and Greek literature;
the Bibliotheca Grceca is founded on a first-hand
knowledge of every edition quoted and is the
basis of every subsequent history of Greek litera-
ture. He published -also: BibUotheca Latina
Mcdice et Infimce JEtatis (5 vols., 1734), BibU-
otheca Antiquaria, which gave the modern litera-
ture of classical antiquities (1731^36), and
reSdited Banduri's BibUotheca Nummaria, which
gave the literature of numismatics (q.v.). He
is known among theologians for his collections
of the apocryphal and pseudepigraphical litera-
ture (1703 and 1713). Consult- the biography
by his son-in-law, H. S. Reimar, De Vita et
Scriptis J. A. Fabricii Commentarius (Hamburg,
1737) ; Mice*ron, Memovres des hommes, vol. xi
(Paris, 1739) ; Sandys, A History of Classical
Scholarship, vol. iii (Cambridge, 1908).

PABBICIUS, JOHANN (1587-1615). A Ger-
man astronomer. He was born in East Fries-
land, studied medicine at Wittenberg, and was
afterward educated in astronomy by his father,
David Fabricius. He appears also to have
spent some time in Holland and to have ob-
tained there for his father one of the earliest
specimens of the astronomical telescope. In his
famous work, Narratio de Maoulis in Sole 05-
servatis et Apparente Earum cum Sole Cowoer-
sione, published at Wittenberg in 1611, he an-
nounces his discovery of the solar spots and of
the rotation of the sun on its axis. In his letters
to Marcus Velserius (Markus Welser), not pub-
lished until 1613, Galileo claims to have discov-
ered the solar spots in November, 1610, It is

FABBICItTS 3

ptobable, therefore, that the honor of priority
remains with Fabricius.

FABBJCITJS, JOIIAJN-N (1644-1729). A Ger-
man theologian, born at Altorf, near Nurem-
berg, and educated at Nuremberg, Helmstedt,
and Altorf. In 1677 he became professor of the-
ology at Altorf, and in 1697 at Helmstedt. In
1701 he was appointed abbot of Konigslutter,
and in 1703 counselor of the Consistory of the
Dukedom of Brunswick. On comparative sym-
bolism he wrote Consideratio Variorum Gontro-
versiarum cum Atheis, Gentilious Jud&is, Mo»
hammedanis, Socianis, Anabaptist is, Pontificiis,
IteformatiSi (1704; abridged ed., 1715), which so
incensed the strict Lutherans that he was bit-
terly attacked on all sides. His Gutachten
(1704), in which he recommended the Princess
Elizabeth Christine of Brunswick to embrace
Catholicism in order to be married to Charles
of Spain (afterward the Emperor Charles VI),
caused great scandal and brought about the
dismissal of Fabricius from the university in
1709. His Eistoria Bibliothecos FabrioiancB
(1717-24) and Amcenitates Theologicoe (1699)
give much autobiographical information.

FABRICIUS, JOHANN CHBISTTAN (1743-
1808). A German entomologist, born at Ton-
dern in Schlcswig. He studied at Copenhagen,
Leyden, Edinburgh, Freiberg in Saxony, and
Upsala, where he was -a pupil of Linnaeus. In
1775 he became professor of natural history at
the University of Kiel. He developed a system
for the classification of insects, based upon the
structure of the mouth parts, which had an im-
portant influence upon the development of the
science. His principal works are: 8y sterna, En-
tomologica (1775); Philosophia Entomologica
(1778); Supplementum Entomologies (1797).

FABRICIUS HILDANTTS, properly WIL-
HELM FABBY (1560-1634). A German surgeon.
He was born at Hilden, near Diisseldorf, and was
educated at Cologne. After practicing at Lau-
sanne and at Payerne (Canton of Waadt) he
became physician of the city of Bern, where his
great renown as a teacher and operator attracted
students from all parts of Europe. Besides his
work Observationum et Gurationum Ghirurgica-
rum Centuries (Lyons, 1641), he wrote: De Gan-
grcena et Sphacelo (1593); Lithotomia Vesicoe
( 1626 ) ; and the treatise entitled Kurze Beschrei-
bung der Fiirtrefflichkeit, Nutss und Notwendig-
keit der Anatomey (1624).

FABBIZI, f&-brgt'se, NICOLA (1804r-85). An
Italian soldier and patriot, born at Modena. For
taking part in the Modena insurrection of 1831
he was thrown into prison. Upon gaining his
freedom he went to Marseilles, where he helped
Mazzini organize the Savoy expedition. Later
he fought in Spain on the Liberal side against
the Carlists, and after this war he established
himself at Malta. With Crispi he organized a
revolution in 1848 and another uprising in 1860
in Sicily. In the latter year he united his forces
with those of Garibaldi at Palermo, and under
the latter's dictatorship he was Governor of
Messina and Minister of War. In 1861 he aided
Cialdini in the extirpation of brigandage and in
1866 he was Garibaldi's chief of staff. Later
he became a member of the Italian national
Parliament.

FABBONI, fa-br^nS, ANGELO (1732-1803).
An Italian biographical writer, born at Marradi,
in Tuscany. He was educated at Faenza and
Rome, and in 1773 was appointed tutor to the
sons of Leopold, Grand Duke of Tuscany. His

most important works are: Vitce ItaJorum Doe*
tnna Excellentium qui Sasculo XVII et XVIII
floruerunt (20 vols., 1778-1805); the Laurentii
Medicei Vita (1748); the Vita Magni Cosmi
Medicei (1788-89).

FABROKI, or EABBRONI, GIOVANNI VA-
LENTINO MATOEO (1752-1822). An Italian
chemist, naturalist, and engineer, born in
Florence. As the friend and collaborator of
Fontana he became director of the physical cabi-
net of the Grand Duke of Tuscany. He was
appointed by Napoleon director of the roads
and bridges leading beyond the Alps. The con-
struction of the pass across Mount Genfcvre, and
the Corniche, the celebrated road leading from
Kice to Geneva, was carried out by him. He
worked in almost every field of science, so that
Cuvier dubbed him a "living encyclopaedia." He
wrote many useful treatises on botany, chemis-
try, and rural economy, such as Antichita, van-
taggi e metodo della pittura enoausta (1797);
Degli antichi aoitatori d' Italia (1803); Ricerche
snUa Quina (1803) ; Dei provvedimenti annonarj
(1808).

FABBY, fo/br£, WILHELK. See FABBICIUS,
HILDANUS.

FABULOUS AMTrMALS. See BESTIABIESJ
GBEFFIN; UNICORN; FABLE; HEBALDBY; BASILISK.

FABVIER, fa'vya', CHABLES NICOLAS, BARON
(1782-1855). A French general and philhellene.
He was born at Pont-&-Mousson and in 1807 was
sent by Napoleon to Constantinople to fortify
that city against an attack by the English fleet.
He later organized a park of artillery at Ispa-
han, Persia, for defense against Russia. He
was the adjutant of General Marmont in Spain
in 1811, and in 1813 was advanced to the rank
of colonel on the general staff. In consequence
of his political activity against the restored
monarchy he went to England, and in 1823 to
Greece to participate in the War of Greek Inde-
pendence. He was appointed commander in chief
of infantry, but failed to retain the confidence of
the Greeks, because of the unfortunate expedi-
tion to the island of Chios and the loss of the
Acropolis; and in 1829 he returned to Paris,
where he became chief of staff to the National
Guard. In 1848 he was Ambassador to Constan-
tinople. His publications include Journal dea
operations du VI corps pendant la campagne de
18H en France (1819). Consult Debidour, Le
general Palmer, sa vie et ses Merits (Paris,
1892), and the same author's "Fabvier a
TAcropole" and "Les dernieres annees du Gen6-
ral Fabvier," in Seances et travauao de VAcade-
mie des sciences morales et politiques, vols.
159, 161 (Paris, 1903, 1904).

FA03YAN1, or FABIAN, ROBEBT (7-1513).
An English chronicler, who was a member of the
Drapers' Company and an alderman of London.
His Neiv Chronicles of England and France, first
published in 1516, begin with the arrival of
Brutus and extend to the battle of Bosworth
(1485). His efforts to harmonize the accounts
of previous writers were rendered almost value-
less by his lack of judgment and his inability to
sift evidence, but he is a valuable authority for
the affairs of London during his own time. The
chronicle was continued by others in successive
editions until 1558, and in 1811 an edition was
issued by Sir Henry Ellis. In Stow's Survey of
London there seems to have been used material
gathered by Fabyan but not found in his
Chronicles.

FACADE

322

FACIAL PARALYSIS

FAQADE, f&-sad' or fa-sad' (Fr., front of a
building) . The exterior front or face of a build-
ing. The rear of an important building is
sometimes called the rear facade, and an edifice
niay have as many facades as it has architec-
tural faces with individual treatment. Thus a
Gothic cruciform church commonly has three
facades — viz., the west or main front, and
the ends of each transept; in a Greek temple
the two short gable ends are facades, while the
two long sides are merely flanks. An elevation
of the side of a building is called the lateral
faqade. The sides of a court or cortile are often
called facades, but this is an incorrect applica-
tion of the term. A facade which does not con-
form to the section of the building behind it,
but rises above or extends beyond it, is called a
screen facade, as in. the case of many Italian
churches (Pisa Cathedral, the Certosa at Pavia,
etc.), of some English cathedrals, as Peter-
borough and Lincoln, and of many Romanesque
churches of France. Such a method was appar-
ently unknown in ancient and early Christian
architecture.

FACATATIVA, fa'ka-ta'te-va'. A town in
the Department of Cundinamarca, Colombia,
about 20 miles northwest of Bogota. It lies
about 8500 feet above sea level, and was a for-
tress of the Chibcha Indians, whose last chief,
Triquesupa, was killed here by a soldier under
Quesada in 1538. The town derives some com-
mercial importance from its proximity to the
capital.. Pop,, about 8000.

FACCIOLATI, fa'chd-la'tS, JACOPO (1682-
1769). An Italian classical scholar and lexicog-
rapher. He was born at Torreglia, not far from
Padua, and was educated at Padua, where lie
became professor of logic and later rector of the
Institution. He was famous throughout Europe
as a teacher. He directed his attention chiefly
to the revival of the study of ancient literature,
and with this object brought out a new edition
of the Lexicon Septem Linguarum, called, from
its original author, the monk Ambrosius of
Calepio, the Calepine Lexicon (see CALEPINO).
He was assisted in this work by his pupil, Egidio
Forcellini (1715-19). To Faeciolati has often
been credited the conception of a great \vork,
Totius Latinitatis Leancon; it has commonly
been said that Forcellini aided him in this work.
But C. E. Bennett in "The Authorship of the
Forcellini Lexicon," in The Classical WeeUy,
v, 3«7 (New York, 1911), has clearly shown
that Forcellini not only conceived and planned
this work, but executed it in full himself; for
forty years (1718-.58) he labored on the Lexicon,
which was finally published in four volumes
(Padua, 1771). The Lexicon in its time was of
immense value; original documents printed in
the last revision, by De Vit (Prato, 1858-87),
prove clearly Forcellini's authorship. It has
been said that, were Latin literature to perish,
it could be restored from Forcellini's Leasicon.
Facciolati published Fasti Gtymnasii Patavini, a
history of the University of Padua ( 1757 ) . Fac-
ciolati and Forcellini, assisted by several others,
likewise published a new edition of Nizoli's
TJiesaurus Ciceronianus. See FOBOKLLINI.

FACETXffi, fe-sS'shl-S (Lat., witticisms). A
collection of witty sayings and short tales in
Ijrose or in verse. A Greek collection of this
kind called A&teia (ed. by Eberhard, Berlin,
1869) was attributed to Hierocles (q.v.). Face-
tiae were common in the late mediaeval Latin

writers, but the first book devoted wholly to
them seems to have been the Liber Facetiarum
of Poggio Bracciolini (Rome, 1470). For the
jest in modern literature, see JEST.

FACHETJX, fa'shS", LES (Fr., The Bores) . A
comedy by Moliere (1661).

FA'CIAL ANGLE. See ANTHROPOMETRY.
FACIAL NEBVES. The seventh cranial
nerve in Somrnering's classification is the motor
nerve of the face. It originates in the floor of
the fourth ventricle of the medulla oblongata.
Leaving the interior of the skull by a diverse
course through the temporal bone, entering the
petrous portion of the latter through the internal
auditory meatus, it reaches the tympanum,
crosses its internal wall, takes a downward
course through the Fallopian canal, and finds its
exit through the stylomastoid foramen. It sup-
plies the buccinator and all the muscles of ex-
pression of the face, the muscles of the external
ear, the platysma, stylohyoid, and part of the
digastric muscle in the neck. According to an
earlier classification the seventh and ^ eighth
nerves were considered as one, because in part
of their course they occupy a common sheath.
From their consistency the facial was called the
portio dura, and the eighth, or auditory, the
portio mollis. The sensory nerve of the face is
the trigeminus, or trifacial nerve, known as the
fifth in Sommering's list. It has three branches :
(1) the ophthalmic, which passes to the eyeball,
the brow, the forehead, and the nose; (2) the
superior maxillary, which supplies the side of
the nose, the lower eyelid, and upper lip; (3)
the inferior maxillary, which supplies principally
the teeth and gums of the lower jaw and the
lower lip. For the deep origin and exact descrip-
tion of these nerves, consult Gray, Anatomy
(Philadelphia, 1913).

FACIAL NEtTBALGIA. A paroxysmal pam
in the head and face, in the parts to which
the trifacial or trigeminal nerve runs. (See
FACIAL NEBVES.) There are two varieties: i.
Symptomatic facial neuralgia, with pains sharp
and intense, often lasting for many days without
ceasing, or disappearing and returning fre-
quently. It is caused by aneemia, exposure, bad
teeth, gout, rheumatism, diabetes, syphilis, ma-
laria, hysteria, epilepsy, injury, or septic poison.
Application of heat or of menthol may relieve,
or quinine, arsenic, or aconitia (a dangerous
drug), with treatment of the cause. 2. Tic
douloureux, a very intense form, in which the
pains last a few moments each time, recurring
on moving the tongue or chewing, exposure to a
draft, etc., and dependent upon a neuritis or
degenerative process in the nerve. Salicylates,
injections of alcohol, or electrical diffusion of
cocaine or iodides may relieve. Removal of a
part of the nerve or of a ganglion connected with
the nerve may be required. The ganglion itself
has been injected by means of a long hollow
needle— an exceedingly delicate operation, not
unattended with danger.

FACIAL PARALYSIS. Paralysis of the
facial nerve on which depends the power to move
the muscles of the face. One or both sides of
the face may be thus affected. The paralysis
may be central, due to disease of the brain, or
peripheral, due to disease of the nucleus from
which the nerve springs, or of the nerve itself.
The latter is the frequent type and is called
"Bell's palsy." In this form there is paralysis
of one side of the face, which comes on rapidly,

FACINGS

the face being drawn to the unaffected side,
while the eye of the affected side remains open,
the tears overflow, the tongue deviates to the
affected side, and saliva drips from the angle
of the mouth. The patient cannot whistle. Food
collects between the cheek and the gums on the
affected side. Taste is lost in many cases on
the anterior part of the tongue on the affected
side. Electrical contraction of the affected mus-
cles is abnormal and in time reveals degeneration
of the nerve tissue. Facial palsy is caused by
gout, exposure, syphilis, or middle ear disease,
etc. The treatment usually consists in the ad-
ministration of iron and strychnine, and the
application of galvanism over the "motor points"
of the individual muscles thus affected. A hook
of protected wire worn over the ear and holding
up the angle of the mouth may be of use in some
cases. The cause must also be treated. Re-
covery is the rule, except in cases where the
nerve has been divided by operation or disease.
Anastomoses of the peripheral end of the cut
nerve with the spinal accessory or the hypoglossal
nerves is sometimes undertaken, with a fair
degree of success. See PARALYSIS.

FACINGS, MUJTAET. The colored trimmings
of military uniforms, which denote the branch
of the service to which the wearer belongs. The
facings on the edge of a coat are called piping,
those on the skirt of the coat, back slashes.
Formerly the term facings applied only to the
colored cuffs and collars. In the United States
the facings of infantry are white and blue; of
cavalry, yellow; and of artillery, scarlet. The
uniform regulations of 1902 substituted for the
colored cuffs and collars dark blue piped with
the appropriate color, except in the Quarter-
master Corps, which retained the buff collar and
cuff. The other facings are as follows: Engi-
neers, scarlet piped with white; Hospital Corps,
maroon piped with white; Ordnance, black piped
with scarlet; Service Schools, green; Signal
Corps, orange piped with white.

Up to the end of the last century in the Brit-
ish army the royal regiments used blue facings;
the nonroyal white for English, yellow for Scot-
tish, and green for Irish regiments. This cus-
tom has been changed and at the present time
regiments are authorized to use the distinctive
regimental colors and facings belonging to the
individual regiment previous to 1881.

In modern armies bright-colored facings are
used only on the dress uniform, worn in garrison
and on ceremonial occasions. The field uniform,
for protective reasons, is of a neutral, nonde-
script color: olive drab in the United States
army, khaki in the British army. Similar neu-
tral colors are used for the field uniform of
other Powers.

FACING CANE, fa-chg'nd ka'n&. A tale by
Balzac, setting forth the story of the author's
struggles (1836).

FACSIMILE, fak-slml-ls (abbreviation of
Lat. factum simile, made like). An exact copy,
especially of handwriting, of printed works,
engravings, inscriptions, manuscripts, and the
like.

FAC'TOR (Lat., a maker, from facere, to
make). In arithmetic any one of the integral
numbers whose product is a given number is
called a factor of that number; e.g., in 72 =
*4--9-2, 4, 9, 2 are the factors of 72. A number
factor is a factor which is a prime number.
Thus the prime factors of 72 are 2, 2, 2, 3, 3. In
algebra the factors of a rational integral alge-

323

FACTOB

braic expression are the rational integral ex-
pressions which, multiplied together, produce it;
e.g., in a? — #6, the factors are (a? — y) , (# + y) ,
(a? + xy -}- ys) , (a?2 — x\j + I/3) . These factors
can be factored further, but not into rational
factors. Thus the expression is saiu to be fully
factored in the domain of rationality. The high-
est common factor in algebra is the factor of
highest degree common to the given expressions,
and although it corresponds to tho greatest com-
mon divisor in arithmetic, it must not be con-
founded with it. If numbers are substituted for
letters, the value of the highest common factor is
not always the greatest common divisor of the
values of the given expressions ; e.g., the highest
common factor of or — So? 4- 2 and a?2 — - SB — 2
is x — 2. Let a? = 31 ; then the values of the
expressions are 870, 928, whose greatest common
divisor is 58 ; but as — 2 is only 29. See also
DIVISION.

FACTOR. An agent employed to sell the
goods of another; in the United States such an
agent is usually called a commission merchant,
because he has his compensation in a commis-
sion or percentage upon the goods he sells. He
differs from a broker in that he has actual pos-
session of the goods of his principal and is em-
powered to deliver them to the purchaser as if
they were his own. He often buys and sells
in his own name, so that those dealing with him
may not know whether he is owner or factor.
Under some limitations for self-protection he
is bound by the instructions of his principal and
responsible for damages arising from a viola-
tion thereof. As a rule he must obey special
instructions, and if none are given, he is bound
to use all reasonable care in the management
of the property committed to his charge, to em-
ploy the usual methods of business, and to have
due regard to the interests and welfare of his
employer. Otherwise he is not entitled to his
commissions, and for injurious neglect of duty
may even be sued by his principal. He cannot .
delegate his authority without express permis-
sion of his principal unless such delegation is
justified by general usage or by stress of pe-
culiar circumstances. He cannot sell goods at
a sacrifice for the purpose of obtaining his com-
mission and advances. It is generally held that
a factor who has made advances upon goods
acquires such an interest in them that the prin-
cipal cannot take them out of his possession by
a revocation of his authority. The factor can
sell enough of them to reimburse himself if the
principal unreasonably neglects or refuses to
pay him. Sometimes, in consideration of an
increased commission, he guarantees to the prin-
cipal payment for the goods which have been
sold. In that case he acts under a del credere,
or guaranty, commission, and is in general sub-
ject to most of the obligations of a surety. It
was formerly held that a factor whose principal
resides in a foreign country is personally liable
to the other party, even though the foreign prin-
cipal was disclosed. The modern view is, how-
ever, that a factor who names his principal is
not personally liable on contracts made for his
principal, whether foreign or domestic, provided
they are within the factor's authority and do
not profess to bind him personally. See AGENT.
Consult: Mechem, Treatise on the Law of
Agency (Chicago, 1889) ; Evans, Treatise on the
Law of Principal and Agent (New York, 1891) ;
Bowstead, Digest of the Law of Agency (5th
ed., Toronto, 1912).

FAOTOSL ACTS 3

FACTOB ACTS. The legal designation of a
scries of modern statutes in England and Amer-
ica, conferring upon agents who are intrusted
with the possession of goods the authority to
vest a good title thereto in an innocent pur-
chaser. At common law a factor (q.v.) had
no implied authority to pledge or barter his
principal's goods. Even when they were shipped
to him, and their possession as well as the bill
of lading or other document of title intrusted
to him, he had not the legal power to pledge or
barter them. The common-law doctrine, that a
person cannot give a better title than he pos-
sesses, enabled the principal to recover his prop-
erty from a pledgee, although the latter had
advanced money to the factor in the honest be-
lief that he was the true owner. The inconven-
iences resulting from this principle, with the
opportunities for fraud which it permitted, led
the mercantile and banking community to de-
mand that a person into whose possession goods
or documents of title were put by the true owner
be treated as having unoualified power to dis-
pose of them. Partial effect was given to this
view in England by the Factors Act of 1825
(Geo. TV, e. 94), and in a few of our States
by legislation fashioned after that statute.
Under these acts, factors or agents of a similar
character, who are intrusted with the possession
of goods or the documents of title thereto for
the purpose of sale, are to be deemed the true
owners, so far as to give validity to any sale
or pledge made by them to an innocent pur-
chaser or pledgee for value. In England the new
doctrine has been carried even further than this.
Tbo courts there, as here, having construed the
earlier acts very strictly, the mercantile com-
munity has insisted upon their repeated revi-
sion; each new statute going further than its
predecessor towards the substitution for the com-
mon-law rule, stated above, of the doctrine which
prevails upon the continent of Europe, that any
one in the possession of goods, with the consent
of the owner, whether a factor or not, shall be
able to give a perfect title thereto to an inno-
cent purchaser for value from him. This legis-
lation, taken with that upon conditional sales,
has practically abrogated, so far as personal
property is concerned, the former doctrine of
the common law that the purchaser of property
buys it at his peril and gets only such title as
his vendor has to give. See CAVEAT EMPTOB.
Consult: Chambers, Sale of Goods Act (London,
1899) ; Pearson-Gee, Commentary on the Sale of
Goods Act (ib., 1S93) ; Burdick, The Law of
j?ales of Personal Property ( 3d ed., Boston, 1901) ;
Benjamin, Treatise on the Law of the Sale of
Personal Property (5th ed., London, 1906).

FACTOB OF SAFETY. The excess of
strength or capacity to resist stress due to forces
applied to the structure, expressed as a multi-
plier of the greatest anticipated normal stress.
That is, if a structure is six times as strong
as it need be to withstand the greatest expected
or computed stress, the factor of safetv is six.
It allows for some defects in the material, some
uncertainties in the assembly of structural ele-
ments, some exceptional increase in loads or
stresses above the normal or usual, some ex-
cessive stresses in the processes of assembly,
some ignorance, and differences of opinion as
to magnitudes of stresses and the resisting
strength of the materials. It is always more
than two, but rarely larger than ten. See
STKENGTH OF MATEBIALS.

14 FACTQKIES

FACTORIES AND THE FACTORY SYS-
TEM. A factory may be defined as an estab-
lishment where a number of persons cooperate
by consecutive processes in the production of
some article of consumption. Carroll D. Wright,
in his report on the factory system for the Tenth
United States Census, uses the following defini-
tion, which lie borrows from Taylor's Factories
and the Factory System, published in London in
1844: "A factory is an establishment where
several workmen are collected for the purpose
of obtaining greater and cheaper conveniences
for labor than they could procure individually
at their own homes; for producing results by
their combined efforts which they could not ac-
complish separately; and for preventing the loss
occasioned by carrying articles from place to
place during the several processes necessary to
complete their manufacture."

Historical Development. As is the case
with most other great industrial movements, it
would be difficult to assign to the origin of the
factory system an exact place or date. The
system originated in England in textile manu-
facture, during the latter half of the eighteenth
century, but its germ already existed in the
carding and fulling mills which had been com-
mon for many years previous. During the eight-
eenth century, however, a remarkable series
of inventions was made, by which automatic
machinery was introduced as a substitute for,
or at least a supplement to, hand labor in the
manufacture of cotton and woolen cloth. The
history of these inventions, among the most
important of which are those of Arkwright,
Hargraves, Cartwright, and Crompton, is given
elsewhere in the biographical sketches of their
inventors and in the general articles on SPIN-
NING and WEIA.VINQ. The importance of these
inventions, not only industrially, but economi-
cally, can scarcely bo overestimated, for by them
not only was the cost of clothing wonderfully
cheapened and physical comfort thereby in-
creased, but a new system of industrial activity
was developed which was destined to supplant
the old system of master and apprentice, not
only in the textile manufactures but in nearly
all branches of labor, from the making of a
watch to the slaughter of live stock. This
change was a necessary accompaniment to the
use of the new inventions, for machinery of
itself is too expensive and its use involves too
large an outlay for raw material and for dis-
posing of the finished product to make it avail-
able to tHe independent artisan.

The introduction of automatic textile ma-
chinery was accompanied by the opposition, and
by the persecution of its promoters, which have
characterized most of the great movements for
the world's betterment. At first, too, the new
system met with failure from another source,
the lack of sufficient capital and of a sufficiently
large group of laborers to render profitable or
even possible the installation of the more ex-
pensive power-driven machinery. Only water
power was available to drive the machinery;
hence the operator must locate his factory, not
at some important industrial centre, but
at a spot where sufficient supply of water power
was available, and this might be an isolated
place where labor was scarce. It is interesting
to note that some of England's earliest factory
legislation, as the Robert Peel Act of 1802, was
directed towards correcting the abuses in the
employment of pauper and more especially child

FACTORIES

325

FACTORIES

labor by these early operators, who could not
procure in the neighborhood of their factories
sufficient adult labor to run their machines. If,
then, the first step in the introduction of the
factory system was the invention of automatic
machineiy — in distinction from tools — the second
stop was the application of steam as a motive
force to drive this machinery. The use of steam
at once freed the operator from geographical
restrictions and made it possible for him to
locate his factory where both labor and the
demand for its fruits were most abundant.

But with the slow, cumbrous, and expensive
methods of transportation that were in vogue
until the close of the eighteenth century the
factory system could not have attained its pres-
ent proportions. The output must have been
regulated largely by the local demand. Hence
the third step in the development of the modern
factory system was made possible by the intro-
duction of the steamship and the railway, by
means of which the products of any locality
could be sent quickly and cheaply to all parts
of the world. But previous to the appearance
of steam navigation, from 1767 on, the canal
system was widely extended throughout Eng-
land, and, by enabling the cheap distribution of
coal and iron, proved of great importance to
manufacturing in large factories.

A fourth factor in the development of the
factory system was the evolution of the patent
system. Automatic machinery presupposes the
work of men of inventive genius, upon whose
labors it is absolutely dependent. When the
fate of such men was almost certain persecution
and poverty, an inventor must be a hero as well
as a genius, and under such conditions inven-
tions were few and far between. As Byrne
points out in his Progress of Invention in the
Nineteenth Century, until the close of the eight-
eenth century superstition had so strong a hold
upon the human mind that inventions were al-
most synonymous with the black arts. A labor-
saving machine was looked upon as the enemy
of the working man, and many an earnest in-
ventor, after years of arduous thought and
painstaking labor, saw his cherished model
broken up and his hopes forever blasted by the
animosity of his fellowmen. But during the
nineteenth century the patent system, which had
long been in existence, was so fostered and de-
veloped by government that it became possible
for a man. not only to benefit his fellows, but
to earn a comfortable and honorable livelihood
by the exercise of his inventive faculties. Under
this stimulating influence appeared a series of
important inventions which resulted in the ex-
tension of automatic machinery, and hence of
the factory system, which was at first limited
to textiles, to all branches of industry. Chief
among the multitude of important inventions
which stimulated the development of the factory
system were the planing machine (1802), the
circular wood saw (introduced into the United
States in 1814), galvanized iron (1837), vul-
canizing of rubber (1839), Howe's sewing ma-
chine (1846), watch making by machinery
(1850), Bessemer process of making steel
(1855), paper from wood pulp (1864), McKay
shoe-sewing machine (1861), the Siemens-Mar-
tin open-hearth steel process (1866), and the
roller mill and middlings purifier for making
flour (1875).

Although the four steps essential to the growth
of the factory sjystem — the introduction of auto-

matic machinery, the application of steam as a
motive force, improved methods of transporta-
tion, and an enlightened encouragement of the
patent system — had all been taken at the be-
ginning of the nineteenth century, the growth
of factories was slow, even in England and the
United States, where it was least opposed. At
first England, in which the great textile ma-
chines were brought out, jealously guarded her
treasures and passed severe laws prohibiting
the exportation of machinery or models thereof.
In spite of several attempts on the part of
Americans to introduce English methods, the
secrets were tolerably well kept until 1790.
In that year a factory was built by Samuel
Slater at Pawtucket, R. L, in which Arkwright's
system of water-frame spinning was introduced.
From that time the factory system, as applied
to textiles, promoted by Whitney's invention of
the cotton gin in 1792 and by Lowell's intro-
duction of the power loom and other improve-
ments in his factory at Waltham, has enjoyed
uninterrupted progress and has powerfully * in-
fluenced the development of the factory system
in other lines. Carroll D. Wright says that
the Lowell factory at Waltham, Mass., completed
in the fall of 1814, "was the first in the world,
as far as the records show, in which all the
processes of converting raw cotton into the fin-
ished product were performed in one establish-
ment, by successive steps under one harmonious
system."

Owing to different economic conditions — due
to the difference between an old country, where
population centres are fixed, and a new, where
immigration and the rapid growth of the country
make any favorable site a possible centre of
population — the development of the factory
system in the United States was not only later,
but also different in character from that in the
mother country. Water power continued to be
the almost exclusive motive power long after
the application of steam was understood. It
was the splendid water power offered by the
Merrimac River that determined the location
of Manchester, Lowell, and Lawrence, and so
powerfully affected the industrial growth of
N"ew England. It may be added that the inven-
tions and achievements of the hydraulic engi-
neer have been scarcely less essential to the de-
velopment of America's factory system than
those of the inventor of automatic machinery.
Many of the experiments in hydraulic engineer-
ing which have been most fruitful were con-
ducted in efforts to improve current methods of
developing and applying water power as a mo-
tive force for driving machinery. Within re-
cent rears the possibilities of utilizing water, es-
pecially at a long distance, have been enormously
increased by transmitting power in the form of
an electric current.

Outside of the cotton and woolen mills the
growth of the factory system in the United
States was slow. Domestic and neighborhood
industry continued to predominate, even in these
industries, until 1830, and it was not until 1840
that the factory method extended itself widely
to miscellaneous industries. It was in 1840 that
Bigelow applied power-driven machinery to the
weaving of carpets, and 10 years later, at Wal-
tham, Mass., automatic machinery was used for
the first time, by consecutive processes, in a
single manufactory, in the making of the most
delicate of mechanical instruments, the watch.
(See WATCH.) Gradually, with the invention

FACTORIES

336

FACTORIES

of the requisite machinery, the new method
of production was extended to other industries.
During the last half of the century, and partic-
ularly after the close of the Civil War, factories
of all kinds sprang up, first in New England
and later in the West and South. The new sys-
tem obtained little footing in the South until the
very close of the century, when, tempted by the
low cost of "mountain white" and colored labor,
much capital, largely from New England, was
directed towards the establishment of factories
in the South. By the close of the century the
system prevailed throughout America and the
greater part of Europe as the usual means of
production, to the almost entire extinction of
domestic and small-shop industries. Germany,
in particular, experienced a great industrial
awakening towards the close of the century, and
has so far outstripped England in the extent
and variety of her factory products that the
phrase "made in Germany" is the bugbear of
the English manufacturer. The nineteenth cen-
tury also saw the establishment of the factory
system in India, Japan, and China. In China
the attempt has scarcely passed the experimen-
tal stage; for, though wages are low, labor is
so unskilled and unreliable that, measured by
the product, it is most expensive.

The great advances made in all departments
of applied science during the century have al-
ready proved far-reaching in their effects upon
the factory system. The use of electricity for
long-distance transmission of power has already
been mentioned. For distributing and applying
power as well, electricity is proving an economi-
cal and convenient substitute for steam, and
seems likely to do away with much of the cum-
bersome and uncleanly shafting and belting by
means of which power is distributed through
the ordinary factory. Edward Atkinson goes
so far as to prophesy that the use of electric
power, so easily transmitted and applied, will
finally result in the dispersion to their own
homes of the multitudes of workers now gathered
in factories, and that the weaver will work at
his own loom and the spinner at his spindle
in his own cottage, and a new form of power-
driven household industry will supplant the
factory system. Few will agree with Mr. Atkin-
son in thus forecasting the probable effect of
electricity upon the factory system. The whole
trend of modern industry is towards a still
greater centralization of capital and labor. "The
larger the plant the cheaper the product," says
a prominent mill operator. Andrew Carnegie,
writing on the development of the steel industry
in the United States, puts the case still more
forcibly when he savs: "One essential for cheap
production is magnitude; concerns making 1000
tons of steel per day have little chance against
those making 10,000 tons. We see this law in
all departments of industry. It evolves the
20,000-ton steamship and the 50-ton railway
car. Improved engines and the use of electricity
as a motor, the new loading and unloading
machinery are all contributory causes to the
cheapening of steel. . . . Among those contribu-
tory causes," adds Mr. Carnegie,, "automatic
machinery ranks first and continuous processes
next. Workshops 1100 and 1200 feet long are
becoming common, in which the raw material
(ore) enters at one end and emerges finished
(steel billets) at the other without handling,
and often without stopping except for reheating."
In one branch of industry, however, two other

systems of production have flourished side by
side with the factory system, although appar-
ently antagonistic to it. These are the sweat
shop and tenement-house work in connection
with the ready-made clothing industry. (See
SWEATING SYSTEM.) In all branches of the
clothing industry — not only in the making of
textile garments, but of hats, gloves, and shoes —
home aiid small-shop labor have been strangely
persistent. Certainly the abuses which have
sprung up in connection with the manufacture
of clothing outside of factories have been so
grave and far-reaching as to make the evils
of the factory system seem but trifling in com-
parison. In fact, the obvious and universally
proposed remedy for the sweat shop and for
unsanitary tenement-house labor is the appli-
cation of the full-fledged factory system to
tho manufacture of all parts and all kinds of
garments.

Having traced the fundamental causes which
have produced the factory system, one is led to
ask, What are the effects of this system indus-
trially, economically, and sociologically upon
modern life? The introduction of the factory,
with its great economy of labor, has often
created crises of unemployment. Its competi-
tion has destroyed hand industries, rendering
obsolete much painfully acquired skill and re-
ducing prosperous mechanics to indigence. Its
ultimate effect, however, has rather been to
increase the demand for labor than to reduce
it. A more accurate timekeeper can now be
produced in a watch factory for a few dollars
and in a few hours than the skill of the Swiss
watchmaker, whose family has been trained for
generations to the work, can produce in as
many weeks. But this cheapening and better-
ing of the product has so enormously increased
the demand that a proportionately larger body
of men are engaged in different branches of the
business — from the inventing and making of
the delicate machinery required to the selling
of the finished product — than ever before. Al-
though this may not be true in all branches of
manufacture, yet the introduction of the factory
system, by cheapening production, has so raised
the standard of living and enlarged the number
of industries that labor was never so much in
demand nor so well paid as at present.

But while most authorities admit the great
industrial advantage of the factory system,
the nature of its economic and sociological ten-
dencies, and especially of its intellectual and
moral effects upon the factory employee, are
disputed. Low wages, unsanitary working con-
ditions, exploitation of the labor of women and
children antedate the factory system, just as
they are found to-day in parts of Europe un-
touched by its influence. It would appear, how-
ever, that under no other system can the worker
be so mercilessly driven, so completely sapped
of his natural energies, as under the factory
system. On the other hand, the conditions of
labor are much more easily regulated by law
than in the small workshop. Further, the ag-
gregation of workers under one roof leads natu-
rally to organizations and to collective resistance
to conditions that are intolerable. The factory
system, with its natural consequences, trade
unionism and labor legislation, may properly
be regarded as a potent means for elevating the
worker from the hopeless poverty in which he
was sunk in early modern times. But it is to
be borne in mind that the development of labor

FACTORIES

organization and of the legal regulation of labor
is slow, and that hence the first effect of the
introduction of the factory system is to increase
the hardships to which the laboring class is
subject. Even in a country with a long-estab-
lished factory industry, like England, there are
evidences of widespread physical, mental, and
moral degeneracy of the working population,
traceable to child labor, insecurity of employ-
ment and overstrain. Students of labor con-
ditions in America have frequently called atten-
tion to the injuries suffered by female workers
through the strain of tending speeding ma-
chinery and to the early superannuation of male
factory workers, essentially a result of over-
work. While there has been a progressive
shortening of the working day (see EIGHT-
HOTJB BAY), few would maintain that this has
been sufficient to counteract the effects of in-
creasing speed. Much hope is at present re-
posed in the developing systems of scientific
management (q.v.), which has for one of its
cardinal principles the relief of labor from ex-
cessive strain.

It is also contended that the factory system,
in which each operator repeats indefinitely a
single task, requires and creates a lower grade
of intelligence among workingmen than the old
system under which the laborer knew the whole
of his trade; that the man who works in the
modern shoe factory, feeding an automatic sole-
cutting machine or automatic heeler, does not
need and will not have the mental vision of the
ancient shoemaker. It is unquestionably true
that many operations that formerly required
the services of a highly skilled mechanic have
been subdivided in the factories into minute
parts, each of which is performed by an opera-
tive in mechanical routine measurable in speed
alone. It must not, however, be forgotten that
the factory makes employment for a large body
of foremen, overseers, mechanical experts, etc.,
elevated from the ranks of common labor and
enjoying a lot far superior to that of the master
workman of an earlier period. Even the common
laborers of the factory, when not crushed with
overwork, find in the opportunities for social
life and organized activity rendered possible by
a shorter working day, some offset for the loss
of interest entailed by the automatic character
of their employment.

It cannot be denied that the factory system,
by the specialization of industries in given lo-
calities, thus making each community depend-
ent upon all the rest of the world for every-
thing except the one or few articles locally pro-
duced, has enormously quickened commerce and
increased the interdependence of nations and
is thus one of the greatest unifying forces of
the age. See LABOR; LABOR LEGISLATION;
MANUFAOTUEES.

Bibliography. Taylor, Factories and the
Factory System (London, 1844) ; Oooke-Taylor,
Introduction to the History of the Factory Sys-
tem (ib., 1886) ; Robinson, "Early Factory
Labor in New England," in Fourteenth Annual
Report of the Massachusetts Bureau of Statis-
tics of Labor (Boston, 1883); Wright, "Report
on the Factory System of the United States"
for the Tenth United States Census; Oooke-
Taylor, Factory System and Factory Acts (Lon-
don, 1894) ; Clarke, Effects of the Factory Sys-
tem (ib., 1899) ; Spahr, America's Working
People (New York, 1900) ; Shuey, Factory Peo-
ple and thevr Employers (ib., 1900) ; Hutchins,

327

A History of Factory Legislation ( Westminster,.
1903) ; Thompson, From Cotton Field to Cot Ion
Mill (New York, 1006) ; Diemer, Factory Or-
ganization and Administration (2d ed., ib.,
1914); Lincoln, The Factory (ib., 1912).

FACTORY ACTS. See LABOR LEGISLATION.

FACTORY INSPECTION. The most im-
portant part of factory legislation, for it is only
by the constant visits of well-trained, intelligent,
and efficient inspectors that factories can bo pre-
vented from evading and practically nullifying
the laws. Such inspectors can strengthen the
laws by liberal interpretations of their powers,
by advocating better legislation, and by pub-
lishing full reports in which the facts are pre-
sented in such a way as to impress the general
public with the need of reform. Unfortunately
few factory inspectors are as yet trained work-
ers. As a rule, their numbers are insufficient
to maintain adequate supervision of all fac-
tories; many are political appointees; some are
conscientious but unintelligent. It is, however,
due to the labor of certain inspectors that many
improvements have been made in the laws. The
first factory act was passed in England in 1802,
which was to be enforced by the local justices,
who should appoint visitors. In 1833-34 four
government inspectors were appointed, to whom
nine inspectors were added in 1842, and sub-
inspectors, together with greater powers, in
IS44r-46. A law of 1867 experimented with the
inspection of workshops by means of local
authorities, but the centralized system was
found superior. The consolidated Act of 1878
increased the staff of inspectors, and since 1893
working men and women have been appointed
on the force, and the numbers again increased.
The department is under the Home Office,
the chief inspector in London, fire super-
intending inspectors in London, Manchester,
Glasgow, and Leeds, and 48 assistants. The in-
spectors render admirable reports, the working
men frequently go to them for advice, and the
trade-unions demand that their number should
be increased. In the United States factory in-
spection is provided for by law in a majority
of States, yefc as late as 1913 there were 14
States, with more than half a million industrial
wage earners, with no provision for factory
inspection whatever. Of the remaining States
very few have thoroughly efficient systems. The
most frequent defects are: (1) inadequate num-
ber of inspectors, Texas, e.g., having in 1913
only one inspector; (2) failure to enforce stand-
ards of efficiency in the selection of inspectors;
(3) lack of centralized control of inspection.
The inspection - of factories is in most States
under the department of labor; in some States
it is. an independent department. In Massa-
chusetts factory inspection is conducted by the
police department. In Wisconsin so much of
factory inspection as pertains to safety and
sanitation is under the control of the Industrial
Commission. In 1886 the International Asso-
ciation of Factory Inspectors, with members
from Canada and the United States, was or-
ganized to promote uniformity in factory laws.
See LABOB LEGISLATION; LABOB PROBLEM;
SWEATING SYSTEM.

FAC1TLJE (plur. of Lat. facula, small torch) .
In astronomy, the spots, brighter than the rest
of the surface, which are sometimes seen on the
sun's disk. They are usually very small at
first, but finally assume very large dimensions.
See SUN.

FACULTATIVE PLANT

328

PIECES

FACTJLTATIVE PLANT. A plant able
to grow in more than one life condition ; applied
especially to plants that may be either parasites
or saprophytes, as opposed to obligate plants.
See SYMBIOSIS; PARASITE; PLANT.

FACULTY (Lat. facultas, ability, from fa-
cihs, easy, from facere, to do). A term used
generally in psychology to denote any sort of
mental function. Specifically the name "faculty
psychology" is applied to a psychological school
which haa its typical representative in Christian
Wolff and its most renowned expositor in Im-
manuel Kant (q.v.). Its mode of procedure is
to take the functional terms in common use
(feeling, perception, understanding, memory,
imagination, etc.), and by logical process to
reduce them to some one, two, or three princi-
pal faculties, to which the others are then sub-
sumed as subordinate faculties. The mind thus
appears as constituted of certain powers or
potentialities, which are realized in the individ-
ual cases of remembering, thinking, etc. Wolff
himself recognizes two principal faculties —
knowledge and desire — though he endeavors to
unify them in a single supreme faculty of repre-
sentation. The lower faculty of knowledge in-
cludes sense, imagination, the poetic faculty,
and memory; the higher includes attention,
reflection, and understanding. The lower fac-
ulty of desire, again, comprises pleasantness
and unpleasantness, sense desires and aversions,
and emotion; the higher includes volition, posi-
tive and negative, and freedom. Kant adopts a
threefold classification of mental phenomena,
though he subordinates all the mental powers
to the faculty of knowledge ("understanding,"
in the wider sense). This comprises (1) under-
standing in the narrower sense, which is legis-
lative for knowing; (2) reason, which is legis-
lative for the faculty of desire; and (3) judg-
ment, which legislates for feeling. Knowledge
is further divided into a lower or receptive
faculty of sense, and a higher or active faculty
of understanding.

It is clear that a psychology based on these
principles of classification can never pass the
bounds of superficial description. It makes no
effort to analyze mental processes; and the
powers or functions which it discriminates have
no biological or genetic sanction. Moreover,
there is always the danger that a classificatory
term, such as "memory," shall be raised to the
rank of an explanatory principle, substantialized
or hypostatized; in which case superficiality is
changed to serious error. It does no harm to
group together all the facts of remembering and
forgetting, under a general class term Mem-
ory"; such grouping may, indeed, be useful, as
serving to bring all the relevant facts before the
psychologist's attention. But if we go further
and proceed to account for a given fact of re-
membering by appeal to the mind's power of
memory we have involved ourselves in a vicious
circle. It is one of Herbart's great merits that,
( 1 ) by insisting on the need of starting psycho-
logical investigation from the given facts and
not from possibilities which the facts are sup-
posed to realize, and (2) by emphasizing the
abstract and purely classificatory nature of the
faculty concepts, he removed a powerful and
growing abuse and paved the way for the more
vigorous and scientific methods of modern psy-
chology. The service is all the greater, since
"popular" psychology is, in the nature of things,
a faculty psychology, and the doctrines of the

latter are therefore peculiarly iusidious. Con-
sult: Herhart, Wcrhe, ed. by Von Kchrbach
(Leipzig, 1882) ; Wundt, Physiologischc Psycho-
logic (ib., 1908-11); Titchencr, Experimental
Psychology, I, ii (New York, 1901).

FACULTY, OF A UNIVEBSITY. See UNIVEB-
SITY.

FACULTY OF ADVOCATES. See ADVO-
CATES, FACULTY OF.

FADETTE, fa'dSt', LA PETITE (Fr., the little
Fadetto). An idyllic romance by George Sand
(1848).

FADEYEV, fa-da'yef, RASTTSLAV ANDRE£-
VITCH (1824-84). A Russian soldier and mili-
tary author. He was born at Ekaterinoslav and
educated at the artillery school in St. Petersburg.
At the age of 16 he entered the army that served
in the Caucasus. He subsequently participated
in the war in Asiatic Turkey, was present at the
siege of Sebastopol, and in 1864 was promoted
to the rank of major general. In consequence of
a Panslavistic publication, entitled The Military
Power of Russia (1868; Ger. trans, by Eckardt,
1870), which caused considerable stir at the
time, and in which he demanded the annihilation
of Austria and expressed sentiments strongly an-
tagonistic to Germany and favorable to France,
he was compelled to resign his commission in
1866. He was subsequently sent on missions to
Egypi; (187.')) and Servia and Montenegro
(1877), where he participated in the siege of
Antivari. In 1881 General Ignatev gave him
an appointment in the administrative depart-
ment of the press at St. Petersburg. His pub-
lications in the Russian language, which are
widely known, comprise besides the works al-
ready mentioned: 8iaety Years of War in the
Caucasus (1860) ; Opinion on the Eastern Ques-
tion (Eng. trans, by T. Mitchell, 1871 ; also trans,
into German) ; Letters on the Present State of
Russia (1881). His collected works were pub-
lished at St. Petersburg in 1890 (4 vols., includ-
ing a biography and a review of his literary
activity).

F-fflCES, fe'sez (Lat. fa®, dregs). Excre-
ments, the waste material evacuated from the
bowels, consisting of undigested food, indigestible
parts of food, bile, mucus, and certain other
matters taken from the blood by the liver and
other glands. In birds, reptiles, and fishes, in
the Monotremata order of mammals, and in
many lower animals, urine is also mixed with
the fasces before they leave the body. The faeces
of the horse, cow, and hen are commonly spoken
of as manure and used as a fertilizer. The ex-
crement of wild birds, collected in great quanti-
ties on islands where they propagate, is called
guano (q.v.). Human excrement, after being
prepared by a patented process, is called pou-
drette, which is also used as a fertilizer. The
composition of human faeces is shown in the fol-
lowing table:

Per cent.

Water 73.3

Organic remains 7.0

Biliary and nitrogenous matter 14.9

Albumen 0.9

Extractives 2.7

Salts 1.2

The examination of the faeces has become an
important diagnostic measure. Macroscopically,
abnormal quantities of mucus, deficiency of bile,
excess of fat, gallstones, casein curds, soaps, and
intestinal worms onay be discovered. Intestinal
'Sand, consisting chiefly of particles of phos-

FAED

329

FAGKEL

phate or carbonate of calcium, magnesium, or
iron, occurs in the stools of certain neurotic in-
dividuals. Azotorrhcca, is an excess of muscle
fibres and indicates pancreatic disease.

Microscopical examination reveals the presence
of minute parasites, the amoeba (in amoebic dys-
entery and liver abscess), bacteria, starch gran-
ules, blood corpuscles, etc. Bacteria are very
numerous; their weight equals about one-third
of the weight of the dried stool.

FAED, fad, JOHN (1819-1902). A Scottish
miniature, genre, and historical painter. He was
born at Barlay Mill, in the Stewardry of Kirk-
cudbright, where his father was an engineer and
millwright. His talent was precocious, and at
12 he traveled through the villages of Galloway,
painting miniatures of the gentry and middle
classes. In 1330 he attended the art classes at
Edinburgh, and practiced successfully for more
than 40 years as a miniature painter; but grad-
ually he turned to biblical and literary subjects.
He was elected to the Royal Scottish Academy in
1851. In 1862-80 he resided at London, retiring
finally to Gatehouse, near his birthplace, where
his last years were spent. His work is essen-
tially literary in character, detailed and elabo-
rate in finish, but lacking in pictorial charm.
His younger brother JAMES, an engraver of note,
often engraved his brother's pictures. Among
his chief works arc: "The Cruel Sisters" (1851) ;
"Shakespeare and his Friends at the Mermaid
Tavern"; "The Cotter's Saturday Night" (1854) ;
"Catherine Seyton" (1864) ; "Tarn o' Shanter";
"The Stirrup Cup" (1867) ; "John Anderson, My
Jo" (1869); "Blenheim" (1875); "The Great
Hall at Haddon" (South Kensington Museum) ;
"Annie's Tryst" and "The Poet's Dream" (Na-
tional Gallery, Edinburgh) ; "The Gamekeeper's
Daughter"; and "The Hiring Fair."

FAED, THOMAS (1826-1900). A Scottish
genre and historical painter. He was born at
Barlay Mill and was a brother of John Faed,
from whom he derived his first instruction. He
studied at the Edinburgh School of Design under
Sir William Allen and Thomas Duncan. In 1849
he became an associate of the Royal Scottish
Academy, and shortly afterward painted his at-
tractive "Scott and his Friends at Abbotsford,"
widely known through its engraving by hia
brother James. In 1852 he removed to London,
where his reputation was established by his
"Mitherless Bairn" (Melbourne Gallery), ex-
hibited in 1855. Among his subsequent works
are: "Home and the Homeless" (1856); "The
First Break in the Family" (1857); "From
Dawn to Sunset" (1861); ?'Baith Faither and
Mither" (1864); "Forgiven" (1876); "The
Silken Gown"; "Faults on both Sides"; "The
Young Highland Mother"; "The Poor and the
Poor Man's Friend" — the four last named in the
Tate Gallery, London; and "Rest by the Stile"
in the Vanderbilt collection (Metropolitan Mu-
seum, New York). Faed was elected a member
of the Royal Academy in 1864 and an honorary
member of the Vienna Academy in 1875. Owing
to the failure of his eyesight, he ceased work in,
1892. His pictures are interesting rather for
their subjects, sentimental or pathetic incidents
in humble Scottish life, than as paintings. They
are, however, good in draftsmanship and con-
scientious in execution. They are very popular
and have been much reproduced in engraving.

FAE1TZA, fa-Sn'za (Lat. Faventia, from fa-
vere, to favor). An episcopal citjr of Ravenna,
north Italy, on the Lamone (ancient Anemo),
VOL. VHI.—22

31 miles southwest of Bologna (Map: Italy,
C 2). From Faenza comes faience ware, for the
manufacture of which the city was famous in
the fifteenth century. On Vittorio Emanuele
Square, where the four main streets meet, are
the city hall, which was once a palace of the
Manfrecli, the beautiful church of San Michele,
the modern theatre, and the fifteenth-century
cathedral of San Costanzo, who was the first
Bishop of Faenza. The square is surrounded by
arcades and has a seventeenth-century fountain
in the centre. The cathedral is a basilica, begun
in 1474, containing many works of art, among
them a Holy Family by fnnocenzo da Imola, and
the tomb of St. Savinus by Benedetto da Ma jano

( 1472 ) . In the municipal art gallery are paint-
ings by artists of the Romagna, and splendid
collections of majolica ware. The city has a li-
brary, a gymnasium, a technical school", a lyeeum,
and a school of design. The most important
industries are the manufacture of majolica and
faience ware, furniture, vehicles, dyes, and
leather; the spinning and weaving of 'silk, and
sulphur refining. An important trade in wine,
silk, and hemp is carried on. In 82 B.C. Faventia
was the scene of a victory of Sulla over Carbo,
and in 542 A.p. Totila here defeated the Byzan-
tines. Later it became a part of the Exarchate,
was captured in 1241 after an eight months'
siege by Frederick II, and in 1313 came into the
possession of the Manfredi. In 1509 Julius II
united it to the Papal States. It is the native
place of the physician Toricelli, inventor of the
barometer, to whom a monument has been
erected. Pop. (commune), 1901, 40,370; 1911,
40,164.

FAERIE (fa'er-I) QTTEENE, THE. An alle-
gorical romance of chivalry, by Edmund Spenser.
Of the 12 books contemplated, six were published

(1590 and 1590), but only fragments of later
books appeared. Each book is divided into 12
cantos, telling the legend of a knight who repre-
sents one of the chief virtues — Holiness, Temper-
ance, Chastity, Friendship, Justice, Courtesy.
Of another book, on Constancy, only a fragment
is extant.

FAESTTLJE. See FIESOLE.
EAFMXR, faVner (Icel., Embracer). In
Norse mythology, the son of the giant Hreidmar.
In the shape of a dragon he guarded the treasure
later known as the Nibelungenhord, and was
killed by Sigurd.

EA'GAK", JAMES BEBNABD (1873- ). An
Irish playwright. He was educated at Clon-
gowes Wood College, and at Trinity College, Ox-
ford. He studied law, and engaged in tha In-
dian Civil Service for a time. In 1895-07 he
went on the stage with F. R. Benson's company,
in 1897-99 played with Beerbohm Tree's com-
pany in Her Majesty's Theatre, and in 1913
returned after retirement to play the role of the
Rt. Hon. Denzil in his own play, The Earth

(1909). His other plays include: T7ie Rebels

(1899) ; The Prayer of the Sword (1904) ; Un-
der which King (1905) ; Shakespeare versus
Shaw (1905) ; Hawthorne, U. 8. A. (1905) ; A
Merry Devil ( 1909 ) ; The Dressing Room

(1910); Bella Donna, an adaptation (1911);
The Happy Island (1913).
FAGEL, fa'KSl, FBANS NIOOLAAS, BASON

(1645-1718). A Dutch general, a nephew of
Kaspar Fagel, born at Nimeguen. He distin-
guished himself at Fleurus (1690) and com-
manded at the defense of Mons (1691) and at
the siege of Nanmr -(1695). As lieutenant gen-

FAGEL

33«>

FAGHTAITI

eral, lie led the army at the siege of Bonn
(1703) and fought at Eckeren (June 30, 1703).
Transferred in 1704 to the army in Portugal,
he stormed Valencia (1705) and Albuquerque
and besieged Badajoz. Upon his return to Hol-
land he fought at Tournai, Ramillies, and Mal-
plaquet, besieged B6thune, forced the passage of
the Scheldt (1712), and captured Le Quesnoy.
After the Peace of Utrecht he was Governor of
Sluis.

FAG-EL, HENDRIK, BABON (1705-1834). A
Dutch statesman. He studied at Leyden and in
1787 was appointed second secretary of the
States-General. He soon afterward succeeded his
grandfather as secretary, being the sixth member
of the family to occupy that position since 1672.
In 1794 he was appointed, in association with
Van de Spiegel, to conclude an alliance with
Prussia and England. He shared the exile of
the princes of Orange and after his return to
Holland in 1813 was Ambassador to England for
11 years. In 1814 he and Castlereagh signed the
important Convention of London which restored
many Dutch colonies to Holland. He became
Minister without portfolio in 1829.

PAGEL, KASPAB (1629-88). A Dutch states-
man, born at The Hague. In 1663 he became
pensionary of Haarlem, in 1670 secretary of the
States-General, and in 1672 grand pensionary to
succeed De Witt. He believed in the ability of
William of Orange to redeem Holland from its
perilous position and with Van Beuningen and
Valckenier attached himself to the fortunes of
that prince. On his suggestion the hereditary
stadtholdership was in 1674 conferred upon Wil-
liam. He prepared the way for the accession of
William to the throne of England. He is said
to have refused a bribe of 2,000,000 francs from
Louis XIV.

FAG-EBIiHT, fa'g8r-l£n, FERDINAND JULIUS
(1825- ). A Swedish genre painter, born
at Stockholm. Originally a shipbuilder, he was
later for a time in the military service, but after
some amateur work, especially in portraiture,
from 1854 adopted art as his profession. After
study at the Academy of Stockholm, at the
Dilsfieldorf Academy under Karl Sohn, and under
Couture in Paris, he settled in Dusseldorf, where
he was appointed to a professorship in the
Academy in 1893. He was early influenced by
Henry Ritter, and his most important work is
done in genre. In particular, his naive and sym-
pathetic characterizations of Dutch fisher life
have ranked him among the principal Swedish
artists. His canvases of this sort are generally
faithful in detail, touched by a quiet humor, and
good in color. They include: "Jealousy" (Stock-
holm Museum) ; "The Deserter," "The Return
from the Shore,'* and "A Cosy Home" (Berlin
Gallery), and "The Bashful Suitor" (Dusseldorf
Gallery).

FAGGH3TG. A term of uncertain origin used
in the "public schools" of England. The services
of a fag are of two kinds — the one comprising
his duties to a special upper-form boy, to whom
he has been assigned; the other consisting of
those due to the whole of the upper boys. The
former comprise such tasks as preparing his
master's breakfast, making his master's Are,
carrying his master's messages, and smuggling
into the house little forbidden delicacies for his
master's consumption, and in this instance, if
detected, bearing his master's punishment. Those
services which a lower boy owes to the whole of
the upper boys are summed up in attendance at

the games. In the cricket season fags stand be-
hind the wickets to stop the balls while their
seniors are practicing; and at all seasons they
are liable to the task of waiting attendance on
the racket players and retrieving the balls which
have been "skyed" out of the court. No boy,
however, is liable to an imposition really menial.
All cases of difficulty arising out of fagging are
within the jurisdiction of the head boy in the
house or the head of the school and are settled
by reference to the one or the other. Until
about 1870 the system of fagging was subject
to gross abuses, and, while those who survived
may have been the better for the severe disci-
pline, many boys were either driven out of school
or carried away lasting impressions of the hard-
ships. The system has, however, been better
regulated and with the prefect or monitorial
system is probably an important factor in the
training of the English "public school" boy.
Consult Hughes, Tom Brown's Sohool Days.

FAGKGOT WORM. A Ceylonese bagworm
(JSumcta carmerii), whose pupa case resemblep
a bundle of small faggots. It occurs on the cof-
fee bushes, and the natives say that they repre-
sent the souls of dead men and women who in
life were persistent thieves of firewood and are
thus punished. See TEA INSECTS.

FAGIW, fjjxg!n. The Jew in Dickens's Oliver
Twist, a receiver of stolen goods, who trains up
a gang of thieves and pickpockets. He abducts
Oliver Twist and is finally condemned to death
for murder.

FA'GHUS (Latinization of his German name
Buchlein), PAUL (1504r-49). A German divine
and Hebraic scholar. He was born at Rheinza-
bern in the Palatinate. After completing his
academic studies at Heidelberg, he removed to
Strassburg, where he was a pupil of Wolfgang
Capito, the famous Hebraist. In 1537 he became
pastor at Isny, where also he received instruc-
tion in Hebrew from Elias Levita, whom he
brought from Venice to assist him in his studies.
He established a Hebrew printing press and
published many works of interest to Oriental
scholars. His reputation as a Hebraist in 1542
secured for him invitations to the chair of He-
brew at Strassburg, Constance, and Marburg,
and after holding professorships in these cities
he went to Heidelberg in 1546 to aid the party
of the Reformation in the University. After
his deposition in 1549 because of his refusal to
obey the Interim, he was invited by Archbishop
Cranmer to come to England, where he died soon
after his arrival at Cambridge. In 1557 his
body was exhumed and burned under orders from
Queen Mary. He wrote a Hebrew Grammar
(1543) and various commentaries on the Old
Testament — none now of any importance save
historically.

PAGOSTANI, fa-nya'nS, JOSEPH (1819-73).
An Italian portrait painter. He was born at
Naples, and studied at the Academy there and in
Vienna and Paris. He traveled extensively, and
came to the United States with Sir Henry Bul-
wer in 1849. He made portraits of a large
number of public characters, among them Victor
Emmanuel, Abd-ul-Aziz, Garibaldi, the .Empress
Eugenie, AH Pasha, and President Taylor, and
painted a series of portraits of the most beauti-
ful women of New York, called "The Nine
Muses," which are now in the Metropolitan
Museum of Art, New York. His work was
popular in his dav, but is of mediocre quality
and has no enduring value.

FAGNTEZ

33Z

FAHRENHEIT

FAGNIEZ, fa'nya', GUSTAVE CHARLES (1842-
). A French economist and historian. He
was born in Paris and was educated at the
Ecole des Chartes and the Ecole des Hautes-
Etudes. For a time he was employed in the
national archives, and later he became a member
of the commission of diplomatic archives under
the Minister of Foreign Affairs. He also gave
a course at the Sorbonne. He was one of the
founders and a president of the Historical So-
ciety of France, and one of the editors of the
Revue Eistonque. His writings, dealing largely
with economic history, include: Etudes sur Vin-
dustrie et la classe industrielle & Paris au Xllle
et au XlVe siecle (1877); La mission du pere
Joseph a Ratisbonne ( 1885 ) ; Le pcre Joseph et
Richelieu (1894); VEconomie sociale de la
France sous Henri IV (1897); Documents re-
latifs a Tliistoire de I'industrie et du commerce
(2 vols., 1898-1900) ; Le due de Broglie (1902) ;
Corporations et syndicate (1905).

FAGOTIN, fa'go'taN'. A monkey, famous in
Paris for his cleverness in the days of Moliere,
and frequently mentioned in the literature of
that time.

FAGOTTO. See BASSOON.

FAGTTBT, ffc'gfi', EMILE (1847-1916). A
French critic, journalist, and literary historian,
born at La Roche-sur-Yon. After teaching in
the provinces he became professor of poetry at
the Sorbonne in 1890 and in 1901 was elected
to the Academy. His works include: La tragedie
au XVIe sidcle (1883) ; Le theatre oontemporain
(1880-91), comprising his dramatic criticisms;
Dix-huit'icme siecle (1890); Seisieme ftiede
(1893) ; Drame ancien, drame modeme (1898) ;
Ilititoire de la litterature frangaise (1900); La,
poHtique comparee de Montesquieu, Rousseau et
Voltaire (1902); Propos Htttraires (1902); Le
Pacifisme (1908) ; Les prejuges nScessaires
(1911); Monseigneur Dupanloup, un grand
evGque (1914). In 1914 his Initiation into
Literature and Initiation into Philosophy were
published in English, trans, by Sir Home Gordon.
His style is most modern and vivacious, con-
tinually sparkling with brilliant and clever say-
ings. His hostility to dogmaticism, keen powers
of analysis, and richness of personal ideas make
him a most constructive critic. By means of
his monographs (on most of the literary geniuses
of the last five centuries) he rehabilitated es-
pecially the literature of the seventeenth cen-
tury, but he did this at the expense of eight-
eenth-century writers. He took an active inter-
est in the criticism of the modern drama, of
politics, and even of philosophy. Consult V.
Giraud, "M. Emile Faguet," in Revue des Deua
Mondes (Paris, 1909).

FA'GTTS. See BEECH.

FABA/KA. A globefish (Tetraodon fahaka)
of the Nile delta.

FA HIE1T, fa hS-fin'. A Chinese Buddhist
monk and traveler. He was a native of Wti-
yang, in the Province of Shan-si. During the
years 399-414 A.D. he traveled extensively in
India, Khotan (Yu-than), where he witnessed a
great Buddhist festival, and Tibet in company
with Hui King and other Chinese pilgrims.
From Khotan he journeyed through Kashmir,
Kabul, Kandahar, and the Punjab, to Central
India, which he reached in 405, after six years
of wandering. He remained in India for about
10 years, seeking complete copies of the Vwaya-
pitaka and compiling information regarding
Buddhism and the life of its founder, and then

went to Ceylon where he copied many sacred
texts. From there he embarked for Java, and
arrived at his home in China once more in 414.
After his return he wrote an account of his
travels, called Fti-hue-lti, or story of the Buddhist
countries. This journal is concise and chiefly
taken up with a description of the sacred spots
and objects of the Buddhist faith, which was at
that time the dominant religion in India. The
narrative has been translated into French by
Remusat (Paris, 1836) and into English by
Beal (2d ed., London, 1884), Giles (Shanghai,
1877), and Legge (Oxford, 1886). He died in
the monastery of Sin at the age of 88 years.
Consult the introduction to Legge's translation:
Beazley, Daicn of Modern Geography, vol. i (3
vols., Oxford, 1904-06) ; Giles, History of Chi-
nese Literature (New York, 1901).

FAHLCRAUTZ, fai^krants, CHRISTIAN ERIK
(1790-1866). A Swedish poet and theologian,
born at Stora Tuna (Province of Falun). He
wrote several long poems and some contro-
versial works. From 1839 to 1852 he published,
with the collaboration of Kno's and Almqvist, an
Ecclesiastical Journal. In 1849 he was made
Bishop of Westerus. His most important work
is Roach's A.rk (1825-26), a humorous and
satirical poem. Besides this may be mentioned
Ansgarius (1835-46). The collected works of
Fahlcrantz have been published under the title
G. E. Fahlcrantz: Samlade Skrifter (7 vols.,
Oerebro, 1863-66).

FAHLCEANTZ, KARL JOHAN (1774-1861).
A Swedish landscape painter, brother of the pre-
ceding, born at Stora Tuna. He was a pupil of
Ljung, but studied directly from northern scen-
ery and later imitated Ruysdael and Everdingen.
He had the exaggerated enthusiasm for Nature
typical of the Romantic school, and idealizes,
intensifies, and strives after the fantastic. His
color is warm though dark in tone, and at his
best his pictures are full of sentiment. The
most popular are those illustrating Tegner's
Frithjof Saga. The Stockholm Museum pos-
sesses the "Castle of Kalmar in the Moonlight"
and a landscape; the Christiania Gallery, "A
Forest Site."

FAJEDMANN, fal'man, FEIEDBICH ROBERT
(1800-50). A Russian philologist. He was born
in Esthonia and studied medicine and philology
at Dorpat, where in 1842 he became lecturer on
the Esthonian language. He collected and edited
the material constituting the Kaleyiade or Ka-
levipoeg (The Son of Kalev), which was pub-
lished after the death of Fahlmann by his biog-
rapher, Kreutzwald (1857-61).

FAHKTE, fa'ne, ANTON (1805-83). A Ger-
man jurist and historian. He was born at
Mtinster and was educated in medicine, theology,
and law at Bonn and Berlin. He wrote many
special histories of bishoprics, cities,* and noble
families which contributed valuable details to
the history of Westphalia and the Rhine Dis-
trict. These works include: Forschungen aus
dem Geliet der rheinisohen und westfalischen
Geschichte (5 vols,, 1864-75) 5 Denkmale und
Ahnentafeln in Rheinland und Westfalen (6
vols., 1879-83) ; and the interesting book on
Livonia, entitled Livland: Ein Beitrag &wr Kir-
chen- und Sittengeschichte (1875).

FAHBENHEIT, fa'ren-hlt, GABRIEL BANTBL
(1686-1736). A German physicist, who made
several important improvements in the ther-
mometer. He was born in Danzig. His inclina-

F AIDER,

332

FAIENCE

tion for scientific research induced him to give
up mercantile pursuits, and, having traveled
through Germany and England, he settled in
Holland, becoming a manufacturer of meteoro-
logical instruments. In 1720 he was the first to
bring about the general practice of using mer-
cury instead of alcohol in the construction of
thermometers, which had been originated by
Boilliou in 1659. With the new mercury ther-
mometers the accuracy of the instrument was
very much improved, and this was partly se-
cured through a method for cleaning the mer-
cury invented by Fahrenheit. He also devised
the scale of graduating the thermometers known
by his name and discovered that other liquids
besides water had a fixed boiling point, and that
the boiling point varied with a change in the
pressure of the atmosphere. (See THERMOM-
ETER.) In 1724 Fahrenheit was elected a fellow
of the Royal Society of London, and the Philo-
sophical Transactions of that year contain five
short papers by him on physical subjects. These,
with articles on thermometry by Reaumur and
Celsius translated into German, 'are to be found
in Osticald's Klassiker, No. 57 (Leipzig, 1894).
FAIDER, fa'dSr, CHABLES JEAN BAPTISTE
FLOBENT (1811-93). A Belgian jurist and
statesman, born at Triest. He was admitted
to the bar in 1832, in 1844 became Advocate-
General in Brussels, in 1846 a member of the
Royal Academy, and in 1851 Advocate-General
in the Court of Cassation, to which post he
returned after being Minister of Justice (1852-
55). He published an Histoire des institutions
politiques de^ la Belgique (1874) and other works
on constitutional law.

FAIDHERBE, fa'darV, Louis LEON CESAB
( 1818-89 ) . A French soldier, born at Lille. He
began his military career in Algeria, was a cap-
tain in Guadeloupe in 1848 and in Algeria in
1851-52, and in 1854 was made Governor-General
of French Senegal, where he reorganized the
government and extended the French territory,
by waging a war of extermination against the
Prophet El-Hadji Omar, who had formed the
project of driving out all foreigners and found-
ing an immense Mohammedan empire in Central
Africa. A satisfactory treaty was made with
Omar in 1803. In the war with Germany Fai-
dherbe received from Gambetta the command of
the Army of the North and fought bravely
against odds at Bapaume and at Saint-Quentin.
In 1871 he was a member of the National Assem-
bly and in 1879 was elected a senator. He was
the author of valuable works on the geography,
anthropology, and philology of Senegal and Al-
geria, including Epigraphie ph&nicienne (1873) ;
Instructions sw Vawthropologie de V&lgerie
(1874); Essai sur la, langue poul (1875); Le
Zenaga des tribus senegalatees (1877) ; Langues
senSga-laiscs (1887); Le Senegal (1889). His
military memoirs, Campagne de Varmee du Nord
(1871) aroused Von Goeben to a reply from the
German point of view. Consult Brunei, Le
general Faidherbe (2d ed, Paris, 1897).

FAtENCEj fa'Sire' (Fr. from It. faenea,
faience, for porcellarta di Faenma, earthenware
of Faenza, a city of Italy). Properly speaking,
the term should refer to majolica manufactured
at Faenza. At the time when the Italian potters
introduced this ware into France Faenza was the
most important centre of the manufacture in
Italy. The term was therefore adopted as the
designation for all manner of pottery other than
unglazed pottery or porcelain. It is used in

English to designate any earthenware of coarse
fabric, covered with an opaque enamel (upon
which decoration may be applied in verifiable
paint) and fired. Tlie process of manufacture
includes three wholly d'istinct operations — the
molding and firing of the original clay, often
not more delicate than a cheap flowerpot; the
covering with enamel, which is often done by
mere dipping, and the firing of this ; and, finally,
the decoration, which is subsequently fired. The
famous majolica (q.v.) is therefore a variety of
faience in the English sense; while stoneware,
including the so-called faience Henri Deux and
faience 8aint-Porcha>vre (q.v.), is not properly
fa'ience in the English sense; neither arc porcelain
or other wares not covered all over with a thick
enamel, including those decorated with slip, and
all the varieties of Greek vases and Japanese
hard, yellow pottery with crackled glaze. On
the other hand, tiles and bricks, of which the
surface is covered with an opaque material upon
which alone the painting is applied, as in the
monuments of the early Persian kingdoms, in
many of those of Egypt, and in the splendid tiles
which sheathe and line the walls of mosques in
Cairo and Damascus, are faience in the strictest
sense.

Tlie wares to which the term is most com-
monly applied in the language of students of
pottery are the French pieces of the sixteenth,
seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries. These
are especially the manufacture of Rouen, which
as early as 1520 was turning out tiles of great
beauty, including frequently painting in figure
subjects, and in those curiously emblematic com-
positions which were the delight of designers of
that time. The most important development
began in the late seventeenth century. These
wares were sometimes plain white and blue,
and are then of extreme beauty, not closely
copied from Chinese originals, like the Dolft
pieces named below, but designed with great
freshness and novelty in the spirit of the French
Renaissance. At a later time deep red was in-
troduced, so that the three colors — red, blue, and
white — were somewhat easily balanced in the
composition, which was in a few cases relieved
by gold. These pieces were made for table use
even in the wealthiest families, and during the
wars of Louis XIV's reign, when it became fash-
ionable to send silverware to the mint, splendid
services were made for the royal establishment
at Versailles and for the nobles of the court.
The exclusive taste for this ware disappeared at
the time of the discovery of what is called soft
porcelain at the close of the eighteenth century;
but the factories flourished down to the end of
the eighteenth century and left their traces in
the peasant potteries of the Cevennes and the
south. In the mountain regions of Italy very
interesting faience is still made by village pot-
ters on good old lines of decoration.

One of these famous wares is that of Nevers,
which is marked by a much freer use of land-
scape designs than that of Rouen, and, when,
the composition is not actually pictorial, by a
much less restricted and carefully designed
style of ornamentation, as if copied from the
most elaborate designs for brocade. The factory
seems to have been established about 1550, and
it flourished as late as that of Rouen, though
it was never equally extensive. Tlie vases and
dishes of Moustiers are famous for their ex-
quisite decoration in conventional flowers ar-
ranged-in scrolls and festoons, these .last 'being

FAIENCE

333

the especial mark of the richer pieces. There
are also splendid pieces with coats of arms and
ji conventional decoration of great solidity and
dignity, reminding the student of the finest ware
of Rouen. The first manufactory was established
at Moustiera-Sainte-Marie in Provence about
1640. Theie are famous wares which were made
in Alsace, at Strassburg, and Niederweiler, and
also at Marseilles, where realistic flowers of
large size were painted on plates and dishes in a
moat effective way. Luneville and Saint-Clement
in Lorraine, Rcnnes in Brittany, Lille, and Valen-
ciennes in the extreme north of France, Lyons,
and, in the neighborhood of Paris, Sceaux,
Sevres, Montereau, and many other places, were
famous throughout this epoch.

During the same period the manufacture of
faience at Delft in Holland assumed great im-
portance. Beginning about 1600, it produced
the most perfect works from about 1650 till
early in the eighteenth century. The great popu-
larity of the ware then led to overproduction
and artistic decline, and at the end of the
century it was replaced by the more practicable
porcelain. In late years, however, the manu-
facture has been revived. In Delft the decora-
tion was usually painted in blue upon the white
enamel after the first firing. It was then covered
with transparent lead glaze and fired a second
time. Some pieces were closely copied from blue
and white Chinese porcelain, the resemblance
being never complete, because of the different
effect of the white background, and also of the
blue painting from that of the Chinese ware, but
having an especially attractive appearance of its
own. There were landscapes often of large size
and painted on plaques, square and oblong, of
considerable size, often let into chimney pieces
above the fireplace and the like, and also scenes
of domestic life, real genre painting, but usu-
ally confined to pure blue and white; and simi-
lar subjects were painted on small tiles, four or
six inches square, many tiles being included in
one design. Finally, there are the imitations of
the splendid wares of Rouen and other French
manufactories, in which case several colors are
used. The ware was exported in such immense
quantities as to give the name "Delft" to any
faience used in England, and a similar name,
spelled "Delphes" or in some such way, in
France. The well-known ware manufactured at
Lambeth (now a part of London) is a variety
of Delft, which was produced throughout the
seventeenth century, as were also similar wares
at Bristol and Liverpool. Delft ware was manu-
factured in Germany at Hanau, Frankfort, and
Cassel.

Faience, in the strict sense, was less common
in the nineteenth century, because much tougher
wares were made. The beautiful dishes of Delft
and Rouen break very easily and are too soft
to be repaired in a lasting way. In France,
however, many beautiful wares of this kind were
made for table use. A breakfast set in faience,
with delicate white glaze of peculiar softness,
and painted with realistic flower pattern, would
cost only half as much as a porcelain set, no
more attractive to the eye, but harder, and, on
the whole, more agreeable in use as well as more
enduring. In Italy several factories produce
modern imitations of ancient majolica and other
pieces designed more or less in close agreement
with ancient work; and these are genuine faience.
Most generally, however, the choicer modern
wares, whether for use or adornment, are of

some variety of stoneware, of "ironstone china,"
of terra cotta, or of porcelain. See MAJOLICA;

POBCELAIN; POTTEBY; STONE WABE.

The best collections of French faience are in
the Musee de Cluny (Paris), in the Louvre and
at Sevres, and also in the French provincial
museums; of the Delft ware in the museums of
The Hague and Amsterdam, as well as in one
of the manufactories at Delft. There are also
good collections in the Victoria and Albert and
British museums, London, and in the Morgan
collection (Metropolitan Museum, New York).

Consult: Gamier, Dictionnaire de la cera-
mique (Paris, 1893); Ris-Paquot, Manuel dn
collectionneur des faiences anciennes (ib., 1877) ;
Deck, La faience, a volume of the Bibliotheque
de Venseignement des 'beaux-arts (ib., 1887), by
a practical workman of merit; Gasnault and
Gamier, French Pottery (London, 1884) ; Milet,
Historique de la faience et de la porcelaine de
Rouen (Rouen, 1898); Abbe Requin, Histoire
de la faience artistique de Moustiers (Paris,
1903) ; Solon, The Old French Faience (London,
1903), the best manual in English. For Delft
ware, consult Havard, Eistovre de la faience de
Delft (Paris, 1878).

FAILIjON, fa'yoN', MICHEL ETIENNE (1799-
1870). A French missionary and author, born
at Tarascon, France. He became a Sulpician
monk in Paris, taught in Paris and Lyons, and
in 1854 went to Canada on a tour of inspection
of the various houses of that order in America.
He had been in Canada before in 1849-50, and
he was there again in 1857-62. His contribu-
tions to Canadian religious biography embrace
lives of Margaret Bourgeoys, founder of the Con-
gregation Sisters (185fl; Madame d'YauiriUe,
founder of the Grey Sisters (1852); Made-
moiselle Haur, founder of the Hotel Dieu
( 1854) ; Mademoiselle le Bert the recluse ( 1860) ;
Histoire de la colonie frangaise en Canada (3
vols., 1865-66), bringing the narrative to 1675.

FAILLY, fa'ye7, PEEBRE Louis CHARLES
DE (1810-92). A French soldier. He was born
at Rozoy-sur-Serre, was educated at the military
school at Saint-Cyr, and joined the army in
Algeria. At the outbreak of the Crimean 'War
he was made a brigadier general. He com-
manded a division in the Italian campaign in
1859 and fought at Magenta and Solferino. In
1867 he commanded the corps sent to aid the
Pope against Garibaldi, whom he defeated at
Montana on November 4. At the beginning of
the Franco-Prussian War Napoleon placed him
in command of the Fifth Army Corps. On
August 30, 1870, while commanding the right
wing of MacMahon's army at Beaumont, he was
surprised and forced to retreat, leaving Mac-
Mahon's flank unprotected, and cutting off his
retreat, which forced capitulation after the
battle of Sedan. Failly was relieved of his
command on the morning of the battle, being
succeeded by General Wimpffen. After the war
he lived in retirement. He published a defense
of his military operations before Sedan, Cam-
pagne de 1870: Operations et marohe du Seme
Corps jusqu'au SI aotit (1871).

FATLS/WOBTH. A town, of Lancashire,
England, on the Lancashire and Yorkshire Rail-
way, 4 miles northeast of Manchester. It has
extensive cotton-manufacturing industries. The
district gets its water and gas from Oldham,
while the corporation of Manchester supplies a
tramway service and electric lights. Pop., 190 lf
14,152; 1911, 15,098.

FAILTTKE OF DAMS

FAILURE OF DAMS. See DAMS

RESERVOIRS.

FAIN, fax, AGATIION JEAN FEANQOIS, BABON
(1778-1837). A French historian, secretary to
Napoleon I. He was born in Pans. After hav-
ing served under the Directory, he was in 1806
appointed secretary of the Imperial archives,
in 1809 was made Baron, and in 1813 became
private secretary to the Emperor, whom he
accompanied on all his tours until 1815, when
he drew up the papers in which Napoleon defi-
nitely abdicated the throne of France. In 1830
he became first secretaiy of the cabinet under
Louis Philippe, and was several times intrusted
with the administration of the Civil List. He
was deputy from Montargis in 1834-37. He
wrote some" readable and accurate memoirs, deal-
ing chiefly with the later years of the reign of
Bonaparte, such as Manuscrit de 1814, con-
tenant I'histoire des sifo derniers mois du, regne
de NapoUon (1823; 4th ed., 1906); Manuscrit
de 1813 (2 vols., 1824; 2d ed., 1825) ; Manuscrit
de 1812 (2 vols., 1827); Mdnuscrit de Van III
(1828). Fain's Memoires, published in 1908,
constitute a valuable addition to his earlier
works.

FAIlrflAWT, ffi/na'aN', LE NOIB (Fr., the
black sluggard). A name given in Scott's Ivan-
hoe to Richard Cceur de Lion, disguised as the
Black Knight.

FAINEANTS, fa'na'aN' (Fr., do-nothings).
A designation especially applied to the later
Merovingian sovereigns of France, in whose name
the mayors of the palace really governed the
country. See MAJOB DOMUS.

FAINTING (from OF. faint, feint, p.p. of
feindre} to feign, from Lat. fingere, to fashion),
or SYNCOPE. Loss of consciousness, of sensation,
and of power of motion, with pallor of the face,
temporary cessation, of respiration, and tem-
porary feebleness of the heart, with loss of
pulsation at the wrist. It is caused by anaemia
of the brain, due to temporary heart failure from
shock, great weakness or exhaustion, loss of
blood, or disease of the heart. Sudden emotion,
as fright, excessive joy or grief, may cause faint-
ing in a neurasthenic person. In all cases of
fainting the clothing which may impede breath-
ing should be loosened, and the patient should
be placed on the back, with the head and chest
lower than the abdomen and legs. In a pro-
tracted faint whisky may be drank and ether,
camphor or strychnia may be given hypoder-
matically. In heart disease and in severe injur-
ies the patient may die without regaining con-
sciousness. See HEART, DISEASES OF THE.

FAIR (OF. feire, foire, Fr. foire, It. fiera,
fair, from Lat. feria, holiday; connected with
Lat. festus, feast) . A meeting held for the pur-
pose of exhibiting or selling goods. Originally
fairs were held at stated times and places, some
for the sale of a particular class of merchandise,
others for the sale of goods of a general charac-
ter. People resorted to them to exchange goods
and to collect their stores to last for several
months. Princes and the magistrates of cities
encouraged them, and some of the privileges
granted still remain in places. With the crowd-
ing together of people in large cities and the
rise in rent, the collection of a store of goods
to last longer than a few days became impos-
sible, so the original function of the fair ceased
to exist. They flourish mostly to-day on the
outskirts of civilization, where the means of

334

FAIR

communication are defective. In Europe they
appear to have originated in the church festi-
vals, which were found to afford the best oppor-
tunity for commercial transactions, the con-
course of people being such as took place upon no
other occasions. In Western Europe the goods
exposed for sale are chiefly those of which there
is a frequent change of fashion. Provisions are
seldom an article of sale in them; and while in
some parts of the Continent persons of all ranks
still wait for the great yearly fairs to make
their principal purchases of articles of every de-
scription, such as corn, wine, spirits, tea, coffee,
etc., these articles are seldom seen in them.

One of the most noted of English fairs was
that of St. Bartholomew, Smithfield, London,
founded at the beginning of the twelfth century.
They grew in importance in the twelfth and thir-
teenth centuries, but declined in the fifteenth cen-
tury, and at the close of the reign of Queen
Elizabeth they had degenerated into resorts for
pleasure seekers. The Bartholomew, Greenwich,
Glasgow, and Donnybrook fairs are examples of
these.

The greatest fairs in Germany are those of
Leipzig, Frankfort on the Main, Frankfort on
the Oder, and Brunswick. At the first-named
meetings are held three times a year — New
Year's, Easter, and on the Feast of St. Michael
— and it is estimated that $50,000,000 worth of
goods arc sold. Other noted European fairs
are those of Zurzach in Switzerland, Budapest
in Hungary, Sinigaglia and Teramo in Italy,
Beaucaire and Lyons in France, and Nizhni
Novgorod in Russia. The last named, begin-
ning in July and lasting eight weeks, is fre-
quented by buyers and sellers from all parts of
Europe and northern and central Asia, and it
is said that merchandise to the value of over
$100,000,000 is sold. Outside of Europe the
most important fairs are those of Tanta in
Upper Egypt, Kiakhta and Irbit in Siberia,
Hurdwar in India, and Mecca in Arabia. The
last-named fair is held at the time of the annual
pilgrimage, and over 100,000 people visit it.

In the United States there arc no fairs of the
kind that have been common in the Old World;
but the term is applied to a variety of exhibi-
tions, such as church, charity, and agricultural
fairs, and local, State, national, or international
expositions or fairs. In fact, the terra is ap-
plied to all exhibitions where people are ex-
pected to bestow patronage or to make purchases.
At church or charity fairs articles, chiefly of
the fancy sort, are sold. The most common kind
are the agricultural fairs, county and State.
Elkanah Watson, a prosperous merchant of Al-
bany, N. Y., was the originator of these. Mainly
through, his influence the New York Legis-
lature appropriated, in 1819, $10,000 a year for
six years, for premiums on agricultural prod-
ucts and family manufactures. Since then an-
nual State fairs have become quite general, and
many States appropriate funds to aid them.
The most common fairs are the annual county
fairs, where live stock and all kinds of vegetable
products and manufactured goods are exhibited,
and premiums are awarded to the possessors of
the best grades. These fairs are hot held pri-
marily for the purpose of selling commodities at
the fair, but largely for advertising purposes.
The city street fairs, where amusements of vari-
ous kinds are furnished, are intended to promote
the welfare of ike city by attracting traders to
them.

FAIR

335

FAIBBANKS

The world's fairs or expositions (see EXHIBI-
TIONS), and the international or State fairs,
which have become famous within the last half
century, are chiefly educational in character and
are adapted to the commercial life of the pres-
ent, with its rapid means of communication, its
populous cities, and production on a large scale,
as the old fair, with its convenient meeting
ground for buyers and sellers, was adapted to
the commercial life of a few centuries ago.
These fairs are intended to promote the interests
of the city and nation or State in which they
are held and to furnish an excellent opportunity
for the advertisement of all classes of goods.
While commodities are sold at these fairs, the
primary purpose of them is to advertise.

FAIR, JAMES GBAHAM ( 1831-94) . An Amer-
ican capitalist, born near Belfast, Ireland. He
came to the United States in 1843 and went to
California on the breaking out of the gold fever
in 1849. After 1800 he was engaged in the min-
ing of gold and silver in Nevada and amassed
great wealth. In 1807 he entered into partner-
ship with J. CL Flood, W. T. O'Brien, and J. W.
Mackay in several large mining projects. He was
elected as a Democrat to the United States Sen-
ate in 1881 and served one term (1881-87).

FAIR'BAIRlSr, ANDREW MARTIN (1838-1012).
Principal of Mansfield College, Oxford. He was
born near Edinburgh, and was educated at Edin-
burgh, Glasgow, and Berlin universities. He
commenced his ministry in 1800 at Bathgate,
removed to Aberdeen in 1872, became principal
of Airedale College, Bradford, England, in 1877,
lecturing at Edinburgh (1881-83) on the ''Com-
parative History of Religions." In 1883 he was
selected as chairman of the Congregational
Union of England and Wales, and in 1886 re-
moved to Oxford, to become the principal of
Mansfield College. He made several lecturing
visits to the United States and published, among
other books: Studies in the Philosophy of Re-
ligion and History (London, 1876); Studies in
the Life of Christ (1881); The City of God
(1883) ; Religion in History and in the Life of
To-Day (1884) ; The Place of Christ in Modern
Theology (1893) ; Catholicism, Roman and An-
glican '(1899) ; The Philosophy of the Christian
Religion (1902). He was a member of the
Welsh Church Commission appointed in 1906.

FAIBBAIBtf, PATRICK (1805-74). A clergy-
man of the Free Church of Scotland, born at
Htillyburton, Berwickshire. He was educated at
Edinburgh, and licensed to preach in 1826.
When the disruption occurred (1843), he joined
the Free Church. He became professor of divin-
ity in the Free Church College in Aberdeen
( 1853 ) s was transferred to the similar institution
in Glasgow (1856), and made principal the same
year. His biblical works had -a wide circulation,
but possess little permanent value. His reputa-
tion rests upon his Typology of Scripture ( 1845-
47; 6th ed., 1880); Prophecy (1856; 2d ed.,
1866); Hermeneutioal Manual (1858); Pas-
toral Theology (1876), with sketch of Ms life
by J. Dodds.

PAIB'BAIBlSr, SIB WILLIAM (1789-1874).
An English engineer, born at Kelso in Roxburgh-
shire, Feb. 19, 1789. He learned a little read-
ing, writing, and arithmetic at the parish school
of Mullochy in Ross-shire, and after some six
months' instruction from an uncle he was ap-
prenticed to a machinist at Percymain Colliery,
North Shields. When his apprenticeship ter-
minated, Fairbairn worked for two years in

London and then visited many places in Eng-
land, Wales, and Ireland, working a short time
at each, in order to observe the various prac-
tices of different localities. Eventually he com-
menced business on his own account in Man-
chester in 1817. The first great improvement
introduced by Fairbairn was the substitution
of iron for wood in the shafting of cotton mills,
and the substitution of light for heavy shafting
where metal was already in use. This exchange
economized the cost of machinery and enabled
the shafting to be speeded from 40 to 160 revo-
lutions per minute. Fairbairn was among the
earliest of the iron ship builders and originated
various improvements in ship construction.

The first idea of a tubular bridge across the
Menai Strait was due to Robert Stephenson, but
its realization was largely due to Fairbairn.
He was president of the British Association for
the Advancement of Science (1861-62) and was
r-reated Baronet in 1869. His son THOMAS was
chairman of the art treasnrp*; exhibition at
Manchester (1857), was a commissioner for the
exhibitions of 1851 and 1862, and was in 1857
offered the honor of knighthood, which he de-
clined. Fairbairn published: On Canal Steam
Navigation; The Strength and Other Properties
of Hot and Cold Blast Iron; The Strength of
Iron at Diffeient Temperatures; The Strength of
Locomotive Boilers; the Effect of Repeated Melt-
ings on the Strength of Cast Iron; The Irons of
Great Britain; The Conway and Britannia Tu-
bular Bridges; Useful Information for Engineers,
1st, 2d, and 3d series; A Treatise on Mills and
Mill Work. Consult Pole, Life of Sir William
Fairlaim, Bart. (London, 1877), and Smiles,
Lives of the Engineers (ib., 1874).

FAIRBANKS. An incorporated city situ-
ated on the Tanana River, Alaska, practically
at the head of navigation (Map: Alaska, K 3),
and the largest city in the Territory, having a
population of 3541 in 1910. It is the site of the
Fourth Judicial District and of government ac-
tivities in the interior of Alaska. Its impor-
tance arises from its being the commercial cen-
tre of the Fairbanks gold-mining district. The
Tanana Valley Railroad, 45 miles in length,
connects it with Chena (pop., 138 in 1910), and
with the principal mining camps of the adjacent
regions. Fairbanks is a modern city, being
largely heated by a central steam plant; has
schools, churches, hospitals, wireless and tele-
graph connection with the world; has news-
papers, long-distance telephone system, fire de-
partment, and an electric plant that not only
serves the city, but also furnishes light and
power to adjacent mining camps. It is reached
during the entire year by -a stage service of 354
miles from Valdes, and during five months in
summer has steamboat service westward to St.
Michael and eastward to Dawson and White
Horse, Yukon Territory. The gold output of
the Fairbanks district averaged annually, from
1906 to 1908, $9,000,000. It has lately fallen
off through the exhaustion of bonanza placers,
but lode mining is steadily increasing in pro-
duction. Among the railway lines to be built
by the United States, under the Act of Congress
of April, 1914, the principal section is one from
Chitina to Fairbanks, 313 miles, at a cost of
$14,000,000. The route recommended is via
the Copper River valley and Delta Pass, al-
though an alternate route was considered from
Seward via the valleys of the Susitna and the
Nenana rivers.

PAIBBANKS

336

PATaCHILB

EATR/BANKS, ARTHUR (1804- ). An
American teacher and author. He was born at
Hanover, N. H. After graduating at Dartmouth
College in 1886, he studied at Union Theological
Seminary and the Yale Divinity School, and re-
ceived the degree of Ph.D. from Freiburg in
1890. He taught at Dartmouth, Yale, and Cor-
nell, was professor of Greek literature and
archaeology in the University of Iowa from 1000
to 1906, and then for a year held the chaii of
Greek and Greek archaeology at the UniverwiLy
of Michigan. In 1907 he was olei'ted din-dor
of the Boston Museum of Fine Art>.
his writings are: Introduction to
(1896; 3d ed., 1901); First
of Greece (1898J; A Ktudij of The Vreek
Pawn (1900); The Myllioloyy of Greece and
Rome (1907) ; Handbook of Greek Religion
(1010).

FAIRBANKS, CHASLES WARREX (1852-
1918). An American lawyer and public oflk'ial,
born near Unionville Centre, Ohio, a descendant
of one of the first settlers of Declham, },Inss.
He graduated at Ohio Wesley an University in
1872, was admitted to the Ohio bar in 1874,
managed \V. Q. Gresham's campaign tor the
Republican presidential nomination in 1S&S, and
in 1892 and 1898 was chairman of the Republi-
can State Convention. In 1897 he waa elected
to the United States Senate from Indiana, and
in 1898 lie was appointed a member of tlu Urit-
ish-American Joint High Commission for ad-
justing Canadian questions, serving as chair-
man of tlie commissioners for the United States.
In 1903 he was reflected to the United States
Senate, and in 1904 he was elected vice presi-
dent of the United States.

FAIRBANKS, DOUGLAS (1883- ). Amer-
ican actor and motion picture star, born at
Denver, Colorado, May 23, 1883. He was edu-
cated at Jarvis Military Academy, East Denver
High School, and School of Mines. He \vas mar-
ried in 1907, but divorced in 1918. In 1920 he
married Mary Pickford, motion picture favorite.
He made his* first appearance in New York in
1901. He starred in Hawthorne of the P. ft. A.,
Frenzied Finance, The Mark of Zorro, Tin1 Three
Musleteers, etc. He has starred in motion pic-
tures for several years and has been the head of
his own producing company since 19 16.

FAIRBANKS, HENRY (1830- ). An
American clergyman and inventor, born at St.
Johnsbury, Caledonia Co., Vt., the only son of
Thaddeus Fairbanks. He graduated at Dart-
mouth College in 1853 and studied at Andover
Theological Seminary. After his ordination in
1858 he entered the service of the Vermont Mis-
sionary Society. He was professor of natural
philosophy at Dartmouth College in 1859-05
and of natural history in 1865-68. In 18C9 he
patented a scale for weighing grain and subse-
jucntly perfected and patented 34 additional
inventions of various kinds.

FAIBBAN'KS, THADDEUS (1796-1880). An
American manufacturer and inventor, born at
Brimfield, Mass. In 1824 he entered into part-
nership with his brother Erastus, under the
style of Erastus and Thaddeus Fairbanks, in
the manufacture of stoves and plows, the put-
terns for which were planned and made by Tlnul-
dcus. He patented a cast-iron plow in 18?.$
and in 1831 a hemp dresser. Realizing the diffi-
culty of weighing the rough hemp, the only
scale then in use being the even balance and 11»«3
.lioman steelyard where the short arm carried

the loaded wagon eitlier on a large platform or
by chains attached to the axles, he constructed
a platform scale on which an entire load could
be weighed at one tjme. Thenceforth the
brothers devoted themselves exclusively to the.
manufacture of scales in great vanely, from the
most delicate instruments for the uso of chemists
and jewi-ltTH to tluwe for railroad tracks und
canal wcighlocks. ITe founded and liberally
supported fast. Juhnsbuiy Academy.

FAIE/BTTIIY. A city in Livincrston Co., TIL,
60 miles oast of Peovia', on the Toledo, Peoria,
and VVestern and the Wabjinh railroads (Map:
Illinois, If 4). It is in a rich farming' country,
producing large quantities of corn; coal is
mined, and there are grain elevators, flour and
sorghum mills, machine shops, and cement works.
The city contains a public library and owns its
water woiks. Pop., 1900, 2187; 1910, 2505.

FAIB/BTTBY. A city and the county seat
of Jefferson Co., Neb., 57 miles southwest of
Lincoln, on the Chicago, Rock Island, and Pa-
cific, the Burlington, and the St. Joseph and
Grand Island railroads, and on the Little Blue
River (Map: Nebraska, H 4). It is a division
point on the Chicago, Rock Island, and Pacific,
and has manufactures and extensive nurseries.
The city contains a Carnegie library and fine
post-o Ifice building. It owns its water works and
electric-light plant. Pop., 1900, 3140; 1910,
5294.

FAIB/CHILD, CHABLES STEBBINS (1842-
1924). An American lawyer and financier, born •
at Caxenovia, N. Y. Graduating from Harvard
(A.B. 1863; LL.B., 1865), he was admitted to
the bar in 1SGU. Thereafter he was Deputy
Attorney-General of New York (1874), Attor-
noy-General from 1876 to 1878, from 1885 to
1887 Assistant Secretary of the Treasury, and
from 1887 to 1889 Secretary of the Treasury in
Cleveland's first cabinet, succeeding Daniel Man-
ning, He was a member of the Monetary Com-
mission appointed by the Indianapolis Monetary
Conference in 1897. From 1879 to 1905 he was
president of the New York Security and Trust
Company, and later he held high offices in other
corporations.

FAIRCHILD, DAVID GBANDISON (1S69-
). An American botanist, born at East
Lansing, Mich. He graduated from Kansas
State Agricultural College in 1888, and also
studied at the Naples (Italy) Zoological Sta-
tion, at several foreign universities, and at the
Buifcenzorg (Java) Botanical Gardens. He be-
came botanist of the United States Department
of Agriculture in 1889. In 1897 he organized
what is now the office of Seed and Plant Intro-
duction and Distribution of the Department of
Agriculture and in 1906 he took full charge of
this work. Having assisted (1898-1903) Bar-
bour Lathrop in four foreign agricultural ex-
plorations conducted in search of new economic
plants, he afterward was placed at the head of
these researches. His publications include bul-
letins of the United States Department of Agri-
culture on plant diseases, microscopic fungi, and
marine algae, and also papers in various botan-
ictil proooodings and journals.

EAIBCHILD, GEOBGE THOMPSON (1838-
1901). An American educator. He was born
at Brownhclm, Lorain Co., Ohio, and graduated
in 1862 at Oberlin College (Ohio) and in 1865
at Oberlin Theological Seminary. He was in-
structor and later (1865-79) professor of Eng-
lish, literature in the Michigan Agricultural Col-

337

FAIRFAX

lego and from 1879 to 1897 president of the Kan-
sas Agricultural College. In 1898 he became
vice president and professor of English litcia-
ture in Berca College (Kentucky), where he
remained until his death. He was ordained in
1871 to the ministry of the Congregational
church. In 1897 he was elected president of
the American Association of Agricultural Col-
leges and in 1900 published Rural Wealth and
Welfare.

FAIRCHHJ), HEBMAN LEROY (1850- ).
An American geologist, born at Montrose, Pa.
Graduating from Cornell University in 1874,
he taught for one year at Kingston, Pa., was
lecturer in New York City schools (1876-88)
and professor of geology at "Cooper Union ( ]S78-
88 ) , and then went to the University of Roches-
ter to bo professor of geology and natural his-
tory, and, after 1896, of geology alone. He was
general secretary (1894) and a vice president
(1898) of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science, and secretary (1885-
88) and president (1912) of the Geological
Society of America, and in 1911 president of
the Commission Government Association of New
York State. Besides preparing a History of the
New Yor/j Academy of Science (1887) and
editing Le Contc's Elements of Geology (1903),
he is author of more than. 100 monographs and
articles on biological and geological subjects,
especially on the glacial geology of New Yoik
State — a field of research in which he made
valuable contributions.

FAIRCHILD, JAMES HARRIS (1817-1902).
An American clergyman and educator, born at
Stockbridge, Mass. He graduated at Oberlin
College in 1838, was appointed a tutor there in
the same year, and was ordained to the ministry
in 1841. He was professor of languages at
Oberlin in 1842-47, professor of mathematics
in 1847-58, and professor of moral philosophy
and theology in 1858-66. From 1866 until his
resignation in 1889 he was president of the col-
lege. He became professor of theology in the
Oberlin Theological Seminary in 1898 and later
professor emeritus. His publications include
Moral Philosophy (1869; rev. ed., 1892, as
Moral Science: or the Philosophy of Obligation),
and Oberlin: The Colony and the College (1883) .
FAIBCHILD, Lucius (1831-96). An Amer-
can soldier. He was born at Franklin Mills,
now Kent, Ohio; removed to Madison, Wis., in
1846; spent six years (1849-55) in California;
then returned to Madison, studied law, and was
admitted to the bar in 1860. At the outbreak
of the Civil War he was made captain of the
First Wisconsin Regiment and subsequently be-
came its colonel and a captain in the regular
army, resigning both commissions in 1863. At
Bull Run he commanded the famous Iron Bri-
gade, and at Gettysburg was severely wounded
while leading a charge at Seminary Kidge. In
1863 he was commissioned brigadier general of
volunteers, but resigned in the same year. Af-
terward he served for three terms as Governor
of Wisconsin, was appointed Consul at Liverpool
in 1872 and Consul General at Paris in 1878,
and was Minister to Spain from 1880 to 1882.
In 1886 be was elected commander in chief of
the Grand Army of the Republic.
PAIB/CLOTJGH, HENBY RUSH-TON (1862-
). An American classical scholar. Born
near Barrie, Ontario, Canada, he graduated in
1883 from the University of Toronto, but came
to the United States and, after further study

at Johns Hopkins, was associate professor and
professor of classical literature at Leland Stan-
ford Junior University (1893-1902) and pro-
fessor of Latin after 1902. He was also pro-
fessor of Latin in the summor schools of the
University of Wisconsin (1906), Columbia
(1908), and Chicago (1910), and was profcasor
in the American School of Classical Studios,
Rome, in 1910-11. In 1907-08 he was president
of the Pacific coast branch of the "American
Philological Association. He served as editor in
chief of the Students3 Series of Latin Clastin
and is author of The Attitude of the
Tragedians toward Nature (1897); The
of Terence (1901); The Connection I
Music and Poetry in Early Q-reelc Literal in*'
(1902) ; The Antigone of Sophocles (1903) ; Ihc
Trinummus of Plautua (1909).

FAIB/FAX, DONALD McJSTEUX (1822-94).
An American naval officer, a member of th •
famous Fairfax family of Virginia. He became
a midshipman in the United States navy in
1837 and served under Dupont on the Pacific
coast during the Mexican War, He was pro-
moted lieutenant in 1851 and commander in
1862. He commanded the Cayuga, of the Gulf
squadron, under Farragut, in 1862, and in 1863
was transferred to the South Atlantic squadron,
in which he successively commanded the Nan-
tucket and the Moniauk in the attacks of Du-
pont and Dahlgren on Charleston. In 1864-6o
he was placed in command of the Naval Acad-
emy. He attained the rank of captain in 1866,
of commodore in 1873, and of rear admiral in
1880, retiring in 1885.

EAIBFAX, EDWABD (?-1635). An English
author, best known as the translator of the
Oerusalemme Lilerata of Tasso. He was born
at Leeds, Yorkshire, and lived as a scholar and
writer, chiefly at Fuiston, in the same county.
He wrote 12 eclogues, of which two have been
published, and also, it is said, a History of
Edward, the Black Prince, never printed. His
rendering of Tasso appeared in 1600, as Godfrei/
of Bulloigne; or the Recoverie of Jerusalem, and
was dedicated to the Queen. Charles I found
solace in perusing it during his last days in
prison. The translation is in pentameter verse
and continues to be the best English version.
It was edited, in 2 vols., by S. W. Singer in
1817.

FAIRFAX, THOMAS, third LOKD FAIRFAX
(1612-71). An English Parliamentary general,
better known as Sir Thomas • Fairfax. The son
of Sir Fcrdinando (afterward second Lord) Fair-
fax, he was born a/t Denton, Yorkshire, Jan. 17,
1612. After receiving his education at St. John's
College, Cambridge, he served as a volunteer in
Holland under Lord Vere of Tilbury, whose
daughter Anne he married shortly after his re-
turn to England. Although he was knighted in
1640 by Charles I, he declared for the Parlia-
mentary cause and was appointed cavalry gen-
eral under his father, who commanded the
northern Parliamentary forces. He distinguished
himself at Marston Moor, July 2, 1644. On the
resignation of the Earl of Essex he was ap-
pointed commander general of the Parliamentary
forces, with Cromwell as lieutenant general.
On June 14, 1645, Fairfax, seconded by Crom-
well and Ireton, gained a great victory at
Naseby. Fairfax was chosen head of the com-
mission which was appointed to try the King,
but on discovering that that body was resolved
on the execution of the King he refused to serve,

FAIRFAX

338

FAIB HAVENS

He refused, too, to march against the Scots, who
had proclaimed Charles II King, and Cromwell
succeeded him as commander in chief. Fairfax
retired into private life with a pension of
£5000 and devoted his leisure to literary pur-
suits. After Cromwell's death he represented
Yorkshire in Richard Cromwell's first Parlia-
ment. He was leader of the delegates appointed
to confer with Charles II at The Hague. He
spent his 'last years in retirement at Bilburgh,
near York, where he died, Feb. 12, 1671. Short
Memorials o/ Thomas, Lord Fairfax (1609), a
record of the Civil War, is the most important
of his writings, which included theological, poet-
ical, and other compositions. Consult The Fair-
fax Correspondence (4 vols., London, 1848-49),
and Markham, The Great Lord Fairfax (ib.,
1870).

FAIRFAX, THOMAS, sixth BABOST FAIRFAX
(1692-1782). An American Colonial pioneer,
the best known of the Virginia Fairfaxes. He
was born in Yorkshire, England. His father,
Thomas, by marriage with the daughter of Lord
Culpeper, had acquired immense estates in Vir-
ginia, comprising about 6,000,000 acres (21
counties ) , lying mostly between the Potomac
and the Rappahannock, and forming almost one-
quarter of the entire Colony of Virginia.
Thomas, the son, after graduating at Oxford,
visited his American estates in 1739, and in
1746, probably after a disappointment in love,
left England and settled permanently in Vir-
ginia. Thither his younger brother, Sir William,
had preceded him a few years earlier, and the
latter's daughter Anne had become the wife of
Lawrence, the elder brother of George Washing-
ton. This connection of the Fairfax and Wash-
ington families led to the friendship of Lord
Fairfax and George Washington throughout the
Revolution. Lord Fairfax employed the young
Washington in important surveying work of
his own and endeavored to further his interests
with the provincial government. Though an
ardent Loyalist during the Revolution, he was
allowed to dwell in peace in his manor house
near Winchester.

FAIR'FIELD. A town and port of entry in
Fairfield Co., Conn., 4 miles from Bridgeport
and 51 miles northeast of New York City, on
the New York, New Haven, and Hartford Rail-
road, and on Long Island Sound (Map: Connec-
ticut, C 5). A popular summer resort, it has
a beautiful situation and one of the finest
beaches on the Sound. There are two libraries,
the Pequot and the Memorial. The town manu-
factures rubber goods, aluminum ware, dog bis-
cuit, wire goods, ladies' underwear, and paper.
The foreign trade is small. Pop., 1900, 4489:
1910, 6134; 1920, 11,475. Fairfield was settled
and incorporated in 1639. Its town hall, origi-
nally built in 1720, contains records dating back
to 1648. Near Fairfield, in 1637, the Pequot
Indians were almost exterminated. On July 6,
1779, Governor Tryon, at the head of a force of
Hessians and Tories, entered the town after a
sharp skirmish and on the following day almost
completely destroyed it by fire. Consult Child,
An Old New England Town (New York, 1895),
and Osgood, Centennial Commemoration of the
Bwwmg of Fairfield (ib., 1879).

F AIRFIELD. A city and the county seat of
Wayne Co., 111., 117 miles east by south of St.
Louis, Mo., on the Southern and the Baltimore
and Ohio Southwestern railroads (Map: Illinois,
D 5). The city is the centre of a fruit-growing

belt, especially noted for apples, and has a trade
in grain, live stock, tobacco, etc., and manu-
factures of underwear, flour, and lumber. The
light plant is owned by the city. Pop., 1900,
2338; 1910, 2479.

FAIUFIELD. A city and the county seat of
Jefferson Co., Iowa, 100 miles (direct) east-
southeast of Des Moines, on the Chicago, Bur-
lington, and Quincy, and the Chicago, Rock
Island, and Pacific railroads (Map: Iowa, F 3).
Parsons College (Presbyterian), opened in 1875,
is situated here, and there are a fine courthouse,
county jail, hospital, county home, and a public
library. The leading manufactures include agri-
cultural implements, wagons, pumps, washing
machines, gloves and mittens, malleable iron,
brooms, and tile. Settled in 1839, Fairfield was
incorporated in 1847. It is governed, under a
charter of 1857, by a mayor, elected every two
years, and a unicameral city council. The city
owns and operates its water works and electric-
light plant. Pop., 1900, 4689; 1910, 4970.

FAIBFIELD. A town in Somerset Co., Me.,
21 miles north-northeast of Augusta, on the
Maine Central Railroad (Map: Maine, C 4). It
contains the Central Maine Sanitarium and a
public park. There are lumber, pulp, and crate
mills, worsted mills, and manufactories of
screens, furniture, swings, and pie plates. Pop.,
1900, 3873; 1910, 4435.

FAIR Q-OD, THE. A story of the conquest of
Mexico, by Lew Wallace (1873).

FAIRHAVEtf. A town in Bristol Co.,
Mass., on the Acushnet River, and on the New
York, New Haven, and Hartford Railroad (Map:
Massachusetts, F 6). It lies opposite New Bed-
ford, with which it is connected by two bridges
as well as by ferry and electric railroad. It has
a good harbor. The town is a summer resort
and contains the Academy of the Sacred Heart,
the Millicent Library, and a fine town hall and
high-school buildings. There are fishing and
shipbuilding interests and manufactures of
tacks, nails, iron castings, loom cranks, whale-
boats, and oil casks. The government is admin-
istered by town meetings. Fairhaven was sepa-
rated from New Bedford and incorporated as a
town in 1812. On Sept 7, 1778, the militia,
commanded by Major Israel Fearing, repulsed a
British attack here. Pop., 1900, 3567; 1910,
5122. Consult Ricketson, The History of New
Bedford (New Bedford, 1858).

FAIR HAVEN". A town in Rutland Co.,
Vt., 30 miles east of Rutland, on the Delaware
and Hudson Railroad (Map: Vermont, A 6). It
contains a Carnegie library and - manufactories
of various slate products. Fair Haven was
chartered in 1783 and originally included the
present town of West Haven. The water works
and sewerage system are owned by the munici-
pality. Pop., 1000, 2999; 1910, 3095.

FAIR HA/VEN'S (Gk. KaXoi Ai^es, Kaloi
Limenes). An anchorage on the south coast of
Crete, about 5 miles east of Cape Matala (also
called Cape Lithinos or Litino), mentioned in
Acts xxvii. 8, in the narrative of Paul's voyage
to Rome. After being forced by strong north-
west winds to round Cape Salmone (at the east-
ern extremity of Crete) and run under the lee
of the south coast of the island, the ship arrived
at Fair Havens. Here a stop of some duration
was made, after which, though contrary to
Paul's advice and warning, the captain made the
attempt to round the cape and reach Phoenix, a
more suitable winter harbor some distance to the

FAIRHEAD

339

FAIRMOT7NT

west. The favoring south wind soon changed to
the northeast hurricane Euraquilo, which drove
the ship far out into the Mediterranean and
finally landed it a wreck on the coast of Malta.
Fair Havens is not known to be mentioned in
any ancient writing but Acts. The name sur-
vives in the locality to this day, however, in its
modern Gieek form. There was probably no
town at the place, but Lasea was near by. The
anchorage is small and well protected from
westerly winds.

FAIRHEAD, or BENMOBE HEAD. A striking
promontory of columnar basaltic rock, 636 feet
high, on the north coast of Antrim County,
Ulster, Ireland (Map: Ireland, El).

PAIR HELEN OF KERKCON'NELL. A
ballad of unknown origin. Helen shields her
lover from the shot of a rival by throwing her-
self in front of him, and is killed, while the
murderer is slain by the rescued lover. The
same story appears in Wordsworth's Ellen Irwin.

FAIR'HOLT, FREDERICK WILLIAM (1814-
66 ). An English antiquary and illustrator. Ho
was born in London, of German descent; was
at first a drawing master, then a scene painter,
and finally assistant to the wood engraver Sly.
He was employed for several years by the Anti-
quarian Society and the British Archaeological
Association of London to make drawings for
their publications and edited several works on
civic pageantiy and other subjects for the Percy
Society (1842). All his work as an illustrator
is valuable from an archsBological standpoint,
especially Costume in England (1860), the text
of which he wrote himself. Other works which
he wrote and illustrated are: Tobacco: Its His-
tory and Associations (1859); Dictionary of
Terms Used in Art (1854) ; Up the Nile (1862).
He supplied the designs for Charles Knight's
81w7cespeare, and other publications, Halliwell's
Life of Shakespeare (1848), Hall's Mansions of
England (1843-45), and many other works. His
collection of Shakespeareana was left to the
town of Stratford, the drawings and notes
gathered for his History of Costume to the Brit-
ish Museum, and his works on civic pageantry
to the Society of Antiquaries, of which he was
a member.

FAIR ISLE. An isolated island, lying about
halfway between the Orkney and Shetland is-
lands, about 30 miles from either group and
24 miles southwest of Sumburgh Head (Map:
Scotland, F 1 ) . Area, 6 square miles. Its coast
is practically inaccessible, except at North
Haven, on the east coast. The population num-
bers about 200 inhabitants, who are engaged in
sheep raising and fishing; the word "fair" is a
derivative of the Norse faar, meaning a sheep.
The flagship of the Duke of Medina Sidonia,
the Admiral of the Spanish Armada, was
wrecked at Stromceiler Creek in 1588, and 200
Spaniards escaped to the island. These sur-
vivors are believed to have taught the natives
the art of knitting, which survives and is ex-
emplified to-day in the making of colored hose
in Moorish patterns. There are lighthouses and
fog signals on the southwest and northeast
extremities of the island.

FAIRLIE, fai/11, JOHN ABCHIBALD (1872-
). An American economist. He was born
in Glasgow, Scotland, but early removed to this
country. He graduated from Harvard Uni-
versity in 1895, studied at Columbia, served for
one year as secretary of the commission on
canals of New York, was assistant professor and

junior professor at the University of Michigan
(1900-09), and associate professor of political
science (1909-11) and professor (thereafter)
at the University of Illinois. He was a mem-
ber of the Michigan Constitutional Convention
in 1007-08 and also served as special agent d'
the United States Bureau of Corporations i i
1908 and 1900. He became associate editor of
the National Municipal Review. Besides arti-
cles in technical journals, he is author of
Municipal Administration (1901); National Ad-
ministration of the United States (1905) ; Local
Government in Counties, Towns, and Village?
(1906); Essays in Municipal Administration
(1908) ; Taxation and Revenue System of Illi-
nois (1910) ; Commission Government in Illinois
Cities (1911); The President's Cabinet (1913) ;
Toicn and County Government in Illinois (1913).

FAIR MAID. A fish; a local name in Vir-
ginia for the soup (q.v.).

PAIR MAID OF KENT, THE. Joan, daugh-
ter of Edmund Plantagcnet, Earl of Kent. Her
third husband was Edward, the Black Prince, her
second cousin, by whom she became the mother
of Richard II.

FAIR MAID OF NORWAY. Margaret,
daughter of Eric II of Norway, and of Mar-
garet, daughter of Alexander III of Scotland.
Although a woman and of foreign birth, she was
recognized as Alexander's successor, but died in
1290, while on her way to Scotland.

FAIR MAID OF PERTH, THE. A novel
by Sir Walter Scott (1828). The name is ap-
plied to the heroine of the story, Catharine
Glover.

FAIR MAID OF THE EXCHANGE, THE.
A drama by Thomas Heywood (1007).

FAIRMONT. A city, summer resort, and
the county seat of Martin Co., Minn., 68 miles
south-southwest of Mankato, on the Chicago,
Milwaukee, and St. Paul and the Chicago and
Northwestern railroads (Map: Minnesota, C 7).
It has a Carnegie library. Its industries in-
clude flour mills, gasoline-engine plant, brick
and tile works, a cigar factory, and packing
and produce houses. First settled in 1855, it
is governed, under a charter of 1904, by a mayor,
chosen biennially, and a unicameral council. It
owns and operates its water works and electric-
light plant. Pop., 1900, 3040; 1910, 2958.

FAIRMONT. A city and the county seat of
Marion Co-., W. Va., 77 miles southwest of
Wheeling, at the head of navigation and on
both sides of the Monongahela River, and on the
New York Central, the Monongahela Valley, and
the Baltimore and Ohio railroads (Map: West
Virginia, D 2). The opposite sections of the
city are connected by a steel bridge. Fair-
mont has a State normal school, the Cook Hos-
pital and Training School for nurses, fine high-
school and courthouse buildings, and a miners'
hospital ( State ) . It is an important coal-
mining centre and carries on a large trade
in glass products. Its manufactures include
flouring mills, planing mills, foundries and ma-
chine shops, glass works, cigar factories, etc.
Fairmont adopted the commission form of gov-
ernment in 1914. The water works are owned
by the municipality. Pop., 1900, 5655; 1910,
9711; 1914 (U. 8. est.), 11,439; 1920, 17,851.

FAIR/MOUNT. A town in Grant Co., Ind.,
59 miles north-northeast of Indianapolis, on
the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago, and St.
Louis, and the Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Chicago,
and $t Louis railroads (Map: Indiana, F 4).

FAIRMiOTTNT COLLEGE

340

FAIRY RING

It is the seat of Fairmount Academy and the
Wesleyan Theological Institute. It has agricul-
tural interests and manufactures of glass bottles,
draintile, catchup, and Chili sauce. The town
owns and operates its water works. Pop., 1900,
3205; 1010, 2506.

FAIRMOTTNT COLLEGE. An institution
of learning, situated at Wichita, Kans. The
college was first organized in 1892 as a coeduca-
tional preparatory school, with the assistance of
the Boston Education Society. In 1895 a collegi-
ate department was added, and in 1896 the name
of the institution was changed to Fairmount
College. It offers courses leading to the B.A.
and the corresponding M.A. degrees. The abol-
ishment of the preparatory school was begun
in 1912-13, dropping one year at a time. The
college will have, after 1915-16, a sub-Freshman
department. In 1914 the college had an attend-
ance of 325, of whom 168 were in the college
proper. In connection with the college there is
a conservatory of music. The library numbers
about 28,000 volumes, besides pamphlets. The
dean is Arthur J. Hoare.

FAIRMOTTNT PARK. See PHILADELPHIA.

FAIR OAKS, BATTLE or. See SEVEN PINES,
BATTLE OF.

FAIR PENITENT, THE. A tragedy by Nich-
olas Rowe (1703).

FAIR'PORT. A village in Monroe Co., N. Y.,
10 miles east of Rochester, on the New York
Central and Hudson River and the West Shore
railroads (Map: New York, C 4). It is in a
fruit-growing and farming district. The manu-
facture of cans is its chief industry. Pop.,
1900, 2489; 1910, 3112.

FAIR ROSAMOND, r&z'&-mfind. The name
commonly applied to a daughter of Lord Clif-
ford. She was the acknowledged mistress of
Henry II and was said to have been kept by
him in a bower at Woodstock, accessible only by
a labyrinthine approach, which the King fol-
lowed by means of a silk thread. According to
the popular account, she was discovered and
poisoned by Queen Eleanor (about 1173).

FAIR SIDEA, THE. A play by Jakob Ayrer,
which Tieck considered to be the source from
which Shakespeare drew The Tempest.

FAIRVILLE. A village in St. John Co.,
New Brunswick, Canada, situated on the Cana-
dian Pacific Railway (Map: New Brunswick,
C 3). It is connected by electric railway with
St. John. It contains a hospital for nervous
diseases, and its manufacturing industries in-
clude saw and pulp mills, box factories, brick-
yards, a brush and woodenware factory, and a
brewery. Pop., 1914 (municipal est.), 3500.

FAIRT. An imaginary creature of small
size, conceived according to popular supersti-
tion as dwelling in a region called Fairyland
and as having a special interest in the affairs of
man. The term "fairy," however, is also loosely
used to include other beings of a similar charac-
ter, like the brownie, banshee, elf, fay, gnome,
goblin, kobold, nixie, nymph, pixy, puck, sala-
mander, sprite, sylphy troll, and undine. The
jinn, djinn, or jinnee are of Oriental origin, the
last of which in the corrupt form genie is es-
pecially associated with the Arabian Nights.
The character of fairies as portrayed in litera-
ture may best be understood by mentioning such
typical examples as Shakespeare's Midsummer
Night's Dream, Spenser's Faerie Queene, Mil-
ton's earlier poems, Grimm's MSrchen, and the
fairy lore of the Irish tales. Towards mankind

fairies are commonly regarded as being benefi-
cent in the main, though sensitive, whimsical,
capricious, and often prankish; so that they
need to be placated and spoken well of, as in
Ireland, where they are termed "the good peo-
ple." But bad fairies also exist, and their
influence upon children plays a prominent part
in tho stories devoted to fairy lore. The imagi-
nation of the folk not only conceives of fairy-
land as a distinct domain, but it peoples hills,
valleys, rocks, streams, and trees with fairy
inhabitants, or sees fairy footprints, fairy rings,
fairy tables, or fairy horses in natural objects
and in natural phenomena.

Belief in fairies forms a phase of early folk
thought, and it has partly a realistic basis, as
in ancient India, e.g., where popular supersti-
tion transformed a lower race of inhabitants
like the Nagas into serpent men and serpent
women dwelling in enchanted regions beneath
the earth. Fairy lore contains likewise certain
elements of ancestor worship, of mythology, and
of older religious beliefs which advancing knowl-
edge looked upon as antiquated and relegated
to the domain of the supernatural. The tend-
ency of the folk to perpetuate the lore of the
unseen world is very strong, and it is interest-
ing to notice the changes in its attitude as
culture progresses. A study of fairy stories is
especially instructive in this regard. Extensive
collections of these tales among many different
peoples have been made through the influence of
folklorists, and scholars have secured valuable
results in this interesting field of research.

It is worth adding that the etymology of the
word fairy has been a subject of some discussion.
The suggestion to connect it with the Persian
word peri is even older than Sir Walter Scott's
Essay on the Fairy Superstition; but the Old
French faerie, faierie, like our word fay, which
is from OF. fac, Fr. fee, Ital. fata, Prov. fada,
Span. Jiada, Lat. fat are, enchant, Lat. fatum,
fate, points to a Romance origin for this term.
To associate the word with the English adjective
fair (AS. fccger) would be merely a popular
etymology.

Bibliography. MacRitchie, The Testimony of
Tradition (London, 1891) ; Jacobs, English Fairy
Tales (3d cd., London, 1910); id., Celtic Fairy
Tales (New York, 1910) ; id., Indian Fairy Tales
(London, 1892) ; Grimm, Deutftche Mythologie
(Berlin, 1875-98); Keightley, The Fairy My-
thology (London, 1850) ; Hartland, The Science
of Fairy Tales (ib., 1891); Ludwig, SiUrische
Mfirchcn (Glogau, 1890) ; Chodzko, Fairy Tales
of the Slav Peasants and Herdsmen (trans, from
French by Harding, London, 1896) ; Weber,
Italienische Mdrchen in Toscana aus Volksmund
gesammelt (1900); Riklin, Wunscherfullung
und Symbolik im Mdrchen (Vienna, 1908) ;
Aarne, Vergleichende Marchenforschungen (Hel-
singfors, 1908); Benz, Marchen-Diohtung der
Romantiker, mit einer Vorgeschiohte (Gotha,
1908) ; Fricdrichs, Grundlage, Entstehung und
genaue Eimeldeutung der lekantesten germani-
schen Marcheny My then, und Sagen (Leipzig,
1909) ; Delattre, English Fairy Poetry from the
Origins to the Seventeenth Century (London,
1912) ; Journal of American Folk-Lore (Boston,
1888- ). See also FOLKLORE; MYTHOLOGY.

PAIRY QTTEEN. See FAEBIE QUEENE.

FAIRY RING- (because the fairies were sup-
posed to dance there). A spot or circle in a
pasture or lawn which is either more bare than
the rest of the field or more green and luxuriant.

FAIBY SSBIMP

341

FAITH CTTKE

Frequently a bare ring appears like a footpath,
with green grass in the centre, the circle which
the ring forms, or of which it might form a
part, being some yards in diameter. It is now
ascertained that fairy rings result from the
centrifugal development of certain kinds of
fungi, especially of Agaricus oreades (or Maras-
miua oreades}, Agaricus gamlosus, Agaricus
coccineus, and Agaricus personatus. The com-
mon mushroom (Agaricus campestris) shows a
tendency to grow in the same manner. Prob-
ably the spot where the agaric has already
grown is unfitted for its continued nourishment,
and the mycelium or spawn extends outward
to new soil, the fungus unfitting the soil to
which it extends for the immediate nourishment
of grass, but enriching it afterward by its own
decay. Fairy rings of large size sometimes oc-
cupy the same situation for many years. The
circle is almost always imperfect, some acci-
dental circumstance having arrested the growth
of the mycelium on one side. For illustration,
see Plate of Edible Fungi, under FUNGI, EDIBLE
AND POISONOUS.

FAIRT SHRIMP. See BBANCHIOPODA.

FAITH (OF. feid, foit, fei, foi, Fr. fai, It.
fede, from Lat. fides, faith, from fidere, to trust ;
connected with Gk. ireiQeiv, peithevn, to persuade,
AS. liddan, Eng. bid). In Jewish and Christian
theology, that mental act of man which places
him in an acceptable relation to God. In the
later Jewish thought, it is a confident clinging
to the belief in the power and goodness of
Jehovah, in spite of the seeming triumph of
evil. It was this faith which the apocalyptic
literature aimed to conserve. In the teaching
of Jesus, faith is also a belief in the power
and goodness of Jehovah. Paul, who frequently
uses the word, means belief in the word of God.
Since he thinks of the message of God as having
come to his generation through Jesus, Christian
faith comes to be the acceptance of God's mes-
sage of a way of salvation through Christ. God
gives harmony with Himself, and faith is the
acceptance of God's gift; a principle which, he
maintained, underlay the Jewish religion itself.
The writer of Hebrews broadens faith to mean
the vision of the realities of the unseen, spiritual
world. In all these meanings, faith includes
two elements. One is intellectual. To the Jew
it was the belief in the existence and power of
Jehovah, to which the Christian added a belief
that Jesus was the Messiah sent by Jehovah.
This is the kind of faith which underlies our
belief in the facts of history, or of science, or of
daily life. The other element is volitional, a
loving trust in God often issuing in an emotional
quality.

As the Christian doctrine became formulated
the gathered content of it was called the Chris-
tian faith. The intellectual element was em-
phasized, and faith became the assent to the
authoritative body of teaching in the Church.
The schoolmen, especially Aquinas (q.y.), dis-
tinguished between implicit and explicit faith:
the last is conscious of its object; the first
was denned by Aquinas as the preparation of
the mind to believe what the Scriptures con-
tain. Less careful thought regarded it as the
acceptance of the uncomprehended teaching of
the Church. This laid the basis for a popular
contrast between faith and reason. In fact,
faith is based on reason.

The Roman Catholic church has emphasized
faith as the acceptance of doctrine, but with an

element of love in it. Protestantism has em-
phasized the personal trust in God, but usually
with the demand for the acceptance of certain
doctrines, held to be divinely revealed. Consult
Harnack, History of Dogma (Boston, 1894-99),
and Inge, Faith and its Psychology (London,
1909).

FAITH, ACT OF. See AUTO DA F£.

FAITH, RULE OF. A term, originating in
the Church of the second century, used to in-
dicate the sum of Christian doctrine. 1. Many
persons, denying either the possibility or the
fact of a supernatural revelation, maintain that
human reason alone, as possessed by all persons
of sound mind, is both the source and ground
of all religious knowledge and conviction of
duty. 2. Others, either denying or depreciating
the authority of any external revelation, affirm
that every man, in connection with his reason,
has an inward revelation to which pertains the
supreme authority in the belief of truth and
knowledge of duty. 3. The Roman Catholic
church, insisting that truth supernaturally re-
vealed is the rule of faith, teaches that the
revelation actually given is partly written (as
contained in the Holy Scriptures) and partly
unwritten (as contained in the traditions dat-
ing from the earliest ages of the Church), and
that, consequently, the rule of faith includes
botli Scripture and tradition. And as the people
cannot surely and perfectly understand either
of these, the only authorized interpreter of
them both is the Church. 4. Protestants believe
that all truth necessary for salvation is con-
tained in the canonical Scriptures of the Old
and New Testaments, and therefore teach that
these (received after due inquiry as the word of
God, and interpreted according to man's own
judgment, enlightened through the use of all
accessible helps, human and divine) constitute
for him the rule of faith. Among those holding
this general principle of Protestantism there are
recognized diversities, according as emphasis is
laid on the authority of the Bible, the Church,
or the individual reason. See GREEDS AND CON-
FESSIONS; RATIONALISM; INFALLIBILITY; BIBLE.

PAITH CUBE. A term applied to the prac-
tice Of curing disease by an appeal to the hope,
belief, or expectation of the patient, and with-
out the use of drugs or other material means.
Formerly it was confined to methods requiring
the exercise of religious faith, such as the
"prayer cure" and "divine healing," but has now
come to be used in the broader sense, and in-
cludes the cures of Mental Science, and hypno-
tism; also a large part of the cures effected by
patent medicines and nostrums, as well as many
folk practices and home remedies. By some
it is used to include also Christian Science, but
the believers in the latter regard it as entirely
distinct.

Faith cure, in some of its forms, is as old as
human history. The Christian Church has al-
ways held that prayer should be offered for the
sick, and many sacred relics and favored shrines
have had marvelous powers of healing ascribed
to them. The Grotto of Lourdes, in France, and
the shrine of Ste. Anne de Beaupr6, in Quebec,
are well-known instances. In each of these places
thousands of cures have been wrought, in ac-
cordance with the faith, of the sufferers in the
potency of the blessed waters. These cures seem
to many to be the natural consequences of the
doctrine taught by the story of the Pool of
Bethesda, and various utterances of Jesus and

FAITH CTTRJE

342

PAITH CTTRE

the Apostles arc quoted in support of more or
less definite teachings and practices of faith
healing. About a quarter of a century ago one
Dr. Culhs, of Boston, created a sensation by
preaching the efficacy of prayer in the cure of
bodily ills. More recently two men became
prominent from their advocacy of the prayer
cure. Rev. A. B. Simpson, of New York, taught
that the healing of the body is included in the
Atonement, and that, having accepted the Atone-
ment, it is dishonoring God not to claim healing
of the body. Simpson followed the apostolic
practice and anointed with oil. John Alexander
Dowie, of Zion City (see CIIEISTIAX CATHOLIC
OUTJRCH), maintained a large establishment on
the plan of a hotel, which he called a Divine
Healing Home. His method consisted in prayer
and the laying on of hands. He reported many
cures and accumulated a large sum of money
from the voluntary contributions of those who
had been healed. Another class of divine healers
is the group who have been styled the "tramp
healers," from their habit of traveling about
the country. The most important person in
this class was the unfortunate Schlatter (q.v.),
the Denver healer, whose autobiography shows
that he was the victim of an insane delusion.
Most prominent among those forms of healing
covered by the broader use of the term "faith
cure" are Christian Science (an account of
which will be found in the article on that sub-
ject) and Mental Science, of which Dr. P. P,
Quimby, of Portland, Me., was the formulator.
Mrs. Eddy was a patient of Dr. Quimby, and
is believed by some to have derived her "science"
from him. This, however, is denied by Chris-
tian Scientists. Since Dr. Quimby 's death
Mental Science has been espoused by a large
number of intelligent people, until there are
now many variants. There being no organiza-
tion and no one to dictate what one shall be-
lieve or practice, each Mental Scientist is free
to put his own individuality into the move-
ment, formulating his own theory and adapting
his practice to his own ideas. This has re-
sulted in the development of a large number of
leaders and types of mental healing. Their
treatment consists in holding up to the patient
ideal conditions of health and happiness, and so
freeing his mind from the unhappy condition
or unpleasant thoughts which are supposed to
have caused the physical disease. Sometimes
this is done by conversation and sometimes by
silent influence. Both Christian Scientists and
Mental Scientists give "absent treatments," but
the former with the understanding that God
heals, while the latter claim that they influence
the patient's mind*

Dr. Quimby discovered his theory of Mental
Science through experimenting with hypnotism.
A boy whom he was in the habit of hypnotizing
pretended to diagnose disease while in the hyp-
notic state, and also prescribed a remedy. Dr.
Quimby quickly discovered that the boy always
named the disease in accordance with the belief
of the patient, and also that the remedy pre-
scribed, "although it might be a perfectly inert
substance, effected a cure. From this he con-
cluded that it was the faith of the patient that
was responsible for the cure. He therefore
abandoned hypnotism and proceeded to explain
his theory to his patients. When he succeeded
in. making them understand the doctrine, the
cure followed. He had many patients, and is
said to have wrought many cures. It did not

occur to Dr. Quimby to try hypnosis on the
patient, and it has remained for a group of
men now living to show the great value of
hypnotism in faith cures.

The hypnotist first puts his patient to sleep,
in which condition he believes anything that is
told him— just as in our ordinary dreams the
most absurd situations are accepted without
question. The faith of the hypnotized subject
is perfect, for the reason that no doubts can
possibly enter his mind. The method of treating
disease is very simple. Having put the patient
to sleep, the hypnotizer persistently assures
him that he is getting well or is already well.
The exact formula is governed by the character
of the disease. In severe or chronic cases he is
usually content to declare at the first sitting
that there will be improvement, and at future
sittings he makes stronger assertions until he
finally declares that the trouble is entirely re-
moved and will not return. Hypnotism is the
most scientific and the safest form of faith cure.
Many people object to it from ignorance of the
nature of hypnotism. But when it is under-
stood that it is not the influence of one mind
over another, and that one cannot be hypno-
tized against his will, this form of faith cure
will take its place as one of the regular methods
of combating disease.

Besides these recognized forms, faith cure is
an important element in cures wrought by patent
medicines and nostrums, home remedies and
folk practices. The advertisement* testimonial
of friend, or family tradition arouses the faith
of the sick man, and he comes to believe that
he needs only to follow directions to be fully
cured. The actual value of faith cure as a
therapeutic method has been the subject of
much discussion. It can no longer be denied that
it has value. From divine healing to patent
medicine and Father Kneipp's (see KNEIPP)
water cure, all cure disease. Each appeals to a
particular type of mind, but the results are
practically the same in all — same diseases cured,
same successes, same failures. Many faith cur-
ists claim that all diseases in all persons can be
cured by their method; others hold that the
principle is of limited application. Of them all,
the hypnotists are the only ones that do not
make sweeping claims.

In estimating these claims many things must
be considered. It has never been proved that
any disease which is incurable by ordinary
methods has been cured by faith. Many claims
are made, but it is impossible to prove them.
The difficulties are well-nigh insurmountable.
First is the matter of diagnosis. No physician
can be sure of his diagnosis in all cases. A
man is sick; death proves that he was suffering
from cancer ; recovery shows that it was a non-
malignant tumor. In consumption the only
infallible test is a microscopic examination.
Next to diagnosis must be considered what is
called medioatrito natures — the healing power of
nature or the natural tendency to recovery.
Scientific studies of this subject have shown that
the lists of faith cures contain a large percent-
age of cases that would have recovered without
any treatment. Thirdly, the cure must be
proved as well as the disease. Many a recovery
is announced which proves to be only a tem-
porary renewal of strength. When later the
patient relapses, this is either not mentioned
or is attributed to another cause. In addition
to these difficulties, and complicating them, is

FAITHFUL

343

FAKIR

the notorious untrustworthincss of human testi-
mony— the tendency to exaggeration and the in-
frequency of impartial judgment.

The actual cures, however, are sufficiently
numerous and sufficiently striking to need an ex-
planation. These different forms agree in only
one point — viz., the mental state of the patient
is one of hope and expectation. Can states of
mind cause or cure disease? Some familiar
occurrences seem to justify an affirmative an-
swer. It is well known that certain glands and
secretions are markedly affected by emotions.
Fright causes the saliva to cease to flow and
the perspiration to start. Sorrow causes the
lachrymal glands to secrete tears. Happiness
favors digestion, unhappiness retards it. Mosso
has demonstrated that the bladder is especially
sensitive to emotional states. In general, pleas-
ant and unpleasant emotions produce opposite
physical effects. There are many glands within
the body whose action under emotion we cannot
observe; but we may reasonably assume that
they also are affected by emotional states.
Hence, if unpleasant emotions so act upon the
glands as to derange the system and cause
disease, the pleasant emotions may reasonably
be assumed to tend to restore the normal func-
tions. The various forms of faith cure tend
strongly to put the patient in a happy frame
of mind — a condition favorable to health. How-
ever, there are all degrees of faith and wide
differences in the way the system responds to
the emotional state. One person is slightly
affected by a strong emotion ; another is strongly
affected by a weak emotion. Hence there must
always be a wide difference in the results of
faith-cure methods. The diseases most amenable
to faith cure are nervous — including many not
recognized as nervous, but having a neural con-
dition as their basis — and functional derange-
ments. The symptoms of organic diseases are
frequently ameliorated. Chronic diseases due
to neuromuscular habit often yield to hypnotic
treatment. Consult: Pease, Divine Power (New
York, 1905) ; Podmore, Mesmerism and Chris-
tian Science (London, 1909) ; Lawrence, Primi-
tive Psychotherapy and Quackery (New York,
1910) ; Cutten, Three Thousand Years of Men-
tal Healing (ib., 1911). See HYPNOTISM.

FAITHOFTTL. An allegorical character in
Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress.

FAITEPFTTLL, EMILY (1835-95). An Eng-
lish philanthropist. She was born at Headley
Rectory, Surrey, and was educated at Kensing-
ton. Becoming interested in the condition of
working women, she founded in London a print-
ing establishment, known as the Victoria Press
(1860), in which women were employed as com-
positors. The undertaking met with great oppo-
sition, but the Queen showed her approval by
appointing Miss Faithfull publisher in ordinary
to her Majesty. In 1863 she started the Vic-
toria Magazine, in which were set forth the
claims of women to remunerative employment.
Tn 1868 she published a novel, entitled Change
Upon Change. She also appeared as a lecturer,
visiting the United States in 1872-73 and 1882.
She died May 31, 1895. Consult Three Visits
to America (Edinburgh, 1884).

FAITHFTTL SHEPHERDESS, THE. A pas-
toral drama by John Fletcher (c.1610). From
it Milton drew for parts of his Oomus.

FAiayHOB,3STE, WILLIAM (1610-91). An
English line engraver and painter. He was
born in London and studied principally under

Sir Robert Pcake. During the Civil War he
took the part of the monarchy and was banished
to France, where he remained until 1650. While
in Paris he studied under Robert Nanteuil. On
his return to England in 1650 he practiced as
an engraver, also soiling prints. From about
1680 he devoted himself to portraiture in cray-
ons. His engravings are chiefly portraits of
eminent persons, after Lely, Van Dyck, and
others. His execution is clear and finished and
his crayon portraits are distinguished by bril-
liant color. Among the best known of his en-
gravings are the portraits of Lord Paston; The
Duchess of Cleveland (after Lely) ; Lady Paston
(after Van Dyck) ; Charles I; Charles II;
Prince Rupert; and Oliver Cromwell. He also
engraved two curious maps, one of London (in
the National Library, Paris), and one of Vir-
ginia and Maryland (in the British Museum).
His works were catalogued by Louis Fagan
(London, 1888). Faithorne wrote The Art of
Qraveing and Etching (1662), dedicated to his
master, Sir Robert Peake. Consult Fagan, A
Descriptive Catalogue of the "Works of William
Faithornr (London, 1888).

FAIZABAD. See FYZABAD.

FAIZABAD, fl'za-bad'. The capital of the
Afghan Province of Badakhshan, on the Kokcha
River, 180 miles northeast of Kabul (Map: Af-
ghanistan, 04). It has a fort, is a trade centre,
and is celebrated for its ruby mines. Pop., about
2500.

FAJABDO, fa-nar'da. A river port near the
northeast coast of Porto Rico, near the mouth
of the Fajardo River. Its growth has been
rapid on account of its excellent harbor. It is
situated in a sugar-manufacturing district and
exports tortoise shell in considerable quantities,
besides sugar and molasses. Pop., 1899, 3414;
1910, 60S6.

FAKHR-AD-DIN AB-BAZI, fak'r-ad-den'
Hr-ra'ze, also known as IBN AL KHATIN (1149-
1209 ) . A Mohammedan philosopher and theolo-
gian. He was born at Rai, Tabaristan, and first
studied with his father and later at M»rv and
Maragha, where he was one of the pupils of Al
,Majd al Jili, who in turn had been a disciple of
Al Ghazali. He was accused of rationalism,
despite the fact that he restored many to the
orthodox iaith. His commentary on the Koran,
entitled ]X3fatih-al-haibt or 'Keys of the Un-
seen* (8 vols., Cairo, 1890), is the most varied
of extant works of the kind, comprising most of
the material of importance that had previously
appeared. It has some mysticism, opposes
anthropomorphism, and in general carries on
the teachings of Al Ashari. Fakhr-ad-din de-
voted himself to a wide range of studies and
expended a large fortune on experiments in
alchemy. He taught at Rai and Ghazni, and
became head of the university founded by Mo-
hammed Ibn Tukush at Herat.

FAJEQR, fi-kSr7 (Ar. faqfr, beggar, religious
mendicant, from faqura, to be poor). In gen-
eral, a religious mendicant; more specifically,
a Hindu marvel worker or priestly juggler, usu-
ally peripatetic and indigent. The fakir may
be regarded as a differentiated shaman or sor-
cerer, standing midway between the best and
the worst products of the original class — i.e.,
between priest and beggar. There are, how-
ever, many classes, defined chiefly by cult, but
also by race, school, or particular craft. In
Mohammedan countries fakirs are usually di-
vided into two classes — the orthodox, or those

344

FALASHAS

"within the law," and the heterodox, or those
"without the law." In portions of India, also,
there is a particularly orthodox or elevated
class, known as yogis, with a much larger ir-
regular or outlaw class; and in some sections
the fakirs grade into dervishes, some of whom
engage in religious rites or invocations involv-
ing peculiar postures or movements, such as
spinning on the toes with outstretched arms
for hours at a time. The Hindu fakirs are
probably the most expert jugglers in tlie world,
and many of their feats have puzzled the most
acute Western students — some have never been
fully explained. They appear to be adepts in
sleight of hand, in hypnotism, in ventriloquism,
in producing illusions, and in controlling or-
ganic reactions by voluntary effort, and many
of the current devices of jugglery in other
parts of the world have been borrowed from
them. The parallelism between the Hindu fakir
and the Amerind shaman is particularly close,
as in the mango trick of the one and the corn
trick of the other. In both cases the plant is
apparently grown in sight of the spectators, in
a few minutes, from the seed, through the tender
shoot, the forming buds'" the full bloom, the
immature fruit, and the ripened product, all
by an ingenious series of illusions: but the
Oriental trick has become little more than a
feat of jugglery; the Occidental one remains a
part of a solemn religious ceremony. See MAN,
SCIENCE OF, section Sophiology.

FAKTTMEKT, fa'koo-mun'. A town of south-
ern Manchuria about 40 miles north of Mukden
and 20 miles west of Tie Pass. It was occupied
by the Japanese, March 18, 1905, after the
battle of Mukden.

PALAISB, fa'laz'. The capital of an arron-
dissement in the Department of Calvados,
France, on the Ante, 19 miles southeast of Caen
(Map: France, E 4). It is built on a cliff,
whence its name. The chief buildings are the
two Gothic churches, La Trinite* and Saint-
Gervais, the hospital, and the ruined castle
and fortress, once the seat of the dukes of
Normandy, and the birthplace of William the
Conqueror, a- statue of whom stands on the
Place Saint-Gervais. In the castle, the chamber
in which the Conqueror was born is shown.
Educational institutions include a coHege and a
library. Falaise manufactures cotL *•:, hosiery,
bobbinet, dyestuffs, chimes, and eather. An
annual fair, dating from the eleventh century,
is held each August at Guibray, a suburb.
Pop. (commune), 1901, 7657; 1911, 6847. Con-
sult Dodd, Falaise, the Town of the Conquer or
(Boston, 1900).

PALA3STAKA, fa'la-na'ka (Malagasy word).
A peculiar fossorial civet (Eupleres goudotii)
of Madagascar, remarkable for its slender skull,
the weakness of its jaws, and the small size of
the teeth, which are insectivore-like and, with
other characteristics, make this animal the most
aberrant of the Viverridse. Accordingly it is
placed in a subfamily (Euplerinae) by itself.

PALASHAS, fa-la'shaz (Ethiop., wanderers).
The inhabitants of the Abyssinian Kingdom of
Amhara. They claim to be of Jewish race and
to be descended from emigrants of the period
of disorder in Israel during and following the
reign of Jeroboam. Whether they are true
Jews, or descendants merely of proselytes of
the period of close connection between Abys-
sinia and Israel, is uncertain. They practice
debased Jewish rites, are not acquainted with

the Babylonian or Jerusalem Talmud, make
no use of the tephillin, and observe neither the
Feast of Purim nor that of the Dedication of
the Temple. They possess, in Geez, an Ethiopia
dialect of great antiquity, the foundation of
the Amharic, the canonical and apocryphal books
of the Old Testament; a volume of extracts
from the Pentateuch, with comments, given as
they think, from God to Moses on Mount Sinai;
the Te-e-sa-sa Sanbat, or laws of the Sabbath;
the Ardit, a book of secrets revealed to twelve
saints, which is used as a charm against dis-
ease; lives of Abraham, Moses, etc., and a
translation of Josephus, called Sana Aihud. A
copy of the Orit, or Mosaic law, is kept in the
holy of holies in every synagogue. Various
pagan observances are mingled in their ritual;
every newly built house is considered uninhab-
itable till the blood of a sheep or fowl has been
spilt in it; a woman gmlty of a broach of
chastity has to undergo purification by leaping
into a flaming fire; the Sabbath has been deified
and, as the goddess Sanbat, receives adoration
and sacrifice, and is said to have ten thousand
times ten thousand angels to wait on her com-
mands. There is a monastic system, said to
have been introduced in the fourth century.
The monks must prepare all their food with
their own hands, and no lay person, male or
female, may enter their houses. Celibacy is not
practiced by the priests, but they are not allowed
to marry a second time, and no one is admitted
into the order who has eaten with a Christian
or is the son or grandson of a man thus con-
taminated. Belief in the evil eye or shadow is
universal, and spirit raisers, soothsayers, and
rain doctors are in repute.

Education is in the hands of the monks and
priests, and is given only to boys. Fasts, obli-
gatory on all above seven years of age, are held
on every Monday or Thursday, on every new
moon, and at the Passover (the 21st or 22d of
April). The annual festivals are the Passover,
the Harvest Feast, the Baala Mazalat or Feast
of the Tabernacles (during which, however, no
booths are built), the Day of Covenant or As-
sembly, and Abraham's Day. It is believed that
after death the soul remains in a place of
darkness till the third day, when the first
ta&kar, or sacrifice for the dead, is offered;
prayers are read in the mesgeed (synagogue)
for the repose of the departed, and for seven
days a formal lament takes place every morn-
ing in his house. No coffins are used, and a
stone vault is built over the corpse so that it
may not come into direct contact with the
earth. The Falashas are an industrious people,
living for the most part in their own villages
or, if they settle in a Christian or Mohammedan
town, occupying a separate quarter. They en-
gage in agriculture, manufacture pottery, iron-
ware, and cloth, and are especially sought after
for their skill in masonwork. Their number is
variously estimated at from 100,000 to 250,000.
Consult: Flad, The Falashas of Abyssinia (Eng.
trans., London, 1869) ; Stern, Wanderings
among the Falashas in Abyssinia (London,
1862) ; Halevy, Travels in Abyssinia (Eng.
trans., London, 1878). M. Halevy was a Jew,
sent to Abyssinia to offset the effects of Chris-
tian missionary work. Consult also: Morais,
"The Falashas," in Pennsylvania Monthly
(Philadelphia, 1880); Cyrus Adler, "Bibliog-
raphy of the Falashas," in American Hebrew
(New York, 1894); Lewin, "Bin verlaseener

EALB

345

FALCON

Bruderstamm," in Block's Wochenschrift (Feb-
ruary, 1902); J. Faitlovitch, Notes $un voy-
age chez left Falachas (Paris, 1905).

FALB, fain, EUDOLF (1838-1903). An Aus-
trian meteorologist, born at Obdach, Styria. He
studied theology at Gratz, and although or-
dained to the priesthood, subsequently became
converted to Protestantism. From 1809 to 1872
he studied mathematics, physics, geology, and
astronomy at Prague and Vienna, and from
1877 to 1880 he traveled through North and
South America. Subsequently he became estab-
lished at Berlin. He was widely known by
his theory that the influence of the sun and
moon, exercised conjointly on the atmosphere
and on the molten material beneath the earth's
surface, produces earthquakes and other dis-
turbances of nature. This theory has, however,
found no acceptance among scientists. He was
popularly known for his predictions of "critical
days." In 1868 he founded the popular as-
tronomical periodical Sirius (conducted from
1882 by Klein). His works include: Von den
Umwalssungen im Weltall (3d ed., 1890) ; Das
Wetter und der Hond (2d ed., 1892) ; Kalender
der kritischen Tage (1892 et seq.).

FALCK, falk, NIELS NIKOLAFS (1784-1850).
A German jurist, born at Emmerief, Schleswig,
and educated at Kiel. In 1814 he became pro-
fessor of law at Kiel, and in 1838 was appointed
President of the Schleswig-Holstein Assembly
of the States, but lost the support of the Lib-
erals by his vacillating policy. He published a
Juristische Encyklopadie (5th ed., 1851) and
was a prolific author in the history and juris-
prudence of Schleswig-Holstein. His works in-
clude Handbuch des schleswig-holsteinischen
Privatrechts (1825-48) and Sammlungen zur
ndhern Kunde des Vaterlandes (1819-25). He
also edited the Staatsburgerttches Magazin (10
vols., 1821-31; continued as Neues Staatsbiir-
gerliches Magazin, 10 vols., 1833-41).

FAlCKENSTErN", falk'en-stm, EDUABD Vo-

GEL VON. See VOGEL VON FALOKENSTEIN, EDUAED.

FALCON, fd'k'n (OF. faucon, falcon, It fal-
cone, from Lat. falco, falcon, from falx, sickle).
Broadly, any hawk of the family Falconidse,
more usually and scientifically one of those
species which, in the language of falconry,
were styled "noble" birds of prey. The true
falcons are characterized by a bill curved from
the base, the upper mandible hooked at the
point, and the cutting edge of the upper man-
dible furnished with a prominent projection or
"tooth." The claws are also sharp, curved, and
strong; and in accordance with all this power-
ful armature the whole frame is very robust
and muscular. The legs are rather short and
have great power in striking or seizing prey.
The breastbone and shoulder girdle are large
and adapted for the attachment of powerful
muscles; the wings are long and pointed. The
true falcons are bolder in proportion to their
size than any other of the Falconidae, even the
eagles. Their acuteness of vision is wonderful,
and they have very great powers of flight. A
falcon is recorded as having traversed the dis-
tance between Fontainebleau and Malta, not less
than 1350 miles, in 24 hours. They soar to a
prodigious height in the air, always endeavoring
to outsoar any bird of which they may be in
pursuit and to swoop down upon it from above ;
although it is far more difficult for them to rise
vertically in a calm atmosphere than for birds
of short and rounded wing, and they either
vroJU VIII.— 23

rise obliquely — often making their onward flight
in a series of arcs — or avail themselves of the
wind, and by flying against it are borne aloft
as a boy's kite is.

The species are numerous and widely distrib-
uted. Some of them are of very wide range,
while others are peculiar to certain countries or
climates. The best-known American species are
the gyrfalcon (q.v.), formerly confused with
the Iceland falcon and the Greenland falcon,
and the peregrine falcon, known in the United
States as duck hawk, of which the female is par
excellence "the falcon of falconers" and the
male is the "tercel," "tiercel," or "tercelet."
The hobby (Falco subbuteo) ; the red-footed or
red-legged falcon (Falco rufipes or vespertinus ) ,
a small species, much resembling the hobby;
the merlin (Falco cesalon or regulus) and the
kestrel or windhover (Falco tinnunculus) are
common and well-known English species. The
gyrfalcon and peregrine are European also.
The name "falcon" is sometimes extended to
cover all of the various birds included in the
Falconidae, some 350 species, of which about
one-tenth occur in the United States. The
birds commonly called buzzards, eaglesa kites,
hawks, harriers, ospreys, and caracaras (qq.v.)
are usually included in that family, but it is
obviously confusing to call them all falcons, and
the word is better restricted therefore to the
genus Falco , in its present restricted sense.

For the use of falcons in sport, see FALCONBY;
for books relating to the family, see BIRDS, and
consult Fisher, Hawks and Owls of the United
States (Washington, 1893) ; and for portraits,
see Plates of EAGLES AND HAWKS, and FALCONS
A^D FALCONRY.

FALCON. A small mediaeval gun. Falcons
were generally long (20 to 30 calibres) and light.
While some are said to have been of sufficient
size to throw shot of six pounds' weight, the
majority were much smaller. In the sixteenth
century Henry II of France decreed that the
falcon should fire a ball of one pound weight,
and that the falconet should use one weighing
one-half pound. See AETILLEBT.

lAXCto, fal-kon'. A maritime state of Ven-
ezuela, occupying the territory around Lake
Maracaibo in the northwestern part of the Re-
public (Map: Venezuela, C 1). From 1881 to
1904 it was joined to Zulia, which is now a
separate state. It is traversed by a chain of
low mountains, and the soil in the valleys is
very fruitful, though the coast regions are dry
and barren. The chief products are coffee, cacao,
corn, cotton, sugar cane, coconuts, fruits, and
tobacco. Stock raising is of importance, and
the state has some mineral wealth. Pop., 1891,
151,092; 1909, 139,110. Coro is the capital.

ffALCdlT, fal-kGn', JUAN CteistfSTOMp (1820-
70). A Venezuelan soldier and politician, born
on the Peninsula of Paraguanfl. (State of Fal-
c6n, then Province of Coro). After a brilliant
military career he became, in 1858, the leader of
the Federalist revolutionary movement in Coro,
and in 1863 entered Caracas in triumph, after
being elected President of Venezuela. He sanc-
tioned the promulgation of a new constitution
in 1864. Overthrown in a revolutionary riot
three years later, he withdrew to Europe,
whence, upon the success of a counter-revolu-
tion, he was summoned again to assume office.
He died on the return voyage, at the island of
Martinique.

IFALCOITE

346

FALCONER

FALCONE, fiil-kp'na, ANUCLLE (AJ*GELO)
(1000-63). An Italian battle painter, born iu
Naples. He was a pupil of Jusepe de Hibera
(q.v.) and himself founded a large school. His
work being mostly confined to battle pieces, be
was called "L'oracolo delle battaglie." At the
outbreak of the revolt of the Neapolitans under
jMasaniello against Spain, he organized his
pupils into the "Compagnia della rnorte," which
never spared a Spaniard. After the suppression
of the revolt he was forced to flee to Rome Pro-
ceeding to Trance, he was eminently successful
there, numbering Louis XIV among liis patrons.
Under the protection of Colbert he returned to
Naples, where he died in 1665. His paintings,
of which not many survive, are full of life and
animation, are brilliant in color, and careful in
drawing. As he seldom signed them, they are
sometimes confounded with those of his pupil
Salvator Rosa, who also studied under "Ribera.
The Prado (Madrid) possesses two of his battle
pieces, the Louvre one, and the Museum of
Naples two. He was also an important etcher,
in command of a bold and spirited technique.

tfALCOSTER, fa/k'nSr, EDMUND (1814-70).
The assumed name of Edmund O'Honrke, an Eng-
lish actor and playwright. He was born in Dub-
lin, Ireland, first performed on the English pro-
vincial stage, and afterward went to London,
becoming manager of the Lyceum Theatre (1858
and again in 1861) and of Drury Lane (1862-
60). He wrote for other theatres and was in
the United States for three years (1867-69),
connected with the Olympic Theatre in New
York. Returning to England, he died Sept. 29,
1879. He composed or adapted many plays.
The Cagot was performed at the Lyceum, Lon-
don, in 1S56. The most popular of his dramas
was Peep o* Day (1861), founded on one of
Banim's stories of Irish life. As an actor he
was admirable in Irish rOles.

PALCON-ER, HUGH (1808-65). A Scottish
botanist and paleontologist, born at Forres (El-
ginshire). He graduated at the University of
Aberdeen in 1826, studied medicine at the Uni-
versity of Edinburgh in 1826-29, went to India
in 1830 as assistant surgeon in the service of
the East India Company, and in 1832 became
superintendent of the botanic garden at Saharan-
pur (Northwestern Provinces), India. His in-
vestigations led to the discovery in the Sivfilik
Hills of large numbers of important vertebrate
fossils. For his work in connection with these
remains lie obtained the Wollaston medal of the
Geological Society of London in 1837. It was
on his recommendation, in a report to the gov-
ernment of Bengal, that the culture of the tea
plant was introduced into India. He also dis-
covered the asafoetida plant, and was the first to
give a description of it. During his residence
in England on sick leave in 1843-47 he prepared
the India fossils of the British Museum for ex-
hibition. In 1847 he received appointment as
superintendent of the Calcutta Botanic Garden,
and professor of botany in the medical college
there. Because of ill health he returned to Eng-
land in 1855 and spent the remainder of his
life examining fossil species there and on the
Continent. He was elected foreign secretary of
the Geological Society and a vice president of
the Royal Society. He edited a large incom-
plete work entitled Fauna, Antique Sivalensis
(1846-49; nine parts, with illustrations of 1123
specimens, and one volume of text) and pub-
lished a Descriptive Catalooue of the Fossil Re-

mains from Hi? Neiialtk II ills (1850). Con-
siderable unpublishfd material was edited by C.
Murchisou as I'altcontoiogicul Memoirs and
^otes of the Late ILiujh Falconer (London,
1868). Consult the biographical notice in tho
lirst volume of that work, and the Koyal tto-
cirli/'s Catalogue of Scientific Papers, vol. ii
(London, 1808).

FALCONER, ROBERT ALEXANDEB (1867-
) . A Canadian clergyman and educator,
lie wtis born at Charlottetown, Prince Edward
Isliind, and was educated at Queen's Royal
College, Trinidad, and at London and Edin-
burgh universities. Later he also studied at Ger-
man universities. He was ordained a Presby-
terian minister in 1802. In 1892-95 he was
lecturer in, and in 1895-1904 professor of, New
Testament exegesis in the Presbyterian College,
Halifax; and in 1904-07 he was principal of
tlie college. In 1007 he became president of
Toronto University. In the same year he was
appointed a member of the joint committee to
promote church union between the Presby-
terian, Methodist, and Congregational churches
in Canada. He contributed numerous articles
on theological and biblical subjects to encyclo-
pedias and to Britisli and American periodicals.
He published The Truth of the Apostolic Oospcl
(1904), besides a number of educational lectures
and addresses. In 1911 he was created C.M.G.

FALCONER, WILLIAM (1732-69). An Eng-
lish poet, son of a poor barber. He was born in
Edinburgh, Becoming a servant, lie found in
Archibald Campbell a master who encouraged his
literary tastes. He went early to sea, and be-
fore he was 18 years of age he was second mate
on a vessel in the Levant trade, which was ship-
wrecked off Cape Colonna in Greece. Of the
crew only he and two others were saved. The
story of this voyage ho related in a poem called
"The Shipwreck" (1762). Entering the royal
navy, he was appointed purser on the frigate
Aurora, which was about to sail for India. The
Aurora, after touching at the Cape of Good
Hope, December, 1760, was lost. All the crew
periflhed. "The Shipwreck" passed through
three editions before this tragic event, and is
still an interesting poem. Falconer wrote a
political satire entitled The Demagogue (1764)
and compiled a nautical dictionary, The Uni-
rcrsal Marine Dictionary (1769). His Poetical
WorJis were edited, with a Life, by Gilfillan
(London, 1854).

FALCO1TET, fal'ko'na.', ETIBNNE MAURICE
(1716-91). A French sculptor. He was born
in Paris and studied with Nicolas Guillaume
and Lemoyne. His first important work — the
vigorous "Milo of Crotona" (Louvre) — secured
his admission to the Academy (1744), in which
he became professor in 1761 and associate rector
in 1783. In 1757 he was appointed director of
sculpture at the Sfcvrcs factory. He was em-
ployed by the Marquis de Pompadour and also
modeled a number of important statues for the
church of Saint-Roche, including one of "Christ
in Agony." In 1766 Catharine II of Russia
summoned him to model a bronze equestrian
statue of Peter the Great at St. Petersburg — his
masterpiece. Although the statue required 12
years to model and cast, it possesses little orig-
inality and is remarkable chiefly for the exag-
gerated position o." the horse. After his return
to France in 1781 he devoted himself principally
to writing. His literary works, mostly concerned
with his own art, were published as (Euvres

FALOOJSTETTO

347

FALCONRY

d'Etiennv Falconet (.Uubanne, 1785).
Falconet is one of the most important sculptors
of the eighteenth century in France. He shows
to best advantage in such graceful statues as
"Winter," "Pygmalion" (one of his most deli-
cate and personal works), "The Three Graces,"
"The Bather" (both in the Louvre), "Venus
and Love" (Wallace Collection, London), and
"Music." His modeling is correct and skillful,
bub his work is somewhat affected in sentiment.
FALCONETTO, lal'ka-nSt'td, GIOVA.TOI MABIA.
(1458-1534). A Veronese architect and painter
of the Renaissance. He studied under his
father, Jacopo Falconetto, and probably under
Melozzo da Forlt, but was by preference an
architect. His chief works in painting were
frescoes in the chapel of San Biagio, church of
San Nazaro (1493), the Duomo (1503), and the
church of San Pietro Martire in Verona — the
latter a series of religious allegories somewhat
in the manner of his master. His easel pic-
tures, such as "Augustus and the Sibyl," in the
Verona Gallery, fere weak and exaggerated.
More important are his architectural works at

Bishop of Laceduniti in 18H2 iintl raised to the
archbishopric of Acerenza and Matera in 1895.
He served as apostolic delegate to Canada from
1899 to 1902 and to the United States from
1902 to 1911, when he uas elevated to the
cardmalate. A volume of his J'ustoral Letters
was translated into French in 11)00.

FALCONRY, fo'k'n-ri. The art of training
falcons born in a white of freedom bo that whe.ii
they have iioAvn and captured their quuriy they
will, instead of devouring it, give it up to their
trainer. They will pursue and capture on the
wing the heron, partridge, lark, rook, magpie,
wild duck, pigeon, and rabbit, and in India game
as large as the deer. In ancient times this
sport was called hawking, a term still preserved
in many places. Nowadays falconry is the toi rn
applied to the sport and all that pertains to it:
hawking, to its actual practice out in the iield.
Falconry as a sport is of very ancient origin.
Apparently it was practiced in China as early
as 2000 B.C., in Japan GOO B.C., and in Babylonia
in 1700 B.C. In England, after the Norman
Conquest, it was much indulged in by kings,

ANCIENT PALCONBT.

(From an old manuscript in the British Museum.)

Padua, where he designed and built the fine
Renaissance Palazzo Giustiniani (1524) and
other structures, including several of the city
gates.

FALCONTrOBMES, fal'kon-I-ffir'mfe. An
ordinal term, used by Evans and some recent
ornithologists, for the raptorial birds, including
(1) the Cathartidfle and (2) the Accipitres, the
latter embracing (a) the Falconinse and (&)
the Pandioninaj. It is usually replaced by the
ordinal term Accipitriformes, while the Ameri-
can Ornithologists' Union still sanctions the old
all-inclusive Raptores.

FALCOKTIO, fal-ko'hyd, DIOMEDB, Cardinal
(1842-1917). An American Roman Catholic

? relate, born at Pescocostanzo, in the Abruzzi,
taly. Entering the Franciscan Order in 1860,
he finished his novitiate in 1865, was sent as a
missionary to the United States, where he be-
came a naturalized citizen, and was ordained a
priest in the following year. In 1866 he became
professor and vice president of St. Bonaventure's
College (Allegany, N. Y.) and two years later
president of the college and seminary of St.
Bonaventure. From 1872 to 1882 he was ad-
ministrator of the cathedral at Harbor Grace,
Newfoundland. Returning to Italy in 1883, he
was twice elected provincial of the Franciscans
and was also commissary, visitor general,
synodial examiner, and procurator general of
the order at various times. He was consecrated

nobles, and ladies; and in those days the rank
of the individual could be indicated by the par-
ticular species of hawk carried on Ms wrist.
Thus, royalty carried the gyrfalcon, an earl
the peregrine, a yeoman the goshawk, a priest
the sparrow hawk, and a servant the kestrel.
Tn the seventeenth century the sport declined; in
the eighteenth century it partially revived, but
again fell off about the year 1727, when the art
of shooting birds on the wing became the
fashion. In the present day its restoration
in England, Holland, and France is attended
with growing success, though no country in the
world has such a variety of hawks, or such op-
portunities for flying them, as the United States,
in which country and Canada several successful
clubs have been organized for the encouragement
of the sport. In Spanish America hawking was
long esteemed as a favorite sport. In the East,
from China to Morocco, falconry still maintains
its old-time position as a field sport.

In falconry two distinct kinds of hawks are
used — the long-winged, or true falcons, and the
short-winged. The first are represented chiefly
by the gyrfalcon and peregrine; the second by
the goshawk and sparrow hawk ; and though for
eertain purposes the male is superior, as a rule
the females of each species are much more
highly esteemed for sporting purposes, from
their being larger and more powerful. "Long-
winged" hawks may also, as a rule, he distin-

PAXDSTOOX

348

guished from the "short-winged" by their hav-
ing a "tooth" or notch on the upper mandible;
from the second feather of the wing being either
longer or as long as the third; from the color
of the iris, which is of a brown hue, so dark as
sometimes to appear black; and from their im-
petuous "stoop" when they descend from a
height on their prey.

The gyrf alcon ( q.v. ) is the largest species, but
the peregrine is in greatest favor with falconers)
and if taken from the nest, as is usually the
case, and carefully trained, affords great sport.
No hawk is lit for sporting purposes until it has
undergone a careful process of training. The
young hawk taken from the nest of its wild
parent is more easily trained than that which
has been trapped in a wild state when at ma-
turity j but in either case considerable practice
is necessary before the falcon can be considered
fully equipped for the sport. The following are
some of the terms used in falconry: Claws,
pounces; wings, sails; lower stomach, pannel;
feathers, hair, etc., ejected at the mouth, the
castings. A young hawk from the nest is an
eyess or eyas; a mature wild hawk is a haggard
or Hue hawk; hawks in their first year are red
hawks — the term red being applied merely as a
title of distinction between the young hawk
and the eyess or nestling, the colors of the two
being in reality the same. Fluttering is bateing;
fighting with each other, crabbing; sleeping,
jonking. The prey is termed the quarry. When
the hawk strikes her quarry in the air and
clings to it she binds; when she flies off with it
she carries. Dead game is the pelt. Stooping
or swooping is the act of descending with closed
wings from a height at the object of its prey.
When game Hies into a cover it puts in-. When
the hawk is molting her feathers she is mewing;
after her first molt, or (sometimes) after a
molt in confinement, she is intermetced. Mend-
ing the feathers artificially — a necessary opera-
tion if any have been accidentally broken — is
termed imping; blunting bill and talons, coping.
The cadge is a frame of wood with four legs,
carried by means of straps passed over the
bearer's (the cadger's) shoulders, and used when
there are several casts of hawks to be taken to
the field. Falcons are very pugnacious, and if
not kept separate would soon kill each other.
The screen or perch is a perch guarded by a
falling piece of canvas to support the hawks in
case of their leaping down from their block;
upon this the hawks are placed at night in an
apartment called the m&ws.

Bibliography. The best of the older works
are those of Turberville, published in 1575, and
that of Sir John Sebright (London, 1828). For
more recent treatises, consult: Salvin and Brod-
erick, Falconry in the British Isles (London,
1873) ; Freeman and Salvin, Falconry, its Claims
and Practice (ib., 1859); Freeman, Practical
Falconry (ib., 1869) ; Breck, "An Ancient Sport
in the New World," in Outing, vol. Ixiii (New
York, 1914), a readable account of the author's
experiments in falconry with a Cooper's hawk;
Harting, Bibliotheca Accipitraria: A Catalogue
of Books, Ancient and Modern, Relating to
Falconry (London, 3891).

PALDSTOOL, fald'stfcol (OF. faldestocl or
faudestuel, ML. faldistolium, from OHG. falden,
fold, and stol, chair). (1) In ecclesiastical
usage, a folding chair on which a bishop sat
when not occupying his throne in his cathedral,
or when in another church or cathedral Other

prelates having the right to full pontificals also
used it. (2) In the English church the name
is used for the folding stool on which wor-
shipers kneel in devotions; especially that on
which the kings kneel at consecration. (3) A
small desk in the churches from which the lit-
any is read is sometimes called the faldstool.

FALEME, fa-la'ma. An important tributary
of the Senegal River, in west Africa, rising in
the French dependency of Futa-Jallon and flow-
ing into the Senegal from the south (Map:
Africa, C 3 ) . The direction of its course is a
little west of north, and its length is estimated
at about 300 miles.

FALEBII, fa-lg'ri-I, A city in the southern
part of Etruria, west of the Tiber and the Sabini
and north of Mount Soracte. The inscriptions
show that its inhabitants, the Falisci, were not
Etruscans, but were closely allied to the Latins.
In the early Roman annals Falerii appears as
allied with Veii and other neighboring enemies
of Rome; it finally joined the Roman League,
however, it is said, in 343 B.C. For some un-
known reason it revolted towards the close of
the First Punic War, 241 B.C., and was then
destroyed by the Romans, who compelled the in-
habitants to settle in the plain near by, where
is now the village of Santa Maria di Falleri.
Here a Roman, colony was settled in the time of
the triumvirs, or later, whence the place took
the name of Colonia Junonia Faliscorum. But
this Roman Falerii does not appear to have ever
acquired any importance, for the temple which
anciently attracted so many pilgrims stood on
the site of the older town. This temple, found
at Lo Scotaso, in 1888, was of wood, with
decorations of colored terra cotta. In the
eleventh century the inhabitants removed to the
strong position of the ancient Falerii, which
finally obtained the name of Civita Castellana
(q.v.). Ruins of the Roman or later Falerii,
consisting of a part of the ancient walls, well
preserved, are still visible; in some places these
walls are 56 feet high and 7 to 9 feet thick;
50 towers are still preserved. Excavations in
the neighborhood of the more ancient town have
led to the discovery of extensive cemeteries,
containing a series of graves, of great value as
indicating the growth of civilization in Italy.
Consult: Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of
Etruria (London, 1883) ; Notiaie degli Scavi
(Rome, 1879, 1882-83, 1886-88, 1909, 1911);
Nissen, ftalische Landeskunde, vol. ii (Berlin,
1902).

FALER/NIAN WINE (Lat. Falernum,
Falernum vinum), one of the favorite wines of
the Romans, so called from the Ager Falernus,
the district in which it was grown, which lay in
the northern portion of Campania, between the
Massican hills and the northern bank of the
Vulturnus. It is described by Horace as, in his
time, surpassing all other wines in repute. In
the time of Pliny, however, Falernian wine had
already, owing to a want of care in its cultiva-
tion, begun to decline in quality. A wine pro-
duced in this district is still known as Falerno.
Consult Nissen, Ita-lische Landeskunde, vol. ii
(Berlin, 1902).

FALEBNTJS AGER. See FALEBNIAN WINE.

EALGTJI&RE, fal'gyar', JEAN ALEXAJSTDBE
JOSEPH (1831-1900). A French sculptor and
painter, born in Toulouse. He studied in Paris
under Carrfere, Belleuse, Chenillon, and Jouffroy,
and won the Prix de Rome in 1859. While still
at Rome, he sent to the Salon his "Winner of

FALCONS AND FALCONRY

1" A HAWKSEAFJELD ™E ^ CENTURY' CARRY'N« 4. PEREGRINE FALCON (F.loo peragrinua), on portable

2" 22fa5^KlAstur P-'umbarlus). 6. GYRFALCON (Faloo i

3* KESTREL vTlnnuneulua alaudariua). 6. A FALCON'S HOOD

T A FALCON'S JESSE, WITH BELLS.

FAXiIEU

349

TALK

the Cock Fight" (1864, now in the Luxem-
bourg), a work breathing the very spirit of
antiquity; it assured his reputation. In 1808
he gained the medal of honor with fc£Tarcisus
Martyr" (Luxembourg), the most personal of
his creations. Falguiere was essentially a
realist, of great natural talent and with a pro-
found love of nature and life, hut lacked
thoughtfulnoss and was too impatient for care-
ful execution in marble. His best works, be-
sides the two early ones mentioned, are his
commemorative statues, including "St. Vincent
de Paul" (Pantheon), "Corneille" (The*atie
Frangais), "Gainbetta" (Amiens Museum),
''Lamartine" (in Macon), and "Lafayette" (in
Washington) — all of which are good in expres-
sion and pose and show psychological insight.
A scries of bold but often rhythmically poetic
nudes, such as "Eve," "Diana," "Heroic Poetry/'
"The Woman with the Peacock" (1890), and
"The Dance" (1896), gained him the appellation
of the "Parisian Praxiteles." His ambitious
groups, such as the "Triumph of the Republic"
— a large bronze quadriga on the Arc de Tri-
omphe — and the groups for the Trocadero and
the Panth4on, were not equally successful. Al-
though primarily a sculptor, his paintings, such
as "Fan and Poniard" and "Spanish Dwarfs"
(Luxembourg), in the manner of Velazquez
and Goya, are robust and well executed. Fal-
guiere received many medals and was officer of
the Legion of Honor (1878) and member of the
Institute (1882). Consult: Bene"dite, "Alexan-
dre Falguiere," in Librairie de Tart (Paris,
1902) ; Geoffrey, in Gazette des Beau® Arts (ib.,
1900 ; Eng, trans. ) ; Eaton's Handbook of Modern
French Sculpture (New York, 1913).

FALIER, fa-lya,!/, MABINO (c.1285-1355).
A celebrated Venetian Doge, elected to office in
1354, when about 70, after rendering the Re-
public great service in many different offices,
administrative, military, and diplomatic. Ac-
cording to the account usually given, his bitter
resentment was aroused by an offensive libel on
himself, the author of which owed him a
grudge. The punishment imposed on the young
noble by a patrician tribunal seemed to Falier
wholly inadequate, and in order to avenge this
double slight he organized an audacious plot
with the object of overthrowing the Republic
and massacring the heads of the aristocracy,
to be followed by his own assumption of
sovereign power. The real facts have always
remained obscure, but it seems probable that
Falier was trying to make himself supreme lord
of Venice and many of the people^ exasperated
by the conduct of the nobility, were willing to
aid him. The conspiracy was, however, revealed
on the eve of its execution, and Falier was
arrested. He suffered death by decapitation on
April 17, 1355. In the hall of the Great Coun-
cil, which contains the portraits of all the doges,
the space allotted to that of Falier is draped
with a veil of sable, and bears the following in-
scription: "Marino Falier, executed for trea-
son." Byron has made the fate of Falier the
subject of a drama. Consult Brown, Studies in
the History of Venice, vol. i (London, 1907),
and Lazzarini, Marino Faliero, la Congvura
(Venice, 1897).

F-AXK, JOHANN DANIEL ( 1768-1826) . A Ger-
man author, and philanthropist, born in Dan-
zig. After studying theology at the University
of Halle, he turned to literature, wrote several
satirical poems, and in 1797 became, through

Wieland (q.v.), a member of the Weimar
literary circle. When Napoleon's army invaded
the duchy in 1800, his knowledge of the French
language enabled him to moderate to some ex-
tent the spoliation of the country, and later
caused him to be created a counselor of lega-
tion. In 1813 he founded the Society of Friends
in Need, and in the same year established at
Weimar the first institution 'in Germany for the*
care and education of neglected and orphan
children. This was taken over by the state in
1829 and still exists as the Falk'sches Institut.
Falk's publications include: Der Mensch und die
Helden (1798); Oceaniden (1812); Ooethe aut
nuhcrm personliclicn Umgange datgestellt (1832:
3d ed., 1850). Consult Stein (Nietschmann) ,
Johannes Folk: Em Zeit- und Lelensbild (Halle,
1881).

FALK, MAX (1828-1908). An Hungarian
politician and publicist. He was born and edu-
cated at Pest, entered the Polytechnic Institute
at Vienna, and became a member of the Aca-
demic Legion in 1848. As editor of the Wan-
derer of Vienna, he strongly advocated the
restoration of the Hungarian constitution, and,
soon after the negotiations concerning the com-
promise with Hungary had been resumed, he
was appointed private lecturer on Hungarian
history and literature to the Empress Eliza-
beth. As editor in chief of the Pester Lloyd,
he made his influence widely felt. In 1869 he
was elected to the Hungarian Parliament, where
he identified himself with the party of which
Deak, Eutvbs, and Andrassy were the moat
prominent representatives. With Brachelli he
published the twelfth German edition of Gal-
lettis' Allgemeine Weltkundc (1859-60). His
independent literary productions, which include
the biography, Graf Stephan Sze'chenyi und seine
Zeit (1868, also published in Hungarian), ap-
peared chiefly in the Oesterreichische Revue.
He wrote also Ruckerinnerungen an die Konigin
Elisabeth (1902).

FALK, falk, (PAUL LTTDWIG) ADALBERT
(1827-1900). A Prussian statesman, born at
Metschkau, Silesia, Aug. 10, 1827. He was the
son of a Protestant clergyman and studied law
at Breslau and Berlin. In 1847 he entered
the state service of Prussia; in 1850 he was
appointed Assistant State Attorney at Bres-
lau and in 1853 State Attorney at Lyck. In
1858 he was elected to the Prussian Chamber of
Deputies and s_erved as a member of the com-
mittee on petitions, budget, and military affairs
(1858-61). In 1862 he was appointed counselor
of the Court of Appeals in Glogau, Silesia, and
in 1867 was elected to represent that district in
the provisional Parliament of the North German
Confederation. In 1868 he was permanently as-
signed as counselor of the Ministry of Justice
and devoted himself zealously to the new codifi-
cation of laws for the North German Con-
federation, performing a similar work afterward
for the German Empire. In 1871 the Emperor
•appointed Dr. Falk one of the representatives of
Prussia in the Federal Council. In 1872 he
succeeded Von Mtthler as Prussian Minister for
Ecclesiastical Educational Affairs (Kulirus-
minister). He introduced a law, passed March
11, 1872, according to which the supervision
of all schools was declared to be the exclusive
prerogative of the state. It was carried against
the united efforts of the Roman Catholic and
conservative Protestant parties of the Prussian
Parliament, Falk continued by a number of

FALKE

350

FALKLAOT5

measures to assert further the exclusive riyht'
of the state to legislate in all school affairs. A
rescript of June 15, 1872, excluded members of
ecclesiastical orders and congregations from
positions in the public schools. Ln May. 1R7I3.
an Act was passed conferring upon the stale the
right of supervi sing Roman Catholic seminaries.
It was required also that candidates for the
clerical oflice should undergo a certain amount
of secular training at the universities, and that
every ecclesiastical appointment should receive
the sanction of the secular authorities. A royal
tribunal for ecclesiastical matters was also set
up. This legislation, -which the Pope denounced
as invalid, Feb. 15, 1875, was disregarded by
the Roman Catholic bishops, and Bismarck, sup-
ported by Palk, imposed penalty after penalty
in order to establish the supremacy of the state.
Refractory bishops were imprisoned, deposed,
and banished; the contributions of the govern-
ment were withdrawn from the clergy who
incurred its displeasure; religious orders were
dissolved; and the administration of church
property was taken from the clergy and in-
vested in bodies of laymen. Dr. Falk's policy
was no more acceptable to the orthodox Protes-
tant party than to the Roman Catholics, and tho
difficulties of his position led him to resign in
July, 1879. The Fa Ik laws were modified by his
succesHors, Von Puttkamer and Gossler, despite
the opposition of Falk as member of Parliament.
In 1882 he accepted a high judicial appointment
at Hamm and died there, July 7, 1900. His
Iteden (/chaltcii, m den JaJircn .Ztf 72-7,9 appeared
at Berlin in 1880. Consult Fischer, Adalbert
Falk (Hamm, 1000), and J. F. von Schulto,
"Erinnerungen uncl Erlebnisse mit Adalbert
Falk," in Deuischc Rcvuc, vol. xxxii (Stuttgart,
1876). Wee KULTUJSKAMPF.

FALKE, faika, GTTSTAV (1853-1916). A
German poet, born in Lilbock, nephew of Jakob
von Falke and of Johannes Friedrich Gottlieb
Falke. He was educated at the Liibeck Catha-
rineuin, was a bookseller for seven years, and
then (after 1878) a music teacher in Hamburg,
and in 1903 on his fiftieth birthday received an
annual grant of 3000 marks from the Hamburg
Senate nnd Commonalty. He then devoted him-
self entirely to literature, especially poetry,
although he had previously written fiction, in-
cluding Aits dcm DurcJischtritl; (1892), Landcn
und fttranden (1805), and Dcr Mann im Nclcl
(1809). In his poems lie was at first rather
markedly influenced by von Lilicncron, but later
showed more individuality. Among his volumes
of verse, besidea some juveniles, were: Mynheer
dcr Tod (1892); Fans und Andaoht (1803);
Xeuc Falirt (1807): 3fil flem Lcben (1899);
Hohe Sonwicrtagr (1002): an epic in hexam-
eters, D?r first icMtc Katcr (1904) ; FroJie
Fracht (100? ) ; Hamburg (1908) in the series
called flfftdte -and Lanrt&cJuiflen*

FALKE, JOIIANNEH FRIBDHTCH GOTTLIEB
(1823-70). A German historian, brother of the
preceding. He was born at Ratzeburg and stud-
ied theology, philology, and history at Erlangen.
In 1855 he was appointed a custodian, and in
1856 secretary of the Germanic Museum at
Nuremberg; and in 1859 he became director of
the manuscript department in that institution.
In 1802 he was appointed secretary of the gov-
ernment archives at Dresden, \vlicre he occupied
the position of archivist at the time of his death.
He was founder and coeditor of the Zeitsohrift
fur deutsche Kulturgeachichte (1855-59), a peri-

odical devoted to the economic history of Ger-
many. His in dependent works include: (IcscliicJilr
des 'deutsrticn Jlandels (1850-60), Die Mm* mi
als deidsche ftce- und Handelsrnacht (1RU2);
GeschicJite des dciitschen Zollwescns (1SOO).

FALKENHAYW, GENERAL EETC VON. Ger-
man War Minister. See VOLUME XXIV.

FALKENSTEEN", fiilk'en-stln, JULIUS Au-
GIST FERDINAND (1842- ). A German ex-
plorer. He was born in Berlin, and studied
medicine and geology at the university in that
city. As a member of the exploring expedition
sent by the African Society of Germany to
Loango (1873-7G), ho made important scientific
discoveries. His valuable collections included
the first gorilla ever transported alive out of
Africa. In 1881 he founded the General School
Association of Germany, a society foirocd for
the strengthening of German influence in the
schools of other countries. His publications in-
clude: Die Loanfjo-Riiste in 73 Original-
PhotograpJiien (1876); Die Loango Expedition
(1870); Africans Westliiste: Tom Ogoice bis
zuin Dawara Land (1885); AerzllicJier Rei&c-
legleitcr und Hausfreund (10th ed., 1803).

FALKIBK, faFkSrk (named from a church
built during the eleventh century by Malcolm
Canmore). A parliamentary and municipal
burgh and market town of Stirlingshire, Scot-
land, about 3 miles southwest of its seaport,
Grangomouth, on the Firth of Forth, and 24
miles northwest of Edinburgh (Map: Scotland,
E 4). Falkirk consists principally of a long,
irregular street. There is an equestrian statue
of the Duke of Wellington, erected in 1854.
Among its notable buildings are the town hall,
county buildings, art school, free library, and
cottage hospital. Its parish church has some
ancient monuments, but was itself rebuilt in the
year 1810. The church, church lands, and bar-
ony belonged of old to the abbey of Holyrood.
It is the centre of the Scotch iron-founding
trade, the principal works being at Carron.
There are several extensive collieries in the
neighborhood as well as distilleries. Its three
annual cattle fairs (trysts), once so famous,
have practically been supplanted by a weekly
market. Falkirk is a station on* the North
British Railway and is connected with the east
and west coasts by the Forth and Clyde Canal.
Pop,, 1001 (municipal burgh), 20,271;' 1011, 33,-
574. The town is of great antiquity, having
been a place of some importance as early as the
eleventh century. On a small eminence near
Falkirk an important engagement was fought,
July 22, 1298, between the English under Edward
I and the Scottish army under William Wallace
( q.v. ) . The Scottish forces were outnumbered
nearly three to one and were driven from the
iield with the loss of 20,000 men. Wallace was
forced to seek concealment, and Edward's hold
on the southern part of Scotland was strength-
ened. Near Falkirk, Jan. 17, 1746, Charles Ed-
ward, the young Pretender, defeated an English
army under General Hawley.

FALKLAND, fak^land. A royal burgh in
Fifeshire, Scotland situated at the northeastern
base of the Loruond Hills, 22 miles north of
Edinburgh (Map: Scotland, E 3). Pop. 1901
(civil parish), 2229; 1911, 2356. It is noted
for its sixteenth-century royal palace, built upon
the site of an ancient castle of the MacdufTs,
thanes of Fife, and now the property of the
Marquis of Bute, who has had it carefully
restored. It is rich in memories of the births,

FALKLAND

351

liv-'s, imprisonments and murders of Scottish
princes ami kings. In 1715 it was garrisoned
liy Hob Hoy (q.v.)- Consult Wood, Historical
Dcsmplion of Falkland (Edinburgh, 1888).

FALKLAND. The first novel of Bulwer Lyt-
ton, named after its hero, and published anony-
mously in 1827. It is a singularly gloomy
work, described by the author as "to me what
the fiotroirs of Werthet was to Goethe."

FALKLAND. The leading character in Wil-
liam Godwin's novel Caleb Williams.

FALKLAND, Lucius CABY, second VISCOUNT
(c.1610-43). An English writer and politician.
He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and
at St. John's College, Cambridge. About 1629
he inherited his maternal grandfather's fortune
and devoted himself to literature. By his
father's death, in 1G33, he became Viscount
Falkland. In 1633 lie was created a gentleman
of the Privy Chamber to Charles I and took
part in the expedition against the Scots in 1639.
In 1040 he entered Parliament as member for
Newport and the Isle of Wight. He opposed
Laud during the Short Parliament and in the
Long Parliament took sides against Strafford.
He became Secretary of State in 1642, and at the
outbreak of the Civil War he joined the King's
party. But he was so dissatisfied with both
parties that he courted death, and was killed at
the battle of Newbury. His principal work is
A Discourse on- the Infallibility of the Church of
Rome (1660). His poems, edited by A. Gros-
hart, were published in 1871. Consult Marriott,
The Life and Times of Lucius Caty, Viscount
Falkland (New York, 1907), and Longueville,
Falklands (London, 1897).

FALKLAND ISLANDS. A British colony
in the South Atlantic, between lat. 51° and 52°
45' S. and long. 57° 20' and 61° 46' W. (Map:
South America, H 8). The colony is about 300
miles east of the Strait of Magellan and 1100
miles south of Montevideo. The Falkland
Islands consist of East Falkland (about 3000
square miles) and West Falkland (2300 square
miles), the two being separated by Falkland
Sound, and about 100 small islands (nearly 1200
square miles) ; total area, about 6500 square .
miles. South Georgia, an island lying with "
several islets about 54° 30' S. and 36° to 38°
W., is a dependency; area of the group, about
1000 square miles. Also regarded as dependen-
cies of the colony are the South Shetlands,
Graham's Land, the Sandwich group, and the
South Orkneys (on which the Argentine gov-
ernment has, with British consent, established
a meteorological station).

East and West Falkland are for the most part
low-lying moorland interspersed with rocks. A
few "mountains exceed 2000 feet, the highest
being 2290 feet, in West Falkland. (South
Georgia is much more mountainous, at least one
mountain exceeding 5000 feet.) The soil is
chiefly soft peat; there are no trees and little
vegetation besides grass. The coasts are deeply
indented, and there are numerous well-protected
harbors. The climate is not unhoalthful, but
cool; the range of temperature in the summer is
40° to 65° and in the winter 30° to 50°, the
mean being 42°. The weather is often disagree-
able on account of strong winds and drizzling
rains, but the annual rainfall seldom exceeds
25 inches. There are practically no roads, and
communication is by sea or horseback. The only
industries are sheep farming and whaling. Live
stock in 1912: 711,367 sheep, 7529 cattle, 3665

horses, and 60 swine. In 1910 imports and ox-
ports were valued at £04,294 and £308,030
respectively; in 1912, £93,204 and £623,875. The
trade is largely British. The wool export in
1011 was 4,043,781 pounds. In the dependencies
the whaling industry has recently made rapid
progress. Exports from South Georgia in 1011
(not included above) were valued at £426,438.
There is monthly mail communication with
England. The population, which is almost en-
tirely on the two principal islands, was 2043
in 1901 and 3275 in 1911 (2370 male, 905
female). The inhabitants are nearly all British.
Stanley, with a good harbor, on the east coast
of East Falkland, is the only town; pop., 905.
It has a government and a Roman Catholic
school. Traveling schoolmasters visit other
parts of the islands. The colony is administered
by a governor; there are an executive and a
legislative council, all members being appointive.

The Falkland Islands were discovered by
Davis in 1594 and visited by Hawkins two
years later. France took possession in 1764,
and a small colony was established; this in
1766 was bought by the Spaniards. The Eng-
lish took West Falkland in 1767, but were
driven out by the Spaniards. In 1820 a settle-
ment was made by the Republic of Buenos Aires.
The islands were finally taken by Great Britain
in 1832, and in 1843 a civil administration was
established. The colony has been self-support-
ing since 1885. In 1912 the revenue was £34,-
037; expenditure, £33,508. There is no public
debt. A wireless station was set up at Stanley
in 1912. Consult British Empire Series (Lon-
don, 1900), and Murdock, From Edinburgh to
the Antarctic, 1892-03 (London, 1894).

FALKNEEr, fanner, RoLAiro POST (1866-
). An American statistician, born at
Bridgeport, Conn. He graduated at the Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania in 1885 and afterward
studied at Berlin, Leipzig, and Halle (Ph.D.,
1SSS). For throe years (lvS88-91) he was an
instructor, and for nine years (1801-1900) as-
sociate professor of statistics, in the Wharton
School of Finance and Economy (University of
Pennsylvania). In 1900 he was appointed chief
of the division of documents in the Library of
Congress at Washington. He was secretary of
the International Monetary Conference of 1892,
and edited, from its beginning in 1890 until
1900, the Annals of the American Academy of
Political and Social Science. Of this latter
organization he was first vice president in 1896-
97. From 1904 to lt)07 he served as Commis-
sioner of Education in Porto Rico; from 1908 to
1911 he was statistician in charge of school
inquiries for the United States Immigration
Commission, and he then became assistant di-
rector of the census. Besides a translation of
August Meitzen's History, Theory, and Tech-
nique of Statistics (1893), he published much
on statistical subjects, and contributed to the
XEW INTERNATIONAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.

FAMOUS, THOMAS (1707-84). An English
Jesuit missionary, born in Manchester. As sur-
geon on board the Aftsiento, a slave ship belong-
ing to the South Sea Company, he sailed to the
Guinea coast in 1731 and thence to Buenos
Aires, where he was so kindly treated by the
Jesuits during a dangerous illness that he de-
termined to enter their order. He was ordained
in May, 1732, and during the following 35 years
he worked as a missionary in Paraguay and the
vast region between the Rio de la Plata and the

FALXKTEB ISLAND

352

FALLACY

Strait of MasclUm, mohth union!* the natives.
Upon the expulsion of the Jesuits from South
America in 17t>.s, ho returned t«i England, where
he* was chaplain to wveral dintingui-hed Catho-
lic families. His religious \\ork uas materially
aided by his medical and surgical skill. He
left several woiks in mamwmpt, iueluding
four volumes. Botanical Mineral, and Lihn Ob-
servations on the Products of Amrnca (date un-
recorded), and published 11774) .1 Description
of Patagonia anrt the Adjoining Parts of tiouth
America, which seems to have been edited (and
spoiled! by a frit/nd.

FALXNER ISLAND. An island in Long
Island Sound, about 3 miles southeast of Guil-
ford, Conn. It has a lighthouse, with a white
flashing light. 931:* feet above mean high water,
which is visible for 15 (nautical) miles, and a
fo<r-si#nal siren.

FALK6PING, fiil'che'plng. A small town
and raihvav junction in Skaraborg, Sweden
(Map: Sweden, E 7). Pop., ISO!), 3066: 1910,
4800. It is the scene of the victory in 1389 of
Margaiet, Queen of Denmark and Norway, over
Albert of Mecklenburg, King of Sweden, wliich
enabled her to unite Sweden with the other
kingdoms. See, on the Union of Kalmar, under
KALMAR.

PALL, DOCTRINE OF THE. The term is espe-
cially used for that form of the explanation of
the origin of sin and human evil which appears
in the later Jewish, Mohammedan, and Christian
religions. It is based on the supposition that
the story of Eden in Gen. ii and iii represents,
in some form, an historical event. Until modern
times the story was taken literally. Later
Judaism began to use it as the explanation of
sin in the race. This is seen in the Wisdom of
Solomon, an Alexandrian Jewish book of the
first century B.C. ( ii. 23 ff. ) , in 2 Esdras, of the
first century A.D. (iii. 21 f, iv. 30, vii. 46 ff., viii,
35). In the New Testament it appears only in
Paul's writings (i Cor. xv. 21 f., Rom. v. 12 ff.).
These show us that, in the Jewish thought of
the time, sin and death were regarded as coming
upon man because of Adam's sin. Some kind of
unity between man and his supposed ancestor
Adam is assumed. These passages, however,
give no answer to the question how Adam, if
created pure by God, came to sin, nor what is
the nature of the connection between man and
Ms ancestor, nor whether man is "guilty of
Adam's sin." Such questions arose when Chris-
tianity entered the Greek world, and philosophi-
cal theology began to be formed. By the Greek
fathers the consequences of Adam's fall were re-
garded as physical and moral death, the control
of unregenerate man by Satan, and the great
attractiveness of evil. They held that the fall
was the result of the temptation of Satan.
Augustine, the greatest systematic theologian of
the Christian Church, added to these results the
complete enslavement of the human will, so
that man can now choose good only by the
grace of God. Pelagius refused to admit the
complete enslavement of the will, since this
would, he held, leave man irresponsible for his
own personal sin. Augustine met this position
by his theory of the unity of the human race.
All human nature was deposited in the first man
and was, as it came from God, pure. It was
corrupted by Adam's sin and, in that corrupt
state, comes into the individuality of each of
Adam's descendants, so that all are responsible
for the consequences of the first sin and are

guilty, not as separate persons, but as members
of the race which shares human nature from
Adam. This solidarity of the race rests upon
ideas of Platonic realism and was essential to
the Augustine idea of the fall and its results.
See ORIGINAL SIN.

The problem of how man, created pure, could
fall, was discussed more fully by the Calvinistic
theologians and their opponents. Some Calvin-
ists held that the fall was decreed by God;
others that it was only permitted. (See CAL-
VINISM.) The Arminians, like the Pelagians,
held that the fall did not entirely destroy the
power of a good choice, but weakened it, and that
man is not guilty for original sin.

Modern biblical scholarship regards the story
of Adam not as history, but as a myth, whose
original purpose was not to explain the. origin
of sin, but of the evils of life. It rejects the
story, therefore, as a legitimate basis for theo-
logical speculations. Evolution has taken the
place of Genesis as the explanation of the origin
of man. This involves certain radical changes.
Man has arisen from the brutes, and his growth
has been gradual. There was no fall from pris-
tine purity, for there is no evidence that pristine
purity ever existed. Sin came in when man be-
gan to perceive higher possibilities and chose
the lower instead of the higher. It is the sur-
vival of selfishness and passion after selfishness
and passion are seen to be wrong; but to call
that experience a fall is no more correct of the
race than of each individual child. The story of
Adam may be treated as an allegory of what
happens, not once for all, but in the life of every
man ; it becomes, not the basis of a metaphysical
theology, but the parable of human experience.
Men are tempted by the appeal to the senses
from without; their desires respond; they choose
what opposes known commands of the higher
laws; and they, and others with them, suffer
in consequence. Physical death is no longer
regarded as the result of sin. It is an incident
of organized life, long antedating the evolution
of man. The problems of predestination, free
will, and the connection of man with the sins of
his ancestors are swallowed up in the larger
problems of an order of the world, of human
consciousness, and of heredity, which modern
thought is for the most part content to leave
as yet unsolved. Consult: Fisher, History of
Christian Doctrine (New York, 1806) ; Har-
nack, History of Dogma- (Boston, 1894-99);
Clarke, Outline of Christian Theology (New
York, 1899) ; Brown, Christian Theology in Out-
line (ib., 1906); Mackintosh, Christianity and
Sin (ib., 1914).

PALL, ALBEBT BACON (1861- ). An
American legislator, born at Frankfort, Ky.
After an education in country schools he taught
school, studied law, and was a practicing at-
torney from 1889 to 1904. In 1898-99 he was
captain in the First Territorial Volunteer In-
fantry. He acquired property interests in lum-
ber, lands, stock farms, and railroads in New
Mexico and in mines in Mexico. He served
several terms in the New Mexico Territorial
Legislature, twice as Attorney-General, as As-
sociate Justice of the Supreme Court of New
Mexico, and as a member of the Constitutional
Convention. Upon the admission of New Mexico
to statehood he was elected United States Sena-
tor for the short term in 1912, and he was
reflected for the term 1913-19.
PAI/LAOY (Lat. fallacia, deception, from

FALLACY

353

PALLPISH

falla®, deceitful, from fallere, to deceive; con-
nected with Gk. ff<t>£\\et,v, sphallem, to overthrow,
Skt. phal, to deceive, Lith. pulti, OHG. fallan,
Ger. fallen, Icel. f allay, AS. feallan, Eng. /a/0-
The incorrect performance of the process of rea-
soning, so as to lead to an unwarranted con-
clusion. The science of logic finds that sound
reasoning proceeds in accordance with certain
rules, and when any of these rules is violated,
a logical fallacy is the result. There has been
much discussion as to the proper classification
of fallacies, and even now no agreement has
been reached. But it is obvious that, as a
fallacy is a violation of some logical law, an
adequate exhibition of the correct processes of
thought will carry with it an adequate exhibition
of the possible fallacies. There is only one
further difficulty. Language is not a perfect
instrument for the expression of thought: and
the same kind of logical mistake may be ex-
pressed in several ways, and each one of these
modes of expression may be important enough to
require treatment. This would lead to the old
traditional classification into fallacies not com-
plicated by verbal difficulties (extra dictionem)
and those so complicated (in dictione). Those
not complicated by verbal difficulties need no
detailed treatment, as they are all obvious
violations of some logical riile. All that need
be done here is to give the names of some of
the most common fallacies extra dictionem.
Thus, the fallacy of the undistributed middle
is a violation of the syllogistic law that the
middle term should be distributed at least
once. The illicit process of the major or minor
term is a violation of the syllogistic law that
neither extreme (major or minor) may appear
in the conclusion in a quantity exceeding that
belonging to it in the premises. The quatemio
terminorum, or four terms, violates the law that
a syllogism should have three, and only three,
terms. The double negative violates the law
that at least one of the premises of every
syllogism that is reduced to proper expression
should be affirmative. The petitio principii, in.
the form in which it belongs here, violates the
rule that there should be three distinct proposi-
tions in a syllogism; the violation occurs when
the conclusion to be proved is assumed in a
premise. But any really significant petitio
principii is a fallacy in dictione, for it is only
when the identity of conclusion and premise is
masked that a petitio principii is liable to be
seriously made or seriously taken. Still another
form of the petitio principii, called circulus in
probando, is a fallacy extra dictionem which is
possible only when there are two or more syllo-
gisms interrelated in such a way that the con-
clusion of each syllogism is the premise of some
other. In this way the conclusion, or what is
proved, in one syllogism is used in another
syllogism as a basis of proof for a proposition
which in its turn ultimately comes to be used as
a basis of proof for the first conclusion. Hence
the Latin name, meaning a circular process of
reasoning. In English this fallacy is often
called a vicious circle. The term petitio prun-
cipU is sometimes applied to arguments which
are not fallacious at all, but which employ as
premises propositions the truth of which is not
admitted by those to whom the argument is
addressed. The fallacy of the consequent is a
violation of the law that in hypothetical propo-
sitions the truth of the apodosis (consequent) is
not to be taken as carrying with it the truth of

the protasis (antecedent). Tew causa pro causa,
post hoc ergo propter hoc, and false cause are
names of a fallacy which consists in violating
the inductive canon that a temporal antecedent
must be distinguished from a cause. The fal-
lacies in dictione are not usually classified ac-
cording to any systematic principle, but names
are given to the most frequent or the most subtle
of them. A very comprehensive distinction is
that between fallacies in which the disguise of
the illogical operation is effected by a single
word (equivocation), and those in which it is
effected by the structure or other peculiarity of
a sentence or phrase as a whole (amphiboly).
Equivocation or amphiboly, when it appears in
the middle term of a syllogism, is called an
ambiguous middle. If the equivocation arises
from misplaced emphasis or accent, it is called
the fallacy of accent. The so-called fallacies of
composition and division may be either equivo-
cations or amphibolies. Thus "all men" may
mean either every man singly (distributive) or
the totality of mankind taken as a unit (col-
lective). Any violation of logical rules arising
from failure to make this distinction is a fallacy
of composition when the distributive use is mis-
taken for the collective; in the reverse case there
is a fallacy of division. These same fallacies of
composition and division are amphibolies when
the ambiguity between distributive and collec-
tive use lurks not in a single word (as above in
the word "all"), but in a phrase. Thus, from
the two premises "the animals walk two by
two," and "Two and two are four," to argue
that ''The animals walk by fours" is a fal-
lacy of composition arising from an amphiboly.
Another way in which a fallacy may arise is
from neglect to observe a qualification tacitly
but really made. Thus, the statement "What I
bought yesterday, I ate to-day," in civilized
communities really means "What I bought in
the marketable form yesterday, I ate to-day after
it had undergone whatever change was necessary
to make it edible." If now a cayiler, refusing
to recognise these tacit qualifications, were to
say "You bought raw meat yesterday, didn't
you?" he would suggest the inference that I
ate raw meat to-day. This is called argumen-
tum a dicto simpliciter ad dictum secundum,
quid — the assumption that qualification makes
no difference in the truth of a statement.

Another form of fallacy screened by verbal
expression is that in which a conclusion is estab-
lished which in expression resembles the point
one starts out to make, but which in reality has
nothing to do with that point. This is called
ignoratio elenchi, or irrelevant conclusion. The
so-called fallacy of complete question is nothing
but an unwarranted assumption in putting a
question. The stock example is the inquiry,
"Have you stopped beating your mother?" It
is more important to know what the funda-
mental rules of correct thinking are than to
know the names given to these trifling viola-
tions of such laws. See ARGUMENT. Consult:
Sidgwick, Fallacies (London, 1888); Acker-
mann, Popular Fallacies (Philadelphia, 1908) ;
Roberts, Fallacies and Facts (London, 1911) ;
and the logics of Mill, Creighton, etc. See also
LOGIC; INDUCTION; SYLLOGISM.

•ffATT, ABMY WOBM. See GBASS WOBM.

PAJiLEN" TIMBEBS, BATTLE OP. See
WAYNE, ANTHONY.

PALLTISH. The chub (Semotilus buttons)
of the Mississippi valley. The "red fallfish" is

354

flAI/LOPIO

one of the shiners (.Votro/>Hr nt&ricroc'ews), tlie
male of which is "blue with a black lateral band,
and the whole body more or less suifused with
blood red."

EALLlfiBES, fa/lyar7, CLIENT ABIIAXD
(1841- ). Eighth President of the French
Republic. He was born at INIezin (Lot-et-
Garonne), of peasant stock, studied law, acted
for a number of years as mayor of N£rac, and
in 1876 was elected to the Chamber of Deputies,
where he sat in the Republican Left and was
an opponent of the royalists. From Alay, 1880,
to January, 1882, during the Ferry ministry he
was Undersecretary in the Ministry of the In-
terior, became head of that department in Au-
gust of the latter year in the cabinet of Duclerc.
Subsequently he was Minister of Public Instruc-
tion under "Ferry (1883-85), of the Interior
under Rouvier (1887), of Justice and Public
Instruction under Tirard (1887-88, 1880), and
of Justice again under Freycinet (1890-92).
In 1800 he was elected to the Senate, and in
1899 became President of that body, being
reflected eight times in succession. In 1006
he was the candidate of the Radical Republican
and Socialist *'bloe" for President of the Re-
public to succeed Loubet. His opponent was
Paul Doumor (q.v.), who possessed the support
of the reactionary elements. This, combined
with M. Follteres's popularity, insured bis suc-
cess, and on January 16 lie was elected by
the National Assembly by 440 votes to 371. He
assumed office on Feb. 18, 1900. On assuming
office he indicated his policy by grouping in the
same ministry Poincure, Moderate (Finance),
Savrien, Radical (Justice), Clemenceau, Socialist
Radical (Interior), and Briand, Socialist (AV7i*-
cation), thus displaying a tendency towards the
Left and u desire to give greater recognition to
the working classes. En 1009 a separate JMinis-
try of Labor was formed to which a Socialist
was appointed. Fallieres was succeeded in 1913
in the presidency by M, Poineare*. Consult:
Weill, Histoirc du parti republican en Franco
(Paris, 1900) ; Hanotaux, Histoire de fa France
contemporainc (Eng. trans., 4 vols., 1903);
Sylvin, Q&6ltrito'& conteniporaines (Paris, 1883).
FALLING- BODIES. This term is applied
to bodies which are unsupported at the surface
of the earth, and which under the influence of
gravity ( see GRAVITATION ) fall or move towards
its centre. The action follows from the attrac-
tion which the earth exerts on matter, and the
acceleration which is thus produced is a uniform
quantity for any one point — an average value
being about 32.2 feet, or 081 centimeters, per
second per second, though the precise quantity
depends on the position on the earth's surface.
This quantity it is usual to denote by 17 / there-
fore, if we let t represent the time and v the
velocity, the velocity produced at the end of any
period 'is v = gt. Tlie experimental verif? cation
of the laws of falling bodies can be accomplished
with the aid of Atiooo&'e machine;, and under
that title will be found a description of the
apparatus and its methods of use, together with
the results which can be obtained with it. The
article GRAVITATION, which gives a complete ex-
planation of the phenomena of freely falling
bodies, and also ACCELERATION and MECHANICS,
should be read in this connection.
FALLING- SICKNESS. See EPILEPSY.
FALLMEBAYER, fai'me-rl'Sr, JAKOB PHI-
LTPP (1790-1861). A German traveler and his-
torian, born at Tschfltsch, in the Tirol. After

studying at Prixen, Salzburg, and Landshut, he
\\ as* appointed to the chair of history and
philology at Landshut. In ISiJl he accompanied
the Russian general Count Ostermann-Tolstoy
in a journey to the East. On returning he re-
aided with this nobleman until 1840 at Geneva,
and in the course of the next eight years twice
revisited the East. In 1848 he was appointed
professor of history in the University of Munich,
and for a short time he sat as a deputy in the
Frankfort Parliament, but after 1850 he lived
privately in Munich. "Fallmeiayer was a distin-
guished polyglot. His opinion concerning the
Slavic origin of the modern Greeks and of their
language excited a great controversy. His prin-
cipal works are: Qeschichte des Kaisertums
Trapezunt (1831); Qcschichte der HalMnsel
Morea im Mittelalter (1830-36) ; Fragments aus
(km Orient (1845). His Complete Works were
published in three volumes in Leipzig, 1861.

TALL OF THE HOUSE OF USHER, THE.
A short story by Edgar Allan Poe, which ap-
peared in the Gentleman's Ma</a,yine about 1840.
One of the most noted of his tales, it is a grue-
some mixture of madness, death, and ruin.

irAI/LON, MICHAEL FRANCIS (1SG7- ).
A Canadian Roman Catholic bishop. He was
horn in Kingston, was educated at the Christian
Brothers' School and Collegiate Institute in that
city, and afterward at Ottawa University, where
he "graduated in 1889. He also studied at the
frregorian University in Rome. On his return to
Canada he became a member of the Oblat Order,
and was for some time professor of English liter-
ature in Ottawa University, of which he was
also vice rector for three years. In 1898-1901
he was rector of St. Joseph's Church, Ottawa,
and in 1901-04 rector of the church of the Holy
Angels, Buffalo, N. Y. From 1904 to 1909 he
was provincial of the Oblat Order and in the
latter year was appointed Bishop of London,
Ontario.

FALLOTIAtf TTOES (so called after Fallo-
pio (q.v.), who is usually, but incorrectly, re-
garded as their discoverer), or OVIDUCTS. Canals
about 4 or 5 inches in length in the human
hody, opening at their inner extremity into the
upper angle of the uterus, and at the other end,
by a fringed funnel-shaped termination, into
the cavity of tlie peritoneum. This fringed or
ihnbriated extremity at certain periods grasps
the ovary and receives the ovum, which is dis-
charged oy the rupture of tlie Graafian vesicle.
(See OVABY.) The ovum usually passes along
the Fallopian tubes into the uterus, where it is
either impregnated by contact with one or more
spermatozoa, is absorbed, or ORcapes with the
vaginal mucus. Sometimes, however, the ovum
becomes not only impregnated, but retained and
further developed, in the Fallopian tubes, thus
giving rise to one of the forms of extra-uterine
pregnancy.

FALLOHO, faH5'p$-5, or FAILO'PITTS,
GABBEELLO (c.1523-02). An Italian anatomist,
born at or near Modena. If the date of birth
assigned is correct, he was only 25 when he was
promoted from the University of Ferrara to a
professorship at Pisa, whence, after a few years,
he was called to Padua, to succeed Vesalius
(q.v.), who had been compelled by the Inquisi-
tion to resign his office. Tomassini states that
Fallopius was born in 1490. He is classed, with
Vesalius and Eustachio, as one of the founders
of modern anatomy. He was succeeded by his
favorite pupil, Fabricius ab Aquapcndente.

355

TAt/LOW

He published numerous works in various de-
partments of medicine, of which the most impor-
tant is his Observations Anatomicce, in Libros
Quinqiie Digests (1SG1), in which he corrects
many errors into which his predecessor, Vesalius,
had fallen. He was the first to describe with
accuracy the ethmoid and sphenoid bones, and
the minute structure of the car (the canal along
which the facial nerve passes, after leaving the
auditory, is still known as the aqueduct of Fal-
lopius), the muscles of the soft pain to, and the
villi and valvulce conniventes of the small intes-
tine. The tubes passing from the ovary on
either side to the uterus which bear his name
wore known to and accurately described by
Herophihis and Tlufus of Ephesus, 300 years
before our era; but Fallopius discovered 'their
function. In addition to his anatomical fame, he
bad a considerable reputation as a botanist. He
was the superintendent of the botanical garden
at Padua; and a genus of plants, PaUopia., has
been named after him. A complete edition of his
works, in four folio volumes, was published in 1600.

FALLOUX, f<Vloo', ALFRED FR^DI&BTC PIERRE,
COUNT DE (1811-86). A French author and
statesman, born at Angers, in the Department of
Maine-ct-Loirc, of an ultraroyalist family. Fal-
loux first drew attention to himself by two
works characterized by admiration of the old
Bourbon regime — L'Histoire dc Louis XV f
(Paris, 1840), and ISHintoire do Saint-Pie V
(ib., 1844). Tie appeared in Paris as an orator
and writer for the church and the Bourbon
cause and was among the irrcconcilablcs of the
JLUght under the Orleanist monarchy. ]n the
elections of 1840 he was chosen deputy for the
Department of Maino-et-Loirc. He followed the
policy of a section of tho clerical party in wel-
coming the republic after the revolution of
1848, and WHS elected to the constituent As-
sembly. He must be held responsible for the
terrible udaya of June," for ho was the one who
demanded the immediate dissolution 'of the
national workshops. Ho advocated the dispatch
of the papal relief expedition (1840) and, as a
Minister of Instruction under Louis Napoleon,
formulated the loi fallou®, an educational law,
greatly favoring the clergy. After the coup
d'etat* he retired to his estates. He became an
Academician in 1H5C. Between 1800 and 1870
he. unsuccessfully sought to rccfntor politics.
IIo made incessant war upon the Empire, es-
pecially after the Italian expedition of 1850,
and played a leading rftle in the Catholic Liberal
pariy which included Lacordaire., Montalembert,
foupanloup, and Prince Albert do Broglie. Af-
ter the wtir with Germany his views became
somewhat more liberal. He it was who pro-
posed the fusion of Orleanist and Bourbon
claims, thus gaining the distrust of the extreme
Right, Furthermore, his liberal tendencies
placed him at odds with the Ultramontanes,
and he was almost excommunicated in 387(5.
Besides the works already mentioned, he wrote:
Lc parti eatJioliyite (Paris, 1850) ; Souvenirs
tie charitf (ib., 1857) ; Madame RwetchAne, sa
vie et ses ocuvrcs (ib., 1860) ; La qucstione
italienne (ib., 1860) ; Questions monarohiques
(ib., 1873) ; Du Scepticisms poUtique (ib.,
1872) : 7>e la contre Revolution (ib., 1878) ;
Do Wmt6 nationalc (ib., 1880) ; Etudes et
Souvenirs (ib., 1885). His memoirs were pub-
lished under the title Mtwoires d'un royalists
(ib., 1888). Consult Veuillot, Le oomte de Fal-
low et see mtfmofrw (ib., 1888).

FAI/LOW (AS. fealu> yellow, Icel. folr, OHGk
falo, Ger, fahl; connected with Lat. pallidust
pale, Gk. iroXtos, pohos, gray, Skt. patita, gray).
Land allowed to rest without crops for a season,
either tilled or untilled (bare or Hack fallow),
or land on which an intercrop is grown to fit it
for the main crop (green fallow). Fallowing is
an agricultural practice of ancient origin.
Wherever the system of bare fallowing, without
manure, is practiced, it necessarily supposes
that the soil is at least moderately fertile, for
the practice is a species of soil robbery since its
chief use is to liberate material from which
plants may derive their food, and which is
already stored up in the soil. It promotes
weathering, which assists in rendering the
mineral substances the soil contains more avail-
able. The plowing and stirring, by admitting
air, promote decomposition, nitrification, and
similar processes, which make both the organic
and mineral constituents of the soil more avail-
able as plant food, and at the same time destroy
insects and weeds that impoverish the soil and
choke the crops. With improvements in the
plow and other tillage implements and the rapid
increase in use of manures and fertilizers dur-
ing the last half century, the practice of fal-
lowing has become less common than formerly.
For summer fallow the land should be plowed
deeply about the Lint of May, and the surface
put in fine tilth. When the weeds spring up,
they should be destroyed by surface tillage, ff
the land is to be seeded to wheat or rye, tho
last stirring of the soil should be given not later
than the middle of August. The number of
plowings and the amount of surface tillage re-
quired will depend upon a variety of conditions,
but in some cases one deep plowing and one sur-
face tillage will accomplish the desired purpose
of destroying the weeds and preparing tho soil
for the succeeding crop by improving the tilth
and increasing the supply of nitrates and other
available plant food. For winter fallow, the
lund should receive a deep plowing in autumn.
Exposure through the winter allows tho frost to
pulverize the surface. ]n the spring, when the
weather becomes dry, tho cultivator or the plow
opens up the soil and destroys weeds. In many

on poorer soils it is good practice to apply
dung and similar organic manures to the fallow
land.

Since the general introduction of green manur-
ing crops, the term ''fallow" has departed some-
what from its original meaning. These crops
are sown on what was formerly the fallow and
are styled fallow crops. This practice, known
«H green fallow, is especially applicable to light,
poor soils. It protects the soil from wawhing
and loss of nitrates by leaching, chokes out
•weeds, improves the tilth, and, if leguminous
plants are grown, it enriches the soil in nitrogen
gathered from the air by these plants, while
some mineral matter is brought to the surface
from the subsoil by the roots of the plants.
(See GKBTBN MATOIRINO.) In dry climates, how-
ever, green fallow land is likely to suffer from
drought in atitumn. In so-called "dry farming,"
practiced in regions of scanty rainfall, a grain
crop IB often grown only every second year, the
land being kept in bare fallow and well stirred
meanwhile to store and conserve moisture. Bas-
tard fallowing is a term applied in Scotland to
the practice of plowing hay stubble at the end
of summer, freeing from ^eeds, and sowing with
wheat in autumn. A similar practice, known

PALLOW DEER

356

PALL RIVER

as short fallow in America, consists in plowing
the soil immediately after removing a crop of
grain, clover, etc., and keeping the soil well
stirred until grain or grass is seeded in the fall.
This treatment is very beneficial, and the period
is so short that there is not much danger of loss
of nitrogen by leaching. Consult: Roberts, The
Fertility of the Land (New York, 1897) ; Storer,
Agriculture (7th ed., ib., 1897); Hopkins, Soil
Fertility and Permanent Agriculture (ib.,
1910) ; Agee, Crops and Methods for Soil Im-
provement (ib., 1912).

FALLOW DEER, (so called from the duii
yellow color). A species of deer (Dama platy-
ceros, or vulgaris) commonly kept in parks, in
most parts of Europe. It is a native of the
countries around the Mediterranean and has been
introduced by man into the northern parts of
Europe, where it has run wild in some places ; it
is also wild in Spain, Sardinia, and the Greek
islands. How far its geographic range extends
eastward is not certainly known. It is repre-
sented in the sculptures of Nineveh, but these
engravings were probably copied from a different
species, the Persian fallow door (Cervus mesp-
potamicus). Its introduction into Great Britain
has been ascribed to James VI of Scotland, but
it is known to have existed long before his
time in Windsor Park. Hundreds of fallow deer
now inhabit some of the English parks, where
they generally receive some attention and sup-
plies of fodder in winter.

In size the fallow deer is smaller than the
stag or red deer, from which it also differs in its
broadly palmated antlers, about 26 inches long,
its longer tail, and its smoother and finer hair.
A large buck will weigh 180 to 200 pounds and
stands between 36 and 40 inches at the shoulder.
The record antlers are 29.5 inches in length,
with a spread of 28.5, and possess 14 points.
In color it is generally yellowish brown in sum-
mer, darker, or even blackish brown, in winter;
more or less spotted with pale spots, particularly
in summer, and when young. In one variety
the spots are very marked; but in another
(especially preserved in Epping Forest, near
London ) they are not to be observed even in the
young. The under parts, inside of the limbs, and
interior surface of the tail are white, and a
dark line passes along the back. When the fal-
low deer and red deer are kept in the same park,
the herds seldom, mingle, nor do hybrids occur.
The fallow deer loves the woods. Its flesh is one
of the most esteemed kinds of venison. The re-
mains of nearly allied fossil species occur in
some parts of Europe. Compare SIKA.; and see
DEER, and Plate of FAIXOW DEEK, MUSK, ETC.

FAI/LOWS, SAMUEL (1830-1922). An
American educator and bishop oi the Reformed
Episcopal church. He was born at Pendleton,
England, and went to America in 1848, gradu-
ated at the University of Wisconsin in 1859, was
appointed professor and vice president of Gales-
viUe University, and entered the Methodist min-
istry. He served in the Civil War as chaplain,
and in 1865 was breveted brigadier general of
volunteers. From 1871 to 1874 he was State
Superintendent of Public Instruction. He was
president of Illinois Wesleyan University for a
year, and in 1876, joining the Reformed Episco-
pal denomination, was made rector of St. Paul's,
Chicago. In 1876 he was consecrated Bishop
of the West and Northwest jurisdiction, and
he was eight times Presiding Bishop of the
General Council. He was chairman of t-he

general committee on education of the World's
Congresses at the Chicago Columbian Exposi-
tion. For several years he edited the Appeal,
the organ of the Reformed Episcopal church in
the West. He was interested in lexicography
and in psychotherapy. He wrote: Complete
Handbook of Abbreviations and Contractions
(1884) ; Handbook of Briticisms, Americanisms,
Colloquial Words and Phrases (1883); Dic-
tionary of Synonyms and Antonyms (1883-86) ;
P regressive Supplemental Dictionary of the Eng-
lish Language (1886); Student's Biblical Dic-
tionary (1901); Story of the American Flag
(1903); Science of Health (1904); Popular
Critical Biblical Encyclopedia (3 vols., 1904) ;
Christian Philosophy (1905); Memory Culture
(1905); Health and Happiness (1908).

FAX.L RIVER. An important manufactur-
ing city and port of entry in Bristol Co., Mass.,
50 miles south by west of Boston, at the mouth
of the Taunton River, and on the east shore of
Mount Hope Bay (Map: Massachusetts, EG).
It is on the New York, New Haven & Hartford
Pvailroad, and is connected by electric railways
\\ith cities and towns in the vicimty. Fall River
has a safe and deep harbor. The port is among
the first 20 of the United States in imports, and
is exceeded only by New York and Philadelphia
on the Atlantic Coast in intercoastal trade
through the Panama Canal. The well known
Fall River Line runs boats from here to New
York, and connection is had with Philadelphia
by the Merchants £ Miners Line from Providence
through connecting steamers. The city is about
9 miles long, covers 42 square miles and has
many fine structures of native granite. The
most notable buildings are 'the B. Al. C. Durfee
High School, a gift to the city, the Technical
High School, public library, State armory, cus-
tomshouse and post office, Bradford Durfee Tex-
tile School and Bristol Co. Court House. There
are two high schools, two junior high schools
and other elementary public schools, also a large
number of parochial schools. A large propor-
tion of both public and parochial schools arc in
fine modern buildings, as is the Bradford Dur-
feo Textile School (opened in 1904). Among the
charitable institutions are the Boys* Club, City,
Union, St. Anne's and Trueadale Hospitals, Chil-
dren's Home, St. Vincent's and St. Joseph's or-
phanages and several day nurseries. Five pub-
lic parks have been laid out in various parts of
the city and several playgrounds, and there are
beautiful drives to the suburbs.

Fall River is one of the greatest textile manu-
facturing centres of the United States and is
2ioted chiefly for its manufactures of cotton
goods, employing 35,000 operatives in more than
100 mills which have nearly 4,000,000 spindlea
and represent an invested capital of $48,150,000.
The largest fuel oil refinery in New England was
erected here in 1922 having a capacity of a mil-
lion barrels a month. Other manufactures in-
clude calico prints, bleaching, men's hats, yarn,
thread, spools and bobbins, iron and brass foun-
dry products, machinery, mops, rope and twine,
etc. Granite quarrying is also an important in-
dustry which affords employment to a consid-
erable number of men.

The government, under a charter granted in
1902, is vested in a mayor, chosen once in two
years, and a board of aldermen consisting of 27
members. The school committee of nine mem-
l<ers is chosen by popular election. The Mayor

FALLS CITY

357

FALSE

appoints superintendents of streets and public
buildings, and nominates water, park and fire
commissioners, assessors, tree waidcn, trustees
of library, auditor and solicitor. These are all
subject to the confirmation of the board of alder-
men. This body elects the city clerk, treasurer
and collector. The police commission is ap-
pointed by the Governor of the State. The
mayor makes up the annual budget, subject to
the approval ot the board, which can decrease,
but not increase, his estimates. Fall River has
an excellent system of sewers, is lighted by gas
and electricity and owns its water works, con-
structed at a cost of $2,000,000 which provides
a never-failing supply of pure water from
Watuppa Lake. The city receipts for 1924 were
$12,651,300, expenditures $12,375,40J. Fall
River was the first city in the United States to
adopt free text books in public schools. The city
is noted for its law abiding character and gen-
eral freedom from crime, especially among juve-
niles. Pop., 1850, 11,524; 1870, 26,766; 1800,
74,398; 1900, 104,863; 1910, 119,295; 1920,
120,485; 1925, 130,885.

Fall River was settled by grantees of the Ply-
mouth Colony, along Mount Hope Bay upon land
obtained by treaty with Massasoit, chief of the
Wampanoags. Its inhabitants took a prominent
part in the War of King Philip, and the territory
long remained the hunting ground of the tribe.
Tlie village was included within the limits of
Freetown until 1803, when it was incorporated
as a separate town under its present name. It
was called Troy from 1804 to 1834, when its old
name was restored. In 1854 Fall River was
chartered as a city, and 1862, on the readjust-
ment of the Massachusetts-Rhode Island bound-
ary, a part of the town of Tiverton, R. I. with
a population of 3590, was annexed. On July 2,
1843, a disastrous fire destroyed 291 buildings
and other property, a total loss of $52.5,000.
Consult Earl, A Centennial History of Fall Rircr
(New York 1877); Fenuer, Hfefon; of Pall
River (1906); History of Fall Rhn\ compiled
for the Cotton Centennial (1911) ; Hutt, History
of Bristol Coimty (1924).

FALLS CITY. A city and the county scai
of Richardson Co., Neb., 102 miles south by
cast of Omaha, on the Missouri Pacific and the
Chicago, Burlington and Quincy railroads (Map:
Nebraska, J 4). It has railroad shops, grain
elevators, a poultry-packing plant, a largo
brewery, and manufactures of flour, cider, and
vinegar, cigars, stock powder, and c&raent. The
city contains a public library and Catholic con-
vent. The water works and electric-light plant
are owned by the municipality, Pop.,' 1900,
3022; 1910, 3255.

PALOtfOTTTH. A municipal borough and
seaport of Cornwall, England, on a west branch
of the estuary of the Fal, 66 miles west-south-
west of Plymouth (Map: England, A 6). It
consists chiefly of a narrow street, a mile long,
on the southwest of the harbor, and of beautiful
suburban terraces and villas on the heights
behind. The harbor, one of the best in England,
whose advantages were first exploited by Sir
Walter Raleigh, is formed by the estuary of the
Fal. It is defended on the west by Pendennis
Castle and on the east by St. Mawes Castle,
both built in the reign of Henry VIIL The
entrance IB about 1 mile broad. The docks of
Falmouth have an area of over 100 acres. At
one time an important port for the foreign mail

packets, the town is now chiefly known as a
watering place, the bathing being excellent and
the climate delightfully mild. A new pier, which
cost $60,000, was completed in 1905, and there
have been other important improvements along
the water front in recent years. The munici-
pality maintains a fine park, given by the Earl
of Kimberley, and also landing piers, bathing
beaches, and a free library. It controls the
oyster and mussel fisheries. Falmouth is a busy
centre of the pilchard fishery and has an export
and import trade of increasing volume and im-
portance. It exports arms and ammunition,
chemical products, tin, copper, and clay. Its chief
imports are grain, manures, and timber. It is
the seat of a United States consul. The scenery
of the Fal, from Truro to Falmouth, is of great
beauty. Pop., 1901, 11,789; 1911, 13,136.

FALMOTTTH. A city and the county seat of
Pendleton Co., Ky., 59 miles by rail north by
east of Lexington, on the Licking River, and on
the Louisville and Nashville Railroad (Map:
Kentucky, F 2). It is in an agricultural and
dairying region, with a trade in tobacco, grain,
and live stock, and has flour, lumber, and
woolen mills, tobacco warehouses, a distillery,
cannery, etc. The water works and electric-
light plant are owned by the municipality.
Pop., 1900, 1134; 1910, 1180.

EALMOTTTH. A town, including several vil-
lages in Barnstable Co., Mass., 16 miles (by
water) east of New Bedford, on Vineyard Sound
and Buzzard's Bay, and on the New York, New
Haven, and Hartford Railroad (Map: Massachu-
setts, F 6). It has a public library and is a
popular summer resort. At Woods Hole, a vil-
lage of Falmouth, the Marine Biological School
is situated. Falmouth was settled in 1636 and
incorporated in 1686. The town owns tho
water-works system. Pop., 1900, 3500; 1910,

FALSE ACACIA. See LOCUST TBEE.

FALSE BAY. An inlet on the southwest
end of (!apo Colony, South Africa, situated be-
tween tlio capes of Good Hope and Hangklip.
ft i8 almost circular in shape and over 22
miles in diameter, and, being remarkably well
Hhelterod by Table Mountain from the northwest
wind A, is used as a station for the British naval
forces in Houth Africa.

EALSE DECRETALS. See PSEUDO-IsiDO-
BIAN DECRETALS.

FALSE FLAX. See CAMEUNA; GOLD OF
PLEASURE.

FALSE IMPRISONMENT. The wrongful
violation of the right of personal liberty by de-
tention or restraint of a person without author-
ity of law. While ordinarily it takes the form
of confinement in a prison, jail, or police sta-
tion, actual incarceration is not necessary to
the offense. Nor is assault or personal violence.
It may be committed by words or gestures
operating upon the will of a person, so that his
liberty of action is illegally limited. A man
may be falsely imprisoned in an open street, as
when ho is accosted by an officer and told that
he is a prisoner. But an illegal interference
with his right of passage along a highway does
not amount to false imprisonment if he is free
to proceed by some other way. The victim of
false imprisonment may regain his liberty by a
writ of habeas corpus (q.v.) and is entitled to
damages in an action in tort from the wrong-
doer, who is also liable to criminal prosecution
by indictment.

FALSER

358

FALSE RELATION

The defendant, in a civil or criminal action for
false imprisonment, must (after the plaintiff has
made out a prhna facie case) prove either that
the imprisonment was not his act or that it was
justified. He must do more than prove that he
did not apply tlie restraint; he must show that
he did not direct, instigate, authorize, or adopt
the proceedings connected with the imprison-
ment. All persons taking part in a false im-
prisonment, whether as instigators, officers, or
agents, are liahle as joint wrongdoers. A per-
son is not liable for false imprisonment who
does no more than make a complaint to a magis-
trate or a police officer, if the judge or the
policeman thereupon takes independent action.
Whether a judicial officer is liahle, civilly, for
a false imprisonment which he has ordered, de-
pends upon whether he has acted with or without
jurisdiction. If he was absolutely without juris-
diction, he is liable; otherwise not, even though
he may have acted maliciously. For the corrupt
or malicious misconduct of an officer, when act-
ing in a judicial capacity, the only punishment
is impeachment or removal from office. An im-
prisonment by a sheriff, constable, policeman, or
similar officer is justified : ( 1 ) when made under
an apparently regular warrant issued by a judge
having apparent jurisdiction of tho matter; (2)
when made without a judicial warrant, but upon
reasonable suspicion of felony, even though a
felony has not been committed, or of a person
committing a breach of peace in the officer's
presence. An imprisonment by a private citizen
is justifiable at common law only when made of
one committing a breacli of the peace in his
presence, or of one whom he has reasonable cause
to believe guilty of a felony which has been
actually committed. These rules of the common
law have been modified by modern statutes in
many jurisdictions. Consult Stephen, History
of the Criminal Law of England (London,
1883), and the authorities referred to under
TORT and MALICIOUS PBOSECUTION.

FALSEN", f aTsen, CHRISTIAN MAGNUS ( 1782-
1830). A Norwegian statesman, jurist, and his-
torian, son of Encvold do Falsen (1755-1808),
a dramatist and author of a famous war song
"Til vaaben." He was born at Oslo, near Chris-
tiania. I'D. 1808 he became circuit judge at
Folio, and after 1814 he played an important
part in politics. He upheld King Christian
Frederick, and after the separation of Norway
from Denmark associated himself with J. G.
Adler in drafting a constitution for Norway,
which was modeled upon that adopted by France
in 1791, and which was voted, May 17, 1814, by
the Eidsvold, in which he and Sverdrup were
leaders. In 1822 he was appointed Atiborney-
Greneral of the Kingdom, and in that post, which
he held for three years, lost much of his popu-
larity with the Democratic party. In 1825 he
became bailiff for Bergen, and in 1827 president
of the Supreme Court. His principal work is
Forges Historic (1823-24), a history of Norway
to 1319 AJD. Consult the biographies by Daa
(Christiania, 1800) and Vullum (ib., 1881).

FALSE POINT. A cape, harbor, and light-
house in the Cuttack District of Bengal, India,
on the Bay of Bengal (Map: India, E 4). The
harbor is large but exposed, and loading can
be carried on only in calm weather. It is a
regular port of call for Anglo-Indian coasting
steamers. 'There is a large export trade, chiefly
in rice, with Ceylon, Mauritius, and other
British colonies. It derives its name from fre-

quently being mistaken for Point Palmyras, to

the north.
FALSE POSITION, RULE OF. An ancient

mode of indirect reckoning, largely superseded

by the direct method of equations. The simple

equations found in the Lilivati of Bhaskara, in
the Liber Quadratorum of Leonardo of Pisa (see

FIBONACCI j, and in the works of Tartaglia are
solved by this assumption. Indeed, the method
goes back to the ancient Chinese and Egyptian
mathematicians. The method consisted in as-
suming any number for the unknown quantity,
testing its ability to satisfy the given, condi-
tions, and finally correcting it by means of a
simple proportion; e.g., What number is that
whose half exceeds its third by 12 ? Assume 96 to
lie the number; 48 — 32 = 10, which is too great;
but 16 : 12 = 96 : 72, hence 72 is the number.

FALSE PRETENSES. In law, willful mis-
representations of fact, whereby a person is % in-
duced to part with money or other property to
the person making the false statements or to
another. By the common law of England a man
is not punishable as a criminal who has induced
another by fraudulent representations to part
with money or goods, unless the loss occasioned
by the deception be of a public nature. Larceny
or theft was the only species of wrongful ab-
straction of articles of value which was recog-
nized; and where the consent of the owner to
the transaction was obtained, no matter how
fraudulently, the loser was left to a civil action
for deceit, or to an indictment for the crime
of cheating. But neither of these remedies was
of sufficient scope to cover all cases of the
obtaining of money or other property by false
pretenses, and accordingly a statute was passed
in the thirty-third year of Henry VIII, whereby
it was enacted that if any person should falsely
and deceitfully obtain any money, goods, etc., by
means of any false token or counterfeit letter
made in any other man's name, the offender
should suffer any punishment short of death, at
the discretion of the judge. This statute, how-
over, only reached the case of deception by use
of a false writing or token ; the Statute 30 Gco.
II, c. 24, was therefore passed for the purpose of
including all false pretenses whatsoever. Further
alterations have been made by subsequent stat-
utes. The general principle is that, wherever a
person fraudulently represents as an existing
fact that which is not an existing fact, and so
obtains money or other property from the victim
of the deception, he commits an offense within
the act. A false representation as to the hopes
or expectations of the person making them, as a
deceitful calculation of anticipated profits, or
the like, is not a violation of the law, however
it may mislead the person to whom it is made.
The provisions of the Statute of Geo. II have
been substantially adopted in the legislation on
this subject in our States. See CHEAT; FRAUD:
LARCENY; and consult the authorities referred
to under CRIMINAL LAW.

FALSE RELATION. In music, the discrep-
ancy arising from the use iu successive chords, but
in different parts, of any given tone and one of its

chromatic derivatives. Thus,

is a false relation, but

is cor-

rect, since the given tone (a) and its chromatic
derivative (ab) are in the same part.

FALSE SWEARING

359

FAMILIARITY

FALSE SWEARING. See PEBJUBY.

FALSE T, or FALSETTO. See VOICE.

FALSE TOPAZ. See QUABTZ.

FALSE VERDICT. See JURY.

FALSE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. See
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

FALSTAFF. An opera by Verdi (q.v.) first
produced in Milan, Feb. 9, 1893; in the United
States, Feb. 4, 1895 (New York).

FALSTAFF, fftl'staf, SIB JOHN. A fat,
cowardly, boastful character, unsurpassed in lit-
erature as a comic portrait. He is repre-
sented by Shakespeare in The M&ry Wives of
Windsor as the lover and dupe of Mistress
Page; in Henry IV as a soldier and man of
wit. It has been supposed that the character
was intended to ridicule an English general, Sir
John Fastolfe, who at Patay fled before Joan of
Arc and was degraded in consequence. In the
first draft of Henry IV Falstatf is called Sir
John Oldcastle, the name of a prominent Wic-
lifite, Lord Cobham, who was put to death under
Henry V, the name being subsequently changed
in deference to Oldcastlo's descendants. The
character has also been made the central figure
of operas by Dittersdorf (1796), Salieri (3796),
Balfe (1838), Nicolai (1849), Adam (185C),
Verdi (1892), and others.

FALSTER, fiil'ster. A Danish island in the
Baltic Soa, lying to the south of Zealand, from
which it i« separated by Musned Sound, and east
of Laaland, from which the narrow Guldborg
Sound divides it (Map: Denmark, E 4). Area,
183 square miles. Its surface is Hat, nowhere
exceeding an altitude of 150 foot. It is very
fruitful and well cultivated, though the low
districts arc swampy and unhealthful. The in-
habitants are chiotly engaged in agriculture,
stock farming, and dairying. Cultivation of the
sugar beet is an important industry. The chief
towns are Nykjobing, on the Guldborg Sound,
and Stubbekjobing. Pop., 1901, 34,422; 1911,
37,400.

FALSTER, CIIBISTIAN (1G90-1752). A Dan-
ish poet and philologist, born at Branderslev
(island of Laaland). Ho became rector of the
school at ftibe in 1712, and, although offered
better positions from time to time, refused to
give up his rectorship, preferring to live there
for his special studies. He published transla-
tions of Qirid (1719) and .Juvenal (3731); 11
original satires on his times, often reprinted
(1720-39) ; and in Latin a number of works,
such as Vigiliar Prinia N odium Ripensvum
(1721) ; Memories Obscura? (1722) ; Amomitates
Millolofticw (3 vols., 1721-32).

FALUN, fttlfln. A town of Sweden, in the
Liin of Kopparberg, situated on the FaluA. near
the north end of Lake Runn (Map: Sweden, F
6). The city consists of nine ancient villages,
• nnd is now regularly built, but is dirty, owing to
the adjacent smelting works. The principal
buildings are the Kopparbergs Kyrka — dating
from the fourteenth century — with its green
copper roof, a town hull, a museum, a gym-
nasium, and a mining school. To the southeast
of the city are situated the famoua copper mines
of Falun, which were at one timo classed among
the richest in the world. The machinery is run
by water power. Much attention is paid to the
production of vitriol. Silver, sulphur, and gold
arc also obtained; manufactured products in-
clude linen, cotton goods, tablecloths, leather,
and smoking pipes. 'Pop., 1900, 9606; 1910,
11,582; 1912,

FAOBCA (Lat.). A personification of Rumor,
by the Roman poets. Vergil gives a vivid de-
scription of Fama (JEneid, iv, 173 ff.), and Ovid
describes her palace of bronze (Metamorphoses,
xii, 39 ff.). SeeOssA.

FAMAGTTSTA, fa'ma-goo'sta, or FAMA-
GOSTA. A seaport on the east coast of Cy-
prus. It has a fine mosque, formerly a Christian
church, while to the north are the ruins of
Salamis. Its harbor has been improved under
English rule. Pop., 1001, 3825; including the
adjacent village of Varashia, 5327. Famagusta
was built by the Romans of the Empire, prob-
ably on the site of the ancient ArsinoS, and was
called Fama Augusta. Under Byzantine rule
it was an episcopal see and from the twelfth
century was the richest city on the island. The
Genoese and Venetians held it in turn, the latter
building its strong fortifications. In 1517 it
fell into the hands of Turkey.

FAMILIAR/ITY (Lat. familiaritaa, from
familiar is, familiar, from familia, family, from
famulus, OLat. famul, servant). The traditional
view of the process of recognition (q.v.) is
rather an expression of a logical postulate than
of a psychological analysis of the data furnished
by consciousness. It has been assumed that
recognition is possible only when the given ex-
perience is compared with the memory image of
its former occurrence (called forth according to
the laws of the association of ideas), and the
judgment, "this is like to that," has been passed.
But in most of our recognitions this lengthy
process of comparison is not performed. On the
contrary, recognition is usually "immediate,"
i.e., the object is at once "felt" to be familiar or
known, there being present no associative links
to "mediate" the judgment. Admitting this
immediacy of recognition, the analytical psy-
ch ologist seeks to discover whether the "feeling
of recognition," the sudden glow of familiarity,
can be subjected to further analysis, and whether
its physiological substrate can be ascertained.

Four views with regard to the essential nature
of the processes involved in recognition may
he distinguished. 1. Familiarity is a "form of
combination," in which the various constituents
are fused together in such a way as to form a
new mental process, an unanalyzable "known-
n ess." 2. Immediate recognition, though it
shows no conscious trace of the processes of
association and comparison, is yet ia reality
complex, because based upon a subliminal as-
sociation, i.e., an association in which the sec-
ondary member is not represented in conscious-
ness. 3. Mental images need not necessarily be
present; the actual basis of familiarity is to bo
found, partly in. the especial effectiveness of
familiar impressions or memory images for
central excitation, and partly in the characteris-
tic mood which they ordinarily induce, and which
includes both pleasurable affective processes and
the corresponding organic sensations. 4. Lastly,
it is held that the essential factor in recognition
is a feeling, the "feeling of familiarity"; when-
ever this appears, we recognize; when it docs
not appear, we fail to recognise. The sensations
and ideas which result from the associative and
organic reaction to the stimulus then serve to
make the recognition deflnite— -to name, place,
and date the experience. ,' _, <T,'

The evidence of experiment fayort the last of
those views. As against ,, the' fljri&t, observers
unite in agreeing that thq feeling of familiarity
is analyzablc ; as nguinst, tjie^ sec6$& and third

FAMILIAR SPIRITS

360

FAMINE

views, it has been shown that recognition is
possible in the absence of any associated idea
whatever, and that a perception may call up
objectively correct associates and still not be
recognized. It is more difficult to say whether
the assumed organic complexes enter into the
process of recognizing, because they must blend
with the organic complexes comprised in the
feeling of familiarity. So far as it goes, the
evidence is also against them; recognition, as
such, seems to be wholly a matter of the feeling.
This feeling itself is variously reported as a
glow of warmth, a sense of ownership, a feeling
of intimacy, a sense of being at home, a feeling
of ease, a comfortable feeling. It is a feeling
in the narrower sense, i.e., a simple connection
of affection and sensation in which the affective
element predominates, pleasurable in its affec-
tive quality, diffusely organic in its sensory
character. 'That is all that analysis can, at
present, tell us about it. If we allow ourselves
to speculate, we may go further and find a
genetic sanction for its peculiar warmth and
wide diffusion; we may suppose that it is a
weakened survival of the emotion of relief, of
fear unfulfilled. To an animal so defenseless
as was primitive man, the strange must always
have been cause for anxiety; "fear" is, by its
etymology, the emotion of the "farer," of the
traveler away from home. The bodily attitude
which expresses recognition is, on this view, still
the attitude of relief from tension, of ease and
confidence. Consult: Baldwin, Mental Develop-
ment in the Ohild and the Race (New York,
1906) ; Eflffding, in Vierteljahrssclirift fur wis~
senschaftUche Philosophic, vols. xiii, xiv (Leip-
zig, 1889-90) ; Kiilpe, Outlines of Psychology
(London, 1909) ; Titchener, Text-Book of Psy-
chology (New York, 1910).

SPIRITS. Spirits supposed to

attend certain individuals. See WITCHCRAFT.

FAM1LISTS, FAMILY OF LOVE. See
AGAPEMONE.

FAMILY (Lat. familia, family). The Ro-

mans used the word to denote personal property

and, further, to denote the descendants of a com-

mon progenitor. In our use the word has this

last meaning and also the more especial refer-

ence to the group — father, mother, and children.

The prevailing idea has long been that the

monogamic family was the original type, and

that on this all society has been based, other

forms being regarded as degenerate. This con-

ception has been accepted since Aristotle, who

wrote (Politics, i, 1) that the original family

consisted of the husband and wife and the ox,

which last is the slave of the poor man. This

patriarchal family was the simplest and earliest

form of government and became the model of

the monarchy later, the sons with their families

standing in coordinate relation to each other

under the headship of the father. In Rome the

idea of the family was closely connected with

the state, and the inherent power of the father

(patria potestas) was the basis of the social and

political life. This conception of the family has

been called in question in recent years by' the

investigations of Bachofen, McLennan, Morgan,

and their followers. They find evidence that

primitive man lived in a condition of promis-

cuity. Westermarck, Maine, and others deny

this. The question is not yet decided. Far too

little is known of primitive conditions to make

a decision possible. Investigations have shown,

however, that among many nations the family,

in our sense of the word, can scarcely be said
to have existed. Further, many historical na-
tions have legends of the creation of the family.
Among advanced nations are customs which
seem to point to earlier conditions. The present
indications are that monogamy must be con-
sidered as the highest form of the family the
human race has yet attained. No people is
definitely known to have lived entirely on a
basis of promiscuity, though some have closely
approached it. There are, however, at least
three types of families which are distinct. The
lowest of these is where the wife is at the head.
(See MATRIABCEATE.) Polyandry is common,
and descent is reckoned only through the mother.
The father is frequently kept at a distance, and
sometimes is not even regarded as a blood rela-
tive of his own children. A higher form is the
patriarchal family, which is almost universally
accompanied by polygamy, (See PATBIAECHATE. )
This form has been widely extended and prevails
to-day over large sections of the earth. The
third form is monogamy.

The life of the monogamic family centres
about the home, which has become a social and
religious ideal. Under Christian influence the
monogamic family attained a development and
importance which it never enjoyed among pagan
peoples. This development was gradual, as
Christianity gained its footing among the con-
verted nations. The spiritual emphasis which
Christianity placed upon the connubial relations
with the strict obligation of mutual fidelity con-
tributed to this elevation of family life. The
home has continued to gain in popular esteem.
Its influence in elevating woman, in establish-
ing chastity, in training children, in promoting
religion, has given it deserved prominence.
Modern charitable efforts seek to further home
life. That the home is the best place for the
child has become axiomatic. It is this concep-
tion of home which has given the modern family
such superiority over all others. In industrial
relations the family has been important. Until
recent times it has been the unit of production.
Though modern industrialism appears to have
changed this, the agricultural pursuits remain
in the hands of the family. The family has also
been a unit of consumption. Economic changes
have always had a great, if not a determining,
effect upon the family. The change from rural
to urban conditions has caused groat disturb-
ances, and the family is not yet adjusted to
the new conditions. Consult: Letourneau, Evo-
lution of Marriage and of the Family (New
York, 1891) ; Westermarck, The History of Hu-
man Marriage (London, 1894) ; Starcke, -The
Primitive Family (New York, 1899) ; Howard,
History of Matrimonial Institutions (Chicago,
1904) ; Arbois de Jubainville, La famille oeltigue
(Paris, 1905) ; Levy, La famille dans Vantiguitt •
Israelite (ib., 1906) ; Parsons, The Family (New
York, 1906) ; Bosanquet, The Family (London,
1906) ; Whetham, The Family and the Nation
(ib., 1909) ; Dealey, The Family in its Sociologi-
cal Aspects (Boston, 1912) ; Thwing, The Family
(ib., 1913). See MARRIAGE.

FAMXLY COMPACT (Fr. pacte de famille).
The name given to two alliances between the
French and Spanish, branches of the house of
Bourbon in 1733 and 1761, for mutual support
against England. In the latter compact the
Bourbons of Italy were included.

FAM/INE (OF., Fr. famine, from Lat. fames,
hunger). A general scarcity of food, due as a

FAMINTZIN

36i

FAN*

rule to the failure of crops and marked by out-
breaks of plague and an abnormal rate of
mortality. In earlier history it seems to have
played a larger part in the woes of mankind
than at the present time, though it has not yet
been wholly obliterated. The isolation of com-
munities in the early days transformed a tem-
porary local failure of crops into a serious fam-
ine. In earlier ages it was not infrequently the
case that the inhabitants of one district were
gorged with plenty, while those of the neighbor-
ing region were suffering from starvation. As
time has progressed, famines have lost in in-
tensity. This is due principally to the more
efficient means of transportation, which permit
the distribution of food with greater rapidity
than in earlier days. America can now come
by direct exportation of food, if need be, to the
relief of suffering India. The diversification of
industry has been another factor of importance
in almost abolishing famines from the more
highly developed countries. In such a system
of diversified industry many interests are repre-
sented, and, while calamity may overtake one or
two of them, it is not probable that all will be
stricken at the same time. It is therefore only
the poorer agricultural countries such as Ire-
land and India, and Eastern countries gen-
erally, where the population often depends upon
a single staple crop, that have been visited by
famines in the latter part of the nineteenth
century.

FAJtflCTTZICT, fa-inSn'tsSn, ANDREI SEEQEYE-
VITCH (1835- ). A Russian botanist. He
was born at Sokolniki, studied at the University
of St. Petersburg, and was appointed professor
of botany there in 1872. He was one of the
earliest investigators of the development of the
embryos of seed plants. His account of the em-
bryo of AJisma (1879), along with that by Han-
stein (1870), has long been taken as typical of
the monocotylcdonous embryo. His writings,
many of which appeared in the publications of
the St. Petersburg Academy, include Evribryolo-
gische Studien (1879), Studies of Crystals and
Crystallite (1884), and Uebersicht tiber die
Ldstunflen auf dew, Qebiet der BotaniJe in Rusz-
land (1892-94).

FAN1. A tribe In French Equatorial Africa,
differing in color and other bodily characteristics
from the true negroes, well known through the
explorations of Du Chaillu. They number about
300,000 and have only recently intruded them-
selves into the Gabun-Ogowe" region, pushing
forward to the coast from the northeast. Tho
Yaunde of German Kamerun are related to them,
but the Mpongwe, with whom they are often
confused, are not. They are ooffeo-colored, well
built, tall and slim, and have rather thin lips,
well-developed beard, and short skulls, the
frontal bone protruding. Their language is said
to belong to the great Bantu family. They are
serious and intelligent and to be depended upon.
Their cannibalism has been greatly exaggerated.
In the northern part of their territory it is not
practiced at all, in the central region only by
way of devouring an enemy's flesh, and even in
the south not to any great extent. Consult
Tessniann, Die Pangwe (2 vols., Berlin, 1913-14) .

FAN" (from AS. farm and cognate with Lat.
wmwuB, both from the same ultimate root as
wind, winnow, and Lat. ventus, from which Fr.
&Dentail)* An instrument or machine for agi-
tating the air to winnow grain, ventilate rooms,
or cool the body. In the Bast the use of fans
VOL. Vm.— 24

is of remote antiquity. The Hebrews, Egyptians,
Chinese, and the miscellaneous population of
India, all used fans as far back as history
reaches. At the present day it is customary, in
the better classes of houses in India, to suspend
a large species of fan, known as a punkah,
from the ceiling and keep it jln agitation with
strings, pulled by servants, in order to give a
degree of coolness to the air. Among the oldest
notices of winnowing fans are those in the
Scriptures. There the fan is always spoken of
as an instrument for driving away chaff or for
cleansing in. a metaphorical sense; and such
notices remind us of the simple processes of hus-
bandry employed by a people little advanced in
the arts. As can be seen from the collection
of Egyptian antiquities in the British Museum,
the fan as an article of taste and luxury is of
quite as old date as the agricultural instrument.
On one of the bas-reliefs Sennacherib is shown
attended by ladies carrying feather fans. In
the Boulak Museum there is a, wooden fan
handle with holes for feathers, dating from the
seventeenth, century B.C.

References to the feather fan are numerous
in ancient Greek authors, and illustrations of it
are common on vases. Roman authors refer to
it as used to drive away flies, notably Martial,
xiv, 67. The vestal virgins employed fans to
quicken the sacrificial flame. In the liturgy of
the early Christian Church two deacons stood
beside the altar and with fans (flabella) ot thin
parchment or peacock feathers or fine linen kept
files away from the sacred vessels. Gradually
the waving of the flabellum acquired a deeper
meaning and was held to signify the wafting of
divine influence upon the ceremony, the move-
ments to and fro symbolizing the quivering of
the wings of the seraphim. By the end of the
sixteenth century this liturgical use of the fan
had ceased, although large flabella of peacock's
feathers are still carried at festivals in pro-
cession before the Pope, and to deacons of the
Greek church at ordination a fan is delivered as
the symbol of the sacred oflice.

The oldest existing Christian fan, and the
most famous of the few of which we have any
record during the Middle Ages, is preserved in
the cathedral of Monssa, near Milan. It dates
from probably the sixth century, opens into a
circle 10 inches in diameter, is made of purple
vellum, has a Latin inscription on. each side,
and when touched by maidens who make pil-
grimages to Monza for the purpose is believed to
promote their marriage projects.

Flag-shaped fans were introduced into western
Europe by the returning Crusaders and were
much used in Italy. In the sixteenth century
the Chinese folding fan arrived in Portugal from
the Far East, ana its development in the homes
of European artists marks a new epoch.

Queen Elizabeth, was especially fond of fans,
both feather and folding, and examples of both
appear in her numerous portraits. In her in-
ventory of 1600 are no loss than 27. In Italy
was developed a regular code of the fan, accord-
ing to which ladies were supposed to convey
hints and signals to admirers and to rivals.
The poets took it up, and Gay tells how Master
Cupid planned the shape of the fan, converted
Ms arrows into sticks, and from their barbed
points, softened by love's flame, forg-ed the pin.
According to a Spanish version, tae first fan
was a wing that Cupid tore from the back of
Zephyrus, -with which to fan Psyche as she slept

FAN

362

FANDANGO

upon her couch of roses. Even the Greeks placed
the plumed fan in the hands of the love god,
thus recognizing it as his peculiar sceptre.
CfcWomen," says the Spectator, "are armed with
fans as men with swords, — and sometimes do
more execution with them." "In Spain," writes
Disraeli in his Contarini Fleming, "the fan
speaks a particular language, and gallantry re-
quires no other mode to express its most subtle
conceits, or its most unreasonable demands, than
this delicate machine."

In the seventeenth century the centre of the
European manufacture of fans was Paris,
where the frames were shaped out of wood
or ivory and the decorations painted on thin
but tough vellum. Many were exported to
Spain, some painted in Spanish style, and
some blank to be painted in Spain. A fa-
mous fan painter of the period was Kosalba
Camera, and the designs of Lebrun and Ro-
manelli were in high favor. Fans from In-
dia were imported into both France and Eng-
land. In the reign of Louis XV the impor-
tation of Indian and Chinese fans increased
greatly, following the fashion that favored
Oriental decorative art in all its forms. But
the home manufacture from exquisitely carved
mother-of-pearl and ivory, with painted scenes
after Boucher, Watteau, and Lancret, contin-
ued important, and the fan styles of France
were copied more or less closely in Italy, Eng-
land, and Spain. For parchment, taffeta, satin,
and plain silk were often substituted, and oc-
casionally lace. The French Revolution put an
end to elegance in fans as well as in most of
the other decorative arts. The collection of
fans in the Victoria and Albert Museum at
South Kensington is of extraordinary impor-
tance, and the fan exhibition there in 1870
helped revive the industry not only in Eng-
land but also on the Continent.

Bibliography. Catalogue of the Loan Eafliibi-
tion of Fans at SoutJi Kensington (London,
]S70); Blondcl, Histom des eventails (Paris,
1875) j Salwey, Fans of Japan (London, 1894) ;
Rhead, History of the fan (ib., 1910).

FAN, or TANNING MZLL. In agriculture,
a machine employed to winnow grain. In pass-
ing through the machine the grain is rapidly
agitated in sieves, and, falling through a
strong current of air created by a rotary fan,
the chaff is blown out, and the clean* grain
falls out through an opening beneath. Fans
are operated by hand or other power. A fan
is a constituent part of large modern thresh-
ing machines, the threshing and preliminary
winnowing being thus accomplished in one oper-
ation. The fan superseded the old and alow proc-
ess of winnowing, which consisted in throwing
the grain into the air or pouring it from a
height, while a current of wind, blowing across
the threshing floor, carried away the chaff. It
is said that a machine for winnowing grain was
first made in Scotland, by Andrew Rodger, a
farmer of Roxburghshire, in the year 1737. See
IMPLEMENTS, AGETGTJLTUKAL.

FANA'RIOTS. To the Greeks who assisted
him in obtaining an entrance to Constantinople
after his ships had been transported overland to
the Golden Horn, Mohammed II granted the
Fanar quarter of the city, on the Golden Horn
adjoining the Blacherne. The district was so
called from the lighthouse that stood on the
promontory jutting from it into tho Golden
Horn. The district is described by Grosvenor

as "prosperous, cleanly, and well-kept," and
Theophile Gautier says of it, "Hither has lied
ancient Byzantium." Its Greek inhabitants,
many of them descendants of the oldest and
noblest Byzantine families, were known as Fa-
nariots and came to be a special class in the
Ottoman Empire, recruited by emigrants from
different parts of the old Byzantine Empire.
Subtle, insinuating, intriguing, they soon took
advantage of the ignorance of the Turkish gov-
ernors and made themselves politically indis-
pensable to their rulers. They filled the offices
of dragomans, secretaries, bankers, etc. Through
their influence the1 lucrative office of dragoman
of the fleet was called into existence, which
gave them almost unlimited power in the is-
lands of the Archipelago. From them were
chosen, until the outbreak of the revolution in
1821, the hospodars of \Vallachia and Moldavia,
while in addition the disposal of most of the
civil and military posts under the Turkish gov-
ernment was in thoir hands. In spite of their
power, however, they never exhibited much
patriotism; they were animated by the petty
motives of a caste, and when the War of Liber-
ation broke out among their countrymen, the
part they took in it, though fairly important,
was not what their station and their woultli
bhould have contributed to the patriot cause.
In the present altered state of affairs in Turkey
they have no political influence. Consult: Ten-
nen't, History of Modern Greece (2 vols., London,
1845) ; Samuelson, Roumania (ib., 1882) ; Cru-
sius, Turcogrwcia, pp. 91, 479 (Basilccc, 1854) ;
Eaton, Survey, etc., pp. 331 et seq. (London,
1798) ; Dallaway, Constantinople, Ancient and
Hfodern, pp. 98 et seq. (ib., 1797) ; Lime cTor de,
la noblesse Phanariote en Greoe, en Koiimania,
cn> Russic, et en Turqute, par un Phanariotc
(Athens, 1892).

PAN-CHENG-, fau'chung7, or FAN-CHING.
A town in the Province of Hu-peh, China,
situated on the Hankiang, 162 miles north-
west of Hankow. With its twin city of
Siangyang-fu across the river it forms an im-
portant commercial centre on account of its
position on the trade routes between southern
and northern China, and the commerce from
the plains of Honan and the Hoang Ho basin.
The population is estimated at 100,000.

FANCmLLA DEL WEST, f an'che-oolft dM
vest', LA. ("The Girl of the Golden West.")
An. opera by Puccini (q.v.), first produced in
New York, Dec. 10, 1910; in Italy, June 12,
3911 (Home).

FAN CORAL. A Hat, spreading coralline
growth, usually one of the Alcyonaria (q.v.).

FANDANGO, 8p. pron. fan-dai/gft (Sp., from
the African name). One of the three national
dances of Spain, the others being the bolero
(q.v.) imd the neffuidilla (q.v.). It is probably
the oldest Spanish dance and the prototype of
all the other forms. It is mentioned frequently
in the literature of the sixteenth century, when
it seems to have first attained a national im-
portance. The time of the dance is 4, but the
figures are very lively, and the music is sup-
plied by castanets in the hands of the per-
formers, a man and a woman, and by a song
which is accompanied on the guitar. Some-
times the music is stopped, whereupon the
dancers also stop, and remain rigid until it is
resumed. When one couple is tired, another
immediately takes its place, and the music and
the dance go on aa before, with no interruption*

FANEUIL

363

FANNING ISLANDS

FANETJIL, fan'el or funnel, PETER (1700-43;.
An American merchant, born in New Rochelle,
N. Y. The family removed to Boston shortly
after his birth and there established an ex-
tensive mercantile business, of which in time
he became the proprietor. In 1740 Peter Fan-
euil constructed Faneuil ITall (q.v.) at his own
expense and presented it to the town. The
building was completed in the fall of 1742, the
first public use to which it was put being the
memorial exercise to its donor, who died in
May, 1743.

FANEtTIL HALL, fan'el or fan'yel. A
market house and public hall in Boston, Mass.
The original building, begun in 1740 and com-
pleted in 1742, was erected by Peter Faneuil
(q.v.) und presented by him to the town. It
was almost completely destroyed in 1761 and
in 1763 was rebuilt by the town. During and
preceding the "Revolution it was so frequently
used for important political meetings that it be-
came known as r\ he Cradle of American Liberty.
In 180» it was enlarged to its present size, 80 by
100 feet, and an additional story was added.
The hull contains pome fine paintings, the most
celebrated of which is "Webster Replying to
Hayne," by TTpaly, and meetings are still held
in it. The basement is still used as a market.
Consult Brown, Faneuil Hall and Market (Bos-
ton, 1001). See Plate of BOSTON.

FAN'FABE (Fr., from Sp. fanftii-ria, brag,
from OSp. fanfa, blustui ; probably from Ar. /flr-
far, blustering, from farfara, to agitate). A
trumpet signal which employs the tones of the
triad and generally closes on the dominant. It
is often u^ed to introduce marches (Tunnhauscr,
Atalifi) etc.). Famous fanfares are, that in
Beethoven's Pidclio announcing the arrival of
the Governor and ending on the tonic, and the
more extended ones in Wagner's Lohengrin,
Tristan, and Afeistcrsinger.

FAN1TIN, JAMES W. (e,1800-36). An Amer-
ican soldier. Ho was born in Georgia, and re-
moved to Texas in 1834. In the Texan War of
Independence, he. raised a company known as the.
BrazoH Volunteers, which formed part of Gen-
eral Austin's army. After the fall of the Alnmo
Fannin received orders from Houston to blow up
the fort at Cioliad and fall back to Victoria, He
delayed his retreat for some time to hear from
Captain King, whom he hod sent out to col-
lect the women and children of the neighbor-
hood, and. finally setting out 350 strong, was
overtaken and attacked, on March 10, 1836, on
the banks of Coleto Creek, by General Urrea and
1200 Mexican troops. After a two days' bat-
tle, in which the Mexicans lost between 300 and
400 in killed and wounded, and the Toxans
only about 70, Fannin surrendered, on the con-
dition that his troops should be paroled. In-
stead of being freed, they were taken back to
0 oil ad aa prisoners, where, on March 27, in
accordance with orders from Santa Anna, in
the absence of General Urrea, they were all
shot down in cold blood, with the exception of
two surgeons, the women, and about 25 men
who escaped after being fired on, Those put to
death numbered 371 and included Lieutenant-
Colonel Ward's men.

FANIOTNG, EDMUND (1737-1818). An
American soldier, known as a partisan leader on
the side of the Loyalists during the. Revolu-
tionary War. Tie, was ]>orn on Long Island,
N. Y,, graduated at Yale in 1757, and soon after-
ward removed to Hillsboro, N. C., where he

practiced law, held various positions of minor
importance, and was elected to the Legislature
of the Colony. As recorder of deeds for Orange
County, he made himself exceedingly unpopular
with the colonists, and was charged with hav-
ing, by his abuses and his vicious administra-
tion, done much to cause the uprising of the
Regulators, who virtually drove him from
North Carolina. He acted for a time as pri-
vate secretary to his father-in-law, Governor
Tryon (q.v.), in Now York, and in 1774 was
appointed surveyor-general by the British gov-
ernment. In 1777 he organized in New York a
corps of 460 Loyalists, which, under the name
"Associated Loyalists," or the "King's Amer-
ican Regiment," took an active part in the
partisan warfare in the Northern Department.
A short time before the close of the war he
fled to Nova Scotia, where in 1783 he became
a councilor and Lieutenant Governor, and sub-
sequently was Governor of Prince Edward Is-
land from 1786 to 1805. By successive pro-
motions he became a lieutenant general in the
British army in 1709 and a general in 1808.
Tie moved to London in 1814-15, where he lived
till his death.

FANNING, JOHN THOMAS (1837-1911). An
American civil and hydraulic engineer. He was
born at Norwich, Conn., was educated in pub-
lic and normal schools, studied engineering and
architecture, and had begun to practice en-
gineering in his native town when the Civil
War broke out. He enlisted and attained the
rank of lieutenant colonel. At the close of the
war he resumed engineering practice in Nor-
wich and soon began to specialize in hydrau-
lics. During the next 10 years he was engineer
for a number of municipal water works in New
Kngland. In 1877 hti published A Treatise on
Hydraulic and Water Supply Engineering
which, as the first and for many years the
leading American work on that subject, went
through many editions and gave the author
much prestige. At that time less than 500
cititis in the United States had water works. Ho
was subsequently employed as consulting en-
gineer for many water-works plants, municipal
and private. In 1885 he made a report on the
improvement of water power on the Mississippi
River at Minneapolis, Minn., and in the fol-
lowing year he was appointed chief engineer of
the St. Anthony Falls Water-Power Company
in that city, where he lived until his death. He
prepared a comprehensive plan for the drain-
age of 3000 square miles of the Lard-wheat
land in tlie valley of the Red River of the
North; was consulting engineer for many largo
water-power projects, among which wore early
plants on the Missouri River, at Great Falls
and Helena, Mont, and on the Spokane River,
at Spokane, Wash.; and was also associated
as consulting engineer with several of the lead-
ing railroad companies of the West. A notable
trait of Mr. Tanning's character was the friendly
advice and assistance which he rendered to
his fellow engineers throughout his long pro-
fessional career. He was for 38 years a mem-
ber, and in 1910-11 a vice president, of the
American Society of Civil Engineers and con-
tributed largely to its Transactions, but as a
writer he was best known for the pioneer Amer-
ican treatise already mentioned.

FAN/NING ISLANDS (named from Edmund
Fanning, who discovered the islands in 1798). A
group of small islands in the Pacific, scattered

FAJTNITTS STBABO

364

about a segment of the equator, lying between
long. 157° and 163° W. (Map: World, West-
ern Hemisphere, J 5). The area of the group
is about 260 square miles, and the chief is-
lands are Christmas, Panning, Jarvis, Washing-
ton, and Palmyra. Since 1888 they have be-
longed to Great Britain, but to Palmyra Island
former Hawaiian now American claims have not
yet been extinguished. Pop. (est.), 20C.

'JS STB.ABO, GATUS. A Roman his-

torian and orator, introduced by Cicero as one
of the speakers in his works De Amicitia and
De Repullica. He was a son-in-law of Lselius.
During the third Punic War he served in Africa
under Scipio Africanus (149-146 B.C.), and,
according to his own statement, as preserved
by Plutarch (Tib. Gracch., 4), was one of the
first to mount the walls of Carthage in the
capture of that city. He fought in Spain in
142-141 and was consul in 122. He owed his
celebrity in literature chiefly to his History,
which treated contemporary events and was one
of the earliest histories written in Latin; it
was long famous for its style and its impartial-
ity. Cicero mentions an abridgment of it by
M. Brutus. For the extant fragments, consult:
Peter, Historicorum Romanorum Reliquice, vol.
i (Leipzig, 1870), and Historicorum Romanorum
Fragmenta (ib., 1883) ; Gerlach, Geschicht-
schreiber der Romer (Stuttgart, 1855) ; Hirsch-
feld, "Die A Tin ales des Cicero Fannius," in
Wiener Studien (Vienna, 1879) ; Schanz, Ge-
schichte der romischen lAtteratur, vol. i, § 71, 6
(3d ed., Munich, 1907). This Fannius is
frequently confounded with C. Fannius Strabo,
who was consul in 122 B.C.

3TAN"O, fa'nfi (Lat. Fanum Fortunes, from the
temple of Fortune erected here by the Romans
to commemorate the defeat of Hasdrubal, q.v. ) .
An episcopal city in the Province of Pcsaro and
Urbino, Italy, on the Adriatic, 29 miles north-
west of Ancona (Map: Italy, H 4'). A modern
statue of Fortune on the public fountain indi-
cates the origin of the name. The once famous
harbor is now choked with mud and sand, and
the shipping is conducted through a canal lead-
ing from the Metauro to the Adriatic. The
cathedral of San Fortunato has a thirteenth-
century portal, a chapel with frescoes by Do-
menichino, and a Madonna with two saints by
Carracci. In other churches are an enthroned
Madonna (1497) by Perugino; a Madonna by
Giovanni Santi, father of Raphael; an Annuncia-
tion by Guido Reni; frescoes by Viviani; and
"Sant* Angelo Custode," by Guercino, which is
the subject of Robert Browning's "The Guardian
Angel." The Arch of Augustus has a second
story, added during the fourth century in honor
of Constantine. Fano has a Ivceum, a gymna-
sium, an orphan asylum, an industrial school,
and a once famous theatre, and is a centre of
silk and fishing industries; makes oil and hemp
goods. Sea bathing is excellent. Clement VIII
was born here in 1536, and in 1514 the first
printing press with Arabic type was set up here
at the cost of Julius II. Pop., 1901 (commune) ,
24,848; 1911, 26,928.

JFAKT PALM. A loose term applied to cer-
tain species of palm, distinguished from the
pinnate-leaved species, such as the date (Plice-
nto), by having fanlike leaves. Among the
commoner fan palms are various species of
Oorypha, Chamosropss Salal, and Trachyoarpus.
See Plate of PALMETTOS.
FAtfSAGA, fan-sa'ga, COSIMO (1591-1678).

An Italian architect, painter, and sculptor, born
at Bergamo. He was the pupil of Pietro Ber-
nini in Rome and lived chieily in Naples. His
numerous works in that city include the foun-
tain of Medina, the cloister and refectory of
San Severino, the facade of Santa Teresa delli
Scalzi and of St. Francis Xavier, the church
of Santa Maria Maggiore, and the Maddaloni
Palace, now the Banca Nazionale. Many of
these were decorated with paintings and sculp-
tures by his own hand. Despite their over-
loading of ornament and bizarre combinations,
Ms works are usually effective.

FAIT'SHAWE. A novel by Nathaniel Haw-
thorne, the author's maiden effort, published
anonvmously in 1826 at his own expense.

FA3STSHAWE, SIB RICIIABD (1608-66). An
English diplomat and author, born in Hert-
fordshire. He entered Jesus College, Cambridge,
and in 1626 began the study of law in the Inner
Temple, He spent several years upon the Con-
tinent and in 1635 began his diplomatic ca-
reer, accompanying Lord Aston, the English
Ambassador, to Spain as his secretary. He was
a zealous "Royalist and joined the army of
Charles I early in the Civil War. In 1648 he
became treasurer of the navy under Prince
"Rupert and afterward joined Prince Charles
in Holland. He was special envoy to the King
of Spain in 1650, for the purpose of obtaining
pecuniary aid for the royal cause, but his mis-
sion was unsuccessful. He followed Prince
Charles to Scotland as his secretary and was
taken prisoner at the battle of Worcester (Sept.
3, 1651). He was released on parole and re-
mained in England until 1658, when he again
joined Charles II on the Continent, returning
with him at the Restoration. In 1662 he was
made Minister to Portugal and in 1663 was
transferred to Madrid, where he died soon after
he had been recalled in 1666.

The literary work of Fanshawe consists largely
of translations and poetry. Probably his best-
known work is TJie Pastor Fido (1647), a
translation from the Italian of Guarini. Hip
other translations include Vergil's Mneid, book
iv, in Spenserian stanzas; Selected Parts of
Horace (1652); T7ie Lusiad (1665), in ottava
rima, from the Portuguese of Camoens; La Fida
Pastora (1658), Latin verse from Fletcher's
Faithful Shepherdess; and Querer por solo
guerer (To Love only for Love's Sake,5 1670),
and Fiestas de Aranjuez (1671), comedies from
the Spanish of Antonio de Mendoza. He wrote
some original English poems of considerable
merit, which have never been published together.
His Letters were collected and published in
1724. Consult the Memoirs of Lady FansJiawo
(London, 1907, ed. by H, C. Fanshawe), n6e
Anne Harrison, whom he married in 1644 and
who lived until 1680.

FAIT SHELL. A scallop (Pect&n) ; so called
from its shape and radiating ridges.

FANTAHi. 1. A breed of domestic doves.
See PIGEON, and Plate of PIGEONS. 2. One of the
small flycatchers of India and Australasia, of
the genus Rhipidura. These have long tails of
loose feathers, which they "fan out" prettily
by a sidewise flirting movement as they dodge
about in pursuit of insects. They are familiars
of every rural garden, sing much at night, and
build exquisite nests. Some 50 species are
known, scattered from New Zealand to the Him-
alayas. 3. A warbler (Oisticola sohcenioola) of
the Mediterranean basin, remarkable for the

FANTAH

3*5

FAN VAULTING

beautiful nest it builds in the form of a basket
attached to upright stalks of grass, and filled
with a cup of cottony material, and for the
great variety in the coloring of its eggs.

The term "fan-tailed" has been used by sys-
temists as a name for all birds except Archce-
opterysc, i.e., the Euornithes (q.v.), because the
concentration of the caudal vertebras into a
pygostyle gives the tail feathers a typically
fanlikc shape; hence Dr. Theodore Gill's term
EurhipidursB, as an equivalent of Euornithes.

FAN'TAN (Chinese fan, number of times +
tan, apportion). A gambling game, very
ular in China. In the American game a
of 52 cards is used. The deal starts by
the cards. Ace high deals. The cards are then
dealt to the left, one at a time. As many as
eight persons may play. The cards remaining
at the finish of the deal are dealt face down
to the centre of the table. The first player at
the left of the dealer must have an ace to play,
in which event he plays the ace to the centre of
the table. Having no ace, he must ante the
amount agreed upon (usually 5 cents or less) to
the centre of the table and draw one of the re-
maining cards. Thus the game proceeds until
an ace can be played, after which the different
stacks of cards are built up consecutively to the
king. The first player ridding himself of his
cards wins the pot. Failure to play a card in
turn is punished by a fine equal to the amount
of the ante for every card remaining in all of
the players' hands.

In China cards are not used, the game being
played on a table on which is marked a square
whose sides are numbered from one to four, or
by means of a square piece of metal similarly
inscribed. An unknown quantity of small coins
are placed within this square and covered with
a bowl. The players play their stakes against
any side of the square, whereupon the banker
uncovers the coins and removes them, four at
a time. The player wins who has backed the
number corresponding to the number of coins,
from four down, which are left when the re-
mainder have been removed, and receives five
times the amount of his stake, less the banker's
commission.

FANTASIA, /*. pron. f&n'ta-zS'a. (It, fancy).
1. In music, a composition somewhat free in
form, as opposed to the strict form of the fugue
or sonata. 2. An. improvisation (q.v.). 3.
The fantasia, also free fantasia, that part of a
movement in sonata form which follows the
first, or exposition, section. It is also called
"development section," because the themes used
in the first section are here more fully devel-
oped. (See SONATA.) 4. In the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries the term "fantasia" was
applied to a composition in which a theme was
developed in free imitation (q.v.).

tfANTI, or FANTEE, fan-tfi' or fan'tt. For-
merly a separate African state, of about 20,000
square miles, now a part of the British Gold
Coast Colony, situated on the coast south of
Ashanti. The Fantis, who are closely allied
to the Aahantis, waged incessant wars against
the latter until subjugated in the beginning of
the nineteenth century. See ASHANTI.

FAITTI, filn'ta, MAOTRBDO (1808-65). An
Italian general. He was born at Carpi, near
Modena. In 1831 he was condemned to death
for his part in the rising against the Duke
of Modena, but he escaped to France; in 1833 he
was with Mazzini in the attempted invasion of

% Savoy. During 1835-48 he fought in Spain and
'distinguished himself in the Carlist War and
was promoted to the rank of colonel on the
general staff at Madrid. In Italy in 1849 he
fought against the Anstrians. During the Cri-
mean War he served as general of a division,
and in the War of 1859 commanded the forces of
the provisional governments of Tuscany, Modena,
the Komagna, and Parma. In 1860-61, as Min-
ister of War and Marine, he increased the army
and brilliantly conducted the campaign against
the papal troops in Umbria. As chief of gen-
eral staff to Victor Emmanuel, he reduced Gaota
and Mola. In 1872 a bronze statue was erected
to his memory in Florence. Consult the biog-
raphy (Florence, 1906) by Di Giorgio.

FANTINE, faN'tSn'. The mother of Cosette,
in Victor Hugo's Lea Miserable*. She gives
her name to part i of the novel.

FANTIN-LATOUR, filN/taN' latSffr', HENBI
(TGNACE HENRI JEAN THJ&ODOBE) (1836-1904).
A French portrait painter and lithographer. He
was born at Grenoble Jan. 14, 1836, the son of
Theodore Fantin-Latour (1805-75). He studied
first with his father, then in Paris under Lecoq
de Boisbaudran, and later for a short time with
Courbet Although he frequently exhibited at
the Salon, he is usually identified with the
artists opposed to academic tradition, and was
represented at the famous Salon des Refuses in
1863 with Manet, Whistler, and others. Fantin-
Latour is best known for his portraits and por-
trait groups, simply but directly treated and
ol sober but delicate and luminous color. Among
his best portraits are those of Manet at the
Art Institute, Chicago; "A Lady," in the Met-
ropolitan Museum, New York; Edwin Edwards
and his wife, in the National Gallery, London;
and Madame Fantin-Latour, Luxembourg Mu-
seum. His groups have a rare, almost puri-
tanic charm, and arc pervaded by a tender,
intimate note. The most celebrated are "An
Atelier in the Batignolles," including portraits
of Zola, Monet, Manet, and other painters (Lux-
embourg) ; "Around the Piano," with portraits
of celebrated mupicians; and "Homage to
Delacroix" with Whistler, Champfleury, and
others (Louvre). Ho excelled in pastel and
during his later years in lithography. Some
of his lithographs were delicate portraits;
others imaginary and fantastically romantic
compositions illustrative of the operas of Wag-
ner, whom he ardently admired, or interpre-
tations of Beethoven, Berlioz, Schumann, and
other musicians. A complete collection of his
lithographs is in the Louvre; others are in the
British Museum and the Dresden Gallery.
Fantin-Latour also painted flowers with ex-
quisite art, his best pieces being in England,
where he lived for some time. He received many
medals and was an officer of the Legion of
Honor. He died Aug. 28, 1004. For his biog-
raphy, consult Jullien (Paris, 1909); for a
catalogue of his lithographs, He*diard, Les
maitres de la lithographic (ib., 1898-99) ; for
reproductions, L'OSuvre lithographique de Fan-
tin-Latour (ib., 1907).

FANUM FOBTUlLaB. See FANO.

PAN VAULTING. A kind of late Gothic
vaulting peculiar to the Perpendicular (q.v.;
style in England, called also "fan-tracery vault-
ing." It was the final, logically developed dec-
orative outcome of the English practice of mul-
tiplying the structural ribs of a Gothic vault.
In order to avoid the twisted surfaces incident

2 A

366

EARABAY

to the French vault system, which employed
only three pairs of ribs (see VAULTING), the
English early introduced intermediate tierceron
ribs, as at Lincoln and much later at Exeter,
by which the four triangular vaulting compart-
ments of a bay were divided into a number of
much narrower triangular surfaces, which could
bo independently laid up. When these ribs were
given approximately the same curvature, the
vaulting masses on each side in each bay be-
came approximately semicircular in horizontal
section, while the multiplying of the ribs greatly
enhanced the decorative effect of the vaulting.
The addition of subordinate bridging ribs
(liemcs, q.v.) was purely for decorative effect,
producing star patterns, net patterns, etc. (Can-
terbury, Winchester, Tewkesbury, Gloucester,
etc., 1368-1400). This led to the design and
construction of vaults in which the ribs were
treated more and more as mere decoration, and
the concave-conoid form of the vault masses was
emphasized. From about 1450 on, these masses
were built up in semicircular horizontal courses,
till they touched at the ridges, and the visible
surfaces were adorned with paneling in relief —
the decorative reminiscence of the structural
ribs — forming fanlike patterns of great ele-
gance. Long stone pendants were introduced,
from which subordinate conoids were sprung,
each with its fanlike paneling. The steps of this
development may be traced from the chapter-
house vaults (Westminster, Salisbury, Wells,
etc., 1260-82) through such examples as the
vaults of the retrochoir of Peterborough, the
Uivinity School at Oxford, the chapels of St.
(JcorjLre* at \Yindsor and of King's College at
( ambridge, to the superb, florid, and final ex-
ample in Henry VIFs Chapel at Westminster
(1509). See VAULTING; and consult Willis,
"Construction of the Vaults of the Middle Ages,"
in Transactions of the Royal Institute of British
Architects (London, 1842), and Bond, English
Church Architecture (ib., 1913).

PA PRESTO. See GIORDANO, L.

FABABI, fji-ra'bS. See AL-FABABI.

FARABI, fa-ra/b$, ABU NASB MOTIAMMED
IBJST TABKHAN IBN UZLAJ AL (c.870-950 A.D.).
One of the earliest of Moslem philosophers, called
"The Second Master," the first being Aristotle.
He was born of Turkish stock at Farab in Tur-
kestan, but proceeded to Bagdad, where he .de-
voted himself to the study of medicine, mathe-
matics, and philosophy. From Bagdad he went
to Aleppo, where, except for his close relations
to Saif al Daula (q.v.), the ruler of this city,
he lived a life of scholastic retirement. He
died in Damascus, while on a visit to that
place in company with Saif al Daula. Although
a prolific writer, who occupied himself with
philosophy, medicine, natural science, mathe-
matics, and music, Farabi never worked out a
system of philosophy. He was largely influenced
by Aristotle, but also acquainted with Platonic
and Neoplatonic thought. He was distin-
guished by the lucidity of his reasoning and the
excellence of his style, but such was the fame
acquired by his successor Avicenna (q.v.) that
Farabi was for a long time almost entirely
eclipsed, and his importance has been fully
realized only in recent times. Dieterici, who
made a profound study^ of his philosophy and
translated many of his works into German,
called special attention to his socio-political
views. His Madina a-1 fadila-, or 'Model State,'
has been designated as a Utopia (q.v.) because

it describes ideal relations; yet it i& not a ro-
mance of the future, but a sober discussion of
the proper forms of social life. Among his
writings was also an encyclopaedia of the
sciences. Consult: Alpha? abii vetustissimi
Aristotelis interpretis opera omma (Paris,
1638) ; Schmolder, Arabic text and Latin trans-
lation of two dissertations, in Documenta Phi-
losophies Arabum (Bonn, 1836) ; Steinschneider,
Alfarabi's de& arabischcn PhilosopJien Leben
und Schriften (St. Petersburg, 1869) ; Dieterici,
Mfarabis philosophische AJ)handJunyen (Leyden,
1890) ; id., Ger. trans, of this work (ib., 1892) ;
id., Alfarabis Abltandliwg der Musterstaat
(ib., 1895); id., Der Musterstaat von Al-
farabi aus dem Arabischen ubertragen (ib.,
1000) ; Brockelmann, QeschicJite der arabischen
Litterateur, i, 210 ff. (Weimar, 1898); Nichol-
son, A Literary History of the Arabs (Cam-
bridge, 1907).

FAB/AD. The farad is the so-called "practi-
cal** unit of electric capacity, being by definition
the capacity of a condenser whose potential is
one volt when charged by one coulomb. It is
substantially equal to the C. G. S. electromag-
netic unit of capacity, divided by 109, or to the
C. G. S. electrostatic unit of capacity, multiplied
by 0 X 10". One-millionth of a farad is called a
"microfarad.** The name "farad** was given the
unit of capacity in honor of Michael Faraday,
who made such important discoveries in regard
to the nature of the capacity of condensers. See
ELECTBICAL UNITS.

FAJB/ADAY, MICHAEL (1791-1867). A dis-
tinguished English chemist and physicist. He
was born near London, the son of a blacksmith,
and at an early age was apprenticed to a book-
binder. He devoted his leisure time to science
and, among other things, made experiments with
an electrical machine of his own construction.
In 1812 he was able to attend four chemical
lectures of Sir H. Davy (q.v.), then at the
zenith of his fame, and he ventured to send to
Davy the notes he had taken, with a modest
expression of his desire to be employed in some
intellectual pursuit. Davy engaged him as his
assistant at the Royal Institution, and later
took him to the Continent as assistant and
amanuensis. On their return to London Davy
confided to him the performance of a number
of important experiments, which led in his
hands to the liquefaction of certain gases by
pressure. Here Tie showed that extraordinary
power and ingenuity which resulted in so many
important discoveries and rendered his name
familiar to every student of physics. In 1824
he was elected to the Royal Society and in the
following year was appointed director of the
laboratory of the Royal Institution, where later
he was promoted to Davy's post of professor of
chemistry. Faraday's iirst .important discovery
was the revolution of a magnetic needle around
an electric current (1821), and 10 years later
came his work on magneto-electricity and induc-
tion. Following this came the discovery of the
action of one current on another, when the de-
fiection was observed as before, and also when a
magnet was inserted or withdrawn in a coil of
wire. These discoveries naturally furnished the
foundation for the development of magneto and
dynamo machines and other inventions of im-
portance. Faraday's researches in electrolysis
are also, of great value, and to him is due the
discovery that the amount of liquid decomposed
is proportioned to the current passing through

MICHAEL FARADAY
FROM A PAINTING BY JOHN PHILLIP 1

FARADAY

367

the solution, and that equal quantities of elec-
tricity decompose equivalent amounts of differ-
ent electrolytes. To him we owe the terms
"anode" and "cathode." He was also the dis-
coverer of "specific inductive capacity," or the
measure of the electric attraction and repul-
sion exerted through various dielectrics or in-
sulating substances. According to Faraday,
both electrostatic and electromagnetic induction
takes place along curved lines, which he domi-
nated "lines of force." Faraday discovered that
the plane of vibration of a beam of polarized
light is rotated under the influence of a power-
ful magnetic field. The phenomena of diamagne-
tism, or the repulsion of certain substances,
were also carefully investigated by Faraday,
and many valuable results obtained. In chem-
istry, also, where most of Faraday's early work
was done, many important discoveries are to be
recorded, including a number of new chemical
compounds. Of these perhaps the most impor-
tant is an investigation on new compounds of
carbon and hydrogen (Philosophical Trans-
actions, 1825), inasmuch as it included the dis-
covery of benzol, which is the basis of aniline
dyes. He also carried on a number of experi-
ments looking to the production of optical glass
with unusual power of refraction; but while
glass with an index of refraction of 1.866 was
made, it did not prove available, on account of
its softness.

Faraday was one of the most brilliant experi-
mentalists that science has ever known, and to
him credit must bo given for much that elec-
tricity has accomplished. The experimental work
that ho liad done with such care furnished a
basis for the mathematical and theoretical dis-
cussions of Maxwell, and his Experimental Re-
searches in Electricity (1839-55) contains a
complete record of his investigations. In 1835
Faraday received a pension of £300 a year for
the rest of his life, and in 1836 he became the
scientific adviser of Trinity House. By royal
grant he occupied a house at Hampton Court.
ITe was invited to become the president of the
Royal Society, but declined the honor.

Faraday was a deeply religious man, belong-
ing to a small sect of Christians known as San-
demanians, and was generous and sympathetic
to a hi#h degree. His last years were marked
by failing powers of mind and body, yet in
spite of this some of his best work was accom-
plished fthortly before his death. In addition
to the Experimental Researches in Mcctritity
(1830-55), he published Researches in Chem-
istry and Physios (1859), and many papers in
tho Proceedings of the Royal Institution and the
Philosophical Maga&vne. For his life and work,
consult: /Jones, Life and Letters of Faraday
(London. 1870) ; Tyndall, Faraday as a Dis-
coverer (2d ed., ib., 1870) ; Thompson, Michael
Faraday: His Life and Work (ib., 1888).

FARADAY EFFECT. See ELBCTBICITY;
LIGHT.

FARADAY TUBES. See ELECTRICITY.

PAR'ADISH. See ErjECTRicrrY, MEDICAL
OF.

(far'a-ldn) ISLANDS, or TUB
FARA.LLONIBH. A group of seven small, rocky is-
lands and several islets off the coast of Cali-
fornia, about 30 miles directly west of Ran
Francisco and a part of that city (Map: Cali-
fornia, B 5). Their extreme points-^northwest
and southeast— are about seven miles apart.
On the southernmost island stands an important

lighthouse, in 37 • 41' 58" N., 123° 04" W*,
having a flashing light of the first order, 358
feet above the sea and visible 26 miles, and also
a steam siren. The Farallones are the resort
of myriads of sea gulls and murres, and in 1909
the islands were created a Federal bird reserva-
tion, thereby assuring the full protection of
these birds for all time. Great numbers of sea
• lions and rabbits are also found. The rainfall
is heavy, amounting yearly to 18 or 19 inches.

FARANDOLE. A national Provencal dance
of moderate movement in £ time. It has been
used by Gounod in his Mireille and by Bizet in
hiw suite L'Arle'sienne.

FARCE (Fr. farce, from Lat. farsus, p.p. of
farcire, to stuff). A dramatic piece intended to
excite laughter by exaggeration and extrava-
gance rather than by the truthful delineation
of life. Tt differs from comedy mainly in the
emphasis placed on plot. In farce the characters
are what they are because the working of the plot
requires them to be this and not something1 else,
while in comedy the plot is subordinated to the
characters. Broadly speaking, farcical elements
have entered into many of the forms of primi-
tive comedy. Thus, both in the significance of
the word and the kind of "stuffing" it denotes,
farce would seem to bear an analogy to the early
Latin ftaturce, while the popular commedia dell'
arte of a much later day in Italy were of a
somewhat similar character. The name farce,
however, seems to have been first applied in its
present sense particularly to the pieces pro-
duced by the French society of the clcrcs de
lazouhe as a contrast to the moralities played
by the religious orders. They have been con-
founded in their origin with the sermons yoyeuotf,
or parodies on the ritual of the church. A char-
acteristic of many of the farces was a mixture
of dialects. In one scene of the Farce de Pathe-
lin, tho principal personage speaks seven or eight.
This most famous of all the farces has been
attributed to different authors, most commonly
to Pierre Blanchet, one of the Bassoche in the
fifteenth century, and even to the poet Villon.
At a later date Moliere elevated and refined me-
diaeval farce into pure comedy in his At&leoin
malf/ro' lui, Lett prvvioitsefi ridicules, and other
inimitable productions. In England the farce
came, about the beginning of the eighteenth
century, to be regarded as something distinct
from comedy proper and to constitute a special
form of composition. Out of the numerous
farces which have been performed before Eng-
lish*t*peuking audiences, those of Samuel Foote
especially have kept a place in literature. On
the stage- at the present day tho name "farce,"
or sometimes the vulgarism "farce comedy," is
freely applied to almost any light piece in
winch the comic goes to preposterous lengths.
Consult: Petit de Julleville, La com6die et les
mwurs en France an moyen age (Paris, 1886),
and Repertoire du theatre oomique en France
au mo i/en Age (ib., 1886); Inchbald, A Collec-
tion of Farces and Other Afterpieoes (London,
1815).

FARCY, See GLANDEBS.

FARODEIi-BOTTND (OF. fardel, burden, Sp.,
Portug. fardel, diminutive of fordo, pooh, from
Ar. fardat, bundle of merchandise + bound). A
form of indigestion in cattle, sheep, and goats,
characterized by impaction of the fardel bag,
or third stomach, with food, which Is taken in
between the leaves of this globular stomach,
there to be fully softened and reduced. While it

EAR EASTERN QUESTION

368

FAB EASTERN QUESTION

may seem to be a primary disease, in very
many cases it occurs as a result of some acute
febrile or inflammatory affection. When the
food is unusually tough, dry, or indigestible,
consisting, e.g., of over-ripe clover, vetch, or
rye grass, the stomach cannot moisten and re-
duce it with, sufficient rapidity; fresh quantities
continue to be taken in, until the overgoiged
organ becomes paralyzed, its secretions dried up,
and its leaves affected with chronic inflamma-
tion. The slighter cases, so common among stall-
fed cattle, are "loss of cud," indigestion, and
torpidity of the bowels. In severer form there
are also fever, grunting, bloating of the first
stomach, and sometimes stupor or epilepsy. The
ovorgorged stomach can, moreover, be felt by
pressing the closed fist upward and backward
underneath the false ribs on the right side. The
symptoms often extend over 10 days or a fort-
night. Purgatives and stimulants are to be
given. Consult J. Law, Text-Book of Veterinary
Medicine, vol. ii (Ithaca, 1905-11).

FAR EASTERN" QUESTION. The term
originally applied to problems arising out of
the participation of non-Asiatic nations in Asi-
atic awakenment and development; more specifi-
cally it covers the claims, rights, and interests
of certain Western powers, and (since 1894) of
Japan, to what are styled "spheres of influence"
in China; as, e.g., British interests along the
Yang-tse valley and in Tibet; Russia's interests
in Mongolia and Manchuria; Japan's sovereignty
over Korea and her ceded privileges in Man-
churia; French interests in Indo-China; Ger-
many's lease of Kiaochow and her growing com-
mercial and industrial investments in Shan-
tung; and Portugal's possession of Macao.

In opposition to these rival territorial claims
and claimants is the policy maintained by suc-
cessive United States governments since it was
first enunciated by Anson Burlingame in 1868,
defending the rights of China to "eminent do-
main over her own territory," and protection
against partition by land-hungry nations. This
policy was more clearly defined by the late John
Hay during the diplomatic discussions which
arose over the Boxer troubles in 1900, in what
has since been known as the "Open Door" dec-
larations. Certain stipulations, reluctantly ac-
corded by some of the rival powers, guaranteed,
as a result of the good offices of the United
States, the "administrative entity" of China.

While succeeding events led to certain devia-
tions from this policy, materially it remains
unaltered; and it was more recently amplified
by what have been called the "Hands Off" pro-
nouncements made by President Wilson and Sec-
retary of State Bryan (1912-14). The policy
conceived by the United States, through Burlin-
game, was to conserve China's integrity, pending
her development along western lines; Hay's
"Open Door" policy was to guarantee this in-
tegrity while fostering1 China's development
through closer commercial communion and the
extension of ports opened under foreign treaties
with China; and the "Hands Off" policy aims
to prevent the improper or impolitic exploita-
tion of China in the interest of international
financial combinations as opposed to China's own
national interests.

These complex problems have been further
complicated through the great changes which
have occurred within the last two decades in
the Orient, and signs are not wanting that still
further complications are certain to arise. The

rapid and continuous growth of the German Em-
pire and consequent changes in the balance of
power in Europe; the advent of Japan as a
first-class power; the spread of the Nationalist
movement in India and in Egypt ; the occupation
of the Philippines by the United States (1898)
as a result of the war with Spain; the decadence
of Lamaist influence in Tibet— these, among
many other causes, have operated to intensify
the difficulties presented in various aspects of
the Far Eastern Question.

But, overshadowing all these outside interests
and influences, are the awakening of China itself
and the amazing spread of the national and
Republican spirit throughout what was, until
1911, the most conservative empire in the world.
It is this process of nationalization in China,
with its manifestations of immediate weaknesses
and potential strength, which now seems to domi-
nate the Far Eastern Question at all points;
touching, on the one hand, upon some of the
most delicate matters of purely European diplo-
macy, andy on the other, interlocking itself with
the larger problems of Pacific development and
Pacific control.

The Far Eastern Question, as such, may be
said to have had its inception in the early
contests between the Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch,
and British traders for preeminence and pre-
dominance in the Oriental seas. And, just as it
has reached its most acute stage with the fall of
the Ta-Ching (or T'sing), commonly called the
Manchu, dynasty, it received its first impetus
during the conflict between Ming and Manchu
which ended (in 1644) with the overthrow of
the Ming dynasty. It was then (1610-44) that
the Portuguese seized possession of Macao ( occu-
pied as a trading post, 1537; annexed, 1849),
while the Dutch endeavored to dislodge Koxinga
and his force of Ming adherents from the island
of Formosa. It is also an important historical
fact that it was the loss of Formosa to the
Japanese (1895) which fanned into flame the
spirit of Chinese nationality and contributed
considerably towards extending the agitation
which culminated in the establishment of the
Chinese Republic (Feb. 12, 1912). Formosa and
the island of Hongkong represented, and still
represent, to the Chinese what the isles of
Greece have always meant to the Macedonian
and the Thessalonian. Restrained by the con-
tinually weakening hands of the Manchu bu-
reaucracy, the Chinese, particularly in the
southern and eastern provinces, chafed under the
persisting pressure from without, which had in-
creased rather than diminished with every con-
cession granted rival foreign nations.

The creation by the British of a new Gibraltar
at Hongkong (1842), with the later acquisition
of the territory on, China's mainland from Kow-
loon to Mirs Bay and Deep Bay (1860-98) ; the
advance of the French from the southern penin-
sula of Annam, threatening the rich provinces
of Yunnan and of Kweichow and Kwangsi; and
encroachments by Russia on China's western
and northern borders, exasperated China and
unquestionably had much to do with bringing
about the war with Japan (1894-95), apart al-
together from the direct cause of that rupture
(conflicting interests in Korea). The war be-
tween Japan and China, while it revealed
Japan's strength and China's weakness to an ex-
tent which astounded the outside world; and
while, by the terms of the Treaty of Shimonoseki
(1895), it cost China an indemnity of Hk. Taels

FAB EASTERN QUESTION

369

PAR EASTERN QUESTION

230,000,000 in addition to loss of territory as
well as of prestige, warned her that her very
existence as a nation was at stake. Thus arose
China's willingness, amounting almost to des-
peration, to assume western ways and institu-
tions and to turn to western powers for advice
and for protection. While improving her rela-
tions with the United States, China naturally
looked first for immediate assistance to her
most powerful western neighbor, Russia. And
Russia eagerly availed herself of the opportunity
to profit under the cloak of friendship.

Balked by the Treaty of Berlin (1878) from
forcing her way to a direct outlet on the Medi-
terranean and control of the Dardanelles, the
foreign policy of Russia became absorbed in the
task of imding an ice-free outlet somewhere on the
Pacific. Colonization in Mongolia and North and
South Manchuria was fostered under various
pretexts; and plans were perfected to carry the
Siberian Railway across Chinese territory from
Stretonsk to Vladivostok. Russia seized upon
the Peace of Shrmonoseki and China's eagerness
for friendly mediation as the means of putting
these plans into immediate effect. The original
terms of the treaty (April 14, 1895) bound
China ( 1 ) to agree to the complete independence
of Korea; (2) to cede the Liaotung peninsula
and its littoral; (3) also Formosa and the Pes-
cadores; (4) to pay indemnity of Ilk. Taels
200,000,000; (5) to open up Shashih, Chung-
king, Suchow, and Hangchow to commerce, and
of the Yang-tse to navigation. Russia, with the
assistance of Germany and France, England ab-
staining, secured the revocation of the second
clause ( relating to the Liaotung peninsula, etc. ) ,
compelling Japan to accept instead an additional
Hk. Tls. 30,000,000 indemnity. The selfish mo-
tives behind the UuBso-French-Geriiian compact
were soon apparent. Rusaia proceeded immedi-
ately to carry out her railway plans and (1898)
obtained possession of the southern part of the
Liaotung peninsula with its two valuable har-
bors, Port Arthur and Talienwan (Dalny).
Germany, under the pretext of compensation for
thn murder of two missionaries, secured the port
of Kiaochow, and important concessions in Shan-
tung Province (1898), while France improved
her frontier lines in the Mekong valley, secured
railway and mining concessions in Yunnan and
Kiangsi, and (1898-99) a €9 years' lease of the
Bay of Pangchangwan, opposite the island of
Hainan. Great Britain, in protection of her
own interests and thowe of China, wa« given a
lease of Wei-hai-wei as long as Russia held Port
Arthur.

England was first among the European nations
to recognize the growing power of Japan, and
in the agreement (Jan. 30, 1902) which later
became the Anglo- Japanese Alliance (renewed
and extended, 1911) she directed her policy in
the Far East to solidify her own interests and
to support those of Japan. Japan, fretting un-
der the curtailment of her conquests by Russia,
and Russia's subsequent occupation of the Liao-
tung, set herself to checkmate Russia on the
Far Eastern mainland. An excuse was presented
through Russian exploitation in Korea (1903).
Diplomatic controversies culminated in the
Russo-Japanese War (1904-05), which ended in
the discomfiture of Russia and her expulsion
from the shores of the Yellow Sea.

Under the Treaty of Portsmouth (Sept. 6,
1905) Japan was given a free hand in Korea
and received from Russia the leases of Port

Arthur and Dalny, together with their littoral;
the South Manchurian Railway from Ching-
kiang to Port Arthur, and the mining and other
rights pertaining to it; the southern half of
Saghalien from the 50th latitude; the right of
navigation in the bays of La Perouse and Tar-
tary; and the rights of fishing in Russian terri-
torial waters. At the same time (Aug. 12, 1905)
there was promulgated an agreement between
Great Britain and Japan which expressly guar-
anteed the maintenance of the status quo in the
Far East. Korea was declared formally under
the protection of Japan (Nov. 17, 1905) and was
annexed (Aug. 22, 1910). During the latter
part of 1909 Secretary of State Knox presented
on behalf of the United States a proposal to
neutralize the South Manchurian Railway. This
proposal was rejected by Japan (Jan. 21, 1910),
and the outbreak of the Chinese revolution (Oc-
tober, 1911) found practically all the European
nations and Japan scrambling for new railway
and other concessions.

The loss of the Liaotung peninsula and of the
South Manchurian Railway to Japan deprived
Russia of the use of the Chinese Eastern Rail-
way for strategic purposes, and henceforth her
aim has been to seek another outlet. Hardly
had the ink dried upon the Portsmouth Treaty
than the Russian government authorized the
double-tracking of the Siberian Railway and
granted the appropriation for the construction
of the Amur lines. These works have been
actively pushed ahead in the last four years, and
the Amur line is ncaring completion, while the
double-tracking of the Siberian Railway is about
75 per cent completed. Many other lines are
projected for the exploitation of central Asia,
some of which have received the sanction of the
Russian government. Vladivostock has been
made practically impregnable, but, as it lies
exposed to Japan, it may be captured in another
war. As a commercial port, however, it has
great disadvantages; for it is open for only half
the year and can never servo as an adequate out-
let for the great Siberian country and its rapidly
extending trade and industries. Fronted by
Japan in South Manchuria, Russia cannot hope
to secure a seaport in that direction except
through another costly and possibly more disas-
trous war. In most books dealing with Russian
policy in Asia, the fact is emphasized that one
of her great dreams is an approach to Peking
across Mongolia via Kalgan. Recent Russian
diplomacy is believed to suggest that she seeks
an understanding with England to secure this
direct right of way to the Yang-tse. Japan,
however, appears to be cognizant of and antag-
onistic to those intentions, and it is now (June,
1914) proposed by Count Okuma, on the part
of Japan, to ally Japanese and British interests
in the Yang-tse. Formal recognition of the
British "Sphere of Influence" in the Yang-tse
valley, including Honan and Chekiang, as well
as the provinces bordering on the river, dates
from the Anglo-Russian Agreement (April 28,
1899) in which the Russian government specifi-
cally covenanted not to seek any concession
within that sphere, England pledging herself not
to seek concessions in Russia's sphere north of
the Great Wall, the Shanhaikwan-Neuhwang
Railway extension, previously provided for, be-
ing oxcepted from this provision.

Coincident with the outbreak of the Chinese
revolution, disaffection occurred among the Mon-
golians of Outer Mongolia, and in the early part

FAB EASTERN QUESTION

370

EABEL

of 1912 the Mongols, replying to Yuan Shih-kai's
proclamation of March 26, refused to partici-
pate in the establishment of Republican govern-
ment. Russia then concluded that the time had
come when she could not only secure from the
rebellious Mongols commercial privileges which
she had been seeking from China, but that also,
while maintaining her friendly position towards
that country, she could raise up in Outer Mon-
golia a barrier against the immigration of Chi-
nese within her own borders, which she had been
endeavoring to resist. A convention with the
Khalkas embodying these essential principles of
Russian policy was determined upon, and in the
latter part of 1911 a Russian diplomatic agent
to Outer Mongolia arrived at Urga to put
through these negotiations.

"Difficulties arose between the Russian agent
and the Mongolians themselves, and resentment
of Russia's intrigue became very general in
China. The Urga Convention (Nov. 3, 1912)
declared that, in consideration of Russia's "lend-
ing her assistance to Mongolia in preserving the
autonomous regime it has established, as well
as the right to have her national army and to
admit neither the presence of Chinese troops on
her territory nor the colonization of her land
by Chinese," the Mongols concede to the Rus-
sians the most complete freedom of trade (but
no rights of monopoly) "in every kind of prod-
uct of the soil and industry of Russia, Mongolia,
and China." The convention further gave Russia
the right to control any treaty arrangements the
Mongolians may wish to enter into later "with
the Chinese or another foreign power," and
which might infringe or modify this convention.
As soon as these terms were published, the
Republican Parliament in Peking clamored for
war with Mongolia and with Russia, if neces-
sary. President Yuan Shih-kai dispatched a
military force to deal with the Mongols and re-
monstrated with Russia. After protracted dis-
cussion a declaration was signed Nov. 3, 1913,
on the part of Russia and China by which
Russia recognized Chinese suzerainty over
Outer Mongolia, while China recognized, its
autonomy. Russia pledged herself to send no
troops to Mongolia beyond the consular guards,
nor to intervene in the administration of the
country, nor to attempt colonization. Diplo-
matic conversations were (June, 1914) pro-
ceeding with a view of establishing cooperation
between Russia and China for the administra-
tion of Outer Mongolia. At the same time dis-
agreement had occurred between the Mongols as
to who should be their ruler, some favoring the
Hutuktu, or, as he is also called, the Boddo
Khan (holy prince), a lama, who is married and
has two sons; and others the Sainnoyin Khan,
president of the Council of Ministers. The ulti-
mate choice may have an important bearing not
merely upon future events in Mongolia, but also
upon a correlated controversy, the question of
Tibet. The Dalai Lama of Lhassa is recognized
in Mongolia, but there, as in Tibet itself,
Lamaism is believed to be disintegrating.

Russia's policy in regard to Mongolia and
Manchuria led naturally to an aggressive Eng- .
lish poliey on the northern frontier of India.
And this latter policy was assisted by the
results of the Younghusband expedition and
the difficulties which arose between the Dalai
Lama and ihe Manchu Empire just prior
to the Chinese revolution. Strategically the
occupation of the lofty plateaus of Tibet is of

vast importance in the possible defense of Eng-
land's Indian empire against invasion from the
north. China has always claimed sovereignty
over Tibet, and her suzerainty has been gen-
erally conceded. A conference was (June, 1914)
proceeding, as a result of which it was hoped
to amicably adjust British and Chinese inter-
ests in this ancient and conservative land of
Lamaism.

The Far Eastern Question, it will thus be
seen, had now entered upon an entirely new
phase. First, an issue between certain purely
European powers as to rival rights and expec-
tations in the Orient, it then became a contest
between European combinations and Japan as to
which nation should profit most in the partition
of the Chinese Empire. Japan — progressive,
aggressive — required room for her rapidly grow-
ing population to expand freely and develop
new importance. But China awakened before
partition was more than begun. And China,
with her millions of men, her concentrated en-
orgy, and her vast resources, bids fair to pro-
nounce possibly a decisive note in the ultimate
solution of the Par Eastern Question, which
manifestly now presents itself in the most acute
form it has yet assumed.

Bibliography. Curzon, Problems of the Far
East (2 vols., New York, 1896); Norman, Peo-
ples and Politics of the Far East (ib., 1897);
Maogowan, A History of China- (Shanghai,
1897) ; Colquhoun, China in Transformation
(New York, 1898) ; Beresford, The Break-Up of
China (ib., 1899) ; Reinsch, World Politics at
the End of the Nineteenth Century as Influenced
J>y the Oriental Situation (ib., 1900) ; Colquhoun,
Overland to China (ib., 1900); Leroy-Beaulieu,
The Awakening of the East (ib., 1900) ; Conant,
The United States in the Orient (Boston, 1900) ;
Ireland, China and the Powers (New York,
1002) ; Douglas, Europe and the Far East (Cam-
bridge, 1904) ; Whigham, Manchuria and Korea
(London, 1904) ; Weale, Manohu and Muscovite
(ib., 1904) ; id., The Re-Shaping of the Far East
(ib., 1905) ; Okakura-Kakuzo, The Awakening
of Japan (ib., 1905) ; Suyematsu, The Risen Sim
(ib., 1905) ; Millard, The New Far East (New
York, 1906) ; Brewster, The Evolution of New
GUfaa (ib., 1907) ; Wu Ting-fang, TJie Awaken-
ing of China, Civic Forum address (ib., 1908);
Morse, International Relations with the Chinese
Empire (Hongkong, 1910) ; Dingle, CHna's
Revolution (New York, 1912) ; Kent, The Pass-
ing of the Manohus (ib., 1912) ; Rockhill, The
Question of Outer Mongolia, Monograph of the
Asiatic Institute (ib., 1914) ; id., Conditions in
China in 191%, Monograph of the Asiatic Insti-
tute (ib., 1914).

tfAREIi, fa'rel', GUHXATJME (1489-1565). A
friend of Calvin and active promoter of the
Reformation in Switzerland. He was born of
noble family at Fareaux, near Gap, Dauphin^,
in 1489. He studied in Paris, became professor
in the College Le Moine, and was distinguished
for his zeal for the Catholic church. Inter-
course with the Waldenses and the influence of
Lefevre d'Estaples (sec FABEB) led him to accept
the new teachings, and his vehement nature at
once led him to attempt to make proselytes. In
1521 Bishop Briqonnet provided for him at
Meaux, but persecutions followed him there. He
went to Basel and was kindly received by
(Ecolampadius, and there, on Feb. 15, 1524, he
publicly sustained 13 theses on points in dis-
pute between the Reformer* and the church. He

FARENHOLT

371

FABGO

preached in the Canton of Bern, and through his
exertions the towns of Aigle, Bex, Olon, Morat,
and Neuchatel embraced the Reformation. From
1532 till 1538 he labored mainly at Geneva, but
was compelled temporarily to leave the city
several times. In 1535 the town council of
Geneva formally proclaimed the Reformation,
but the organization fell into Calvin's hands
rather than Farel's. Both Reformers had to
leave the city in 1538, and Farel went to
Neuchatel and did good service in setting the
affairs of the church there in order. He was
present at Geneva at the burning of Servetus in
1553. In 1557 he was sent with Beza to the
Protestant princes of Germany to implore aid
for the Waldenscs and on his return sought a
new sphere of labor in his native province. In
November, 15G1, he was thrown into prison, but
was soon liberated. He died at Neuchatel, Sept.
13, 15(55. Farel's writings are not very impor-
tant. Some of them may be found in Du 'oral
usage do la croi'X (Geneva, 1540; new ed., 1865).
His letters are in Herininjard, Correspondence
des rGforinateurs dans les pays de la langue
franca'isc (9 vols., Geneva, 1866), and in the
Corpus jReformatorum (Brunswick, 1834-1900).
Consult: Kirchhofer, Das Lelen Wilhelm Farel's
(Zurich, 3831-33); Schmidt, Etudes sur Farel
( Strassburg, 183G) ; id., Wilhehn Farel und
Peter Vwet (Elborfeld, 1860) ; Bevan, William
Farel (4th cd., London, 1893).

FARENHOLT, far'en-holt", OSCAR WALTEB
(1845- ). An American naval officer, born
near San Antonio, Tex. He entered the navy
as a seaman in 1861, was wounded at Pocotaligo,
S. C., participated in attacks on Charleston,
S. C., and on Fort Sumter, and aided in the
capture of Fort Fisher, N. C., and the recapture
of Plymouth. He became acting ensign in 1804
and ensign in 1868, and thereafter was pro-
motod through the various grades, becoming
captain in 1900 and rear admiral in 1901. Dur-
ing the Spanish- American War he had charge
of Dewey's bast1 of supplies and information at
Shanghai, China. He was commandant of the
navy yard at Cavite, P. I., in 1900 and after
commanding the Mouadnock of the Asiatic Sta-
tion in 1901 was retired. Farenholt is the only
oflieer who ever rose from seaman to the rank
of roar admiral in the United States navy.

FARENSBACH, fil'r<ms-biio, JUBQEN VON
(1551-1002). A Livonian general. Sent as the
Ambassador of Livonia to Cmr Ivan the Terri-
ble, for the purpose of concluding a treaty of
poiioe, ho entered the, Russian service and greatly,
distinguished himself by winning the decisive
hnttlrt of the Oka against the Tatars (Aug. 1,
157*2). Afterward ho served in the Danish and
Polish armies and in 1586 was invested with
the rank of a senator of the Polish crown by
Sigisimmd ITT, whom he had assisted in gaining
the throne of Poland. As field marshal of
Poland, he subsequently fought against Sweden,
where, however, he was defeated. FTe was killed
in tho attack on the castle of Fellin, May 17,
1602.

FAREWELL, TAPE. See CAPE 'FAREWETX.

FAK/3PA, ABBEY or. A Benedictine monas-
tery, at ono time among the richest and most
famous of Italy, situated about 20 miles from
Rome. It is said to have been founded in the
middle of the sixth century by St. Laurence,
Bishop of Spoleto, and soon reached a position
of importance, receiving endowments from the
Lombard and Carolingian rulers ami from the

popes. The monks were driven out by the
Saracen invaders about 890, and it lay desolate
for 50 years. When Alberic set Odo of Cluny
over all the monasteries in the neighborhood of
Rome, attempts were made at reforming the ill-
regulated lives of the monks, but at first with-
out success. The zealous Abbot Hugo, however,
brought in a new set of monks at the end of
the tenth centurv, and Odilo of Cluny, visiting
Italy, inspired him to introduce the CJuniac re-
form. Pope Nicholas II consecrated the con-
ventual church in 10GO, and learning began to
flourish in a marked degree. Tho librarian of
the monastery, Gregory of Catina, rendered a
great service to Italian history by compiling
between 1105 and 1119 the Ghronicon Farfense.
The riches of the abbey increased greatly, and it
owned no less than 083 churches and convents,
2 towns, 132 castles, and over 30 villages and
hamlets. From the end of the fourteenth cen-
tury it was held in commendam by cardinals,
and Gregory XVI annexed it in 1842 to the
cardinal-bishopric of Sabina. II Clironicon Far-
fense was published by Balzani (Rome, 1903) ;
Consnetudincs Farfcnses, dating 1010, by Albers
(Stuttgart, 1000).

T'AKG-O, fiii'gd. The largest city in North
Dakota and the county seat of Cass County, 240
miles by rail northwest of Minneapolis, Minn.,
on the fled River of the North, and on the
Northern Pacific, the Great Northern, and the
Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul railroads
(Map: North Dakota, H 4). Fargo is an im-
portant grain market and one of the largest
distribution centres for heavy farm machinery
in the country. It has also extensive jobbing
interests in groceries, fruits, and notions.
Among its industrial establishments arc knitting
mills, creameries, a foundry, bottling works, and
manufactories of harness, candy, corsets, mat-
tresses, bed springs, artificial limbs, trunks,
crackers, etc. Fargo is an educational centre,
containing the North Dakota Agricultural Col-
lege (founded in 1890), Fargo College (Con-
gregational, opened in 1887), Sacred Heart
Academy (Catholic), Oak Grove Seminary
(Lutheran), the Western School of Expression,
two music conservatories, and three public li-
braries. Other features arc a United States
land office, several hospitals, and a number of
fine jjarks and drives. The city adopted the
commission form of government in 1913. It owns
and operate its water works and filtration pi ant.
Settled in 1871, Fargo was incorporated in 1875,
A fire on June 7, 1803, destroyed property
valued at $3,000,000. Pop., 1000, 9589; 1010,
14,331; 1914 (U. S. est.), 16,351; 1920,21,1)01.

TABOO, V^ILLIAM GEORGE (1818-81). A
pioneer American expressman, born at Pompcy,
N. Y. After working as a grocery clerk, freight
agent, express messenger, and resident agent at
Buffalo, he organized with Henry Wells, in 1844,
Wells and Company (later, Livingston and
Fargo), a carrying company in business between
Buffalo and western points. This firm was con-
solidated with others in 1850 to form tho Ameri-
can ExproHS Company, of which Wells became
president and Fargo secretary. Wells, Fargo,
and Company was formed in tho following year
to take charge of an express business between
New York and San Francisco by the way of the
Isthmus of Panama and also on interior lines
on tho Pacify* coast. From 1808 to 1881 Fargo
was president of tho American Express Com-
pany. He was also director of the New York

TABGTTS

372

PABJNA

Central and Northern Pacific railroads and was
mayor of Buffalo from 1862 to 180G.

FAB'GTJS, FBEDEBIOK JOHN (1847-85). An
English novelist (pseudonym, Hugh Conway),
born in Bristol. An auctioneer by trade — it
was he who catalogued and valued the Straw-
berry Hill collection— he did not acquire repu-
tation as an author until 1883, when he pub-
lished Called Back, a novel which became very
popular both in Europe and America, was trans-
lated into six languages, and successfully drama-
tized in London. Among other works may be
mentioned: Dark Days (1884); Slings and Ar-
rows (1883); A Cardinal Sin (1883); Bound
Together (1884).

EABXA E SOTJSA, fa-re'a 6 so'zti, MANOEL
DE (1590-1649). A Portuguese-Spanish his-
torian and poet. He was born upon an estate
near Pombeiro, in the Province of Minho, was
educated at Braga, entered the service of the
Bishop of Oporto, but shortly after 1613 went
to Madrid. In 1631 he was attached to the
Portuguese Embassy at Rome, where his talents
attracted the attention of Pope Urban VIII and
many learned Italians, Returning to Spain, he
again made his home in Madrid, where he died.
His numerous historical works, written in Span-
ish, include: Epitome de las historias portu-
guessas (1628); Asia portugueisa (3 vols., 1666-
75 ) ; Africa portugueva- ( 1681 ) . His poems
were collected under the title Fiiente de Aga-
nipet rimas varias (4 vols., Madrid, 1644r-46),
besides three other volumes, F&bula de Naroiso
£ Echo, Divinas y humanas ftores, and Noches
olaras (Madrid, 1624r-26). They consist of son-
nets, eclogues, canzones, and madrigals, most
of them written in Spanish. About 200 of the
sonnets, however, and 12 eclogues are in the
Portuguese language. He is also the author of
a commentary upon the Lusiad, which, though
thoroughly uncritical, is not without interest to
students of Camoes.

PABIBATTLT, fart-bo. A city and the
county seat of Rice Co., Minn., 52 miles by rail
south of St. Paul, at the junction of the
Straight and Cannon rivers, and on the Chicago,
Milwaukee, and St. Paul, the Chicago, Great
Western, the Pennsylvania, and the Chicago,
Rock Island, and Pacific railroads (Map: Minne-
sota, D 6). It has a fine location, in a region
which abounds in beautiful lakes. Faribault is
noted as an educational centre, having State
institutions for the deaf, blind, and feeble-
minded, the Seabury Divinity School (opened
in 1869), the Shattuck School for Boys, St.
Mary's School for Girls (Protestant Episcopal),
and Bethlehem Academy for Girls (Roman
Catholic). There is a public library. The in-
dustrial plants include piano, wagon, shoe, gaso-
line-engine, nutting-truck, butter-tub, and fur-
niture factories, and flouring and -woolen mills.
Faribault was settled about 1853 and incorpo-
rated about 1872. It adopted the commission
form of government in 1911. The city owns and
operates its water works. It was the home of
Bishop Whipple, well known for his labors
among the Indians. Pop., 1900, 7868; 1910,
9001; 1920, 11,089.

FABIBATTLT, fa'ri-by, EUGENE RODOLPHE
(1860- ). A Canadian geologist. He was
born at L'Assomption, Province of Quebec, and
was educated at the Ecole Polytechnique and, in
civil engineering and practical science, at Laval
University, Quebec. In 1881 he entered the serv-
ice of the Canadian Geological Survey and in

1884-1909 conducted a geological survey of the
gold fields of Nova Scotia. In 1900 he was in
charge of the Canadian mineral exhibit at the
Paris Exhibition and was a juror representing
British colonies exhibiting there. At the same
exhibition he was awarded a gold medal for his
model of the Goldenville gold mine and geologi-
cal work in the Nova Scotia gold fields, and he
received a similar award at the St. Louis Ex-
position in 1904. He published: The Gold
Measures of Nova Scotia and Deep Mining
(1899) ; Nova Scotian Deep Gold Mining
(1903) ; and numerous articles in the Annual
Reports of the Q-eological Survey ( 1885 et seq. ) .
FARIDKOT, fflr'ed-kotf. A native Sikh
state of Punjab, India, with a capital of the
same name 84 miles southeast of Lahore (Map:
India, B 2). Area, 642 square miles. Pop.,
1901, 124,912; 1911, 130,294.

FABfDTPD-DfN 'ATTAlfc, fa-red'ud d5n
at-tar' ( ?1120-1221 ) . A Persian poet and mystic,
He was the son of a druggist, and his real name
was Muhammad ibn Ibrahim, his better-known
appellation, Farfdu'd-Dln 'Attar ('the pearl of
the faith, the druggist'), being a poet's name,
or takJiallus. The only certainty regarding the
date of his birth is that it was probably ante-
cedent to 1150. He spent 13 years of his child-
hood by the shrine of the Imfim Ri$L, and, after
having traveled extensively in Egypt, India,
and Turkestan, he returned to his native town,
NfshapUr, where he spent the greater part of
his life. One of his last works, a poem entitled
Madhharu'l-'Aj&ib ('Manifestation of Won-
ders1), aroused the animosity of a theologian,
who caused its author to be banished as a
heretic. After this 'Attfo appears to have re-
tired to Mecca, where he wrote his last work,
the poem Lisdnu'l-G-hayl), in which traces of his
waning powers are evident. The date of his
death is yet more or loss a matter of conjecture.
He studied the mystic philosophy of the Sufis
and was its principal representative after his
pupil Jalfilu'd-Dfn-i-Rumf. His most famous
work is the "Mantiqu't-Tayr," or parliament of
birds, an allegorical poem of 4GOO couplets, ac-
cording to which the birds longed for a king.
As the hoopoe who had guided Solomon through
the desert best knows what a king should be,
he is asked whom they shall choose. "The
Slmurgh in tho Caucasus," is his reply. Only a
few birds set out; but by the time they reach
the great King's court, their number is reduced
to 30. The 30 birds at length gain access to
their chosen monarch, the Sfmurgh; but only to
find that they strangely lose their identity in
his presence— that they are he, and he is they.
'Atftir also wrote the PandnCimah, or 'Book of
Counsel/ and The Tadhkiratu'l-Awliya, or
^Memoirs of the Saints,' edited by Nicholson
(London, 1905). The PandnQmah has been best
edited and translated by De Lacy (Paris, 1879)
and has also been rendered into German by
Nessehnann (KSnigsbcrg, 1871). Consult: Gar-
cia de Tassy, Mantio uttalr ou le langage dee
oiseauoo, poeme de philosophic religieuso, par
Farifruddin Attar (Paris, 1857-63); Fitzgerald,
8al&vn&n, and Als&l . . . together with a Bird's-
eye View of Farid-uddm Attar's Bird-Partia*
men*, ed. by Dole (Boston, 1899) ; Geldner, "Die
altpersisehe Litteratur," in Die orientalisohen
Litteraturen (Leipzig, 1906) ; Horn, Geschichte
der persisohen Litteratur (ib., 1901); Browne,
Literary History of Persia (New York, 1906).
fe-rj'n* or fa-rfc/na (Lat,, flour

FARINA

373

from far, coarse grain). The flour or powder of
substances rich in starch, including cereal grains,
as wheat and rice, leguminous seeds, as peas and
beans, and roots, such as potato and arrowroot,
and other like compounds. In England potato
starch is exclusively known as farina. When
used in America, the term ''farina" generally
means a granulated food product prepared from
the inner portion of the finest winter wheat, al-
though the name is occasionally employed when
referring to a preparation from white maize.
Farina is an important constituent of numerous
prepared foods that are called farinaceous on
account of the starch that they contain. It is
used extensively as a breakfast cereal known
as "cream of wheat" and in the preparation of
puddings. In botany the pollen of flowers was
formerly called farina.

FABINA, GIUSEPPE LA. See LA FABINA.

FARINA, fi-re'na, SALVATOHE (1840- ).
A popular Italian novelist, with a gift for hu-
mor and for graphic portrayal of character. He
was born at Sorso, in Sardinia, and studied law
at Turin and Pavia, but after graduation de-
voted himself to a literary career and made his
home permanently at Milan. For many years
Farina was in charge of the literary department
of the Gassetta Musioale. Typical romances
are: Amore ocndato (1873); Piti forte dell?
amore (1890) ; and II signer lo (1880), which
is called his masterpiece. An autobiography in
three volumes was in process of publication in
1914.

FARINATI, ftl'rS-na'tS, or FABINATO, fii'rS-
na'tO, PAOLO (1522-1600). A Veronese painter
of the Renaissance. He was the pupil of Nic-
cold Giolfino and Antonio Badile, and formed
his early style, in which he did much excellent
work, after Brusasorci and Torbido. Later he
was influenced by Paolo Veronese and Giulio
Romano, and finally he sank into the manner-
isms of Parmigiano and his school. His best
works are amply conceived and distinguished by
a warm golden tone unusual for Verona. He
also produced etchings that show originality and
power. Most of his paintings are in the Museum
and churches of Verona; they include the fresco
"St. Michael," in Santa Maria in Qrgano, fres-
coes in San Nazaro, and "The Miracle of the
Loaves and Fishes" (1603), in San Giorgio.
Other good examples are "St. Martin in the
Cathedral of Mantua," "Presentation in the
Temple" (Berlin Museum), and "Abraham and
Hagar" (New York Historical Society). His
son and pupil, Orazio, painted historical
subjects.

FABTNELM, fa'rS-nelle-, CABLO (1705-82).
An Italian singer whose real name was Broschi.
He was the most remarkable male soprano
known, his voice being of unequaled compass,
possessing seven or eight notes more than those
of ordinary vocalists. When still a child, he was
known all over Italy as il ragatssso (the boy),
and from 1722 his career was one unbroken
triumph. In Vienna he evoked a frenzy of en-
thusiasm by his dazzling feats of vocalization,
but on the advice of Charles VI applied himself
to sustained singing and became equally great
as a dramatic singer. In London (1734) Fari-
nelli's presence in the company of his former
teacher, Porpora, then in an operatic war with
Handel, caused the latter to withdraw and
thenceforth to devote himself to oratorio. In
Spain Farinelli's voice lightened the melancholia
of Philip V. He became a great power at court

and continued such until 1759, when Charles III
banished him. He built himself a palace in
Bologna ( 1761 ) and there lived in royal luxury.
Sachi wrote a Vita der Oav. Don Carlo Brosohi,
del to Farinelli (Venice, 1784).

FABXNT, fa-r§'n£, LUIGI CABLO (1812-66).
An Italian statesman and historian, whose name
stands next to those of Garibaldi and Cavour in
the long struggle for united Italy. He was born
at Russi, near Ravenna, graduated in medicine
at Bologna 20 years later, and for a time prac-
ticed successfully as a physician. His share in
the revolutionary movement of 1843 forced him,
however, to leave the Roman States and live in
exile in France, until the gra'nting of the am-
nesty which followed shortly after the accession
of Pius IX. In 1847 he entered the Liberal
cabinet as general secretary to G-aetano Rossi,
the Minister of the Interior, and later became
director general of the sanitary department.
After the assassination of Rossi, the flight of
the Pope to Gaeta, and the proclamation of the
Republic at Rome, Farini withdrew to Tuscany,
and upon the occupation of Rome by the French
made his home in Piedmont, where he devoted
himself to literary pursuits. He founded the
satirical journal La Frusta, to support the
ministry of D'Azeglio, and became attached to
the staff of Cavour's Risorgimento, but still
had time during these years to write his most
noted work, Lo stato romano dall' anno 1814
fin al 18SO (1853), which shows him a clear-
sighted, even if at times a partisan, historian,
and which was translated into English un-
der the superintendence of Gladstone (1859).
Having become a citizen of Piedmont, he was
elected deputy to the Legislature, and in 1851
became Minister of Public Instruction in
D'Azcglio's cabinet, resigning the following
year. In 1859 he was sent to Modena. as royal
commissary, was there proclaimed Dictator, and
in I860 exerted his influence in Parma, Bologna,
and Florence, in favor of a united Italy under
Victor "Emmanuel. In I860 he became Minister
of the Interior in Cavour's new cabinet. Later
ho accompanied the King to Naples and re-
mained there as civil Governor. Upon the down-
fall of Rattazzi's ministry in 1862, he was asked
to farm a new ministry, but was soon after
forced to retire, owing to failing health. His
mind became affected, and he died Aug. 1, 1866,
near Genoa. Besides the Roman State above
mentioned, Farini wrote a continuation of
Botta's Italian history, Storia d' Italia dall9
anno 1814 fine ai nostri giorni (1854-59). For
further details of Farini's life, consult: Berso-
zio, in Oontemporanei Italiani (Turin, 1860) ;
Mauri, in Scritti biographichi (Florence, 1878) ;
Finali, in Nvova Antologto (ib., 1878).

FARJEON", f ai/jon, BENJAMIN LEOPOLD ( 1833-
1903). An English novelist, born in London.
He early went to Australia, where for a time he
worked in the gold diggings. Subsequently he
proceeded to New Zealand, where he wrote his
first book, Shadows on the Snow, and in 1861
assisted in establishing at Dunedin the Otago
Daily Time*, the first daily journal published in
the colony. Upon his return to London he
worked as a dramatist, and in 1870 won his
first success in prose fiction with Qrif. In 1877
he gave public readings in the United States
from his story Blade-o'-Qrass (1874; new ed,,
1890). Other works of his arc: Joshua Marvel
(1872); London1 s Heart (1874); Bread and
Cheese and Kisses (1874; new ed., 1901); The

PARLEY

374

ffouae of White Shadows (1884) ; Samuel Boyd
of Oatchpole Square (1899); The Mesmerists
(1900) ; and a play, Home Sweet Home (1876).
His skill in the development of the intricacies
of a melodramatic plot has been likened to that
of Wilkie Collins. His works Have been trans-
lated into Spanish, Italian, French, and German.
EAR/LEY, JAMES LEWIS (1823-85). An
English author, born in Dublin and educated
at Trinity College in that city. Upon the for-
mation of the Ottoman Bank in Turkey he was
appointed 'chief accountant of the Beirut branch,
which had been established by him. In 1860 he
became accountant general of the State Bank of
Turkey, Constantinople, which afterward be-
came incorporated with the Imperial Ottoman
Bank. He did much to establish pleasant rela-
tions between England and the Levant, and in
March, 1870, was appointed Consul at Bristol by
the Sultan. His numerous works on the Orient
include: Two Years in Syria (1858); The
Druses and the Maronites (1861); The Re-
sources of Turkey (1863); Turkey (1866);
Turks and Christians (1876), containing sug-
gestions which the Porte was subsequently com-
pelled to put into effect; Egypt , Cyprus, and
Asiatic Turkey (1878); New Bulgaria (1880),
one result of his holding the position of privy
councilor in the Bulgarian Public Works De-
partment.

EAIfliEY, JOHN (MURPHY) , GABDINAL ( 1842-
1918). An American Roman Catholic prelate,
born at Newton Hamilton, County Armagh, Ire-
land. He came to America after his education
had begun, was a student in St. John's College,
Fordham, and in St. Joseph's Seminary at Troy,
and completed his theological studies at the
American College in Rome. Here he was or-
dained in 1870, and two years later, after a
pastorate in Staten Island, he became secretary
to Cardinal McCloskey. He was unanimously
chosen rector of the American College; but the
Cardinal, unwilling to part with him, recom-
mended him to the Pope for the honorary ap-
pointment of private chamberlain. In 1891 he
became vicar-general of the archdiocese of New
York, and in 1895 he was appointed prothono-
tary apostolic. Soon afterward he was made
Assistant Bishop. Early in 1902 his name was
mentioned for the post of coadjutor of the Arch-
bishop, but the latter's death rendered necessary
the appointment of a successor instead of a
coadjutor. Parley was the unanimous choice,
being mentioned first in the lists alike of the
clergy of the diocese, the bishops of the prov-
inces, and the archbishops of the United States.
His official appointment to the see followed in
October of the same year. In 1911 he was
made Cardinal. He wrote a Life of Oardmal
UoOloskey (1900).

FAB/LOW, WIIXIAM GILSON (1844-1919).
An American botanist. He was born in Boston
and graduated (A.B., 1866; M.D., 1870) from
Harvard University, where, after several years
of European study, he became adjunct professor
of botany in 1874 and professor of cryptogamic
botany in 1879. In 1899 he was president of
the American Society of Naturalists, in 1904 of
the National Academy of Sciences, in 1905 of the
American Association for the Advancement of
Science, and in 1911 of the Botanical Society of
America. He received the degree of LL.D. from
Harvard, Glasgow, and Wisconsin. Among his
publications are: The (tymnosporangia or Cedar-
Apples of the United States (1880); Marine

Algce of New tinylaud (1881); A Provisional
Host-Indeas of the Fungi of the United States
(1888) ; Biographical Indeoo of North American
Fvnffi (1905).

FAR'MAtf, ELBERT ELI (1831-1911). An
American jurist and diplomat. He was born at
New Haven, Oswego Co., N. Y., and was edu-
cated at Amhcrst College and in Europe. He
was Consul General at Cairo, Egypt, from 1876
to 1881, and a judge of the mixed tribunal from
1881 to 1884, in which capacity ho displayed
exceptional ability and earnestly though unsuc-
cessfully endeavored to secure the abolition of
slavery. Tn 1879 he arranged for the transfer
to America of one of the two obelisks known
by the name "Cleopatra's Needle," one now be-
ing in Central Park, New York, and the other
on the Thames Embankment, London. His publi-
cations include Along the Nile icith General
Grant (1004) and Egypt and its Betrayal
(1908),

FAMCAW, far'mtiN', HENBI. A French
pioneer in aviation and manufacturer of aero-
planes. He firnt attracted notice as a bicycle
racer, then engaged in the manufacture of bicy-
cles and motor cars, and finally he perfected the
Henri Farman biplane. He was the second man
in Europe to leave the ground in a heavier-than-
air flying machine. In 1908 he flew from
Chalons to Reims. In the following year he
established the world record for distance of
flight by flying 144% miles, and in the same
year he " broke the world record for duration of
flight by remaining in the air 8 hours and 12
minutes. He was made a chevalier of the
Legion of Honor in 1909. See AEBONAUTICS,

Aviation.

FARM BUILDINGS. The various buildings
necessary for the occupation and operation of a
farm are collectively known in England as the
homestead, in Scotland as the onstead or stead-
ing, in America as the homestead or farmstead.
They include the farmhouse with its attendant
buildings providing accommodations for the
farmer and his family and the farm laborers,
and the barn and its attendant buildings pro-
viding for the storage and preparation for use
of the farm products, storage of farm imple-
ments and machinery, the housing and care of
stock, etc. Convenient, commodious, well-con-
structed, aiid well-arranged farm buildings for
these purposes are essential to successful farm-
ing:, both fx-om the standpoint of the comfort
and happiness of the fanner and from that of
the proper caro of the live stock, products, and
equipment of the farm. For example, it is a
generally recognized fact that well-housed ani-
mals thrive better and make a better return for
the food consumed than those unduly exposed
to cold and inclement weather, i.e., it is profit-
able as well as humane to house stock well.
The investment in farm buildings is relatively
smaller iu the United States than in the older
countries of the world, but is steadily increasing.
According to the United States census of 1910,
15.4 per cent of the total capital invested in
farms and their equipment was for farm
buildings.

The character of farm buildings will of course
vary with the size of the farm and the system
of farming practiced, whether grain, truck, or
fruit farming, stock raising, dairying, poultry
raising, etc. The requirements as regards such
buildings have undergone and are undergoing
great changeH due to improvements of all kinds

FARM BUILDINGS 3'

— the increased use of farm iEuu-hinery, the keep-
ing of more and better stock, superior methods
of preparing and using feeding stuffs, etc The
most marked result of this change is neon in the
tendency to make the homestead more compact,
to reduce the number of separate buildings, and
provide for a greater variety of purposes in a
few larger buildings, as explained under BARN.
The character of modern agriculture is such that
farm buildings arc becoming as complex in de-
sign and varied in use as factories, and indeed,
in a sense, they are factories for the manufac-
ture of marketable products — meat, milk, etc.
The old practice of providing 20 or more sepa-
rate buildings and scattering them over the farm
is both inconvenient and expensive. The labor
of collecting the crops in one place is less than
is involved in passing from place to place to
feed them out. The extent to which centraliza-
tion is desirable, however, will depend largely
upon the size of the farm. In case of very
large farms, e.g., it may be of decided advantage
to scatter the farm buildings somewhat. The
danger of serious loss by fire is increased when
the buildings are compactly grouped, but this is
largely met by insurance against fire. It is not
considered advisable to place the barn and out-
buildings HO near the farmhouse that Are in
case of one necessarily endangers the other or
the odors of the barnyard are offensive to the
occupants of the house. However, it is impor-
tant as a rule that the farmhouse should be
located within a convenient distance of the barn,
although not HO near as to seem a part of the
outbuildings. The homestead should be centrally
located on the farm, in communication with as
many fields as possible, and where an abundant
supply of good water, good drainage, and plenty
of liffht and air can he secured without unneces-
sary exposure to unfavorable weather conditions.
Three essentials to be considered in the con-
struction of the ordinary farmhouse are comfort,
convenience, and economy. It i* hardly neces-
sary to add that it is alHo important that the
house should bo attractive in appearance, with
sanitary and pleasant surrounding. It should
be planned with reference to future needs as well
tta present requirements and so denigned that it
may be enlarged without impairing its symmetry
of proportions or convenience of arrangement.
Having decided upon the general features which
the house must posscflfl, it is, as a nilc, best to
employ a competent architect or builder to plan
and work out the details of construction. This
may be said with equal truth of all other farm
buildings, except those of very simple construc-
tion. In planning the barn and outbuildings,
as in case of the farmhouse, the purposes for
which thoy are to be used should be carefully
considered in advance to the end that they may
bo conveniently arranged, of ample capacity, and
may be enlarged without undue resort to an-
nexes, lean-tos, wheds, etc. With the increased
production of high-bred, high-priced stock, ven-
tilation and sanitation of stables are second in
importance only to those of dwelling houses.
Tlio large choice of building material now avail-
able makes better construction than in former
years possible, although the questions of the best
material for construction and best methods of
ventilation and sanitation are in large part still
unsolved. Among the structures forming most
important additions to modern farm equipment
are the silo (q.v.) and cold-storage houses and
cellars.

MANAGEMENT

Consult: King, Physics of Agriculture (Madi-
son, 1901) ; Roberts, The Farmstead (New York,
1900) ; Scott, Text-Book of Farm Engineering
(London, 1885) ; Farm Buildings: Compilation
of Plans (Chicago, 1905); McConnell, Farm
Equipment: Buildings and Machinery (London,
1910); Radford, Practical Bain Plans and all ,
Kinds of Farm Buildings (Chicago, 1911) and
Practical Oouittri/ Buildings (Wausau, Wis.,
1912) ; Curtis, Farm Buildings (London, 1912) ;
Davidson, Agricultural Engineering (St. Paul,
1913); Hopkins, Modern Farm Buildings (New
York, 15)13) ; Ekblaw, Farm Structures (ib.,
U)14) ; Hill, "Practical Suggestions for Farm
Buildings," in United States Department oj
Agriculture, Farmers3 Bulletin J26 (1901); C.
P. Willis, "The Preservative Treatment of Farm
Timbers," in United States Department of Agri-
culture, Farmers9 Bulletin 3S7 (1910).

FARM DEMONSTRATION1 means the dem-
onstration of the methods of successful farming
directly to men on the farms. It is essentially
teaching by means of object lessons. Systems
of farm demonstration have been evolved to
make agricultural information immediately and
positively effective and to have it reach all
clauses ckngaged in farm work. At the close of
the last century itinerant agricultural demon-
strators and advisers had become permanently
establ inlied officials in a number of European
countries, while in the United States the work
has come into prominence mainly since 1900.
The spread of the cotton-boll weevil in the
United States gave impetus to the development
of the work. With the beginning of 1904 the
farmers' cooperative demonstration work was
inaugurated by the United States Department of
Agriculture to counteract the effect of this insect
pest by improvements in cultural and other
methods. A corps of field agents is in charge
of the practical work which is carried on in
cooperation with farmers agreeing to work the
crops according to instructions to bring out the
value of tlio methods. This work is observed
and its results inspected by the farmers of the
community, who are in many cases assembled
for the purpose. Farm demonstration is not
confined to the cotton States, but is conducted
in various ways in practically all the States and
often provided for under State laws. Support
is given the movement by numerous agencies,
such as the agricultural colleges, railroads, in-
dustrial concerns, bankers' associations, philan-
thropic and other organizations, and similarly
interested parties. This work now stands ready
to receive further Federal aid through the law
providing for agricultural extension work in all
the States Consult "Demonstration Work on
Southern Farms," United States Department of
Agriculture, Bulletin 4%2 (1910).

FARM MANAGEMENT is a branch of
agriculture and applied economics treating of
the business principles involved in the organiza-
tion and management of farm enterprises for the
greatest continuous profit. It places the opera-
tion of a farm on a business basis with a view
to producing at the lowest cost and to selling to
the best advantage. Farm management involves
the consideration of numerous factors and their
correlation and arrangement according to their
logical sequence and importance. It compares
the advantages and disadvantages of farming
and farm life with those of other forms of
business and life in the city, points out the per-
sonal qualiiications required for successful farm-

FARM MANAGEMENT

376

FABMER

ing, and outlines methods of securing land and
entering upon its operation. The subject also
includes the selection of the locality based on the
consideration of soil, climatic, economic, and so-
cial conditions, the choice of the individual farm,
and especially the adoption of the type of farm-
ing as determined by the local conditions and
the economic relations of all the different lines
of farm production, such as crop growing, stock
raising, and the like. It deals, further, with the
organization of the farm, consisting largely of
the coordination of the chosen lines of work
for the purpose of obtaining the most desirable
distribution of labor throughout the year and of
securing a maximum use of equipment and capi-
tal with a minimum outlay. This phase of the
farm business exacts a study of the character,
quality, and cost of equipment required and of
the distribution of the necessary capital among
the different factors of production and also takes
into account the cost of production and the
profits resulting from the various lines of work.

The most comprehensive subdivision of the
entire subject of farm management is farm
operation. This treats of the systems of opera-
jfcion as a means of conducting the farm business
and points out the advantages and disadvantages
of operation by the owner and his family, by the
employ of hired labor, and by means of tenants.
The use of the tenant system necessitates the
consideration of the kind of rent, such as cash or
share rent, and the character of the lease or con-
tract between lessor and lessee. Among the nu-
merous other topics grouped under farm opera-
tion may be mentioned the keeping of farm
records and accounts, including the division of
the profits of the farm between labor and capital
and the determination of the comparative remu-
nerativeness of the different lines of work, the
direction of all forms of labor, the care and
maintenance of equipment, the grading of live
stock as to individual efficiency, the marketing
of the products, and other similar subjects.

Farm management as a separate branch of
agricultural science is of recent development.
In the United States strictly farm-management
investigations were first taken up by the agri-
cultural experiment station of Minnesota in
1902. Shortly after, the office of farm manage-
ment was organized in the Department of Agri-
culture, and since then the subject has received
continuous attention and has spread to many of
the agricultural institutions over the country.
Instruction in farm management is now given
in most of the State agricultural colleges, and
this development has taken place since 1905.
The office of farm management -and the experi-
ment stations have made numerous studies of
svstems of farming as followed in various sec-
tions, counties, or townships, of the capital in-
vested, the labor and other expenses of opera-
tion, the amount and value of the products, and
the net returns to the farmer and his family.
Such studies have naturally led into farm ac-
counting and estimation of the cost of produc-
tion. Numerous farm-management surveys have
been made for the purpose of studying the profits
of the individual farmer to determine the fac-
tors controlling his income. These studies have
given an analysis of the farmer's business, have
shown the relative efficiency of labor under
different farm conditions, and have resulted in
a more intimate knowledge of the detailed prac-
tices and of the limiting factors by which they
are governed and which affect their profitable-

ness. The results of this work have made it
possible to draw up plans and specifications for
the organization and administration of farms
and to meet increasing demands in that line.
For the purpose of promoting the work in the
United States the American Farm Management
Association was organized in 1911. A consider-
able literature has grown up on the subject, con-
sisting mainly of bulletins of the Department of
Agriculture and the experiment stations. Con-
sult : "What is Farm Management," Department
of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulle-
tin 259 (Washington, 1912); Warren, Farm
Management (New York, 1913) ; "Farm Man-
agement," Organisation of Research and Teach-
ing, Minnesota Experiment Station, Bulletin
tt5 (1912).

FARMER, HUGH (1714-87). An English In-
dependent clergyman, born in St. Chad, Shrews-
bury (Shropshire). He was a pupil of Dr.
Philip Doddridge and from 1739 until 1780 was
pastor of a church at Walthamstow, London,
From 1761 to 1772 he was also afternoon
preacher at Salters's Hall, and from 1762 to 1780
a preacher at the Tuesday morning "merchants5
lecture." His reputation as a pulpit expositor
was high. As a writer, he was considerably in
advance of the theology of his time, although he
never clearly defined his own position. His pub-
lications include An Inquiry into the Nature and
Design of Christ's Temptation in the Wilderness
(1761; 5th ed., 1822) and An Essay on the De-
moniacs of the Neio Testament (1775; 4th ed.,
called the 3d, 1818). The former argued that
the temptation of our Lord was a divine vision
and therefore subjective; the latter, that de-
moniacs were merely afflicted by certain diseases.
Consult Dodson, Memoirs of the Life and Writ-
ings of the Reverend Hugh Farmer (London.
1804).

PABMEIt, JOHN (1789-1838). An American
historian and genealogist, born at Chelriisford,
Mass. He was a founder of the New Hampshire
Historical Society. Besides editing the first
volume of Belknap's History of New Hampshire
(1831), he published a valuable Genealogical
Register of the First Settlers of New England
(1829); histories of Billerica and Amherst
(1806, 1820), and, in collaboration with J. B.
Moore, A Oatsetteer of New Hampshire (1823).
Consult the Memorial of John Farmer (Boston,
1884) by Le Bosquet.

FABMUIfc, JOHN BBBTLAJSTD ( 1865- ) . An
English botanist, born at Atherstone and edu-
cated at Magdalen College, Oxford. He was
fellow of Magdalen in 1889-97, demonstrator
of botany in 1887-92 and assistant professor
of biology in 1892-95 at Oxford, and then
became professor of botany in the (London)
Imperial College of Science and Technology. He
was an editor of the Annals of Botany and wrote
particularly on cytology.

FAK/MEE,7 MOSES GEERISH (1820-92). An
American inventor and electrician. He was born
in Boscawen (now Webster), N. H., and was
educated at Andover, N". H. His early inven-
tions included a new kind of window shade and
paper curtain, and by means of machinery he
was able to supply the extraordinary demand
for them that soon arose. Becoming interested
in electrical science he invented an electromag-
netic engine and electrical locomotive. He de-
vised the municipal fire alarm which was
adopted by the city of Boston and very quickly
by other cities all over the country. (See FIBE

FABMBE

377

ALABM.) He moved to Salem in 1848, and be-
came superintendent of the telegraph line from
Boston to Burlington, Vt., inventing many im-
provements in telegraphy, among them a quad-
ruple system by which four messages were sent
simultaneously over the same wire. In 1852 he
invented an electrical cooking stove. In 1855 he
succeeded in electrically depositing aluminium
and constructed for the Dudley Astronomical
Observatory in Albany a chronograph and elec-
trical clock. In 1850 he made an electric gyro-
scope so as to run continuously at uniform speed,
and read a paper on multiplex telegraphy before
the American Association for the Advancement
of Science. In 1859 he lighted his parlor in
Salem with an incandescent electric lamp, de-
ciding, however, that a galvanic battery could
not be used as a source of electric lighting.
From 1864 to 1868 he experimented with alloys,
and coated iron and steel wire with copper in.
order to combine great tensile strength with
high conductivity. In 1868 he had a dynamo
made with which lie lighted 40 incandescent
lamps in multiple arrangement. In 1872 he
was appointed electrician to the United States
Torpedo Station at Newport, but resigned on
account of paralysis in 1881. On July 26, 1897,
on the fiftieth anniversary of the exhibition at
Dover, N. H., by Farmer of the first operative
electric railway, the general meeting of the
American Institute of Electrical Engineers was
hold at Eliot, Me. Here are preserved Farmer's
workshop and notebooks, and here the inventor
lies buried. Consult Dolboar, "Mosos Gr. Farmer
as an Electrical Pioneer," in Electricity (Nc<v
York, 1894).

FARMER, RIOIIABD (1735-97). An English
scholar and author, born at Leicester (Leicester-
shire). He graduated in 1757 at Emmanuel Col-
lege, Cambridge, in 1760 became classical tutor
of the college, and in 1775 its master. In
1778 he was elected principal librarian of the
university, and in 1788 was appointed by Pitt
to a residentiary prebend in St. Paul's, Lon-
don. He was an intimate friend of Dr. John-
son, whom he met upon the occasion of the
latter's visit to Cambridge in 1765, and of
whose Literary Club he was a member. As
the head of Emmanuel College, he was markedly
successful, and for years he was the most in-
fluential person at Cambridge. In 1775 ho be-
came vice chancellor of the university. He is
described as eccentric to a degree and supremely
indolent. His only published work is the Essay
on the Learning of Shakespeare (1767), a
scholarly and most valuable demonstration of
the fact that the poet's knowledge of Latin,
Greek, French, Italian, and Spanish literatures
was derived from English translations and refer-
ences. This famous commentary has remained
unsurpassed in its field. Farmer was elected a
fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London in
1763, and twice declined a bishopric proffered
him as a recognition of his stout Toryism. Con-
sult Nichols, fAterary Anecdotes of the Eight-
eenth Century, vol. ii (London, 1812-15).

FARMER GKEORGKE. A popular name given
to Gteorge ITT of England because of his dress,
manners, and habits. He is said to have kept a
farm for the small profit rather than for pleas-
ure.

FARMERS' ALLIANCE. A political party

in the United States, which became of national

importance in 1800, especially in the South and

West. The movement originated as far 'back as

VOL. VIII.— 25

1873 and after the decline of the Grange (q.v.)
succeeded it in importance and, in general, in
principles also. It was especially strong in
Texas, and kindred societies grew up in other
States, such as the Wheel in Arkansas, founded
in 1882, and the Farmers' Union in Louisiana.
In 1887 a national alliance was formed out of
several State societies, and its political character
soon became marked. Meetings were held in
1888 and in 1889, and at the latter a platform
of principles was agreed upon by the Alliance
and the Knights of Labor, and the name became
National Farmers' Alliance and Industrial
Union. The platform demanded tha abolition of
national banks, increased issues of legal-tender
greenbacks, laws against dealings in futures of
agricultural and mechanical products, free and
unlimited coinage of silver, and government
ownership of all means of transportation and
intercourse. In the South the Alliance de-
manded the establishment by the government of
subtreasury warehouses where farmers could de-
posit their products and receive currency in
exchange, and also the opportunity to borrow
money from the government at nominal interest.
In the campaign of 1890 the Alliance in the
South did not put forth separate candidates,
but dictated the nominations of the Democratic
party, especially in South Carolina. In the
West there were separate nominations. The
election gave the Alliance the control of the
legislatures of Kansas and Nebraska, and the
balance of power in Illinois, Minnesota, and
South Dakota. It sent nine men to the House
of Representatives, and Senators from Kansas,
South Dakota, and South Carolina, but the
latter was called a Democrat In 1892 the or-
ganization united with other elements and
formed the Populist party (q.v.), nominating a
President. This was not done without a split
in the Alliance, however, most of the Southern
members refusing to leave their old political
connections. The new party continued the de-
mand for the subtreasury scheme, free silver,
more greenbacks, and public ownership of means
of communication and transportation, The
Alliance ceased to be a political party, but con-
tinued as an agricultural organization. United
with several similar organizations into a
Farmers' National Congress, in 1914 it repre-
sented something over 3,000,000 farmers. It
urged Federal aid for inland communications, a
head tax and illiteracy test for immigration,
protection for cooperative enterprises, and op-
posed ship subsidies, free distribution of seed,
and interstate liquor traffic into dry territory.
See Woodburn, Political Parties (2d ed., New
York, 1914).

FARMER'S ALLMXNAX, XHB. An annual
publication, from 1809 to 1880, by Josh Billings
(Henry Shaw). It parodied the old Farmers'
Almanac and became very popular. Its sales
reached several hundred thousand copies.

FARMER'S BOY, THE. A famous poem by
Robert Bloomfield, published in 1800.

FARMERS-GENERAL (Fr. fermiers-gent-
rawa). The name given, to the members of a
privileged association in France, who farmed or
leased the public revenue of the nation under the
old regime. This peculiar system of tax gather-
ing dated from the early fourteenth century,
when the gaMle, or salt tax, was farmed out in
order to raise money for the war against Eng-
land. In time other taxes were instituted and
fanned out, until in the year 1720 there was a

PABMEBS' INSTITUTE

378

FARMERS' INSTITUTE

special administrative board formed, presided
over by one of the farmers-general or by one of
his assistants for each class of imposts. The
Minister of Finance selected the farmers-general
at Ms pleasure, but his choice was generally
influenced by bribes (pot-de-vvn) . The royal
favorites were frequently gjiven control of vari-
ous imposts in lieu of pensions. The number of
farmers-general was ordinarily 40, but shortly
before the Revolution it had risen to 60. The
annual national revenue to be collected was
fixed at a certain amount, and all returns above
this sum went into the pockets of the farmers-
general, many if not most of whom accumulated
large fortunes, though names like those of Hel-
vetius, Dupin, and Lavoisier indicate that they
were not all personally corrupt. Those in jjower
were bribed to support this corrupt and ruinous
financial system, though Turgot and Necker
sought to change it. The constitution of 1791 did
away with the farming of the revenues, while
the Revolutionary Tribunal sent many of the ex-
farmers-general to the guillotine. Consult: C.
Gomel, Lea causes finanoiercs de la r6i>otution
frangaise (2 vols., Paris, 1892-93) ; R. Stourm,
Les finances de Vancicn regime et de la r6volu-
tion (2 vols., ib., 1885) ; De Nervo, Les finances
frangaises sous I'anoienne monarchic, etc. (ib.,
1863); Lemoine, Les derniers fermiers-gene'raijix
(ib., 1873) ; Vuitry, Etudes sur la regime finan-
cier de la France avant le revolution de 1789
(ib., 1883); Bouchard, Systeme financier de
I'ancienne monarchic (ib., 1891) ; Tocqueville,
France before the Revolution of 1789 (Eng.
trans., London, 1888) ; Taine, The Ancient
Regime (Eng. trans., ib., 1876); Lowell, The
Eve of the French Revolution (Boston, 1892).

FARMERS' INSTITUTE. A meeting of
farmers for mutual improvement in their busi-
ness or home life. These meetings have grown
out of the public meetings held at a compara-
tively early day in the United States under the
auspices of local or State agricultural societies.
The institutes are carried on under varied aus-
pices and are supported in very different ways in
different sections, but the character of the, meet-
ings themselves is essentially the same every-
where. They may last but half a day, as in
Louisiana, where the farmers assemble once a
month at the experiment stations, or may con-
tinue three or four days. The winter, when the
stress of farm work is somewhat lessened, is the
season usually favored; but in some States very
successful meetings have been held at other
seasons of the year.

In practically all the States and Canada the
farmers' institutes are now organized, with a
director or other officer in charge, and enjoy
State appropriation. They are commonly under
the management of the agricultural colleges.
Great improvement in these meetings has been
made in recent years, and they are no longer
experience meetings or for political purposes,
but are in the hands of capable speakers.
The programmes are planned to promote the
interchange of ideas, a full and free discussion
* being sought upon topics introduced in an ad-
dress or paper by some specialist. Officers of agri-
cultural colleges and experiment stations, and
other experts, as well as successful farmers who
have attained more than local reputation, are
usually selected as institute workers by those
who have charge of the system of institutes for
the State. These workers may also be chosen by
the local authorities from lista of such workers

prepared by a central bureau. The local com-
mittee invites successful farmers of the neigh-
boring districts to explain their methods, pro-
vides music and literary or other general exer-
cises, and arranges for the place of meeting,
refreshments, and advertising. A "question box"
is frequently made use of, answers being given
by the conductor of the institute, or by some one
specially fitted to supply the information asked
for. For the evening sessions the usual plan is
to have a popular lecture upon some subject of
general agricultural interest. This address is
made somewhat more elaborate and complete
than those of the day sessions, and less oppor-
tunity is given for discussion.

While the character of the institutes is such
as to make it impossible to assign any definite
date as the time of their differentiation from
other farmers' assemblies, yet the period follow-
ing the organization of the agricultural colleges
under the Merrill Act of 1862 seems to have been
the time when the farmers' institutes took a dis-
tinct form and under that name began to receive
the patronage of the States. Thus, in 1862 the
Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture held a
public meeting of four days' duration, and in
1366 the Connecticut State Board of Agriculture
held its first farmers' convention for lectures and
discussion. In 1870 the newly organized State
Board of Agriculture of New Hampshire began a
series of farmers' meetings, and in the following
year Vermont followed this example. During the
same year the Massachusetts board requested the
29 agricultural socieites of the State to organize
annual meetings, to be denominated the "Farm-
ers' Institutes of Massachusetts," and several so-
cieties began at once to hold such meetings.
About the same time institutes were inaugurated
in Iowa, Kansas, and Michigan by the agricul-
tural colleges of those States. Other States soon
joined the movement, and legislatures began to
make appropriations to maintain the institutes.
In 1885, when the board of regents of the Uni-
versity of Wisconsin organized a course of in-
stitutes, a special officer, called the superintend-
ent of farmers' institutes, was appointed to
plan and manage them, and this arrangement
was afterward confirmed by the State.

Recent advancements under the head of
farmers' institutes are the movable school that
offers short courses of instruction to farmers
and farm women, the young peoples' institutes,
and courses of instruction adapted to corre-
spondence teaching. The United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture has collected publications
and other materials for the use of farmers'
institute workers and has prepared lectures
illustrated by lantern slides, which are loaned
to speakers or to institute organizations. In
Canada the system is also highly developed. In
1913 a total of 7926 regular institutes were held
in the United States, representing an aggregate
of 10,578 days. In addition to the re^Oar in-
stitutes there were 187 movable schools, 25
educational trains, nearly 800 independent in-
stitutes, and 66 "round-up" institutes. It is
estimated that the total attendance at these
various gatherings was practically 4,000,000
people. The funds available for farmers' insti-
tutes in the various States amounted to $510,-
784. In the past 10 years there has been an in-
crease of 115 per cent in the number of sessions
held, an increase of over 300 per cent in attend-
ance, and an increase of 175 per cent in appro-
priations., The interests of the institutes are pro-

FABMER'S LETTERS

379

FAHNELL

moted by the American Association of Farmers'
Institute Workers, and by the Office of Experi-
ment Stations of the United States Department
of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Consult:
J. Hamilton, "History of Fanners' Institutes in
the United States," United States Department
of Agriculture, Office of Experimental Stations,
Bulletin 174; J. Hamilton, "Legislation Relating
to Farmers' Institutes," Bulletin 241; and
"Farmers' Institute and Agricultural Extension
Work in the United States in 1913," United
Elates Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 88.

FARMER'S LETTERS. A series of twelve
letters, ostensibly by a farmer, which appeared
in 1767. Their author was soon discovered in
John Dickinson, a prominent Pennsylvanian.
They were political tracts, denouncing the taxa-
tion of the Colonies by Parliament without their
consent, and had great influence in shaping pub-
lic opinion.

FARMING-. See AGRICULTURE.

EARM'TKrOTON. A borough in Hartford Co.,
Conn., 9 miles west of Hartford, on the New
York, New Haven, and Hartford Railroad (Map:
Conn., D 3). It is situated in a farming and
fruit-growing district. The borough contains
Sarah Porter's Seminary for Young Ladies.
Pop., 3900, 3331; 1910, 3478.

FARMING-TON*. A town and the county
seat of Franklin Co., Me., 47 miles north of
Lewiston, on the, Maine Central and the Sandy
River railroads (Map: Maine, B 4). It has the
Farmington State Normal School and the Abbott
School for Boys and a public library. Among
the industrial establishments are macnine shops,
lumber and grist mills, wood-turning shops,
carriage works, and canning factories. The
water works are municipally owned. Pop., 1900,
3288; 1910, 3310.

FARmNGKTON. A city and the county
seat of St. Frangois Co., Mo., 38 miles (direct)
south by west of St. Louis, on the St. Louis,
Iron Mountain, and Southern and the Cape Gi-
rardcau Northern railroads (Map: Missouri, F
4). Carleton Institute (M. E.), Elmwood Sem-
inary (girls), and a State insane asylum arc
situated here. It is the centre of a productive
lead-mining region and has carriage and wagon
works, lumber mills, machine shops, flouring
mills, etc. The water works and electric-light
plant are owned by the city. Pop., 1900, 1778;
1910, 2613.

FARM'VILLE. A town and the county seat
of Prince Edward Co., Va., 53 miles (direct)
west-southwest of Richmond, on the Appomattox
River, and on the Norfolk and Western and the
Tidewater and Western railroads (Map: Vir-
ginia, F 4). The State Female Normal School,
established in 1884, is situated here, and in the
vicinity is the Hampden Sidney College for
Young Men. Farmville is in a fertile agricul-
tural region, is an important tobacco-manufac-
turing centre, and has medicinal springs. There
are plow-handle and overall factories and a
creamery. The water works and electric-light
plant are owned by the town. Pop., 1910, 2971.

FAR'NABY, or FARNABIE, THOMAS
(c.1575-1647). An English schoolmaster and
classical scholar, born in London and educated
at Oxford. He was converted to Catholicism,
and received a further classical training at a
Jesuit college in Spain. He was the companion
of Sir. Francis Brake and John Hawkins on
their last voyage, was engaged in military serv-
ice in the Low Countries, and finally became

established at Martock, Somersetshire, where he
opened a school which subsequently was removed
to London, and there enjoyed the patronage of
the aristocracy and was attended by more than
300 pupils. Many eminent clergymen and states-
men received their education here, and before
1629 the school had acquired a European reputa-
tion. Upon the outbreak of the plague in 1636
it was removed to Otford, an estate which
Farnaby had bought in Kent. The publications.
of, Farnaby include annotated editions of
many Latin authors—Juvenal, Persius, Seneca
(the tragedies), Martial, Lucan, Ovid, Vergil,
Terence, all long popular — and a Systema Gram-
mat icum (1641), or Latin grammar, written at
the request of Charles I and designed to replace
the one previously in use in the public schools.

FAR/NAM, HENEY WALCOTT (1853- ).
An American economist, born at New Haven,
Conn. He graduated from Yale (A.B., 1874;
A.M., 1876) and studied at Berlin, Gttttingen,
and Strassburg (R.PJX, 1878) universities.
After two years as tutor he became professor
of political economy at Yale College in 1880;
from 1881 to 1903 he also held the corresponding
chair at Sheffield Scientific School (Yale). In
1914-15 he was Roosevelt professor at the Uni-
versity of Berlin. He was associate editor of
the Tale Review from 1892 to 1911, when he
joined the staff of the Economic Review; chair-
man of the New Haven Civil Service Board
(1898-99) and of the State Commission of
Sculpture (1887-1909), and in 1903 became
collaborator and in 1909 chairman of the depart-
ment of economics and sociology in the Carnegie
Institution. He was president of the Connecti-
cut Civil Service Reform Association after 1901,
of the American Association for Labor Legisla-
tion in 1907-10, and of the American Economic
Association in 1910-11, and in 1909 became a
vice president of the American Statistical Asso-
ciation. He published The Economic Utiliza-
tion of History (1913).

FAROTOROUCra, farn'bur-a. A town in
Hampshire, England, on the Blackwater, near
the Basingstoke Canal, about 33 miles southwest
of London. It is famous for its strawberry gar-
dens, cultivated for the London market In the
neighborhood is Farnborough Hill, long the resi-
dence of ex-Empress Eug&ie, with the mauso-
leum containing the tombs of Napoleon III and
the Prince Imperial. Farnborough is one of
the stations for Aldershot Camp. The main
depot of the British Royal Aircraft factory, in
connection with the Royal Flying Corps, is at
Farnborough. Pop., 1901, 11,500; 1911, 14,199.

PARK-BOROUGH, LoB0. Sec MAY, T. E.

FARNE, farn, FEARNE, or FERN ISLES,
or THE STAPLES. A group of 17 islets and rocks,
some of which are visible only at low tide, 2 to 6
miles off the northeast coast of Northumberland,
opposite Bamborough, England (Map: England,
El). The largest island, Farne, or House, has
an area of about 16 acres and is separated from
the coast by the Fairway, 1% miles broad.
Here are the ruins of a chapel believed to mark
the site of the hermitage of St. Cuthbert, who
lived here for two years and returned here to
die. Longstone Rock and its lighthouse are
famous as the scene of Grace Darling's heroism
in 1838, when the Forfarskvre was wrecked.
There are two lighthouses,

PAR'NELL, LEWIS RIOHABD (1856- ).
An English archaeologist and writer on religion.
He was born in Salisbury; studied at the City

of London School and at Exeter College, Oxford,
of which lie became fellow, in 1880, classical lec-
turer in 18S3, subrector in 1884, and senior
tutor in 1893; and was University lecturer in
classical archaeology, the first Wilde lecturer in
comparative religion (1909), and Hibbert lec-
turer in 1911. His important studies on reli
gion, especially Greek, include the epoch-making
Cults of the Greek States (5 vols., 1896-1909),
The Evolution of Religion (1905), and Greece
and Babylon (1911).

PATftNESE, far-n5/sa. The name of an illus-
trious Italian family, first mentioned in the
middle of the thirteenth century, when it pos-
sessed the castle of Farneto, near Orvieto. The
power of the family dates from the time of
Pope Alexander VI, who was the lover of Giulia
Farnese and alienated many of the lands belong-
ing to the holy see for her benefit. In 1534 Car-
dinal Aleasandro Farnese was raised to the papal
throne as Paul III (q.v.), and as his great aim
was the aggrandizement of his family, he erected
Parma and Piacenza into a duchy, which he be-
stowed on his natural son, PIETBO LUIGI. Pie-
tro was assassinated in 1547 by the nobles and
imperialists whom he had opposed, and was sue-,
c<»eded by his son OITAVIO (1520-86), who mar-
ried Margaret of Austria, a natural daughter of
Charles V, and the greater part of whose reign
was both peaceful and prosperous. — ALESSANDRQ
FABNESE, Prince of Parma and Spanish Gov-
ernor in the Netherlands, was the son of Ottavio
and was bora in 1547. After being educated at
the royal court at Madrid, he entered the Span-
ish service, made his first campaign under his
uncle, Don Juan of Austria, and distinguished
himself at the battle of Lepanto in the year
1571. In 1577 he was sent with reinforcements,
to Don Juan in the Low Countries, then in a
state of insurrection, and contributed to the vic-
tory at Gembloux, Jan. 31, 1578. He was next
made Governor of the Spanish Netherlands by
Philip II and carried on the war against the
Prince of Orange. By skillful diplomacy more
even than by his military talents Farnese suc-
ceeded in winning back the Walloon provinces
and several important towns. The assassination
of William the Silent in 1584 aided his cause,
and in 1585 he was able to reduce Antwerp after
a memorable siege; but the project of the Ar-
mada (q.v.) interfered with his conquests in the
Low Countries, and the ill success of the expedi-
tion against England, in which he had been given
the command of the troops destined for the inva-
sion of that country, grieved him the more from
the contrast it presented to Ms former good
fortune. In 1590 he was dispatched to the as-
sistance of the Catholics in France and compelled
Henry IV to raise the siege of Paris. Being,
however, ill supplied with provisions and money
and insufficiently supported by the League, he was
forced to yield to the superior power of Henry
TV and withdrew his forces. In 1591 he was
once more forced to relinquish the conquest of
the Netherlands and embark on a French cam-
paign. After raising the sicgo of Rouen lie was
again compelled to withdraw. Returning, in spite
of shattered health, in 1592, he died suddenly at
Arras, December 2. Alexander Farnese was one
of the great generals of his age and, though
severe in his discipline, was almost worshiped
by his soldiery.— RANTJOCIO (1569-1622), Ms
son and successor in the Duchy of Parma, was
sombre, greedy, and proud. He was succeeded
by his second son, ODOABDO (161&-46), a prince

remarkable for the elegance of his manners, his
magnificence, magnanimity, and liberality. —
ELIZABETH FABNESE (1692-1766), the daughter
of Odoardo II, married, in 1714, Philip V of
Spain. Of a domineering and ambitious nature,
she completely ruled the King. She involved Al-
beroni (q.v.) in her aggressive policy, the object
of which was to establish her sons, Carlos and
Philip, over principalities in Italy. The male
line of the Farnese family became extinct in the
person of Antonio, who died in 1731.

The name of the Farnese family is connected
with several celebrated palaces and works of
art. The principal ones are: 1. The Farnese
Palace at Rome, one of the finest specimens
of Roman Renaissance architecture and one of
the finest palaces in Rome, erected by Pope
Paul III before his accession to the holy see,
after the designs of Antonio da Sangallo. It
is in the form of a quadrangle and was com-
pleted by Michelangelo. The antique sculptures
for which it was formerly renowned are now in
the museum at Naples; a few classic works, how-
ever, are still to be seen in the great hall. 2.
The Farnesina (or Villa Farnese), a magnificent
palace in Trastevere, Rome. It owes its celebrity
chiefly to the frescoes of Raphael; but it also
contains frescoes by Peruzzi and Sebastian del
Piombo, and a colossal head in chiaroscuro, at-
tributed to Michelangelo. 3. The Farnese Bull
is the name given to a colossal group attributed
to Apollonius and Tauriscus of Tralles, in Asia
Minor, who probably belonged to the Rhodian
school and lived about 300 B.C. The group rep-
resents Dirce bound to the horns of a bull by
Zethus and Amphion, for ill usage of their
mother, Antiope. Pliny mentions the trans-
ference of the group to Rome, where it first
adorned the library of Asinius Pollio and after-
ward the baths of Caracalla. It was discovered
in the year 1540, restored by Bianchi, and placed
in the Farnese Palace. 4. The Farnese Hercules,
copied by Glycon from an original by Lysippua.
It exhibits the hero, exhausted by toil, leaning
upon his club, the head inclined, the expression
melancholy; one hand is held behind his back,
grasping the apples of the Ilespcrides.

For the early history of the Farnese family
and their part in the Renaissance, consult: Sy-
monds. The Renaissance in Italy (7 vols., Lon-
don, 1875-86); Gregorovius, Geschichte der
Stadt Rom (Stuttgart, 1886-96; Bng. trans.,
London, 1894-1000) ; also the works of Muratori
and of the Italian biographer Strada. For Ales-
sandro Farnese, the accounts given in Mot-
ley, Rise of the Dutch Republic, and id., The
United Netherlands; Blok, Geschiednis von het
nederlandsche Volk (GrBningen, 1892-99; Eng.
trans., New York, 1898-1900); Pietro, Alessan-
dro Farnese, duca di Parma (Rome, 1886) ;
Gachard, Correspondence d'Ale&andre Parnese
avec Philippe II, 1578-79 (Brussels, 1853). For
the history of the dukes or princes of Parma,
ScarabelH, Storia civile dei ducati di Parma
(Piacenza, 1858) ; Pezzano, Stor-ia delta citta d4
Parma (Parma, 1837-59) ; Marq. de St.-Philippe,
Afemoires pour sermr d I'histoire d'Espagne sous
le regne de Philippe V (Paris, 1756); Memovra
of Elizabeth Famese (London, 1796); Lita,
Famiglie celebri Italiane (Milan, 1868); Von
Reumont, Geschichte der Stadt Rom (Berlin,
1868) ; Lottice and Sitti, Silliografia generale
per la scoria parmense (Parma, 1904). For
Elizabeth Farnese, Armstrong, Elizabeth Par-
neset the Termagant of Spain (London, 1&92).

FARM-BSE HERCULES 3

FARHTESE HERCULES. A statue of Her-
cules, which is now in the Naples Museum. It
got its name from the Farnese family, in whose
possession H was for some time after its excava-
tion at the baths of Caracalla. It dates from
the first century B.C., and is an imitation, by the
Athenian sculptor Glycon, of one of the bronzes
by Lysippus. The statue shows Hercules lean-
ing on his club in an attitude of exhaustion and
holding the apples of the Hespcrides behind
him in his right hand. The muscles of the back
and arms are enormous; the legs are too long,
and the head unduly small, the whole effect of
the statue being one of exaggeration common
to this period of declining Greek art.

FARNESE JUNO. A colossal head of Hera
in the National Museum at Naples, the copy of
a bronze original of austere and majestic mien.
The head surpasses all like conceptions of the
goddess and gives a clear idea of the ideal of
Polyclitus (q.v.).

FARWE'SIAIT BULL. A group of sculpture
by the brothers Apollonius and TauriscuB of
Tralles, who flourished in the second century
B.C. The subject is based on the legend which
tells how Antiope, a slave of Dirce, was to be
bound to the horns of a wild bull by order of her
mistress. She fled to her sons, who seized Dirce
herself and bound her to the bull. The arrange-
ment of the group shows Zethus and Amphion,
the sons, in this act, while their victim, who
lies on the ground, vainly entreats mercy, and
Antiope stands motionless in the background.
The statue was taken from Rhodes to Rome,
was there lost for several centuries, them found
in the baths of Caracalla, and sent in 1786 from
the Favnesc Palace to the Museum at Naples.
Excepting the Laocoiin (q.v.), this is the most
important surviving work of the sculpture of
the Rhodian school, of which it is a typical ex-
ample, in exaggerated sentiment as well as in
ostentatious display of technical skill.

FARNESOL, far/n6-s5l or -sol. A liquid al-
cohol contained in quassia, palmarosa, and
Javanese cananga oils and in Peru and tolu
halnama. It is nearly as heavy as water and can
be distilled under greatly reduced pressure.

FARNHAM, farn'um. A market town of
Surrey, England, on the left bank of the Wey,
about 37 miles southwest by west of London
(Map: England, F 5), The principal feature is
tho stately old castlo of the bishops of Win-
chester, first built by Henri de Blois, Bishop of
WinclicHter, brother of King Stephen. The castle
was razed by Henry III, rebuilt and garrisoned
by Charles I, and restored in 1084 to its present
state by Bishop Morlcy. A new town hall was
erected in 1606. Some parts of the Gothic parish
church were built in tho twelfth, fifteenth, and
sixteenth centuries. The edifice was originally
a chapel of case to Waverlcy Abbey, founded in
1128. The Annalea Wavcrliensis, included by
Gale in his 8criptorc$, are said to have sug-
gested to Sir Walter Scott the name of his first
novel. The town owns its water worku and
electric-lighting plant. The chie.f trade fa in
hops, a very fine variety of which is grown in
the vicinity, William Oobbett was born and
buried here, and it was tho home of Hester
Johnson, Swift's "Stella," The vicinity of Alder-
shot Camp, 3 miles northeast of Farnham, has
increased the activity of the town. Farnham
had belonged to tho bishops of Winchester since
Ethelbald of Wessox bestowed it on them in
860. Top., 1001, 61B4; 1011, 7365.

5i FABNUM

FARNHAM, or WEST FAHNHAM. A town of
Missisquoi Co., Quebec, Canada, at the conflu-
ence of the two main branches of the Yamaska
River, 43 miles by rail east-southeast of Mont-
real, on the Canadian Pacific and the Vermont
Central railroads (Map: Quebec, F 5). The
Canadian Pacific Railway forms a junction here
with various branch lines. Farnham has fine
public buildings, including a spacious railway
station. It contains a Eoraan Catholic college
and convent and a hospital. Divisional shops of
the Canadian Pacific Railway are located here.
The industries include butter and cheese facto-
ries, builders' factories, a saw and a grist mill,
tannery, furniture factory, tobacco factory, safe
factory, machine shop, marble works, and sash
and door factories. Pop., 1901, 3114; 1911,
3560.

FAR3THAM, ELIZA WOODSON BUBIIANS
(1815-64). An American philanthropist and
author. She was born in Rensselaerville, N. Y.,
and married Thomas Jefferson Farnham the
traveler. From 1844 to 1848 she was matron of
the Sing Sing State prison. While there, she
sought with much success to prove it possible to
govern such an institution by kindness only.
She published Life in Prairie Land (1846). In
1848 she was connected with the management of
the Boston Institution for the Blind and some
years later organized a society to aid and protect
destitute women in emigration to the West. Her
further publications include: California Indoor
and Out: or, How we Farm, J/iwe, and Live
Generally in the Golden State (1850) ; My Early
Days (1850), and her most important work,
Woman, and her Era (1804).

PARBTHAM, RALPH (1750-1861). A soldier
in the American Revolution, the last survivor
of the battle of Bunker Hill. He was born
in Lebanon, Mo., and was the first white settler
at Acton, Me., where he died at the age of 104
years, 9 months, and 19 days. In October, 1800,
he was invited to Boston, where a public concert
was given in his honor in Treraont Temple.

FAJftNHAM, ROSWELL (1827-1903). An
American lawyer and governor. He was born in
Boston, Mass., and graduated at the University
of Vermont in 1840. He taught school for
several years, studied law, and was admitted to
the bar in 1857. After serving in tho Civil War
as captain and colonel in a Vermont regiment,
he was elected as a Republican to the State
Senate in 1808. He was Governor of Vermont
from 1880 to 1882.

FAR'NTJM, DUSTIN (1870- ). An Amer-
ican actor, born at Hampton Beach, N. H. He
first appeared in 1897 with the Ethel Tucker
Company in The Hidden Hand. After spending
18 months with Margaret Mather's company and
two seasons with Chauncey Olcott, ho played
the part of Lieutenant Denton in Aristona, the
title role in the Virginian (1904), and appeared
as Captain Esmond in TJie Ranger (1907) and
as Dr. Prince in The Rector's Garden (1908).
He toured in The Squaw Man in 1909, played In
The Littlest Rebel in 1911, and reappeared in
Arissona in 1913.

TARNUM, WILLIAM (1876- ). An
American actor, brother of Dustin Farnum, born
in Boston. He made his de*but at Richmond,
Va., in Jvlitos Omar, then played in 'a stock
company at Boston, and toured with Margaret
Mather and Olga Nethersole. His success in
Ben ;Ht*r and The Prince of India (1907) was
noteworthy, Ho. placed in Soritty and' T

FABBAND

384

EABBELL

instructor in psychology at Columbia Univer-
sity, in 1901 adjunct professor of that subject,
and in 1903 professor of anthropology. He was
secretary of the American Psychological Asso-
ciation from 1895 to 1904 and president of the
American Folk-Lore Society in 1903. His writ-
ings treat principally of the anthropology of
American Indians.

PABBAND, MAX (1869- ), An Ameri-
can university professor and writer on historical
subjects, born at Newark, N. J., brother of Liv-
ingston Farrand. He graduated from Princeton
(A.B., 1892; Ph.D., 1896). Between 1896 and
1901 he was instructor, associate professor, and
professor of history at Wesleyan University and
between 1901 and 1908 professor at Leland Stan-
ford Junior University. He spent one year
(1905-06) as acting professor at Cornell, and
in 1908 he became professor of history at Yale.
Besides contributions to historical periodicals,
his publications include: Legislation of Congress
for the Government of the Organised Territories
of the United States, 1789-1895 (1898) ; Trans-
lation of Jellinek's Declaration of tlic Rights of
Man and of Citizens (1901) ; Records of Federal
Convention of 1787 (3 vols., 1911) ; The Fram-
mg of the Constitution of the United States
(1913).

tfABBAB, EDOAE HOWABD (1849-1922).
An American lawyer, born in Concordia Parish,
La. He was educated at the universities of Vir-
ginia (A.M., 1871) and Louisiana, was admitted
to the bar in 1872, and served as assistant cor-
poration counsel and corporation counsel (1878-
80). As a reformer, he actively promoted better
municipal government for New Orleans, aided in
the prosecution of the Mafia assassins, and had
charge of the campaign which resulted in the
defeat of the proposed extension of the charter
of the Louisiana Lottery. He also took an ac-
tive part in national Democratic politics. In
1882 he became one of the trustees of the funds
used to found Tulane University. In 1906-08
he was president of the Louisiana Tax Commis-
sion and in 1910-11 president of the American
Bar Association.

FAB/BAB, ELIZA. WAEE (ROTOH) (1791-
1870). An American author. She was born in
Flanders, while her parents were traveling in
Europe, and was educated in England, where
she lived until 1819. She became well known
as the author of The Children's Robinson Crusoe,
The Story of Lafayette, and The Life of Howard.
The Young Lady's Friend (1837) also was ex-
ceedingly popular. Her later years were spent
in Springfield, Mass. She married Prof. John
Farrar of Harvard College.

FABBAB, FREDERIC WILLIAM (1831-1903).
A distinguished English clergyman, born at
Bombay, India. He studied at the University of
London and at Trinity College, Cambridge, was
ordained deacon in 1854 and priest in 1857.
For 15 years from 1855 he was an assistant
master at Harrow and from 1871 to 1876 was
head master of Marlborough College. In 1876
he was appointed a canon of Westminster Abbey
and rector of St. Margaret's. He became Arch-
deacon of Westminster in 1883, chaplain of the
House of Commons in 1890, and dean of Canter-
bury in 1895. He was Hulsean lecturer at Cam-
bridge in 1870, Bampton lecturer at Oxford in
1885, and in the latter year visited the United
States. A popular figure among the English
clergy, he was prominently connected with nu-
merous philanthropic enterprises. His literary

work, extensive and varied, includes volumes of
fiction, philological and theological studies, com-
mentaries, biography, history, and didactic trea-
tises, many of which grained a wide circulation.
From a long list of titles may be cited: Eric
(1858) ; A Lecture on Public School Education
(1867) ; Essays on a Liberal Education. (2d ed.,
(1868) ; Seekers after God (1869) ; The Witness
of History to Christ (1871), the Hulsean Lec-
tures for 1870; a much-read Life of Christ (2
vols., 1874; 12th ed. in the same year) ; a Life
of St. Paul (1879) ; The Early Days of Chris-
tianity (2 vols., 1882); Eternal Hope (1878;
new ed., 1914), in refutation of the extreme doc-
trine of eternal punishment; DarJtness and
Dawn, a story of Nero's time; The Bible: its
Meaning and Supremacy (1897), an investiga-
tion of the subject of inspiration; The Life of
Isives (1899). Consult Farrar, Life of F. W.
Farrar (New York, 1904).

FABBAB, far'ar, GERALDINE (1882- ).
An American dramatic soprano, born in Melrose,
Mass. She began her musical studies with Mrs.
J. H. Long in Boston, from whom she went to
Madame Thursby in New York. After further
study with Trabadello in Paris and Lilli Leh-
mann in Berlin, she made her d6but with almost
sensational success as Marguerite in Gounod's
Faust in Berlin at the Royal Opera, Oct. 15,
1901. A three-year contract was immediately
offered her, and soon she was one of the prime
favorites of the Berlin public. In 1906 she
appeared as one of the leading sopranos of the
Metropolitan Opera House of New York, and has
since then been a regular member of the com-
pany. In several of the novelties she created
the leading r61e. Her voice is a powerful so-
prano of rare beauty, although not <juitc flawless
in coloratura passages. But for this one short-
coming sho atones bjr her remarkable histrionic
talent and subtle facial expression.

FABBE, far, JEAN JOSEPH FR£D£RIC ALBERT
(1816-87). A French general, born at Valence
(Drome). He commanded the pioneer corps in
the army of occupation at Rome in 1859. Upon
the outbreak of the Franco-German War he was
director of the fortifications of Arras and after
the downfall of the Empire organized the force
in the northern department, which subsequently
formed the divisions commanded by General
Bourbaki. Farre succeeded to the chief com-
mand of the three divisions of the Army of the
North on Nov. 19, 1870. Compelled to abandon
his defensive position before Amiens by General
Manfceuffel (November 27 ), he was succeeded by
General Faidherbe. In 1875 he was appointed
general of division, and in 1879 became Minister
of War, in which office he removed all prominent
officers suspected of favoring the Legitimist or
the Bonapartist cause; but hia appointments,
as well as preparations for the war against
Tunis, proved so unsatisfactory that he was
superseded (Nov. 14, 1881). In 1880 he was
elected senator for life.

FAJRORELL, JAMES A. (1863- ). An
American corporation official, born at New
Haven, Oonn. Although he began life as an
unskilled workman for the New -Haven Wire
Mills in 1878, his promotion was rapid, and soon
he became a mechanic and in 1882 a wire drawer
with the Oliver Iron Company, Pittsburgh,, Pa.
After serving this latter corporation in the
further capacities of foreman and salesman, he
became sales manager in 1889 and later .general
manager for the Pittsburgh Wire Company.

385

VABBBft

When this firm was absorbed by the American
Steel and Wire Company of New Jersey in 1899,
he was retained as foreign sales agent of the
new concern. In 1901 he took charge of the
export sales department of the United States
Steel Corporation, in 1903 he became president
of the United States Steel Products Company,
and in 1911 he was chosen to the presidency
of the Steel Trust itself. He was one of the chief
witnesses in the suit of the United States
against that corporation in 1913.

FAE/BEN, ELIZABETH (c. 1759-1 829). A
noted English actress, who became in 1797
Countess of Derby. She was the daughter
of an itinerant actor named George Farreii and
appeared upon the stage when a child. She
first appeared in London at the Haymarket in
1777, taking the part of Miss Hardcastle in She
Stoops to Conquer. In the fall of 1778 she ap-
peared at Drury Lane, where she became estab-
lished at first in tragedy and, after the departure
of Mrs. Abingdon in 1782, as leading lady in com-
edy. She is best known for her impersonations
of fine ladies in the comedy of high life. Among
her favorite parts were Clarinda in The Sus-
picious Husband, Lady Betty Modish in The
Careless Husband, Lady Emily Gayville in The
Heiress, Julia in The Rivals, and Lady Teazle
in The School for Scandal. In this last r61e she
made her final appearance April 8, 1797. She
had previously been received in aristocratic so-
ciety, and on May 1 of that year she was mar-
ried to the Earl of Derby, who had long been
devoted to her. She died at Knowsley Park,
Lancashire. Boaclon's remark upon her career is
well known, that after her retirement comedy de-
generated into farce. There is a somewhat coarse
work called Memoirs of the Present Countess of
Derby, Late Miss Barren, by "Petronius Arbiter"
(London, 1797), to which two crude responses
wore published by more friendly pens. Her
portrait, one of the earliest and best examples
of the work of Sir Thomas Lawrence, is in the
Metropolitan Museum, New York, Consult:
Genoste, History of the Stage (Bath, 1832);
Doran, Annals of the Stage, cd. by Lowe (Lon-
don, 1888); Gait, Lives of the Players (ib.,
1831) ; Lowe, in Actors and Actresses of Great
Britain and the United States, ed. by Matthews
and Hutton (New York, 1880).

TARRED WILLIAM (1786-1801). An Eng-
lish actor, famous especially for his acting of
old men's parts in high comedy. He was the son
of a prosperous actor of the same name, who
lived in London, but ho made his de"but at Ply-
mouth, under his brother's management. For
some time thereafter he lived in Dublin, till in
1818 he came to London and made his appearance
at the Covent Garden Theatre, as Sir Peter Teazle.
His Lord Ogleby, Sir Anthony Absolute, and Sir
Andrew Aguecheek followed soon after. Having
left Covent Garden in 1828, he appeared for a
number 'of years at Drury Lane, where, in addi-
tion to some of his earlier favorites, he added
the parts of Polonius, Sir Francis Gripe in The
3u&ybody, Kent in King Lear, and numerous
others. About 1840 he became one of the man-
agers of the Haymarket, where he had occasion-
ally played before, and there in 1843 he produced
his Old Parr, an extraordinary depiction of old
age. From 1850 to 1853 he was lessee of the
Olympic Theatre. His farewell appearance was
at the Haymarket in 1855. He was of distin-
guished appearance and unusual power of facial
expression; gome critics noted in him a lack of

personal sympathy, which showed itself as well
in private life. Though in his later years upon
the stage he was in feeble health, his success
in his familiar characters seems to have been
but increased. His Grandfather Whitehead was
one of the parts for which his own advance in
age as well as the practice of his art contributed
to fit him. His sons, HENRY (c.1826-60) and
WILLIAM, often referred to as Young Farren,
both became well-known actors. Consult : Lewes,
On Actors and the Art of Acting (New York,
1878) ; Cook, Hours with the Players (London,
1881) ; Marston, Our Recent Actors (ib., 1890).

FAJfRER, EDWARD (1850-1916). A Cana-
dian critic and journalist. He was born in
County Mayo, Ireland, was educated at the
Jesuit College, Stoneyhurst, England, and later
at the Jesuit College, Rome. He began to study
for the priesthood, but removed to Canada in
1870 and entered journalism as an editorial
writer on the Toronto Daily Telegraph, later
joining the editorial staff of the Toronto Mail,
the organ of the Conservative party. In succes-
sion after 1874 he was an immigration agent in
Ireland, foreign editor of the New York 'World,
editor in chief of the Toronto Mail (1882-84),
editor of the Winnipeg Times and the Sun, and
a, member of the editorial staff of the Toronto
Globe, from which he retired in 1892. Later he
lived for a time in Washington D. C., and then
went to Ottawa, Canada, in 1905, where he
became correspondent for various foreign period-
icals and also a magazine writer. According to
expert opinion no abler editorial writer than
Farrer ever appeared in the Canadian press.
His articles in 1882-84 in the Mail and later
in the O-lobe excited the strongest opposing
political and religious prejudices. He assailed
the Jesuits and the Catholic hierarchy with
great ability and, according to sonic critics, with
a maladroitness in which his early training gave
him special advantages; while in his later efforts
he aroused Loyalist anger by his support of
annexation to the United States.

FARRER, EJENBY (1844-1903). An Ameri-
can landscape painter and etcher. He was born
in London, the grandson of Thomas Farrer the
miniature painter, and was self-taught. He
came to America in 1861 and first devoted
himself to marine and landscape painting in
water color. But ho is better known by his
etchings. The best of these are views about New
York harbor, in which his treatment of sky is
very successful. His brother THOMAS CHARLES
( c.l 838- ), an English architectural and
landscape painter, was born in London and
studied in Buskin's free school. He spent some
time in the United States, where he was promi-
nent as a teacher and was one of the first
members of the American Water Color Society.
Afterward he returned permanently to London.

FARRER. THOMAS HENRY FARRER, first
BARON (181&-99). A British economist, born
in London and educated at Eton ana at Balliol
College, Oxford (B.A., 1840). Admitted to the
bar in 1844, in 1848 he entered the employment
of the Board of Trade, of whose marine .de-
partment he wad assistant secretary in 1850-
65 and secretary in "1865-86. He exerted con-
siderable influence on the commercial legislation
of his time, particularly in favor of free trade
and gold-standard currency. After retiring from
office in 1886 he devoted himself to the advo-
cacy of his economic theories. From 1889 to
1898 he was a member of the London County

3*6

Council, and in 1899 he was president of the
Cobden Club. He was made Baronet in 1883
and a peer in 1893. His writings include: Free
Trade Versus Fair Trade (1882; 4th ed., 1904) ;
The State in its Relation to Trade (1883; 2d
ed.r 1902); Studies in Currency (1898); What
is a Bounty? (1899).

FAB'BIEB (obsolete ferrier, from OF. fer-
rier, from Lat. f error iva, blacksmith, from fer-
1 um, iron). One whose occupation is that of
shoeing horses. In former times he often acted
as veterinary surgeon as well as blacksmith.
His vocation is one of the ''common callings"
and subjects him to the common-law obligation
of practicing his art on demand and of discharg-
ing it with ordinary skill. For a breach of this
obligation he is liable to an action for damages.
He has at the common law a lien on the animal
shod or treated for the labor done or expenses
incurred in the course of his employment.
FAB-TRINGTOIT, OLIVER CUMMINGS (1864-
) . An American geologist. He was born at
Brewer, Me., and was educated at the Univer-
sity of Maine (B.S., 1881; M.S., 1888) and at
Yale University (Ph.D., 1891), where he was
tutor in 1890-91. Between 1882 and 1887 he
taught science in various Maine academies, in
1893 he was an assistant in the United States
National Museum, in ]894 he became curator of
geology in the Field Museum of Natural History,
Chicago, and from 1894 to 1904 he was lecturer
on mineralogy at the University of Chicago. He
was a collaborator in mines and mineralogy at
the Paris Exposition in 1900 and a member of
the International Jury of awards at St. Louis in
1904. Besides his magazine articles, he is au-
thor of Observations of Popocatepetl and latao-
cihuatl (1897); Meteorite Studies (1902);
(Jems and Gems Minerals (1903); Analyses of
Iron Meteorites ( 1907 ) ; Analyses of Stone Me-
teorites (1911).

EARS, fars, or FABSISTAtf, far's$-stan'
(Pers., Land of the Persians, anciently Persis).
A province of Persia, situated along the north
and east shores of the Persian Gulf (Map:
Persia, E 8). The surface rises gradually
from the coast to an elevation of from 2000 to
3000 feet. The valleys of this interior plateau
land are well watered and exceedingly fertile.
In the northwest are the mountains, the highest
reaching 14,000 feet; in a basin to the east lies
the large salt lake Bakhtegan. The chief rivers
are the Shapur, Tab, Send Rud, Mand, and Ben-
demir. The climate is not unhealthful, except
along the coast, where it is very hot in the sum-
mer. The province produces wheat, barley, rice,
millet, tobacco, wine, dates, opium, linen, cotton,
silk, cochineal, and roses for the manufacture of
attar. The principal towns are Shiraz, the capi-
tal, and Abushehr, the principal port. About
30 miles north of Shiraz lie the ruins of the
ancient city of Persepolis. The natives are do-
lichocephalic and represent one of the best-pre-
served types of the Aryan of the Iranian plateau,
being fairer-skinned and more f nely formed than
the population generally. Pop. (eat.), 750,000.
See PERSIA, Ethnology.

EABSAN (far-Bin') ISLANDS. A group of
islands in the southeastern part of the Bed Sea,
about 35 miles off the west coast of Yemen, in
lat. 16° 30' to 17° N. and long. 41° 45' to
42° 10' E. They comprise the two larger islands
of Farsan Seghir, 18 miles long, and Farsan-el-
Kebir, 25 miles long, with a number of islets
and reefs. They are centres of important pearl

and coral fisheries, also raise and export dates.
On one of the islands, Kounch, there is a coaling
station belonging to Germany. Chief port,
Chor Farsan.

EABSISTAKT. See FABS.

FABTHEB INDIA, or INDO-CHIWA. The
southeast peninsula of Asia. It embraces
Tonkin, Annam, Laos, Cambodia, Cochin-China,
Siam, Burma, Federated (and other) Malay
States, and Straits Settlements proper.

PABtTKHABAD, fur'ruk-ha-bad', or FTJB-
BUCKABAD. A city in a district of the same
name, United Provinces, British India, near the
right bank of the Ganges, 87 miles northwest of
Ca\vnpore by rail (Map: India, C 3). It is
well built in a fine place, 570 feet above sea
level. Potatoes, tobacco, and mangoes form its
chief trade. Its manufactures include gold lace,
brass and copper vessels, and calico prints. With
Fatehgarh, the capital of the district, it forms
a single municipality. Pop., 1901, 67,338; 1911,
59,647.

EASANO, fa-sa'n<5. A city of Bari, south
Italy, near the Adriatic, 45 miles northwest of
Brindisi (Map: Italy, F 4). The city hall is a
former palace, with a handsome loggia (1509),
of the Knights of St. John. Two miles north
of Fasano, which markets wine and oil, are the
ruins of Egnatia, in Roman days a prosperous
port, on the Appian Way. The ancient walls
have been nearly all used by the peasants to
build cottages of the modern Anazzo, and the
wealth of vases, jewelry, and coins has gone to
stock museums elsewhere. Pop. (commune),
1901, 16,848; 1911, 20,077.

FASCES, fas'sSz (Lat., bundles). Bundles of
rods, usually made of birch, but sometimes of
elm, with an axe projecting from the middle of
them, which were carried before the^. chief magis-
trates of ancient Home as symbols of their power
over life and limb. They were borne by the
lictors (q.v.), at first before the kings; in the
time of the Republic, before consuls and pnetors;
and afterward before the emperors. Their num-
ber varied; a consul had twelve and a praetor six
(within the city only two). Valerius Publicola
introduced a law that within the city the axe
be withdrawn, except in the case of a dictator,
who was preceded by 24 lictors, bearing as many
fasces. The axe was withdrawn within the city
limits, because there the magistrates' power to
inflict the death penalty was in time nullified,
since in matters of life and death an appeal to
the people was always possible. Publicola also
required that the fasces be lowered at the as-
semblies of the people as an acknowledgment of
their supreme power. A general who, after a
victory, had been saluted as Imperator (see
EMPEROK), had his fasces wreathed with laurel;
later this honor was accorded only to the em-
perors.

FASCH, fash, KART, FBIEDBIOH CHRISTIAN
(1736-1800). A German musician, the 'founder
of the Berliner Singakademie. He was born at
Zerbst, where his father was court kapellmeister.
He early developed considerable musical ability,
and in 1756 became cembalist to Frederick the
Great at Berlin. From 1774 to 1776 he vas
kapellmeister of the opera in Berlin, but after
that he retired and devoted himself to composi-
tion. His church music was published in six
volumes (1839), and a biography of Fasch was
written (1801) by his successor Zelter. For
the history of the Singakademie, see OHOBAL

FASCIA

387

FASHION

3FASCIA, faahl-a (Lat., fillet). 1. In archi-
tecture, a flat space or band, like a broad ribbon,
wider than a fillet (q.v.). This name is given to
the edge or face of the corona of a classic cor-
nice or of a belt course, and sometimes to the
divisions of banded architraves, such as those
of the Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite entabla-
tures. 2. In anatomy, dense connective tissue
occurring in sheets which envelop muscles or
groups of muscles. It has lately been found to
be the site of tuberculosis near tubercular glands.

PASCIA'TION (Neo-Lat. fasciatio, from Lat.
fascia, fillet). A deformity of plants, common
in shoots, which become several times as broad
as usual, fluted, and often curved edgewise in
crozier fashion. Fasciation is especially likely
to occur in rapidly growing stems which are
abundantly supplied with both water and food.
See MALFORMATION.

PASCrNA'TION" (Lat. fascinatio, from fas-
cinare, to charm, from fascinus, witchcraft) BY
SEBPENTS. A power has long been popularly as-
cribed to some kinds of serpents of fascinating
by their eyes the small animals on which they
prey so as to prevent the escape of the intended
victim, and to cause it rather to run or flutter
into the mouth which is open to devour it.

As an explanation of this conduct mesmeric
or hypnotic influence has been suggested, but the
whole matter is 'now regarded as exaggerated
and to a great degree fabulous. Probably when
any such action occurs it should be ascribed to
fear so intense that the animal becomes stupid,
or loses its powers of coordination, and is upara-
lyzed by fright." Animals respond in just these
same ways when much frightened by other
causes than serpents. Thus horses and other
animals when actually rescued from floods or
fire have been known to rush back again to their
doom, or else they arc too terrified to attempt
escape.

FASCINES, fas-Senas' (Fr., from Lat. fascina,
bundle, from fastis, bundle). Fagots of brush-
wood or similar material, bound together, with
wire if possible, and used in the construction of
temporary field works, construction of levees,
jetties, breakwaters, preparing foundation in
marshes, and sometimes for setting fire to an
obstruction. The standard military fascine em-
ployed in revetting field works is a cylindrical
bundle of brush, closely bound. The usual
length is 18 feet and the diameter 9 inches
when compressed. Lengths of 9 and 6 feet,
which are sometimes used, are conveniently
obtained by sawing a standard fascine into two
or three pieces. The weight of a facine of par-
tially seasoned material will average 140 pounds.
Straight pieces of brush, 1 or 2 inches at the
butt, are used in the construction.

FASHEB, fa'sher, EL. See EL FASHEB.

FASHION (Fr. fwon, from L. faotionem,
the make of anything). The style in dress of a
brief period. The distinction between it and
costume (q.v,) is based on scale and permanency.
Fashion is ephemeral and comparatively trivial.

During the season of some one of the great
popular fairs held in Munich, the men and
women of the Dachauer Moos and of the country
around the Starnbergersee, as well as people
from the Bavarian mountains, which are a part
of what we call the Tyrolese Alps, appear in the
city with hats, coats, decorative suspenders
for their breeches, short breeches, barred and
striped stocking^ and conical yhats; the women
wearing head coverings of indescribable kind

not seen elsewhere in Europe, and an arrange-
ment for their short black skirts, very difficult
to describe, sometimes founded on a hooplike
structure, not at the hips, as in the fashionable
farthingales and panniers of the eighteenth cen-
tury, but above them, just at the waist. Ugly
as many of them are, they are ancestral, dating
from old time, and in a sense unconscious — that
is to say, the people of a given village have never
known and do not dream of wearing garments
of another style than these. This is costume.
At the same tune the ladies of Munich are wear-
ing garments based upon the Parisian style of
the same season or of the season immediately
preceding, and the men of this same class of
society are wearing partly English and partly
French dress, the coats and trousers, hats and
the rest being closely imitated from one or
the other of these models. The style of these
garments for both women and men varies from
year to year and from season to season, not only
in the shape of the garment and the fashion of
its tailoring or dressmaking, but also in the
material itself of which they are composed. It
will be as rare at a certain time to see a black
frock coat as it will be a few years later to see
a blue one, and the changes in women's dress in
the colors used, and even in the character and
intensity of the colors, varies very greatly,
usually changing slowly for a few seasons and
then changing much more decidedly into a new
style. This is fashion.

As transportation improves, commerce de-
velops, and civilization advances, fashions tend
to become world wide. The social leaders of
New York and Buenos Aires, Cape Town and St.
Petersburg, Berlin and even Tokyo, look to
western Europe for their styles, women to Paris
and men to London. But people of moderate
means, not capable of indulging every fancy,
follow at a slower pace, and therefore the dress
of a French clerk will differ somewhat from that
of an English clerk, and again from that of a
man on a proportionately small salary in New
York. Some few little peculiarities cling to the
people of a nation or a city for a number of
years, such as, for instance, the loose and long
silk bow worn as a necktie, so common in the
north of France, but rarely appearing in other
countries except as worn by Frenchmen on their
travels. These peculiarities, so far as they go,
partake of the nature of costume. Some other
peculiarities are merely attempts, as it were, of
fashion which have failed to become universal.
Thus, although American men usually wear hats
of London form, there have been several epochs
during the past 50 years when the London hats
were very much higher in the crown and more
aggressive than any of those worn in America.
The changes in dress produced by the French
Revolution were radical and permanent. Cos-
tumes distinctive of rank or occupation were
largely abolished, and prince and peasant and
pauper began to look alike. For over a century
the costume of women has not deviated from
waist and skirt in one or two pieces, with shawl,
coat, or jacket, as overgarment; and for men
coat and waistcoat and trousers.

In the reign of Louis Philippe, .following 1830,
the frock coat was worn with skirts not very
long, but cut so as to spread very widely, so that
when the garment was worn buttoned it was
extremely smart in appearance, fitting the body
plosely and having a very appropriate fullness
where it covered the hipa. At the same tione the

FASHION

388

EAST

dresa coat worn for occasions of some ceremony,
and by elderly men who felt themselves of im-
portance in the world, had very broad skirts
and was capable of being buttoned across the
breast. These were the fashions in France and
to a great extent in England, though the cut of
the frock coat was different there. These gar-
ments were of blue, claret, bright brown, and
other decided colors* and the fashion lingered
on in the United States to 1850 or there-
about, at which time a person continuing to
wear the colored cloth of a former generation
was remarked upon. As late as 1850 many
gentlemen of middle age wore a blue dress coat
buttoned up with large, flat, gilt buttons, a
white waistcoat, and black, close-fitting trou-
sers, the form which had replaced the far more
graceful and dignified pantalon; for which see
COSTUME.

The women of 1840 and thereabout wore a
very reasonable and pleasant costume. The waist
of the dress was so made as to be distinctly
a bodice, separate from the skirt in make, if not
of a different material; the skirt was very loose
and full at the top and fell in ample folds or,
if of thinner material, floated softly; altogether
it was a very perfectly imagined and satisfactory
gown. This was the immediate successor of the
close-fitting garment of the Empire mentioned
under COSTUAIE. These gowns in some of their
many modifications lasted until the time of the
crinoline (q.v.) or haircloth skirts, which were
immediately succeeded by the hoopskirts or
skirts made of metal springs, all these being
used to expand and support the skirt of the
gown, so that the dress of women from about
1850 until 1870 was, in a sense, grotesque. It
was costly and bulky, unnatural in that it did
not follow the lines of the body at all, and ugly
because it swung in one stiff mass instead of
falling in folds, and sometimes involved dis-
agreeable exposures. No wonder that an Ameri-
can woman, Amelia Jenks Bloomer (1818-94),
was inspired to start her campaign for rational
dress, as a result of which trousers for women
have since been known as bloomers. The ra-
tional dress as she wore it bad a short skirt
reaching just below the knees, with long, baggy
pantalettes.

After the fall of crinoline and of the Second
Empire, skirts continued to be wide, with the
fullness supplied by abundance of material in-
stead of by whalebone or steel, and with frills
taking the place of flounces. Waists were short
and ugly, and colors and material were com-
bined with little taste. A charming innovation
in 1872 were the Pompadour or Dolly Varden
pretty flowered gowns in soft, thin materials
for summer and evening wear. By 1878 the
so-called princess dress was in full vogue, a
purely modern development, with a long skirt
that had to be carried in the left hand.

Another modern development is the tailor-
made gown, due primarily to the women who go
in for outdoor sports. But the fashion set by
them was soon followed by women generally,
until at one time "smart" and "tailor-made"
were terms almost synonymous. The return to
outdoor life on the part of the fashionable has
also had its effect on the garments of men, and
for the various sports special costumes have
been develop^!.

Recently there has been a tendency in women's
costumes towards the classic on the one nand
and the mediaeval on the other. The mania, for

dancing lias eliminated unnecessary clothing, so
that occasionally the follies of the Merveilleuses
of a century ago seem about to be repeated. Art
movements like cubism and futurism are also
having a very distinct iniluence on fashions.

Bibliography. Hill, History of English Dress
(London, 1893); Geszler, Die Modcn des XIX.
Jahrhundert (Vienna, 1807) ; Uzanne, Les modes
de Paris (Paris, 1898) ; Boutet, Modes femt-
nines du XJXe Riecle (ib., 1902); Price, Dame
Fashion, 1186-1912 (London, 1913).

FASHIONABLE LIFE, TALES OF. A series
of stories by Maria Edgeworth, of which three
volumes appeared in 1809 and three in 1812.

3TASHCXDA. See KODOK.

PAS'SETT, COBNELIA AD&LE (STRONG) (1831-
98). An American painter, born at Owasco,
N. Y. She studied water-color painting in New
York, oil painting in Paris and Rome under
Mathieu and others, and in 1855 established in
Chicago, 111., a studio which she removed in
1875 to Washington, D. C. She was elected to
the Chicago Academy of Design in 1873. Her
works include portraits of President Garfield,
Associate Justice S. J. Field of the Supreme
Court, Clara Barton, and Gen. J. A. Logan, and
the large canvas, "The Electoral Commission in
Open Session" (1877-80), bought by the govern-
ment for the Capitol.

FASSETT, JACOB SLOAT (1853-1924). An
American lawyer and Republican politician. He
was born at Elmira, N. Y., graduated at the
University of Rochester in 1875, and was ad-
mitted to the bar in 1878. Tn 1879-80 he was
district attorney of Chemung County, and in
1880-81 studied constitutional law and political
economy at Heidelberg University, Germany.
From 1884 to 1892 he was a member of the New
York State Senate, of which he was President
from 1889 to 1891. He was secretary of the
Republican National Committee from 1888 to
1892, and in 1891 was the unsuccessful Republi-
can candidate for Governor of New York. He
was temporary chairman at the Republican Na-
tional Convention at Minneapolis in 1892. In
1905-11 he was a member of Congress.

FAST (AS. fasten, Icel. fast a, Goth, fastulni,
OHG. fasta, Ger. Fasten, fast, from AS. fcestan,
Icel. fasta, Goth, fastan, OHG. fasten, Ger.
fasten, to fast; probably connected with AS.
f&st, Icel. fastr, OHG. fasti, feste, Ger. fest, fast,
firm) . A term used to express either total absti-
nence from meat and drink, or at least a certain
restraint in respect of food. As a religious cus-
tom fasting seems to have originated in the
conceived necessity of proper preparation for
communion with the ancestral spirits in the
sacrificial meal and in the ecstatic state. It was
thus a sacrifice offered to the divinity, the ac-
ceptance of which was indicated by permission to
partake in the sacrificial banquet and by the
vision vouchsafed to the devotee. Hence its uni-
versal occurrence in somo form in all religions
and among common worshipers as well as among
the religious leaders. It has been observed wher-
ever ancestral worship has- flourished, even, though
there was no (marked tendency towards mysti-
cism, and has not only maintained itself, but has
developed especial intensity as a means of induc-
ing an extraordinary psychical receptivity to
spiritual impressions in monotheistic and pan-
theistic forms of religion otherwise preserving
only slight traces of their animistic origin. The
reduced vitality and increase^ nervous excita-
bility occasioned by lack of proper nourishment

FAST

389

PAST

have tended to produce a mental condition favor-
able to the seeing of visions and the hearing of
voices, necessarily interpreted as objective reali-
ties. By curbing the appetites and the passions,
they have served as means of moral discipline.
On the other hand, the reaction has added joy
and exhilaration to the following communion
with the divinity. See FESTIVALS.

The custom prevailed among the Aztecs and
Toltecs of Mexico, the Incaa of Peru, and other
American aborigines. It has been found among
the Pacific Islanders, who occasionally use strong
purges before venturing to eat holy meat. In
China and Japan there are possible traces of it
before contact with Buddhism, and it has been
kept in eastern Asia wherever Brahmanism and
Buddhism have spread. If the climatic condi-
tions of India forced attention to dietary rules,
the introspective attitude of her people naturally
led to observation of the effects upon the mental
activities of abstinence from food. Insensibility
to pain, clairvoyance, attainment to a higher
supcrconscious state, absorption in the divine
seemed the rewards or results of a patient en-
durance. Already in the Yajur-Veda period this
estimate of the value of fasting becomes appar-
ent, and it is still widely prevalent in all parts
of India. In the Mithras cult, a mixture of Maz-
da ic and orgiastic elements, it was a necessary
preparation for initiation into the mysteries. As
this faith spread over Armenia, Cappadocia,
Pontus, and Syria the importance of the already
existing religious custom was everywhere en-
hanced. It was indeed a characteristic require-
ment made by mystic cult societies in many
lands. At least as early as the seventh cen-
tury B.C. the Orphic societies in Greece demanded
total abstinence from meat and beans, and sub-
sequently the highest rites in the Eleusinian
mysteries wero preceded by a day of fasting.
Similarly, fasting was required previous to in-
itiation in the mysteries of Tsia and Osiris, while
in earlier times it docs not seem to have been
widely observed in Egypt, though it is known
through Herodotus that at Busiris a fast pro-
ceded the sacrificial meal. The Romans also to
some extent practiced fasting in connection with
their festivals, and in later times before initia-
tion in cult societies.

It is not certain that the Babylonians kept the
custom, and the story of the, fast in Nineveh
(Jonah iii. 5 et seq.) merely shows that the late
Jewish authors took for granted that the As-
syrians fasted to avoid a great national calam-
ity, though they may have been quite right in
this assumption. In Israel fasting ,wa*, in
earlier timea, spontaneous and not regulated by
law. The purpose appears to have, been to
arouse Yahwc's pity (2 Sam. xii. 22), to avert
national calamity (1 Sam. vii. 6), to express1
sorrow for the dead (1 Sam. xxxi. 13), to pre-
pare for a sacrificial meal (1 Sam. xi. 5), or to
render a man fit for a special revelation (Ex.
xxxiv. 28; Deut. ix. 9, 18). After the Exile,
days of public fasting were instituted. They are
first mentioned in 2ech. viii; 19, where the fasts
of the fourth, fifth, seventh, and tenth months
ave referred to and the question whether they
should be observed is discussed. These fasts
were ordained in commemoration of the misfor-
tunes that had befallen Jerusalem, viz., the
capture uf the city on the 9th of Tammuz, the
destruction of the temple on the 9th of Ab, the'
murder of Gedaliali on the 3d of Tishri (Jer.
xli. 2), and the beginning .of the siqge on the

10th of Ab. The only day set apart for fasting
in the Mosaic law is the 10th of the seventh
month (Tishri). It is thought by modern schol-
ars to havo been instituted later than the four
fast days previously mentioned. See ATONEMENT,
DAY OF.

Still later is the observance of the 13th of
Adar as a fast day. (See PUBIM.) While the
earlier prophets denounced the custom of fast-
ing, the later prophetic writers seem to have
regarded it as valuable. Prayer and fasting
are often united, and the necessity of fasting as
a preparation for divine revelations is empha-
sized (Dan. ix. 3; x. 2, 3, 12 j 4 Ezra v. 13;
vi. 31). The Pharisaic party practiced fasting
on two days in the week, Monday and Thursday,
though it is doubtful whether it ever was more
than partial; the Essenes were led by their
ascetic tendencies to attach much value to fast-
ing; while the Sadducees, more conservative in
such matters, did not go beyond the fast days
prescribed in the law. As the Babylonian exile,
rendering sacrifices impossible for a time, led to
a development of fast days, so the misfortunes
that in later times have befallen the Jewish peo-
ple have occasioned the establishment of new
fast days. These, however, have not become per-
manent. There are half days of fasting at the
summer and winter solstices which may go
back to earlier times; those before Rosh hash-
sJiawt, or the New Year's Day, and the Day of
Atonement seem to be later developments. Fast-
ing is often prescribed on certain memorial days.
An Orthodox Jew fasts on his birthday after
reaching the age of 13, and on the birthday of
his first-born son till the latter reaches the age
of 13, in commemoration of the sparing of the
Israelite first-born in Egypt. The anniversary
of the death of parents is also similarly ob-
served. Fasting with the Jews always implies
entire abstinence and lasts from daybreak till
the appearance of the first three stars, except
on the Day of Atonement and the 9th of Ab,
when the period begins with sunset of the pre-
ceding day. Children, pregnant women, and the
sick are exempted from the observance of fasting.

In the reported sayings of Jesus, He refers
only twice to fasting. In Matt. vi. 10-18, He
says: "When thou fastest, anoint thy head and
wash thy face, that thou be not scon of mon to
fast," thus condemning all ostentatious fasting,
and infcrentially all public display of contrition.
In Matt. ix. 14-17 and parallels, Ho answers the
qmWtion why He and His disciples do not fast.
All scholars ave agreed that the strikingly orig-
inal utterances concerning the now wine and the
old bottles and the new piece and the old gar-
ment arc genuine. Assuming the authenticity
also of the remarks concerning the bridegroom
who is to bo taken away, Roman Catholic inter-
preters understand, not improperly, the words,
"And then they shall fast in those days," to be
a direct exhortation, and that the disciples were
only exempted from fasting during the presence
of their Master on earth, ' This must indeed
have been the manner in which the words were
apprehended in the oarly Church. But the genu-
ineness of this saying is seriously questioned
by competent critics, and it is most naturally
understood as a justification of a practice not
observed by Jesus Himself or Hia disciples in
His lifetime; but subsequently adopted. It seems
to be earlier than the1 story of His. fast -for 40
days (Matt, iv) . TIHMW 'passages probably show
that at the end -of tl>0'fiF*t<'cro$ury fasting- was

PAST

390

FAST

quite generally observed in the Church. This is
also shown by Acts xiii. 2, 3; xiv. 23; 2 Cor.
vi. 5; xi. 27 and the interpolations found in the
received text of Matt. xvii. 21; Mark ix. 29;
Acts x. 30; 1 Cor. vii. 5. In the Oxyrrhyncus
fragment containing what claim to be the say-
ings of Jesus, He is represented as having said,
''If ye fast not in respect of the world, ye shall
not find the Kingdom of God." The language
is probably to be taken figuratively, may be di-
rected against physical fasting, and certainly
does not come from Jesus. Fasting was required
as a preparation for holy acts and feasts, for
ordination and baptism. The 40 hours between
Friday afternoon and Sunday morning, com-
memorating the time when Christ lay in the sep-
ulchre, were annually celebrated, and early
fathers allude to the 40 days of Lent as handed
down and observed by the Church. The moral
earnestness of the Montanistic movement found
expression in vigorous fasting. (See MON-
TAXUS.) While Wednesdays and Fridays had
no doubt been observed by fasting before his
time, Montanus emphasized the necessity of ab-
staining from all food on these days, and prob-
ably was the first to lay down definite rules
concerning fasting. The growing Catholic church
was led by this movement to regulate more
closely the matter of fasting and to grant cer-
tain relaxations. At the Council of Orleans
(541) abstinence from meat during Lent, ex-
cept on Sundays, was prescribed. Hie eighth
Council of Toledo (633) declared those who ate
meat during Lent sinners unworthy to partake
in the resurrection. But the severe laws on this
subject which prevailed in earlier times gener-
ally, and were made still stricter in the monastic
rules (the Cistercians, for example, eating noth-
ing at all until two o'clock in the afternoon),
have been much relaxed in later days as a con-
cession to the needs of modern complexity of
life and severity of climate. To regulate the
details of fasting has always been considered as
within the authority of the Church; in George
Herbert's phrase, "The Bible bids us fast— the
Church says 'how.' " Accordingly the power of
dispensation is considered by Roman Catholic
theologians to reside primarily and universally
in the Pope, for practical purposes also in the
bishops, and (for individual cases) in parish
priests and confessors. Fasting is divided into
the natural or absolute and total fast, which
means entire abstinence from any sort of food
or drink, no matter in how small quantities;
the ecclesiastical or partial fast; and abstinence.
The first applies only to the regulation for those
who are to receive Holy Communion; it lasts
from the previous midnight until after com-
munion, and is never relaxed except in the case
of the dying. The second allows only one full
meal in the day, with a small collation in the
evening, and two ounces of dry bread with the
morning coffee or tea. The third does not regu-
late the quantity, but forbids the use of meat.
Normally, all week days in Lent, the ember days
(q.v.) at the four seasons, certain vigils (q.v.*),
and in some countries the Wednesdays and Fri-
days in Advent are observed as strict fasts under
the above definition; but the regulations vary
considerably in detail in different countries. The
bishops of the United States are allowed to relax
very much the Lenten fast for the working
classes. Those who are under 21 or over 60. the
insane, flick, or convalescent persons, pregnant
and nursing women, and those whose occupations

are specially laborious or exhausting are excused
from fasting. Strictly, the prohibition of flesh
meat includes the products of the animals whose
flesh is not to be eaten, as milk, butter, cheese,
eggs, classed together as laoticinia; but in north-
ern countries, at least, these are usually allowed,
either by custom or express dispensation. The
Roman Catholic church regards fasting as a
means of grace, under two aspects — that of the
actual mortification and that of obedience to
ecclesiastical precept.

In the Greek church fasting is kept with much
greater severity. The Easter fast lasts 48 days,
that of Christmas 39 days, that in honor of the
Virgin 14 days, and that of the Apostles begins
on Monday after Trinity and extends to the 29th
of June. There are also many vigils preparatory
for great festivals. The Church of England con-
siders fasting as praiseworthy, but not as obliga-
tory, a useful exercise preparatory for the means
of grace, but not itself one. The days named
by the English chuich as seasons of fasting are
the 40 days of Lent, including Ash Wednesday
and Good Friday; the ember days, the three
Rogation Days, all the Fridays of the year (ex-
cept Christinas Day), and the eves or vigils of
certain festivals.

Mohammed commanded but one fast, viz., that
during the month of Ramadan ( see RAMADAN ) ,
although he recommended fasting at certain
other times as a meritorious act. The fast of
Ramadan is rigorously observed, at least in
letter, by all Moslems. Whether fasting was
practiced in Arabia before contact with Judaism
or Christianity is doubtful. Certain of the fasts
recommended by Mohammed seem to be imita-
tions; that on the 10th of Muharram (see Mu-
HAKRAM), for instance, corresponds to the Day
of Atonement on the 10th of Tishri.

Abstinence from food may cause a grave condi-
tion of the body, and may even endanger life.
In an experiment upon an animal which was
caused to fast for 13 days, the more important
tissues lost the following percentages of dry
solid matter: the adipose tissues, 97 per cent.;
the spleen, 63.1 per cent: the liver, 50.6 per
cent; the muscles, 30.2 per cent; the blood, 17.6
per cent; the brain and spinal cord, none. The
tissues in general became more watery than in
health. As the amount of muscle lost during
the fasting period contained about 15.2 grams of
nitrogen, more than half the lost nitrogen came
from metabolism of muscular tissue. Experience
has taught that the weight of an adult's body
may remain approximately constant for months
or years, even under varying conditions of diet*
Also, the relative proportions of the various tis-
sues of the body remain constant, in addition to
an unchanged weight. Evidently, in such cases,
the expenditure of the body must precisely bal-
ance its income. If it did not lose as much
nitrogen as it takes in, the body would gain in
muscle. If it did not lose as much carbon as it
takes in, it would put on fat. It may be losing
or gaining carbon, losing or gaining fat, and
yet the proteid constituents remain constant in
amount, the expenditure of nitrogen being ex-
actly equal to the income of nitrogen. This con-
dition is called "nitrogenous equilibrium.9' In a
fasting animal, while urea is excreted and car-
bonic acid is given off, the expenditure of nitro-
gen is very small. Glycogen and then fat dis-
appear, and, lastly, some of the proteid. But,
as the figures show, the heart and central ner-
vous system are supported and lose but little in

FAST

39i

FASTI

weight, while other organs are sacrificed to feed
them.

The results obtained from the study of fasting
men differ a little from those in the case of
starving ^ animals. In men the excretion of ni-
trogen diminishes continuously for several days.
There is a diminution of the chlorine and urea
in the urine, and an increase in phenol. The
respiratory quotient sinks to a figure less than
tiie one corresponding to oxidation of fats alone.
The inference must be that some of the carbon
of the disintegrated proteids is stored up in the
body as glycogen.

After a certain period of fasting, fever, rest-
lessness, and delirium generally set in. The
delirium may be mild, with hallucinations of
food and drink, or it may be furious. Age and
obesity have a considerable influence upon the
length of time life persists, in the face of actual
starvation. A case is recorded, of the wreck of
the frigate Medusa in 1876, when 15 people sur-
vived without food on an open raft for 13 days.
In the case of a convict, quoted by Be*rard, life
was sustained on water alone for 63 days. • Gen-
erally death occurs after eight days of depriva-
tion of food. Many alleged cases of fasting for
30 days, or even some years, by certain pro-
fessional fasters or religious women are mere
impostures. Constantly watched by physicians
the Italian Sued actually fasted for 40 days in
London, March and April, 1890. He took only
water, emetics, cathartics, and an opium "elixir,"
and smoked tobacco. Dogs live from 30 to 3*5
days if deprived entirely of food and drink.

Hibernating animals (see HIBERNATION ) are
capable of sustaining the want of food for an
apparently indefinite period of weeks during the
winter sleep; but no warm-blooded animal can
endure fasting in anything like the same degree
as the reptiles— in many of which, indeed, the
natural state of existence is one of long intervals
between the times of taking food, and in which
the vital change of texture is remarkably slow.
Thus the remarkable amphibious animal, the
Proteus anguinus, has been known to live for
years without food, and the same is true of sala-
manders, tortoises, and even goldfishes.' In at-
tempting the recovery of persons reduced by fast-
ing, food must be given in very small quantities
at a time, and of the most nourishing and di-
gestible quality; stimulants should bo either
withheld or very cautiously administered. The
moat important point, sometimes even before
food is given at all, is the removal of the chill of
the body by gradually applied heat; for, in addi-
tion to emaciation and arrest of secretion, the
animal heat falls perceptibly during fasting.

•Bibliography. Consult the Hebrew archjcolo-
gies of Nowack (Freiburg, 1894) and Benzinger -
(2d cd., Ttibingen, 1907) ; Linsenmayr, Die Ent-
irioklung dcr kirohlichen Fastendisziplfa ois turn,
Konssil von Nioiia (Munich, 1877); Robertson
Smith, Religion of the Semites (Cambridge,
1894 ) ; Smetid, Alttestamentliohe ReUgionsge-
schichte (Freiburg, 1899); Duchesne, Origines
du culte Chretien (4th ed., Paris, 1909); Dow-
den. The Church Tear and Ealendar (Cambridge,
1910); Weatermarck, "The Principles of Fast-
ing," in Folk-Lore (London, 1907) ; MacCulloch,
"Fasting," in Hastings, Encyclopedia of Religion
and Ethics, vol. vi (New York, 1912). For the
physiological effects, consult: Flint, Twt-Book
of Suman Physiology (New York, 1879); Ac-
count of Succi, British Medical Journal, i, 1444
(1890); Brewster, Saints and Festivak of the

Christian Church (New York, 1904). See CAL-
JSITOAB, FESTIVALS.

FAST AND LOOSE. A phrase signifying
recklessness of behavior, as to play fast and
loose with another's interests. It is also the
name of a cheating game, called pricking at
the oelt, which appears to have been much prac-
ticed by the gypsies in the time of Shakespeare.
The following is a description: "A leathern belt
is made up into a number of intricate folds and
placed edgewise upon a table. One of the folds
is made to resemble the middle of a girdle, so
that whoever shall thrust a skewer into it would
think he held it fast to the table; whereas, when
he has so done, the person with whom he plays
may take hold of both ends and draw it away."
FASTBNRATH, fJis'ten-rat, JOHASN (1839-
1908). A German author, born at Remscheid.
He studied at the universities of Bonn, Heidel-
berg, Munich, and Berlin, and in Paris; traveled
extensively in Spain in 1864, 1809, and 1879;
published several volumes of free renderings of
both older and more modern Spanish authors
(Ein spanisoher Romamsenstrauss, 1866; Hes-
perisohe Bluten, 1869; Immortellen aus Toledo,
1809); and in Das Buch meiner spanischen
Freunde (1870) introduced to German readers
the work of contemporary Spanish poets through
translations of representative specimens. His
La WalJialla y las glorias de Alemania (1872-
87) performed a reverse service, describing for
Spanish benefit, under the guise of interesting
essays, prominent German characters from the
days of Hermann. Numerous other original vol-
umes and translations have in a scholarly manner
familiarized in Germany much of Spanish litera-
ture, and history.

FASTI (Lat. adj., in nom. pi. masc., legal,
lawful, from fas, divine law, sc. dies, days).
Among the Romans, the days on which it was
lawful to transact legal business before the
praetor; while the dies nefasti were those on
which courts were not in session. The dies
comitiales, on which the assembly and the Sen-
ate might convene, were also loosely styled
fasti. The nefasti embraced the dies religiosi
and the feria (holidays). Of the strict dies
fasti there were some 40; of the dies comitiales,
some 190; of the dies nefasti, about 50; of the
dies religiosi, some 50. There were also eight
dies intercisi, which for certain hours in the fore-
noon and afternoon were nefasti, and fasti for
the remaining hours; and there were three dies
fissi, which were, like the intercisi, partly fasti
and partly nefasti. The sacred books, in which
the lawful days of the year were marked, were
themselves denominated fasti, and the term was
employed, in an extended sense, to signify vari-
ous kinds of registers, which have been often
confounded with one another. These registers fall
into two principal divisions— -the Fasti Sacri or
Kalendares, and the Fasti Annales or Historic^
1. Fasti KaUndw-es, or calendars of the year,
were kept exclusively by the priests for about
four centuries and a half after the building of
the oity. The appearance of the new moon
was proclaimed by a pontifex, who them an-
nounced to the people the time which would
intervene between the kalends and the, nones.
(See KALENDS; CALENDAR.) On the nones the
country people assembled for the purpose of
learning from the Re® Sacrorwn the various fes-
tivals of the month and the days on which they
would fall. In the same way those who intended
to go to law learned on what days it would be

PASTI

392

FATALISM

right (/as) to do so. The mystery with which
this lore was surrounded, for purposes of power
and profit, by the favored class was dispelled by
On. Flavins, the scribe of Appius Claudius
CECCUS, who surreptitiously copied from the
pontifical book the requisite information, and
published it to the people in the Forum (304
B.C.). Henceforth time-tables (fasti) became
common, very much resembling modern alma-
nacs. They contained the days and the months
of the year, the nones, the ides, lawful and un-
lawful days, etc.; astronomical observations on
the rising and setting of the fixed stars, the com-
mencement of the seasons, brief notices concern-
ing the introduction and signification of certain
rites, the dedication of temples, the dates of vic-
tories, disasters, and the like. Each day was
marked by a letter which showed its character;
thus: 1ST ( = nefastus), F ( = fastus), C ( =
comitialis). In later times the exploits and
honors of the Imperial family were dulv entered
in the calendar. The celebrated Fasti of Ovid
is a sort of poetical companion to the calendar
for the first six months of the year, as published
by Julius Caesar, who remodeled the Roman year.
Written in elegiac metre, Ovid's Fasti relate the
origin of the festivals as told in the legends, and
are important to the student of antiquities.

Several very curious specimens of fasti on
stone and marble have been discovered, of which
one of the most remarkable is the Kalendarium
Prcenestinum, the work of the learned \rerrius
Flaccus, which stood in the lower part of the
forum of Prseneste, described by Suetonius. This
covers January, March, April, December, and
part of February. Very interesting also are two
farmers' almanacs (inenologia rustica), now in
the Museum of Naples. They are cut on four
sides of a cube; each of these sides is divided
into three columns, each column embracing a
month. The various agricultural operations to
be performed in each month are given on these
curious relics, in addition to the ordinary in-
formation contained in such calendars.

2. Fasti Annalcs or Historici were chronicles
containing the names of the consuls and other
magistrates of the year, and an enumeration of
the most remarkable events in the history of
Home, noted down opposite the days on which
they occurred. From its application to these
chronicles the word fasti came to be used by the
poets as synonymous with historical records. A
very interesting specimen of fasti of this class
was discovered in the Forum at Rome in 1547.
It is a series of inscriptions on the marble walls
of the Regia, dating from 30 B.O., and containing
a fairly complete register of the consuls; hence
it is known as Fasti Consular es. The broken
fragments were collected and arranged by Car-
dinal Allessandro Farnese and placed in the cap-
itol, where they may still be seen, with some ad-
ditional portions discovered in 1817 and 1818;
for this reason they are known also as Fasti Capi-
tolini. Fasti Triumphales gave lists of those who
had been honored with a triumph; Fasti Sacer-
dotales gave lists of the priests. The fragments
of the fasti are published in the Corpus, Insorip-
tionum Latinarum, vol. vi, pt. i (Berlin, 1876),.
Consult: Soltau, Romische Chronologic (Berlin,
1889) ; Smith, Dictionary of OreeJo and Roman
Antiquities, vol. i (3d ed., London, 1890) ; Cor-
pus Inscriptionum Latinarum, vol. i (2d ed.,
Berlin, 1893 ff.); Marquardt, R&nrisohe Staats-
verwaltung (2d e<l., Leipzig, 1885) ; Schanz,
Geschiohte der Rdwisrhcn Littcr<ttw\ vol. i, § 14

(3d ed., Munich, 1907); Wissowa, "Fasti," in
Pauly-Wissowa's Real-Encyolopadie der classi-
schen Altertumswissenschaft, vol. vi (Stuttgart,
1007); Costa, I Fasti Consulari Romam
(Milan, 1910); Wissowa, Religion und Kultus
der Romer (2d ed., Munich, 1912). For a draw-
ing showing the Regia with the fastit consult
Platner, The Topography and Monuments of
Ancient Rome (2d ed., New York, 1911).

FASl^SrET LIGHTHOUSE. See CAPE
CLEAB.

FASTOLF, SIR JOHN (c.1378-1459). An
English soldier noted for his services in France
during the last phase of the Hundred Years*
War. He distinguished himself at Agincourt
(q.v.) and still more at the "Battle of the Her-
rings," Feb. 12, 1429, so called because, while
conveying supplies to the English besiegers of
Orleans, he formed a sort of laager of herring
barrels and with his archers beat off a much
larger French army. On June 18 the united
forces of Fastolf and Talbot were defeated at
Patay by Joan of Arc. According to Monstrelet,
Fastolf displayed such cowardice that the Duke
of Norfolk degraded him from the Order of the
Garter, an honor which he had received in 1426.
This, however, is very questionable, for he seems
to have retained all his honors till his return to
England in 1440. In 1441 he was granted a pen-
sion of £200. His Norfolk life is mirrored faith-
fully in The Paston Letters, where he is pictured
as occupied busily in adding to his broad posses-
sions, neaping up riches, building a huge new
castle at Caister — a hard old man, yet not with-
out some love of learning and the Church. He
died Nov. 5, 1459. Attempts have been made
to identify him with Shakespeare's Falstaff.
Consult The Paston Letters, ed. by Gairdner
(London, 1872-75), and Duthie, The Case of
Sir John Fastolf (ib., 1907).

TAT. See FATS.

FA'TAL CHILDREN. A name given in
early times to those children, such as (Edipus,
Perseus, etc., who were expected to bring evil to
their parents. In medioeval days the term re-
ferred especially to children whose mothers
died at their birth. Such an event was supposed
to be an augury of the future fame but early
death of the orphan. Volsung in the Teutonic
myth and Tristram in the Arthurian romance
were two children doomed to this fate.

PATAIi CURIOSITY. The name given to a
well-known story contained in Cervantes' Don
Quiaote, which narrates the temptation of a wife.

FATAL DISCOVERY, TUB. A play by John
Home, produced by Garrick, Feb. 23, 1769, at
Drury Lane.

FATAIj DOWRY, THE. A tragedy by Mas-
singer, published in 1632, but probably written
a number of years earlier. It was imitated by
Rowe in his fair Penitent.

FATALISM (from fatal, from Lat. fatalis,
relating to fate, from fatum, fate, from fari, Gk.
#<ij/cu, phanai, to speak, Skt. o&a, to shine) . The
doctrine that the course of events is so deter-
mined that what an individual wills can have no
effect upon that course. Fatalism should be care-
fully distinguished from determinism (q.v.), as
the confusion of these two conceptions has been
responsible for much of the popular prejudice
existing against determinism. In fact, deter-
minism and fatalism are fundamentally an-
tagonistic. Determinism asserts that events are
determined fyy some of the events that imme-
diately precede them; tfhat if the latter were

PATAL MARRIAGE

393

PATHER-LASHER

different tlie former would be different. Fatal-
ism denies that immediately preceding events
have anything to do with the origination of
certain events immediately following; it asserts
that the latter would occur even if the former
were changed. A fated event is one that does
not take place according to natural law ; a deter-
mined event takes place according to the natural
law which determines it. Hence the futility of
the attempt, e.g., to escape a fated death; for
such an attempt consists always in the avoid-
ance of the causes of death. But a death which
would bo a determined consequence of a fall from
an aeroplane can be avoided by keeping to the
ground. For the fatalist what actually deter-
mines the event is not another event immediately
preceding, but some mysterious decree issued by
some mysterious agent ages before the event.
But determinism, which merely asserts that
every event has its determining conditions in its
immediate antecedents, may include among the
determining antecedents the human will. Thus,
determinism is consistent with a belief in the
efficiency of will, and fatalism is not. Deter-
minism tries to account for an act of will as
well as for every other occurrence. It looks
"back from the will to its antecedent conditions.
Fatalism, looking forward from the act of will,
denies any effective consequence to it. Deter-
minism puts the will as a link in a chain of
events. Fatalism breaks the chain when human
will appears. The determinist assumes that the
will both counts and is to be accounted for. The
fatalist declares that the will 'does not count.

Both fatalism and determinism, thus distin-
guished from each other, should likewise be dis-
tinguished from predestinalionism. (Sec PBE-
DEHTINA.TTON'.) Calvhiistic predestination is not
fate, for it is carried out by the agency of
natural law; or, as it is usually put, "in pre-
destining the end God also predestined the
means." Fatalism conceives of God or some
other inscrutable power as decreeing the end, and
then waiting till the appointed time to bring it
about, whatever may be the conditions prevailing
tlion; the meana adopted are those which over-
bear any efforts the victim may make. The pre-
destined victim is predestined not to thwart the
use of the predestined means. Determinism, on
the other hand, assumes no decree, whether of
God or of fate* It is the natural development
of situations and not a supernatural power that
for determinism brings about the determined
result. Predestination is determinism plus the
belief in a supernatural power that established
the determining natural order. Fatalism is a
belief in a supernatural power that predeter-
mines without recourse to natural order.

Fatalism has had wide currency in popular
thought. It appeared among the Hebrews, the
Greeks, the Bomans, and is especially prevalent
among- Mohammedans. But in the modern
Occident it has little foothold wherever science
has had a controlling influence. It owed its
origin to the fact that many events in man's
life seem to be inevitable. tThis inevitableness
of occurrence when there was ignorance as to
the causes naturally led to a belief in an outside
power that fixed events by decree.

PATAL MARRIAGE, THE; OB, THE INNO-
OBKT ADULTERY, A tragedy by Southerne
(1694), founded on Mrs. Behn's novel The Nun.
The underplot, omitted in Garrick's revival
(1757), -was drawn from Fletcher's' Night

Walker. .

VOL, VI n.— 26

PATA MORGANA, fa'tfi. m6r-ga'na (It.,
fairy Morgana, who is supposed to cause the mi-
rage) . A striking kind of mirage observed in
the Strait of Messina and elsewhere in Italy.
A spectator on the shore sees images of men,
houses, ships, etc., sometimes in the water, some-
times in the air — the same object having fre-
quently two images, one inverted. See MIRAGE.

FATA MORGANA. A fairy, the sister of
Arthur and pupil of Merlin, called also "Mor-
gaine la Fe"e" and "Morgue la Fay," represented
in Boiardo's Orlando Innamorato as dispensing
riches from her home at the bottom of a lake.

PATBIRD. See SANDPIPEB; OTLBIBD; GTJA-
CTTARO.

PATEHGARH. A town in the United Prov-
inces .of India, headquarters of Farrukhabad
District, 87 miles northwest of Lucknpw. It
contains a barracks garrisoned by British and
native infantry. The trade is local, and tents
arc manufactured. It now forms a municipality
with Farrukhabad. Pop., 1901, 16,278; 1911,
12,500. Fatehgarh was fortified in 1714 and
passed into the hands of the British in 1802.
During the mutiny in 1857 the entire foreign
population was massacred by the rebels, who
besieged jh.e town for a week.

PATEHPTTR, PATHIPTTR, or PTTTTEH-
PTTR, lut'I-poor7. The capital of the district of
the same name, in the United Provinces, British
India, on the great trunk road between Calcutta
and Delhi, 70 miles northwest of Allahabad.
(Map: India, D 3). Its chief product is whips.
Besides the civil buildings of the district, it
contains the small but elegant mosque of Nawab
Bakar Ali Khan. Pop., 1001, 19,281; 1911, 16,-
939.

PATEHPT7R-SIKRI, slk'rl. An ancient cap-
ital of the Mogul Empire, India, in the Agra
District, United Provinces, 23 miles east of
Agra. The city is celebrated for its well-
preserved remains of magnificent architectural
works, among which are a mosque, with the
sarcophagus of Salim Chishti, with a canopy
of mother-of-pearl, five palaces, and a city wail
5 miles in circuit. These date from 1509 and
were part of the great city of Fatehpur, built
by the Emperor Akbar and his son Jehangir;
but after the death of the latter the city was
abandoned and the seat of power transferred to
Agra. The small modern town of Fatehpur and
its suburb Sikri, near the ruins, have a popula-
tion, 1901, 7147; 1911, 6132. Consult E. B.
Howell, A Handbook of Agra, and Taj, Sikranda,
Fatrtpur Sikri, etc. (1904).

PATES. See "PAEOJE.

FATHEAD. The most common of the blunt-
nosed minnows (Pimephalos promelas), numer-
ous all over the warmer parts of the United
States. It is 2% inches long, dusky, olivaceous,
the head jet black (in the male), and a black bar
across the dorsal fin; but it is highly variable.

FATHER-LASHER (apparently from father
+ lasher; for father, in this usage, compare per-
haps daddy longlegs). A small fish (Oottus
bubalis), the most common and spiny of the
British sculpins (Cottidse), armed with strong
spines on the back of the large head and on the
gill covers. It is brown above, whitish beneath,
curiously marbled and spotted, the fins marbled
black and white, and repulsive in appearance;
its flesh is good, but little eaten in Great Brit-
ain. When touched it distends its gill covers,
sots out its spines, and assumes a very threat-,
ening appearance.

FATHER

394

FATIGUE

FATHER, OF ANGLING. Isaak Walton, au-
thor of The Compleat Angler.

OF ECCLESIASTICAL HISTOBY. The name given
to Eusebius of Csesarea.

OF ENGLISH CATHEDRAL Music. A name
generally given to Thomas Tallis or Tallys
(1515-85), organist of Waltham Abbey, gentle-
man of the chapel royal, and composer of Ser-
vice in the Dorian Mode.

OF ENGLISH POETRY. A title applied by Dry-
den to Chaucer.

OF ENGLISH PROSE. A title given to Roger
Ascham.

OF EPIC POETKY. A name given to Homer,
as the author of the Iliad and the Odyssey.

OF FRENCH HISTORY. Andr4 Duchesne, one
of the earliest French historians.

OF GERMAN LITERATURE. A title applied to
Leasing as the leader in reviving a national
German literature.

OF GOOD WORKS. Sultan Muhammed II of
Turkey.

OF GREEK Music. Terpander of Lesbos.
OF GREEK TRAGEDY. The title given to
JEschyluB.

OF HISTORY. The name given to Herodotus,
as the first writer of real history.
OF JESTH. See MILLER, JOSEPH.
OF LETTERS. 1. A title bestowed on Francis
I of France. 2. Lorenzo de' Medici.

OF LIES. Satan. The title has also been
used of Herodotus, from disbelief in the stories
he relates.

OF MEDICINE. A title given to Hippocrates.
OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. A surname of
Thomas Aquinas.

OF Music. A name given to Palcstrina.
OF ORTHODOXY. A title applied to Athanasius,
Bishop of Alexandria, for his zeal in combating
the Arian heresy.

OF PEACE. A title given to Andrea Doria by
the Genoese.

OF RIDICULE, A surname of Francois Rabelais.
OF THE FAITHFUL. A title given to Abraham,
as the ancestor of the Jewish nation.

OF THE MARSIIALSEA. William Dorrit, in
Dickens's Little Dorrit.

OF THE PEOPLE. A title assumed by the kings
of 'Denmark and by Louis XII, Henry IV, and
Louis XVIII of France.

OF WATERS. A namp given to the Mississippi
River, on account of its great length and nu-
merous tributaries.

FATHER PBrOUT. The nom de plume of
Francis Mahony (q.v.).

FATHERS, THE APOSTOLIC. The six fathers
of the Church who were contemporaries of the
Apostles; Barnabas, Clement of Rome, Hermas,
Ignatius, Papias, and Polycarp.

FATHERS AND SONS. A novel by Tur-
genev (q.v.), a presentation of theoretic nihilism.
FATHERS OF CHRISTIAN" DOCTRINE.
See DOCTRINE, FATHERS OF CHRISTIAN.
FATHERS 07 MARY. See MAEISTS.
FATHERS OF MERCY. See MERCY,
FATHERS OF.

FATHERS OF THE CHURCH. A title of
honor applied to the early writers of the Chris-
tian Church. The name can.be traced back to
the fifth century, but its early significance is
sometimes complicated by the habit of applying
the title of father to bishops, especially when
assembled in council. Its extent is subject to
question, as some refuse to apply it to those
who, like Origen and Tertullian, had fallen under

suspicion of heresy. It is often, however, used
of all the greater early Christian writers. When
the Church, by the declaration of either a gen-
eral council or a pope, has borne special testi-
mony to the requisite qualities of orthodoxy,
holiness, and eminent erudition, the formal title
of "Doctors of the Church" (q.v.) is given to
such writers. The limitation of the period within
which the name is applied has never been very
precise; most commonly it is taken to end with
the death of St. John Damascene (c.754) for the
Eastern church, and with that of St. Gregory
the Great (604) for the Western. Consult the
best general collection, Migne, Patrologias Cur-
BUS Completus (387 vols., Paris, 1844-66), with
the continuation; Horoy, Medii Mvi Bibliotheca
Patristica, sive Patrologia ab Anno 1216 usque
ad Concilium Tridentinum (ib., 1879 et seq.) ;
Bardenhewer, Patrology: Lives and Works of
the Fathers of the Church, translated "by Shahan
(St. Louis, 1908) ; Apostolic Fathers (2 vols.,
New York, 1912) ; Lightfoot, Apostolic Fathers
(2d ed., ib., 1912). The Vienna Academy is
issuing (1866 et seq.) a Corpus Scriptorum
Ecclesiatticorum Latinorum, of a critical char-
acter. Translations of many fathers may be
found in the Ante-Nicene, Nicene, and Post-
Nicene libraries (New York, 1885 et seq.).

FATHERS OF THE PIOtTS SCHOOLS.
See PIARISTS.

FATHER TOM AN3> THE POPE, OR A
NIGHT AT TIDE VATICAN. An amusing broad sa-
tire by Samuel Ferguson, which first appeared
in Blackwood's Magazine for May, 1838. The
hero is generally supposed to have represented
the Rev. Thomas Maguire, rector of a parish
in Leitrim, and was afterward introduced in
Lever's JIarry Lorrequer as Father Tom Loftus.
FATHER VTOLET. See CORPORAL VIOLET,
FATHIGARH, fut'e'-gar'. See FATEHGARH.
FATHIPUR. See FATEHPUR.
FATH'OM (AS. /<B>m, cubit, Ger. Faden.
fathom, fapa, inclosure; ultimately connected
with Gk. Treravvvvai, petannunai, to spread out).
A measure of length, equal to 6 feet. It was for-
merly ascertained by extending both arms and
measuring to the finger tips, and this method is
still used by sailors in measuring short lengths
of rope. In the United States, England, and
Russia the measure is applied to depth of water
and length of rope.

FATHOM, FERDINAND, COUNT. See FERDI-
NAND, COUNT FATHOM.

FATIGUE, fa-tgg' (from Lat. fatigaret to
fatigue; probably connected with af-fatim,
enough) . Fatigue usually follows long-sustained
application, whether of mind or body. The dis-
tinction is often drawn between physical or bod-
ily fatigue and mental fatigue. There is, how-
ever, a common element in the two. The mental
experience which we call exhaustion or weari-
ness is of one and the same kind, whether caused
by prolonged muscular work or by sustained
thinking. But it is customary to include in
physical fatigue the altered condition of the
muscles which renders them, for the time being,
unfit for use. Thus we say that our arm or body
is tired, or that we are r'tired all over." Sim-
ilarly there is sometimes included in mental fa-
tigue the laxness of "mental endeavor3' and the
increased inattention which follow upon bard
study or the contention of diverse motives.
These concomitants should, however, be kept
distinct from the real experience of fatigue.
There is some disagreement among psyoholo-

FATIGTCTE

395

FATK3HTE

gists in regard to the ultimate analysis of fa-
tigue. It is argued, on the one hand, that
fatigue is a complex of more or less intensive or-
ganic sensations (q.v.), usually toned with pleas-
antness or unpleasantness, and even passing over
into pain where the limit of endurance is ap-
proximated; while, on the other hand, it is
urged that fatigue is as simple and unanalyza-
ble as is the sensation of red or the tone of a
tuning fork. The truth seems to lie between
the two views. As a rule, many processes
cooperate in the production of fatigue; but the
experience itself is a fusion (q.v.), so close that
it is hardly possible by introspection to wrench
the constituent elements out of their union.

The experimental study of fatigue and of its
effects, mental and physical, began with the
observation of the course of exhaustion in the
muscle taken from the frog's leg. When the
nerve supplying the muscle was stimulated at
successive intervals by an electric current, it
was found that the contractility of the muscle
suffered a constant decrement every time that
the current was passed, until, finally, no move-
ment at all was produced. If, however, the
muscle were now thoroughly bathed with a
weak saline solution, contractility was restored.
This circumstance has led to the conclusion that
at least part of the effect of fatigue lies in the
accumulation of toxic materials, which prevent
the contraction of the muscle. These materials
are usually carried off in the blood, as is shown
by the fact that the injection of blood from a
fatigued into a normal animal gives rise in
the latter to all the symptoms of exhaustion.

Over and above the action of poisonous ma-
terials, muscular fatigue is conditioned upon
the exhaustion of the energy which is supplied
by the blood in the form of nutriment. If dis-
similation is more rapid than assimilation, the
fat and even the substance of the muscle itself
are gradually consumed. If, however, the con-
sumption of energy does not exceed tbe supply,
and if the waste products are speedily renewed
by the blood, fatigue of a muscle does not ensue.
The heart, e.g., beats throughout the individual's
lifetime without causing fatigue. Moreover,
every muscle seems to have optimal conditions
for work, which include an appropriate loading
and a sufficient interval for rest between con-
tractions. Whether the feeling of fatigue is
aroused by the lack of nutriment in the muscle,
or only by the poisonous waste products, is not
definitely known. In any event, it is necessary
to pass beyond the muscle and to inquire into
the immediate nervous conditions of fatigue.
It is clear that a muscle could not feel fatigue
apart from a nervous system. The conducting
nerve fibres do not appear to be exhausted by
fatigue; for "they will continue to function for
hours after the muscles have refused to contract.
But the case is different with the nerve cells
of the brain. It has been found that these cells
undergo serious alterations, both during arti-
ficial stimulation by electricity and during mus-
cular exercise. Under exhaustion the cell body
becomes shriveled and the nucleus takes on a
changed appearance. It is fair to suppose that
these differences are directly connected with the
experience of fatigue.

If a muscle is so thoroughly exhausted that it
refuses to respond to a voluntary effort at con-
traction, it may nevertheless continue to work
if it is electrically stimulated. And, on the
other hand, voluntary contraction ensues when

electrical stimulation is inefficient. It is diffi-
cult, however, to draw conclusions from these
cases; for in either event some new muscular
element is apt to be brought into function by
the new source of stimulation.

An objective measurement of the effect of
muscular' fatigue is afforded by the use of the
ergograph, an instrument which records the
amount of work that a muscle, or rather a re-
stricted group of muscles, performs in lifting
a known weight or in pulling against a coiled
spring. Other instruments which are occasion-
ally used are the dynamometer, which tests
muscular strength, and the sphygmograph and
pneumograph (see PSYCHOLOGICAL APPARATUS),
which record the rate and form of the heart
beat and of the respiration respectively. A
method frequently employed is known as the
tapping test. The observers are asked to beat
time on a telegraph key, following some as-
signed rhythm, at whatever rate best suits them.
The variation from the normal of the number
and rate of the movements are then taken to
measure the amount of fatigue. While, however,
these methods furnish measures of muscular
fatigue, they are of little value in the measure-
ment of mental fatigue, since no correlation of
the two can at present be made out. Various
methods, therefore, have been devised for measur-
ing the general intellectual fatigue which follows
upon mental exertion. School children in partic-
ular have been subjected to tests for the deter-
mination of the fatigue effects of various studies.
Two types of method have been employed. 1. In
methods of the first type tasks are set at va-
rious periods during the school day, and the
degree of fatigue is measured by the amount
of work done and the number of errors made.
The tasks are simple and well within the ability
of the pupil: writing from dictation, simple
computation, memorizing, the completion of
mutilated texts, the cancellation of specified
letters or words in a printed text, or, finally,
combinations of these tests. The results are
of value as providing some indication of the
degree of fatigue at various hours of the day;
but the procedure does not enable us to measure
the course of fatigue step by step. To overcome
this difficulty the fatiguing work itself is used
as a test, and the change in the quantity and
quality of the work done is taken as an index
of the fatigue. In all tests of this type material
should be provided which offers the same de-
gree of difficulty, and the pupil should give equal
and uniform attention throughout — two require-
ments which are by no means easy of fulfill-
ment. 2. Tests of the second type also are in-
troduced between the periods of study at various
points in the day's work, e.g., at the end of every
hour. The first of these methods is that of sesthe-
siometry. Two blunt compass points are set
down near together upon the skin and gradually
separated until the individual is just able to
distinguish the points as two. This just dis-
criminable difference of locality is called the
limen for localization. (See EXTENSION"; PST-
CHOPHYSica) It has been found slowly to in-
crease under fatigue. The attempt has also
been made to measure fatigue by the degree of
variation in sensitivity to pain and by the ability
of the observer to estimate time intervals. Both
methods, however, have proved, to be unsatis-
factory; the former because no agreement has
been reached as to whether fatigue increases or
decreases sensitivity to pain, and the latter, be-

FATIGUE

396

FATOHDES

cause the estimation of intervals is too difficult
for untrained observers, especially when work-
ing under nonexperimental conditions. Indeed,
in all the methods of this type, there are numer-
ous sources of error which must be recognized
and controlled if valid results are to be secured.
In the course of experiments on fatigue a
number of factors have been discovered which
influence the work curve, i.e., the amount or the
quality of the work. The most important of
these factors are (1) practice (q.v.); (2) habit-
uation — the novelty or unpleasantness of the
work soon wears off: (3) warming up — there
is a short period, the length depending upon
the individual, which must be passed through
before the quantity and quality of the work
reach their maximum; (4) swing — after the
warming-up period, a stage is reached whore
the work is at its best, when we feel "fit," or
when we have "got into the swing"; and (5)
spurt — frequently, in the course of the work,
there is an increase in efficiency which lasts for
a short time, and which is the result of some
newly acquired interest or of encouragement or
of the fact that the end of the work is in sight.
It is apparent that these factors, like all varia-
ble and accidental errors, must be either eval-
uated or eliminated before the results of tests
can be rightly interpreted. Unfortunately, this
end has not always been attained, so that re-
sults must be accepted with caution. The fol-
lowing conclusions are, however, generally ac-
cepted: 1. The feeling of weariness cannot be
taken by itself as a criterion of fatigue; some
persons are constitutionally "tired," and others
never feel weariness until exhaustion is reached.
Moreover, an emotion or a stimulant may banish
the feeling of weariness for a time, while phys-
iologically the fatigue is not affected. 2. There
is a large individual variation in fatigability
as a result of general bodily constitution, the
age of the individual, climacteric periods, etc.
3. Fatigability is a function of the kind of work
and the degree to which the worker has become
accustomed to it, and also of such objective con-
ditions as the temperature of the room, venti-
lation, etc. It follows that no single rule can
be laid down whereby the degree of fatigue can
be accurately determined by the individual who
desires knowledge of his fatigued condition; not
only must the sensations of fatigue be taken
into account, but a number of other factors
also, together with what previous experience
has shown to be the probable aftereffects of
continued work.

The word "fatigue" is used in various mean-
ings in the psychology of sensation. Thus, in
the Young-Helmholtz theory of vision (see
VISUAL SENSATION) it denotes a decreased sus-
ceptibility of the retina towards light. When a
• red surface becomes grayish during continued
fixation, the red fibre of the retina is said to be
fatigued for red light and therefore to function
less actively than at the beginning of stimu-
lation. For this concept of fatigue the rival
theory of. Hering substitutes that of adaptation.
(See AFTERIMAGES.) Fatigue is also applied,
less definitely, to nervous processes in the organ
of hearing. A tone, e.g., heard continuously for
a long time becomes slightly less intensive. Both
here and in sensations of temperature, smell,
and taste, where the effect of sustained stimu-
lation is much more noticeable, it is well to sub-
stitute the word "adaptation" for "fatigue."
Even in vision the mental processes accompany-

ing decreased excitability are entirely different
from the fatigue experience which we have dis-
cussed above. Consult: Mosso, La fatigue in-
tellectuelle et physique (Milan, 1894) ; Ameri-
can Textbook of Physiology, ed. by Howell
(Philadelphia, 1898); Titchener, Experimented
Psychology (New York, 1901); Whipple, Mental
Tests (Baltimore, 1910) ; Offner, Mental Fatigue
(ib., 1911). For the method of exhaustion or
adaptation in olfactometry, see SMELL.

FATIGUE. In military phraseology, the term
applied to such duties of the soldier as have
nothing to do with the carrying of arms. The
policing of camps or quarters, e.g., is a fatigue
duty. The fatigue uniform, of blue denim, is
usually worn in the United States army on such
nonmilitary duty, at mountain battery drills,
and at "stables.*' Fatigue call is the bugle call
assembling men for such work.

FATIGUE OF MATERIALS. See STRENGTH
OF MATERIALS.

FATIGUE UNIFORM. See UNEFOBM, MILI-
TARY; FATIGUE.

FATIMA, fa'tS-ma, 1. The name of Moham-
med's favorite daughter. 2. A character in the
story of Aladdin in the Arabian Nights. 3.
Bluebeard's last wife, the only one not murdered
by him.

FATIMZDES, filtl-mldz, or FATIMITES,
•mite. The name of a dynasty, called after
Fatima the daughter of Mohammed, the prophet
of Jslnm. She married Ali ibn Abu Talib. It
is from this family that the dynasty of the
Fatimides claims descent. What makes this
dynasty of especial interest is that it represents
the Shiite element in Islam which still claims
that Ali and his two sons should have been
recognized as the only legitimate caliphs of
Islam. All Shiites agreed that a descendant of
this family should be caliph, but, having no
principle of primogeniture, there arose a great
difference of opinion as to which descendant
had the most legitimate claim. This difference
of opinion resulted in numerous sects, one of
which, the Ismai'lia, claimed that the sovereignty
was vested in Tsma'il, son of Jafar al-Sadik,
great-great-grandson of Ali, through his second
son, Hussein. Of this sect Abu Abdallah, fa-
mous as al Shii, was the first to gain a firm foot-
ing in the Maghrib among the Berber tribe of
Kitama, having been invited there by one of their
leaders who met him at one of the pilgrimages
in Mecca. He began to make his power felt
in 805 and gradually succeeded in completely
undermining the power of the Aghlabides. Once
his position assured, he invited Ubaidallah, who
was then the leader of the Ismai'lias, to join
him and be proclaimed Mahdi (Messiah). The
Abbasides, in constant fear of these fthiite Mah-
dis, suspected Uhaidallah, watched his move-
ments, and after numerous persecutions suc-
ceeded in throwing him into prison when he was
on his way to join al Shii. He remained in the
prison at Sijilmasa for three years. It was
not till 909 that al Shii succeeded in setting
him free and finally proclaiming him Mahdi.
Enemies of the Shiites add to the doubts cast
on the legitimacy of the Fatimide claims by
contending that it was not the real Ubaidallah
who was freed by al Shii, but a Jew who im-
personated him, the real Ubaidallah having al-
ready been put to death. However this may
be, a man claiming to be Ubaidallah now be-
came the leader of the Fatimides and enforced
the Shiitc doctrines on the people. Not long

PATS

397

PATS

After this a quarrel arose between Ubaidallah
and al Shii which resulted in the murder of the
latter. By 913, the uprisings due to this murder
having been quelled, Ubaidallah succeeded in
bringing his kingdom into order. He built a
new capital south-southeast of Kairawan, where
he died in 933, having made two vain attempts
to win Egypt from the Abbasides. His son
al Ka'im and grandson Isma'il (who took the
title of al Mansour) were troubled by the up-
lismgs of Abu Yazid Makhlad al Zonati, who
was not successfully defeated till 947. The rest
of Mansour's reign was busied with strengthen-
ing his kingdom, which was in sad straits after
this revolt. It was only on the reign of his
son Abu Tamin Ma'ad, who had the title Mo'izz
lidin Allah, that the authority of this dynasty
began to spread. It was acknowledged over most
of the region now constituting Morocco, Algeria,
and Tunisia, as well as Sicily. Al Mansour also
succeeded in widening his kingdom to the east,
and in 972, owing to the aid of his commander
in chief Jawar, he entered Cairo, thus adding
Egypt to the dominions ruled by the Fatimides.
This move, however, resulted in the weakening
of Fatimidc power in the Maghrib, which grad-
ually became nominal only. On the other hand,
numerous attempts were made to conquer Syria,
but the Fatimides never gained more than a
temporary hold over that country. They were
finally driven out entirely by the Seljuks in
1076, Egypt at this time being the only land
left to them. The two first caliphs of this period,
al Mu'izz and al Aziz, insured their power by a
cautious and deliberate policy and a careful
organization of the mechanism of administration
and finance. The third caliph, al Hakim, proved
to be a powerful despot who did great harm
to his country. A mystery surrounds his death.
Some contend that he was murdered by his sis-
ter (who became regent after his disappear-
ance) ; others that, realizing that he was losing
power, he disappeared of his own accord. Thus
he became in the eyes of many the Hidden
Mahdi in truth, and the Druses still look for
his return. Al Hakim having, as we have said,
done more harm than good, was followed by
tyrannical regents and weak caliphs who suc-
ceeded in undermining the power of this once
powerful dynasty. Here and there a strong man
comes to the front, attempts to reestablish order,
and to regain lost provinces, but for the most

Eart this period in the rule of the Fatimides
s made up of jealousies and assassinations.
The result of this was that the country finally
fell a prey to the two* great Syrian powers, Da-
mascus and Jerusalem. On the death of the
last caliph, the unfortunate al Adid, in 1171,
the Fatimide family disappeared from history,
and Saladin came into the possession of Egypt. '
Bibliography. Wtistenfeld, Qesohichte der
fatimiden Ohalifen (Gfittingcn, 1880), in the
preface; C. H. Becker, Beitrage tsur Gesohichte
Aegyptens untor den Mam, part i, p. 4 et seq.
(Strassburg, 1902), gives critical studies of the
sources; cf. also Silvestro de Sacy, Expos6 de la
religion des Druxes (Paris, 1838); De Goeje,
Memoire sur les Carmatfies du Bahrein et lea
Fatimides (2d ed., Leiden, 1886); Rtthricht,
QesoMohte des ktiniqreiohs Jerusalem (Inns-
bruck, 1898) ; A Miiuer, Der Islam im Morgen-
wnd Ahendland, i, 595 et seq., ii passim (Berlin,
1885-87) ; Stanley Lane-Poole, A History of
Egypt, p. 92 et seq. (New York, 1905).

{AS. fat, loel. feitr, Dutch vet, OHG.

fefait, Ger. feist, Fett, fat). An important class
of substances found in all parts of the animal
organism, although they occur mainly in sub-
cutaneous tissue and on the surface of muscles.
They are largely taken in ready-formed in the
food. Unlike the albuminoids, however, they
are also to some extent produced by the animal
organism itself. As to their mode of formation,
it was for a long time believed that they are
derived in the body from sugar, starch, and other
carbohydrates; it has, however, been shown that
they are produced by the chemical transforma-
tion of albuminoids, though the presence of
carbohydrates does seem necessary to their for-
mation. The quantity of fat in the human body
varies considerably at different periods of life.
In the earlier stages of foetal existence we find
scarcely any fat; in new-born children there
is usually a considerable quantity deposited
under the skin, and the organism continues
rich in fat till the age of puberty, when a marked
diminution occurs. It again increases about
middle life and then occasionally occurs in great
excess; e.g., three or four inches of fat are not
infrequently found under the skin of the ab-
domen of corpulent persons. Extraordinary de-
posits of fat in some particular part or the
body are sometimes found both in men and in
animals, the remarkable prominence of the but-
tock in Hottentot women being due to this cause*
The uses of fat in the animal organism are mani-
fold. It plays an important part in the process
of cell formation; it protects the body from ex-
ternal shocks by a uniform diffusion of pressure
through the whole adipose tissue; it checks the
loss of heat by radiation; it promotes the mo-
bility of various organs, etc. Its chief use, how-
ever, consists in supplying a great part of the
heat energy indispensable to animal life, heat
boing produced in the organism mainly by the
combustion of available fat. A moderate ac-
cumulation of fat serves as a store of combus-
tible matter in time of need. A superfluous
growth of fatty tissue, on the other hand, is a
source of great inconvenience and gives rise to
the condition known as obesity. See also FATTY
DEGENJCBATSON.

The fats are lighter than water; when brought
into contact with paper or fabrics, they leave a
translucent grease spot, which is generally diffi-
cult to remove, though it can sometimes be
washed out with ether, benzine, chloroform, oil
of turpentine, and other organic liquids in which
the fats are soluble. To determine the amount
of fat in milk, cheese, or any other mixture sub-
mitted for examination, the analytical chemist
dissolves out the fat with ether, separates the
ethereal solution from the other ingredients,
evaporates it, dries the residue, and weighs the
pure fat thus obtained in a suitable dish. Fats
have the peculiar property of forming emulsions
with water, in which the minute globules of fat
often remain in suspension for a very long time;
milk is such an emulsion. To emulsify fat arti-
ficially, it is melted, if hard, and simply shaken
up with water in which some carbonate of soda
has been dissolved.

Besides serving as a necessary ingredient of
food, fats are applied industrially to many use-
ful purposes. They are often used as fuel and
as illuminants and very extensively for the
manufacture of soap and candles. Formerly
they were much used also as lubricants-, in this
application, however, they have been largely
r&plaoed by oils derived from petroleum.

To obtain the fat, the suet from the animal
body is pressed between warm plates or kneaded
in inuslin bags placed in hot water; the fat
melts and is readily separated from the animal
membranes. Or else the fat is dissolved out with
efcher, in which the membranes are insoluble.
Another process sometimes employed consists,
on the contrary, in dissolving the membranes
with dilute acid or alkali, which leaves the fat
unattacked. The crude fat may be purified by
treatment with sulphuric acid.

Fats are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen. Their chemical nature was elucidated
by Chevreul (q.v.) as far back as 1811. Chev-
reul showed that fats are combinations of ordi-
nary glycerin and certain so-called fatty acids.
Glycerin is a triatonric alcohol ; i.e., it is capable
of combining with three equivalents of a mono-
basic acid (such as ordinary acetic acid). The
combination of an alcohol and an acid is called
in chemistry an ester, or ethereal salt. The
esters of glycerin and stearic, palmitic, and
oloelc acids are called respectively tristearin,
trilpalmitin, and tnolem. The various fats are
mixtures mainly of these esters or "glycerides,"
containing them in varying relative quantities.
Fats, like tallow, containing a large proportion
of triatearin and tripalmitin are comparatively
hard; on the contrary, lard and similar fats,
which are soft and pasty, are found to contain
a high percentage of triolem. The color, state,
consistency, etc., of fats vary with the source
from which they are derived. The fat of car-
nivorous animals has a peculiar disagreeable
odor and is not so hard as that of herbivora.
Human fat contains, besides tripalmitin, tri-
olem, and some tri stearin, also a yellow sub-
stance resembling tile by its odor and bitter
taste. The animal secretions all contain a cer-
tain amount of fat; ear wax, e.g., has boon
shown to contain some tristearin and some tri-
olem. Butter contains about 87 per cent of fat,
including a considerable amount of tributyrin
(the ester of glycerin and butyric acid) ; oleo-
margarine, prepared from the best beef tallow,
differs but slightly in composition and nutritive
properties from butter.

When exposed to the action of steam heated
to a temperature of 400° F. (about 200° C.),
all fats and fatty oils are decomposed into their
chemical constituents. The same action takes
place in the presence of moisture, though much
more slowly, at ordinary temperatures (the ran-
cidity of fat is due to the separation of free
acids, and may therefore be removed by dissolv-
ing out the acids with water). A similar de-
composition takes place in the animal organism;
steapsin, one of the pancreatic ferments, splits
up and emulsifies fat in the process of digestion.
Even more readily than with hot steam, and at
a much lower temperature, is the decomposition
of fat effected with caustic alkalies. When fats
are treated with sodium or potassium hydroxide,
the metal takes up the acid of the fat, forming
the salts known in common life as soap, while
the glycerin of the fat is set free. The process
is extensively employed in the manufacture of
soap and is therefore generally spoken of by
chemists as the sapomfioation of fats. See
ESTERS.

In the animal organism, or when heated with
free access of oxygen, fats are burned (oxidized)
completely, yielding, like other compounds of
carbon, water and carbonic acid. But when they
are burned incompletely, as sometimes in care-

DEGE1TEBAKON

less cooking, a number of combustible gases are
produced, including the vapors of acrolein, to
which the irritating odor of superheated fat is
due. See OILS.

FATSHAW, fiit'shan, or Ftf-SHAN. A
great trading mart and manufacturing centre
in the Province of Kuang-tung, South China,
second in importance to Canton (q.v.). It is
one of the five ohen, or great marts, of the coun-
try, the others being King-te-chen in Kiang-si,
Siang-t'an in Hu-nan, Hankow in Hupe, and
Si-an-fu in Shen-si. It is situated on one of
the branches of the river delta to the right bank
of the Chu-kiang, or Pearl River, near the mouth
of the North River, 12 miles southwest of Can-
ton. It has a population estimated at 450,000.
Its industries include the manufacture of cloth,
silk, paper, embroideries, firecrackers, porce-
lain, rattan, bamboo, and brass wares; but it
is especially noted for its iron and steel manu-
factures and has been called "the Birmingham of
China." Whole cargoes of old horseshoes and old
iron of all kinds are annually shipped to it from
Great Britain for use in this industry. Fatshan
also does a large business in cassia, grain, oil,
and timber. The town is facilitating the im-
mense traflic with Canton. It has a telegraph
station, two churches, and the Wesleyan Hos-
pital, with accommodation for 1000 patients.
It is said that before the expulsion of the Jesuit
and other missionaries the Christians of Fat-
shan numbered 10,000, but no trace of them is
now to be found.

PATTOBI, fat'td-re, GIOVANNI (1828- ).
An Italian military painter, born in Livorno.
He was a pupil of Giuseppe Bezzuoli and the
Florence Academy, and later came under the
influence of the school of Morelli. The success
of his first important work, l*The Battle of
Magenta" (1859), led him to make a specialty
of military life, every aspect of which he painted.
He is a naturalist as regards color and treat-
ment of atmosphere and shows his academic
training only in his correct draftsmanship and
grouping of figures. In 1877 he became a pro-
fessor in the Academy of Florence and a member
of that of Bologna. Other paintings of his are
"The Forty-ninth Regiment at Custozza" (Na-
tional Gallery, Rome) and "The Wounding of
Prince Amadeo at Custozsa" (1870; Brera,
Milan). Some few genre pictures also are from
his brush, including "The Horse Market in the
Piazza Montanara, Rome," and "The Horse Mar-
ket in Terracina." He received a gold medal
at Paris in 1900 and medals at the Vienna and
Philadelphia expositions.*

EATTY DECMITEBA'TIOMr. A patholog-
ical term signifying the gradual replacement by
fat globules of the tissues of a living body, im-
pairing and finally destroying them. These
globules, though originating in the living tissues
and existing among them, have in themselves
no element of life; hence, when they replace
living tissues, they are destructive of them.
Fatty degeneration must be distinguished from
obesity, which is simply excessive deposition of
fat between the tissues. The disease is of fre-
quent occurrence and attacks nearly all the tis-
sues, particularly the muscular and cellular,
as in the heart and liver, which organs are often
the seats of the disease. The red blood globules
and the nerves are probably never attacked by it.
The older view that fat found in cellular tissue
was a result, of the transformation of proteid
into fat is now known to be erroneous. Hie

FATTBOUBG

399

FATTCHEB DE

chief source of the oil globules is the fat brought
to the cell as nourishment by the blood and
lymph and not utilized. Fatty degeneration is
caused in one of two ways : ( 1 ) from a deficient
supply of oxygen ( seen in embolism ( q.v. ) ,
thrombosis (q.v.)? or anaemia, general or local) ;
or (2) by the direct injurious action of poisons,
such as phosphorus or chloroform, which act
principally 011 the liver, or the toxin of diph-
theria, which attacks the nerves and striated
muscles. Injured cells containing little fat may
recover; where the process has advanced beyond
a certain point, recovery is impossible. Consult
Mallory, Principles of Pathological Histology
(Philadelphia, 1914).

FAUBOURG, fd'bSoV (OF. forbourg, from
fors, Fr. hors, from Lat. foris, outside, beyond +
bourg, from Lat. burgus, OHG. burg, Ger. Burg,
AS. burh, Eng. borough; formerly written also
•faux-bourg, false town, by popular etymology).
A suburb in French cities, a part of the town
now indeed within the walls (or the town
limits), but which was without them when, in
former days, the walls were less extensive.

FAUCES, fft'scz (Lat., throat). The back
part of the mouth, consisting of the passage from
the cheek cavity proper to the cavity of the
pharynx. Above the fauces is the soft palate,
and on cither side are the pillars of the fauces,
between the folds of which lie the tonsils (q.v.).
See TONGUE; PALATE; PHARYNX.

FAUCHE, fosh, HirroLYTE (1797-1869). A
French Orientalist, born at Auxerre. After writ-
ing a theological poem, Panthton (1842), and
a novel, La sosur OabricUe (3 vols., 1844), he
devoted his life and fortune to the task of trans-
lating into French various Sanskrit works.
Among these are: Oita Oovinda ou le Ritou 8an-
hara (1850); Bhartrihari ct ToJiaura (1852);
a part of the Ramayana (1854-58, in 9 vols.;
abridgments, in 2 vols., 1869; and in 1 vol.,
1892) ; CEuwes completes de Kalidafta (2 vols.,
1859-60) ; Unc tttrade, containing the JMritchia-
katika, of Sudraka, the Dorakowmarat-charita,
the MaTrimnastava, and Magha's epic Sisoupdla-
Vadha (2 vols., 1861-63); and about a third
of the Maha-Bharata, in 10 vols. (1863-72).
These translations contain many errors, as was
inevitable considering the difficulties under which
he labored, but they are marked by much sym-
pathy for the original and by frequent felicity
of rendition.

EAUCHE-BOREL, bG'rel', Louis (1762-
1829). The principal agent of the Bourbons
from the beginning of the Revolution. He was
born at Neuchatel, became a printer, conducted
the negotiations with Pichegru for the restora-
tion of the Bourbons, and for that purpose set
up as a publisher at Strassburg* Here he was
captured by order of the Directory in 1795, but
was released for lack of evidence. After the
flight of Pichegni to England Fauche-Borcl con-
tinued the negotiations with Barras and was
banished from France. Nevertheless he under-
took to circulate the manifesto of Louis XVIII
even after the accession of Napoleon to the
throne. After eight years in England and
Sweden he returned to France in 1814 with the
allied armies and was employed in certain secret
negotiations. • He subsequently became Prussian
Consul-Cteneral at Neuchfttel. His services were
unrecognized by the Bourbons until the accession
of Charles X, when he received a pension of
5000 francs. His interesting Affrnoires were
published after his death by Beauchamp (4

vols., 1828-29). Consult Barbey, "Le& memoires
de Fauche-Borel," in Revue Historique, vol. ci,
pp. 326-333 (Paris, 1909).

FAUCHEB, fd'sha', Juuus (1820-78). A
German free trader. He was born and educated
in Berlin, his family being of French Huguenot
extraction. He early became a disciple of Adam
Smith and a defender of the policy of Cobden
and the English free traders. In 1850 he founded
the Berlin Abendpost, the first free-trade journal
of Germany; and with Wiss, Beta, Prince-Smith,
and others he organized in 1848 the first German
free-trade society, afterward known as the Eco-
nomic Society of Berlin. Upon the suppression
of the 1 bcndpost Faucher went to England, where
in 1856 he became one of the editors of the
Morning Star, the first free-trade paper in Lon-
don. In 1861 he returned to Germany and be-
gan a vigorous agitation for liberty of domicile,
industrial freedom, and free international com-
merce. He was elected member of the Prussian
Diet in the same year. In 1863 he founded with
Michaelis the Vierteljahrsschrift filr Volkswvrt-
schaft, Politik, und Eulturgeschiclite, which he
edited until 1877. During the campaign of 1870-
71 he accompanied the German army as corre-
spondent of the London Daily News. In 1872
he returned to London. He died in Rome. Be-
sides contributions to economics, which appeared
in the Vierteljahrsschrift, he published books of
travel: Ein Winter* m I taken, Griechenland und
Konstantvnopel (1876); Vergleichende Kultur-
bilder aus den vier europaischcn Millionenstad-
ten (1877) ; Streifzuge duroh die Kiisten und
Inseln des Archipels und des ionischen Meeres
( 1878 ) ; and an essay, "Russian Agrarian Leg-
islation in 1861," in tiystcm of Land Tenure in
Various Countries (3d ed., 1881).

FAUCHEB, LEONARD JOSEPH (LEON) (1803-
54) . A French publicist and political economist.
He was born at Limoges and was educated at
Toulon and Paris. He became editor in chief
of the Temps, Gourrier de Paris, and Constitu-
tionnel; was one of the principal advocates of
free trade, and a frequent writer on economics
in the Siecle and the Revue des Dcnoo Monde fs.
After the revolution of 1848 he was elected to
the Legislature and upon the election of Louis
Napoleon to the presidency was appointed Min-
ister of Public Works (Dec. 20, 1848) and soon
afterward Minister of the Interior, as successor
to Le*on de Maleville. He retired from public
life in 1851. A collection of his economic works
is included in the Melanges d'faonomie et de
finance, published by the economist Wolowski,
Faucher's brother-in-law (2 vols., 1856), He
also wrote Etudes sur VAngleterre (2 vols.,
1844). Consult Le"on Faucher, biograpMe et
correspondence (2 vols., 2d ed., Paris, 1875).

FAUCHEB DB SAINT-3S1AUBIGB, f6'sha'
de SUN' mfl'rSs', NABOISSE HENBI EDOTTABD ( 1844-
97). A French-Canadian journalist and author.
He was born at Beaumont, Bellechasse, in the
Province of Quebec, was educated at the semi-
nary there and at the College of Ste. Anne de
la Pocatiere, and in 1864 went to Mexico, where
he 'became captain in the army of Maximilian
and afterward aid-de-camp to Gen. Viscount
d'Hurbal. For valor and integrity he was
created a knight of the Imperial Order of Guade-
loupe by Maximilian and was given tbe medal
of the Mexican campaign by Napoleon in. Re-
turning to Quebec in 1866, he was appointed
clerk of the Legislative Council of the Province
of Quoboo — a post which he held for 14 years.

TAXTCIT

400

A» editor of Le Journal de Qu&eo (1883), and
subsequently of Le Canadien, he had a brilliant
career in journalism. For his services to France
in the Canadian press he was created a chevalier
of the Legion of Honor (1881). In general lit-
erature Faucher is best known for his sympa-
thetic descriptions of historical places along the
St. Lawrence. Among his separate publications
are: A. la Irunante, oontes et recits (1873) ; De
Quebec d Mexico (1866); Choses et autres
(1873) ; De tribord a balord: trois croisiires
dans le golfe du Saint-Laurent (1877); .1 la
veHUe (1878); Deua> ans au Meaique (1878);
En route: sept jours dans les provinces man-
times (1888) ; Joies et tristesses de la mcr
(1888); Loin du pays (1889).

FATTCIT, fft'alt, HELENA SAVILLE (1817-98).
An English actress, born in London. She was
the daughter of an actor, John Saville Faucit,
and made her de*but as Juliet, at Richmond, in
1833, winning at once a great reputation. She
became the leading lady in Macrcady's Shake-
spearean revivals, was the original impersonator
of the heroines in Bulwcr's, Browning's, and
other modern plays, and also supported Irving
(1857). After her marriage in 1851 to Theo-
dore Martin, afterward Sir Theodore, she con-
tinued occasionally to appear on the stage,
though later than 1864 she rarely did so ex-
cept for a charitable object. One of her last
appearances was as Beatrice at the opening of
the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre at Stratford
in April, 1879. She was the friend of many
noted people and a reader to Queen Victoria.
In 1887 she published On Some of the Female
Characters of Shakespeare. Her death occurred
near Llangollen, Wales. Consult Actors and
Actresses of Great Britain and the United
States, ed. by Matthews and Hutton (New York,
1886), and Sir Theodore Martin's Helena Faucit
(London, 1900).

FATJJAS DE SAINT-F01TO, ft'zW de s3N'-
fOn', BARTHJ&LEMY (1741-1819). A French geol-
ogist and paleontologist, born at Montelimar.
As an expert geologist he was sent as commis-
sioner of the King on extensive travels for the
purpose of making an especial study of the prod-
ucts and phenomena connected with volcanoes.
He was professor of geology at the Jardin des
Plantes, Paris, from 1793 to 1818. His works
include: Recherches sur la pouvsolane (1778) ;
Reclterches sur les volcans 6teints du Vivarais et
du Velay (1778), in which he formulates a new
volcanic theory; Hitttoire naturelle de la pro-
vince de Dauphin^ (4 vols., 1781-82) ; Mineral-
ogie des volcans (1784) ; Voyage en Angletene,
en Ecosse et aux Hebrides (2 vols., 1797; Kng.
trans., 1799, and new ed., 1907) ; Essai de G6ol-
ogie (2 vols., 1803-09).

FAULKNER, fftk'ngr, CHABLES JAMES (1806-
84). An American lawyer and politician. He
was born in Martinsburg, Va. (now West Vir-
ginia), was educated at Georgetown University,
and was admitted to the bar in 1829. In 1832
he was elected to the Lower House of the Vir-
ginia Legislature. In 1848 he introduced in the
Virginia House of Delegates a law after which
the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 was modeled.
From 1851 to 1859 he was a member of Congress
from Virginia. In 1869 he was appointed by
President Buchanan Minister to France, where
his action in influencing Louis Napoleon to favor
the Confederacy led to his recall by President
Lincoln in 1861. Upon his return to the United
States he was arrested and confined in Fort

Warren, Boston harbor. When released, he went
south and served in the Confederate army on
the staff of Stonewall Jackson. After his
political disabilities were removed, in 1872, he
was a member of the State Constitutional Con-
vention in West Virginia in that year and was
again a member of Congress from 1875 to 1877.
FAULKNER, JOHN AIRBED (1857- ).
An American church historian. He was born at
Grand Pre*, Nova Scotia, graduated at Acadia
College, 1878, at Drew Theological Seminary,
1881, studied at Andover and Leipzig, and, after
several pastorates, became professor of church
history at Drew, 1897. He contributed to
Hurst's History of the Christian Church ( 1897-
1900) and wrote: The Methodists (1903); Cyp-
rian (1906); Erasmus (1908); Crises in the
Early Church (1912).

EATTLMAIOT, foul'mnn, KARL (1 835^-94).
An Austrian stenographer and author, born at
Halle, Germany. He began to teach the Gabels-
berger system in 1861, was member of a com-
mission appointed to investigate the teaching
of stenography in 1868, and was made a profes-
sor of stenography in 1884. He edited several
stenographic journals and invented a system
of phonography (published by Brant in 1875).
Based upon a radical reform of the Gabelsberger
system, it is easy of comprehension, but less
pliable and characteristic than the system it
aims to supplant. It has been adapted to the
French, Czech, and Servian languages. The prin-
cipal works of Faulmann are the following:
LchrQebaiide (35th ed., 1899) ; AnJeititng sur
phonetischen Stenpgraphie (6th ed., 1806); Die
Phonographic in ihrem Verhaltnis sur Kurrcnt-
schrift und Stenographic (1878) ; Das Bitch dcr
Schrift (2d ed., 1880) ; Qeschichte und Littcratur
der Stenographic (1895).

FAULT (OF., Fr. fautet Sp., Portug., It.
falta, flaw, from Lat. fallcre, to deceive, Gk.
<r0tiXXe«p, sphallein, to slip, Skt. phal, to deceive,
Lith. pulti, OHG. fallan, Ger. fallen, led. valla,
AS. feallan, Eng. fall), or DISLOCATION. In
geology, a displacement of rocks along a plane
of fracture. The plane of fracture may be in-
clined at any angle to the horizon, and 'the dis-
placement may be vertical or horizontal, but
usually both. The angle made by the fault plane
with a vertical plane is called the "hade" or
"slope" of the fault. The inclination of the
fault plane with the horizontal plane is called
the "fault dip." Where the displacement is
partly vortical, the side on which the rocks lie
at a higher level than that of their continuations
across the fracture is called the "upthrown side,*'

SBCTZOIT SHOWING

a, normal fault; 6, reversed fault.

and the other is called the "downthrow** side."
Also the side towards which the fault plane
dips is called the "hanging wall," while the
other side is called the "footwall." The "throw"
of a fault is its vertical displacement. The hori-
zontal displacement is sometimes called the

FAUNA

401

"heave." Where the hanging-wall side of a
fault is depressed with reference to the footwall
side, the fault is said to be a normal or gravity
fault. Where the hanging-wall side is thrust
up over the footwall side, the fault is said to be
a reversed or thrust fault. In a gravity fault
the dip of the fault plane is usually great; in
a thrust fault, small. This displacement in
normal faults is due to gravity and causes the
affected bodies to occupy greater horizontal area.
The displacement of a thrust or reversed fault
originates in compression of the rock mass.

In general, faults are one of the manifesta-
tions of the deformation which rocks undergo
in the outer parts of the earth's crust where
they yield by fracture. (See CRUST OF THE
EABTH.) Faults are accompanied by various
phenomena such as brecciation, jointing (see
JOINTS), and slickensiding, which are the
common accompaniments of relief from pres-
sure. While faults with marked throws are not
very frequent, it is difficult to find a fracture
in the earth's crust where some slight displace-
ment of the parts has not occurred, for frac-
tures develop in the relief of rocks from pres-
sure, and relief cannot be obtained without at
least a slight differential movement. In moun-
tain masses the displacement by faulting may
amount to hundreds, or even thousands, of
feet. The development of such great faults has
resulted probably from repeated small move-
ments along the fault fissures rather than by
single displacements. The movement, when sud-
den, is accompanied by earthquakes, and it is
now known that faulting is the proximate cause
of most of the powerful earthquakes, e.g., such
as the more rocent disturbances in India, Cali-
fornia, and Messina. Consult "Report of the
Committee on the Nomenclature of Faults," Bul-
letin of the Geological Society of America, vol.
xxiv (Washington, 1913). See MOUNTAIN;
GEOLOGY.

EATT1TA. An ancient Italian divinity. See
FAUNUS.

FAUNA. The indigenous animals of a desig-
nated place, region, or space of time, considered
collectively — the correlative of "flora" (q.v.).
The space in view may be a geographical sur-
face, as a country or a certain neighborhood, or
it may be a certain environment. Moreover, the
word is frequently compounded, as "avifauna,"
"piscifauna," etc., in order to designate that
only the birds, fishes, or other single group of
the given region are under consideration. Con-
versely, a district characterized by a fauna of
any particular nature is spoken of as a "faunal
region." For further elucidation of these defini-
tions, Sec DISTRIBUTION OP ANIMALS.

In geology and paleontology the term is em-
ployed in a sense somewhat different from that
in which it is used by the zoologist. The pale-
ontologist conceives of a "fauna" as an assem-
blage of animals inhabiting a particular region
during a geologic hemera, epoch, or period. The
fossil remains of such a fauna would be found
scattered through the successive layers of all
the deposits fojrmod during the period of its ex-
istence. Such a fossil fauna undergoes changes
in its make-up; some species drop out, other
new ones come in from adjoining provinces, and
the species themselves often exhibit evolutional
changes. The broader the use of the term, the
more apparent the modifications of the fauna.
Thus the "Ordovician fauna" of New York State
ia a comprehensive use of the term and involves

a large, heterogeneous assemblage of fossil or-
ganisms; but the "Upper Chaz^' fauna of the
Champlain valley is a more restricted use and
refers to a concrete, homogeneous member of the
larger group. For further discussion, see
PALEONTOLOGY.

FATTNCE, DANIEL WOBOESTEB (1829-1911).
An American clergyman, father of William H.
P. Faunce, born at Plymouth, Mass. Grad-
uating from Amherst College in 1850, he then
studied at the Newton Theological Institution,
was ordained to the Baptist ministry in 1853,
and thereafter held charges from 1853 to 1866
in Somerville, Worcester, and Maiden— all in
Massachusetts— in Concord, N. H. (1866-75),
Lynn, Mass. (1875-81), Washington, D. C.
(1881-89), West Newton, Mass. (1889-93), and
Pawtucket, R. I. (1894-99). He was a member
of the board of managers of the American Bap-
tist Missionary Union. His works include:
Words and Works of Jesus (1873) ; Words and
Acts of the Apostles (1874) ; The Christian in
the World (1875); A Toung Man's Difficulties
loith his Bible (1877); The Christian Expe-
rience (1880); flours loith a Sceptic (1889);
Prayer as a Theory and a Fact (1890) ; Advent
and Ascension (1893) ; Shall We Believe in Di-
vine Providence f (1900); The Mature. Man's
Difficulties with Ms Bible .(1908).

PATJWCE, WILLIAM HEBBEBT PABRY (1859-
). An American clergyman and educator,
born at Worcester, Mass. He graduated in 1880
at Brown University (where he then taught
mathematics for a year), and in 1884 at New-
ton Theological Seminary, and from 1884 to
1889 was pastor of the State Street Baptist
Church of Springfield, Mass. From 1889 to 1899
he was pastor of the Fifth Avenue Baptist
Church of New York City, in 1896-97 he lec-
tured in the Divinity School of the University
of Chicago, and in 1898-99 he was a member
of the board of resident preachers of Harvard
University. In 1899 he became president of
Brown University; during his administration
the endowment of the university was largely
increased. He was Lyman Beecher lecturer at
Yale in 1907-08 and was prominent in the work
of the Religious Education Association. His
writings include numerous contributions, chiefly
to religious periodicals, and the volumes The
Educational Ideal in the Ministry (1909) and
WJiat Does Christianity Mean? (1912).

FATTIST OF PBAXIT'ELES, THE. The usual
designation of a marble statue in the Capitoline
Museum, Rome. It is a copy of a celebrated
bronze original by Praxiteles (q.v.), which stood
in the street of the tripods in Athens. Tho
figure ia, properly speaking, a satyr, who is rep-
resented leaning in an easy and graceful posi-
tion against the trunk of a tree. This is prob-
ably the .first instance in Greek sculpture in
which a satyr is represented without any ani-
mal attributes except the pointed tips of the
ears. This figure suggested the title of Haw-
thorne's Marble Faun, in which a subtle de-
scription of the statue is given.

lEj^TTTSTTTS. Faunus is an early Italian god
of the country and especially of life on the
farm; a god of fruitfulness in fields and flocks,
a kindly divinity (the name may well be derived
from Lat.. favere, to favor). He dwelt in the
hills and the woods and was worshiped there.
He was also gifted with prophecy, and to him
•were attributed the strange voices and sounds
Iward in the woods. His companion divinity was

FATJQTTE DE

402

PATJBE

the goddess Fauna, his wife or his sister. This
old Roman god was identified hy Roman poets
with the Greek Pan and under the influence of
Greek models assumed the form and attributes
of that deity. From this also developed the con-
ception of fauni, or fauns, creatures like the
Greek satyrs, with pointed ears, goats' hoofs
and tails. In art the later Greek conception
minimized the goat nature. Under the euhe-
meristic tendencies of the time Faunus entered
the list of the early Latin kings as the father
of Latinus, son of Picus, and representative of
the early civilization. In some of the villages
a festival in honor of Faunus, called Faunalia,
seems to have been held on December 5, but in
Rome the great festival of the Lupercalia,
(q.v.), on February 15, was celebrated in his
honor. In the country wine and milk were of-
fered to him, and he was implored to be gracious
to fields and flocks. Consult Horace, Oarmina,
iii, 18, and Wissowa, Religion und Kultus der
Romer (2d ed., Munich, 1912).

FATTQTTE DE JONQTTlfiBES, fok de zhGN'-
kyar', JEAN PHILIPPE EBNEST DE (1820-1901).
A French mathematician and naval officer, born
at Carpentras. As chief of staff to Admiral La
Grandiere in Cochin-China, he organized at Sai-
gon the first agricultural and industrial exposi-
tion in the French Asiatic possessions. He was
appointed vice admiral Oct. 1, 1679, and in
1883 became director of the Bureau of Charts
and Plans. His mathematical works include:
Melanges de geometrie pure (1856); Essai sur
la generation des courles geometriques (1859) ;
Theor ernes fondamentauat sur les aeries de
courses et de surfaces alg€briques9 etc. (1865).
He also translated into French the Epistles and
the Art of Poetry of Horace.

FATJQtriEB, ffl'kwgr, FBAHOIS (c.1704-68).
A Colonial governor of Virginia. He succeeded
Dinwiddie as Lieutenant Governor bf Virginia
in 1758 and retained this office until his death.
In 1765, upon the passage of Patrick Henry's
famous Stamp Act resolutions, he dissolved the
Virginia House of Burgesses. He also opposed
the assembling of the Stamp Act Congress and
by refusing to summon the newly elected House
of Burgesses prevented the Colony of Virginia
from choosing delegates in compliance with the
invitation of Massachusetts. Fauquier was not
unsympathetic with the colonists in their strug-
gle for self-government and did not come into
violent conflict with them as Dinwiddie did. He
published An Essay on Ways and Means of
Raising Money -for the Support of the Present
War, loithout Increasing the PuUio Debts
(1756).

FAtTBE, f6r, (FRAN.gois) Ftox (1841-99).
A French statesman, President of the French
Republic from 1895 to 1899. He was born in
Paris, the, son of a cabinetmaker, studied in a
Christian Brothers' School in Paris, and in
an English school in Surrey. He learned the
trade of a tanner, and removed (about 1862)
to Havre, where he entered the employ of a
large leather firm, of which he became the con-
trolling partner. He was president of the
Chamber of Commerce at Havre on the break-
ing out of the Franco-Prussian War, through
which he served as a captain in the Garde Mo-
bile. In 1881 he first entered politics, being
elected to the Chamber of Deputies from Havre
as a moderate Republican, and was chosen Un-
dersecretary of State for Commerce and the
Colonies in the Gambetta cabinet until January,

1882. He held the same position in the cabinet
of M. Ferry in 1883-85. In the Chamber of
Deputies he became the chief spokesman of the
group known as Union Republicans. In the
short-lived cabinet of M. Tirard (January to
February, 1888), he was for the third time
Undersecretary for Commerce and the Colonies.
He continued to serve in the Chamber of Depu-
ties, being elected its Vice President in 1893.
Upon the election of Casimir-PSrier to the
presidency in 1894, Faure became Minister of
Marine in the cabinet of M. Dupuy. When Casi-
mir-Perier suddenly resigned the presidency in
January, 1895, Faure was elected his successor
as a compromise candidate, the moderate Re-
publicans blocking the choice of Brisson (who
got 338 votes to Faure's 224 on the first ballot)
and the Radicals preventing the election of
Waldeck-Rousseau (who had 184 votes), who
threw his strength to Faure to defeat Brisson.
Faure was not a great statesman, and his
career as president was not brilliant, but he was
conservative and safe. His administration was
a quiet one. The Franco-Russian alliance was
the only step of any importance in the Republic's
foreign relations, and the unfortunate Fashoda
affair was happily terminated. In 1898 his op-
position to the agitation for a retrial of Dreyfus
caused considerable feeling. Faure himself as
President assumed an almost monarchical pomp ;
and his wife took official rank — the first time
under the Republic. He was stricken with apo*
plexy, and died on Feb. 16, 1899. There is little
reason to believe the stories in the Memoires
(1912) of Madame Steinhcil that she was the
President's intimate friend. Faure's Les budgets
Gontemporains (1887) received a prize from the
French Academy.

FATTBfi, fo'ra', GABRIEL URBAIN (1845- ) .
A French composer, born at Pamiers. He studied
in Paris under Nicdormeyer, Dietsch, and Saint-
Sae'ns, and began his career in 18C6 as organ-
ist at Rennes. In 1870 he went to Paris as as-
sistant organist at Saint-Sulpice. Later he be-
came organist at Saint -Honor 6, and in 18D6 at
the Madeleine. In the same year he succeeded
Massenet as professor of composition at the
Conservatory. Upon the resignation of Dubois
in 1905 he became the director. In 1900 he
succeeded to Reyer's seat in the Academic.
Twice, in 1885 and 1893, he won the much-
coveted Prix Chartier for chamber music. His
compositions include a symphony in D minor, a
violin concerto, an orchestral suite, an elegy for
violincello and orchestra, a requiem, a choral
work (La naisxanoe de rdnu*), incidental music
to several dramas (Caligula, Bhylook, Pelleas et
Melisande, Promttliee), an operetta (L'Orga*
niste9 1885), and an opera in three acts (P&ne-
lope, 1913). But his talent is shown to best
advantage in his chamber music (a sonata for
violin and piano, several quartets and quintets) .
Among his numerous songs are many of rare
excellence,

FATTRB, JEAN BAPTISTS (1830-1914). A
French barytone and composer, born at Moullns.
When 13 years old, he entered the Paris Conser-
vatory and became a chorister at the Madeleine,
where his instructor was TrSvaux. After having
won first prize in the comic-opera class at the
Conservatory, he made his professional d£but at
the Opera Gomique in 1852. His first triumph
came in 1857, and two years later Meyerbeer
wrote for him the r61e of JBCoel in the Pardon de
Ploermel. In 1861 he appeared at the Grand

FAUBIEL

403

PATTST

Ope'ra, and his subsequent career was a repeti-
tion of successes. In 1857 he had become a pro-
fessor at the Conservatory. For a time he sang
in London and in Germany, but in 1876 left the
opera and thereafter appeared only in concerts.
In 1881 he was made a chevalier of the Legion
of Honor. As a composer, Faure was well
known for his sacred songs, many of which
largely owed their popularity to his interpreta-
tion. In 1886 he published La Vow et le Chant,
a treatise, with numerous exercises, on vocaliza-
tion.

FATTBIEL, fd'rySl', CLAUDE CHABLES (1772-
1844). A French philologist, historian, and
critic, born at Saint-Etienne. From 1830 until
his death he was professor of foreign literature
at the Sorbonne. In 1836 he published his chief
work, Histoire de la Gaule me"ridionale sous la
domination des conquerants germains (4 vols.),
which constituted a section of an extensive
projected history of culture and literature in
France. Worthy of notice, also, particularly on
account of its historical introduction, is his
edition of the Provencal rhymed chronicle, en-
titled Histoire de la oroisade contre lea here-
tiques albigeois (1837). After his death there
appeared two collections of his lectures, Histoire
de la poSsie provengale ( 1846 ) and Dante et les
origines de la langue et de la literature ita-
linennes (2 vols., 1854). His works served to
stimulate the study of the literature of the
Middle Ages, though his learning is frequently
more extensive than, exact. Consult J. B. Gal-
ley, Claude Fauriel (Saint-Etienne, 1909), and
also Gorrespondance de Fauriel et Mary Clarke
(Paris, 1911).

FATJSBOLL, fous'bel, MICHAEL Viooo (1821-
1008). A Danish philologist and Pali scholar,
born at Hove, near Lemvig. In 1861 he re-
ceived an appointment in the library at Copen-
hagen, and in 1878 he was made professor of
Indo-Oriental languages in the University. He
died in Copenhagen on June 3, 1908. His chief
work was in the editing of Pali texts and in thus
spreading a knowledge of the Buddhist sacred
books. Among his important publications are:
The Dhammapadam, with a translation and
commentary in Latin (Copenhagen, 1855; 2d
ed., London, 1900) ; Five Jatakas, with English
translation (1861); Two Jatakas (1870); Da-
saratha Jataka (1871); Ten Jatakas (1872);
The Jatakas, with an English commentary in
6 vols. (London, 1877-96) ; Indian Mythology
according to the MaMbh&rata, (1903). He wrote
also many works under the pseudonym of V.
Kristiansen, among which the Dictionnavre de la
langue des rues (1866) may be mentioned.

PAtTS'SET, ANDBEW ROBEBT (1821-1910).
A biblical scholar of the Church of England,
born at Silverhill, Ireland. He graduated at
Trinity College, Dublin, in 1843, became rector
of St. Cuthbert's, York, England, in 1859, and
canon of York in 1885. With Robert Jamieson
and David Brown he prepared a commentary on
the whole Bible entitled The Library Commen-
tary (London, 1868); separately he issued the
well-known Horn Psalmioce (1877; 3d ed.,
1886) ; The Englishman's Critical and Exposi-
tory Bible CyotopcBdia (1879; 3d ed., 1891);
Signs of the Times (1896).

'PATTST. An opera by Gounod (q.v.)) first

produced in Paris, March 19, 1859; in the

United States, ETovexnber 18, 1863 (Philadelphia) .

FAtTST, foust, ALBERT BEBJKHABDT (1870-

), An American Germanic scholar, He was

born at Baltimore, Md., and was educated at
Johns Hopkins (A.B., 1889; Ph.D., 1892), where
he was an instructor in German in 1894-96. For
the next seven years he was associate professor
of German at Wesleyan University (Connecti-
cut). He was assistant professor of German at
the University of Wisconsin (1903-04) and at
Cornell University (1904^-10) and after 1910
held a full professorship at the latter institution.
He edited Zschokke's Tales (1896) and Heine's
Prose (1909). Besides several essays on Ger-
man literary subjects, he is author of Charles
Sealsfield (Carl Postl), Der Dichter beider
Eemisphbren (1897), and The German Element
m the United States (1909; Ger. trans., 2 vols.,
1911), for which he was awarded prizes by the
University of Chicago and the Royal Prussian
Academy.

FATTST, BEBNHABD CHBISTOPH (1755-1842).
A German physician. He was born at Roten-
burg, Hesse, was educated at Go'ttingen and
Rintcln, and in 1788 became physician in or-
dinary at Btickeburg. He was one of the first
physicians in Germany to adopt vaccination and
published on that subject: Ucber die Kuhpockcn
und deren Impfung (1801) and OeffentUohe An-
stalten, die Slattern durch Einimpfen der Kuh-
pooken aussurotten (1804). The most impor-
tant of his numerous hygienic works is the
GesundheitskateoMsmus mum G-etrauche in den
Schulen und bcim hausliohen Unterricht (1794,
and frequently republished). Of the three Eng-
lish translations of the work, the latest is en-
titled A 'New (Juido to Health, Compiled from
the Catechism of Dr. Faust (1832).

FAUST, or FAUSTTTS, JOHANN, or GEOEQ
(c,1485-c,1540). A German charlatan, astrol-
oger, and soothsayer, supposed to have lived
in the first half of the sixteenth century and to
have performed marvels by the aid of the devil
and to have been carried away by him at his
death. Philip Begardi, a physician, mentions
such a person in his Indeso 8anitatis published
at Worms in 1539. The tales gathering about
such a nucleus made their first appearance in
literature as ffistoria von Dr. Johann Fausten
at the book fair at Frankfort-on-the-Main in

1587. This relates how the son of a peasant
achieves distinction at the University of Wit-
tenberg, but seeks to deepen his knowledge by
magic arts, secures a devil, Mephistopheles, for
his servant for 24 years, after which Faust is to
belong to the devil. This compact is sealed in
Faust's blood. The devil amuses Faust and his
professorial famulus Wagner with Mgh living,
nexual indulgence, long theological and philo-
sophical discussions, and visions of the spirit
world. Thid rouses remorse, and Faust seeks
consolation in mathematics, afterward visiting
hell and the stars, making wide travels, playing
magic pranks, sharing in student revelry, con-
juring the Grecian Helen from the nether world,
living with, her as concubine, and begetting a
soothsaying child, called .Justus Faust. When
the 24 'years are over, the devil carries away
Faust, who ruefully points the moral of his
folly. In the Faust legend one sees the Prot-
estant theology of the "Reformation expressing
its views of the intellectual freedom of the &en-
aissanco.

This tale was rendered into metrical English
in 1587 and was turned into German rhymes in

1588. In 1599 the tale appeared with an elab-
orate commentary by Q. K. Widman (consult
Scheible's Ktoster, vol. tt,,pp. 273 ff,,

TATJST

404

FAUSTINA

1845-49) , furnishing apparently the main source
of subsequent versions. In 1589 a French ver-
sion appeared by Victor Palma Cayet. The Ger-
man version was done into English prose, and
of this there was a revision in 1502, with a
Dutch version of the same year, in which the
death of Faust is dated Oct. 23-24, 1538. Soon
after the story first reached England its central
thought was seized on by Marlowe in his power-
ful drama The Tragedy of Dr. Faust us, written
as it seems in 1589, though not entered at
Stationers' Hall till 1601. Marlowe follows the
legend closely.

An interesting parallel between Faust and
Luther has been drawn by Scherer.

Faust brings to the University of Wittenberg
"a foolish and arrogant mind," seeking to ex-
plore nature beyond scholarly tradition and so
led to classical culture and to the devil. The
Luther of history and the Faust of the legend
both lectured on ancient culture. Faust yields
to it and Helena. Luther marries after the
Christian ordinance. Luther clings to his Bible.
Faust would explore behind and beyond it.
Luther fights with the devil; in the legend,
Faust compacts with him. Both visit Borne.
Luther is roused to revolt, Faust is amused and
cynical.

It was the melodramatic and spectacular ele-
ments in his drama, however, that made it
hold the stage, and after Marlowe's death
(1593) these were still further accentuated, so
that when English actors brought the drama
back to Germany it was essentially a popular,
not to say a vulgar, spectacle, in which a clown,
who in Goethe's drama has become Wagner,
representing the shrewd philistine common sense
of the middle class, is accorded the chief part.
It also appeared as a puppet play, a Punch
and Judy show to amuse children; and thus it
was seen by the boy Goethe, as a modification
of it may yet be seen by the German children of
to-day. The situation, however, made possible
a dramatic treatment of the deepest problems
of man's mortal existence. This was widely per-
ceived. Lessing essayed the subject in 1759.
Friedrich MUller, known as "Maler" Mtiller,
published in 1778 two fragments of a drama-
tized Faust» Leben. Klinger, of the Storm and
Stress, published (1791) a romance on Faust s
Leben, Thaten und Hdllenfahrt (trans, by Bor-
row, 1826). Goethe, who had begun work on
the subject as early as 1773 and committed sev-
eral scenes to friends in the so-called Gdchhau-
sen-Faust (discovered in 1887), published Faust ^
ein Fragment^ in 1790, the complete first part
in 1808. The second part appeared posthum-
ously in 1832. Klingemann wrote a tragedy
(1815), Lenau a tragedy (1836), Heine a bal-
let (1851), on Faust. Many others have made
use of the material. Goethe's Faust was adapted
to the English stage by W. G. Wills in 1885
and produced with much splendor and success
by Sir Henry Irving. Of Goethe's Faust there
are many English translations, of which Bayard
Taylor's is the best. The most convenient Bib-
liography of the older Faust literature is EL
Engel's Zusammenstellung der Faust-Schriften
(Oldenburg, 1885). Consult introduction to
Thomas's Goethe's Faust (2 vols., Boston,
1912).

ITATTST, or FUST, JOHANN. See FUST.
tfATTSTA, FLAVIA MAXIMIANA (289-327).
A Roman empress, a daughter of Maximianus,
a colleague in the Empire with Diocletian, and

compelled to abdicate with him. Fausta be-
came the second wife of Constantino the Great
in 307 A.D. She was ambitious and was con-
stantly meddling in affairs of state. She had
great influence with Constantine, for whose ad-
vancement she was willing to make almost any
sacrifice. It is aaid that she reported to him
a plot in which her father, Maximianus, was
concerned, thereby causing Constantine to order
the execution of Maximianus. She met her
death by suffocation in a heated bath, at Con-
stantine's order. This action is variously stated
as being due to a discovery of her infidelity, or
at anger upon finding the falsitv of statements
made by her which had led him to put to
death Crispus, his son by a former wife. She
was the mother of the subsequent emperors
Constantinus II, Constantius II, and Constans.
Consult The Cambridge Mediceval History, vol. i
(New York, 1911).

^AUSTIN I, fo'staN' (1785-1867). An em-
peror of Haiti, known before his elevation to
the throne as Faustin Soulouque. He was a
negro and was born in very humble circum-
stances at Petit Goave in Haiti. In his youth
he acted as a servant and later as adjutant to
General Lamarre and took part in the negro .
insurrection of 1803. He subsequently served
under Presidents Potion and Boyer and was
raised by the latter to the rank of captain.
After the year 1844, when the Haitian Repub-
lic was dissolved by the rebellion of the east-
ern part of the island, which established the
Republic of Santo Domingo, a struggle for the
supreme power ensued, in which Faustin, as
Governor of Port-au-Prince and commander of
the Presidential Guard, played an important
part. In 1847 he was appointed President of
the Republic by the Senate, which hoped to
find a pliable tool in him; but he speedily be-
gan to follow his own inclinations. He was an
implacable enemy of the mulattoes, and on
April 16, 1848, a massacre of the mulatto pop-
ulation in Port-au-Prince took place at his in-
stigation. In August, 1849, he caused himself
to be proclaimed Emperor, a title which he held
for about 10 years. Between 1849 and 1857
he made four attempts to conquer Santo Do-
mingo, but failed. His reign was marked by
oppression and cruelty; he plundered the coun-
try to meet the expenditures of his court, which
he conducted in apish imitation of that of Na-
poleon HI. A revolution, headed by General
Geffrard, broke out in 1858, and a republic was
declared. Faustin was forced to abdicate in
January, 1859, but was allowed to live and sent
off to Jamaica. He returned to Haiti shortly
before his death, which occurred on Aug. 6,
1867.

FATTSTIOffA. The name of two Roman em-
presses, mother and daughter. The former,
ANNIA GALEBIA FAUSTINA, usually spoken of
as SENIOR, was the wife of the Roman Emperor
Antoninus Pius, and died 141 A.D. (or perhaps,
140). (See ANTONINUS; FAUSTINA, TEMPLE
OF.)— FAUSTINA JUNIOB, daughter of the fore-
going and Antoninus Pius, was married to his
successor, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, and died
at a village near Mount Taurus in 175 AJ>.
Both, but particularly the younger, are de-
scribed by the Roman historians as notorious
for the profligacy of their lives, which their
exemplary husbands in vain endeavored to
check. The. younger Faustina was heartily
beloved by Marcus Aurelius; hence some hare

405

FAVEBSHA&

questioned the judgment of the historians. Af-
ter their deaths institutions for the relief of
poor girls were founded both by Antoninus and
Marcus Aurelius in honor of them and were
called "Puellce Alimentarias Faustiniance."

FATJSTMAirar, foust'man, MARTIN (1822-
76). A German forester, born at Giessen and
educated at the same place, studying theology
first and then forestry. He invented an instru-
ment for measuring the height of trees and
made valuable studies in the problems of for-
est valuation — a subject which is discussed in
his work, "Berechnung des Wertes, welchen
Waldboden sowie noch nicht haubare Holzbe-
stilnde fur die Waldwirtschaft besitzen," pub-
lished in the AHgcmeine Forsts- und Jagdzeitung
(Frankfort, 1849).

FATTSTTJLXTS. The legendary shepherd who
discovered the abandoned infants Romulus and
Remus and took them to his house, where they
were brought up by his wife, Acca Larentia.
His hut was shown on the Palatine.

FAUSTUS OF BIEZ, r6'ez'. A Semi-Pela-
gian of southern France, who lived during the
fifth century. The place of his birth is disputed,
and the precise dates of both his birth (405-
410) and death (490-495) are unknown. He
entered the monastery at Lerinum (Lerins),
where he was afterward (about 432) made abbot.
Here he was vigorous in defending the rights of
the monastery against the Diocesan Bishop of
FrSjus. After some 25 years of service as abbot,
Faustus was made Bishop of Regium (Riez) in
Provence, which office he held until his death.
During about four years of this time (c.481-
485) he suffered exile, probablv on account of
his strictly orthodox Trinitarian doctrine,
which offended the (Arian) West-Gothic King,
Eurich. Faustus opposed all Arianism and other
Eastern heresies, e,g., Macedonianism and Nes-
torianism; but judged by Augustinian stand-
ards, he fell into error in his views respecting
free will and divine grace. He belongs to that
large class of fifth-century churchmen who are
called Semi-Pelagians, though perhaps Semi-
Augustinians would be a more accurate desig-
nation. (Sec SEMI-PKLAGTANISM.) He held pe-
culiar views regarding the soul, apparently
teaching its corporeality.

Among Faustus's writings are letters, dogmatic
and ethical treatises, and homilies. Two of
his homilies on the Creed (wrongly attributed
in the manuscripts of Eusebius of Emesa) arc
of special value. His interest in the ascetic
life is illustrated by his six 8ermoncs ad Mona-
rliofi. His chief work, entitled On the Grace of
God, exhibits the Semi-Pelagian side of his
teaching. An incomplete edition of Faustus's
works may be found in Migne, Patrol. Lat., Ivii;
a better edition is that by Engelbrecht, in Cor-
pus ftcriptorum Socles. Lat., xxi (Vienna, 1891).
Consult: Koch, Der heilige Faustus (Stuttgart,
1895) ; Worter, %ur Dogmagcsohichte des 8cmi-
pelagianismus (Mtinster, 1900) ; Harnack, His-
tory of Dogma, vol. v (Eng. trans., Boston,
1899).

FATTVEL, f6'v?l', SuiJPlCE ANTOINB (1813-
84). A French physician. He was born and
educated in Paris, and subsequently went to
Turkey, where he became a member of the Sani-
tary Council at Constantinople (1848). Shortly
after his return to Paris in 1868, he was
appointed inspector general of the Sanitary De-
partment of the French government. His, works
on the Oriental plague, the cholera, which he

had closely studied during his long residence
in the East, and typhus were extremely valuable
and had much influence on the quarantine regu-
lations of numerous governments. His works
include: Le cJioltra, tiiologie et prophylaxie
(1868) ; Rapports sur V organisation du ser-
vice des quarantines en Turquie ( 1873 ) ; Regie-
ment general de police samtaire maritime
(1876).

FAUVELET, fd'vla', JEAN BAPTISTE (1810-
90). A French genre and still-life painter. He
was born at Bordeaux and studied under Delacour,
but was a follower of Meissonier. His paintings
are very small, of delicate and harmonious color,
and highly finished, but without being hard.
Among his pictures are: *CA Young Man Read-
ing" (1845); "The Two Roses" (1847); "The
Carver" (1850); "The Prodigal Son" (1869);
"Ascanio" (Luxembourg Museum) ; "Pheas-
ants" (Wallace collection, London) ; "Rigolo"
(Chartres Museum).

FAVARA, fft-va'ra. A city of Girgenti,
Sicily, 1066 feet above sea level, 6 miles east of
Girgenti and 9 miles from the Mediterranean
(Map: Italy, D 6). It mines sulphur, alum,
and tourmaline, quarries marble, markets fruit,
and has a castle of the Chiaramonte family,
who in the fourteenth century were politically
important. Pop. (commune), 1901, 20,398;
1911, 21,599.

FAVARO, fa-va'rd, ANTONIO (1847- ).
An Italian mathematician, born in Padua and
educated in that city and at Turin and Zurich.
In 1872 he was appointed professor of graphic
statics at Padua and in 1878 opened a course
on the history of mathematics at that uni-
versity. In 1879 he began to devote himself
more particularly to the study of Galileo and in
1887 was intrusted with the preparation of a
national edition of Galileo's works. He pre-
pared more than 200 memoirs and other writ-
ings, a large number of which are devoted to
the study of Galileo. Among these are: La
statica grafica nell' insegnamento tecnico supe-
riore (1873) ; Lezioni di statica grafica (2d ed.,
1877); Miscellanea Galiteiana inedita (1887);
Nuovi studi Galileiani (1891); Trent anni di
studi Galileiani (1907) ; Atti della na&ione ger-
manica artist a nello Studio di Padova (1911-
12).

FAVAET, fa'var7, CHARLES SIMON (1710-
92). A very prolific French dramatist and
theatrical manager, at one time director of the
Ope*ra Comique. He wrote, largely in collabo-
ration with his wife, some 150 comedies and
operettas, of which the more noted are: La
chercheuse d'esprit (1741) ; Les amours de Bas-
tien et de Bastiewne, a parody on Le devin du
village; and Les trois sultanes. His works are
published in 10 vols. (Paris, 1763-72) ; a selec-
tion of them in 3 vols. (1813). His Mtmoires
et correspondence Utteraires (Paris, 1808) is
very valuable for the history of the French
drama. Consult Font, Favart, L'opera oomique9
et la oom6die-vaudeville auta XV He et XVHIe
siecles (Paris, 1894). His wife, MABIE JUSTINE
BENOITE DUBONOERAY (1727-72), was a most
distinguished comedienne, singer, and dancer.
She was the first French actress to appear in
real peasant's garb, when playing a peasant
character. It was her popularity and influence
that made possible the successful introduction of
Italian light opera in France.

FAVENTIA, See FAENZA.

FAVEBSHAM, fav'Sr-sham. A municipal

FAVEBSHAM

406

FAVBE

borough, market town, and seaport of Kent,
England, and a member of the Cinque Port of
Dover, on a navigable arm of the Swale, oppo-
site Sheppey Island, 9 miles west-northwest of
Canterbury (Map: England, G 5). Its parish
church is* a handsome early-English structure,
with curious carvings and a fine spire. Of the
Cluniac Abbey, founded by King Stephen, in
which he, his wife, and son were buried, there
are but slight remains. It has valuable oyster
fisheries and carries on a large trade in fruit
and hops. There is also a considerable industry
in shipbuilding and in the making of bricks and
cement. It sends much agricultural produce to
London. In the vicinity are large guncotton
and powder factories. Gas and water are sup-
plied by private companies, but the town owns
its electric-lighting plant. Pop., 1901, 11,290;
1911, 10,619. Under the name of Faversfield it
was a seat of the Saxon kings. Its earliest ex-
isting charter dates from the reign of Henry
III. Here James II was arrested and sent
back to London after his first attempt to escape
to France.

FAVEBSHAM, fav'Sr-shdin, WILLIAM (1868-
). An American actor, born and educated
in England. In 1888 he came to the United
States and in 1893 joined the Empire Theatre
Company, of which he became leading man in
1896, appearing in a number of successful plays.
He left the Empire Company in 1901 and made
his d6but as a star as Bon Casar in A Royal
Rival. In 1908 he appeared in New York under
his own management in The World and his
Wife, an adaptation of Echegaray's El Oran Ga-
leoto. The following year he produced Stephen
Phillips's Herod, appearing in the title rOle. In
1912 and 1914 he presented productions of Ju-
lius Ccesar and Othello, playing in the former
Anthony and in the latter lago. Consult Wil-
liam Winter, The Wallet of Time (2 vols., New
York, 1913).

FAVIONANA, fa/vS-nya'na. The chief of
the ^gadian Islands (q.v.), lying about 6 miles
off the west coast of Sicily, and about 6 miles
long and about 2 miles wide (Map: Italy, D
6). Area, 7% square miles. The chief town
of the same name, situated on the north side,
has a good harbor and is defended by three
forts. A colony of convicts is kept at Favi-
gnana. Pop. of island, 1901, 6414; 1911, 6079;
the most important industry is fishing. Many
caves exist on the island, and in some of
them have been found ancient weapons and
utensils.

FAVO'mtrS, MABCUS (?90-42 B.C.). A
Roman politician, nicknamed "Cato's Ape/' on
account of his servile imitation of the latter's
character and conduct. He was a partisan of
the Optimates, and opposed all the measures
of the first triumvirate. Notwithstanding his
personal aversion to Pompey, he fought with
him during the Civil War, but upon Pompey's
death was pardoned by Caesar. He took no part
in the conspiracy against Caesar, but after his
murder espoused the cause of Brutus and Cas-
sius. He was put to death by Octaviua after
the battle of Philippi.

FAV'OBI'inrS. A sophist and skeptical
philosopher of the time of Hadrian. He was a
native of Arelate (Aries) in Gaul, but for many
years was a traveler in Greece and in the Bast.
He was on intimate terms with Plutarch, Hero-
des Atticus, Demetrius of Alexandria; Cornelius
Fronto, Aulus Gellius, and with the Emperor

Hadrian himself. He wrote: Pantodape His-
toria (Miscellaneous History), in 24 books,
which dealt, at least in part, with the history of
philosophy (used by Diogenes Laertios and
Stephanus of Byzantium) ; Apomnemoneumata
(Memoirs); a work on the rearing of children,
Peri Paidon Troches; Pyrroneioi Tropoi (Pyr-
rhonean Tropes), in 10 books, an attempted ap-
plication of the methods of Pyrrho (q.v.) to
practice in the law courts. Only a few frag-
ments of his works have been preserved. His
conversations are described at some length by
his devoted admirer, Gellius, in the Nootes At-
ticce. Consult: Goedeckemeyer, Die Geschichte
der griechiaohen Skeptizismus (Leipzig, 1905) ;
Gabrielsson, Ueler Favormus und seine TLavro-
dairij 'Ierro/»/a (Leipzig, 1906) ; Christ-Schmid,
Qeachichte der grieclwschen Litteraturf vol. ii
(5th ed., Munich, 1913) ; Schick, Favorin Ucpl
Hatfav Tpo^J?? und die antike flrisiehungslehre
(Leipzig, 1912).

FAVOBITA (fa'vd-rS'ta), LA (It., the favor-
ite). An opera by Donizetti (q.v.), first pro-
duced in Paris, Dec. 2, 1840; in the United
States in 1848.

EAVOSITES, fav'a-sl'teX The most impor-
tant genus of fossil tabulate corals, character-
ized by the vertical rows of round pores that
perforate the walls of the individual polygonal
cells. The animals of this coral formed colo-
nies of rounded or branching form, and in the
Silurian and Devonian periods they were im-
portant coral-reef builders. Silicified specimens
of Favosites and its near ally, Michelinia, are
often found lying loose in the residual soils of
Silurian and Devonian regions and are then
known to the fanners of the vicinity as "fossil
bees' neats." The best-known species are Favo-
sites niag&rensis and Favosites gothlandicus, of
the Silurian, and Favosites polymorpha, of the
Devonian. See Plate of CORALS.

J'AVBAS, fa'vra', THOMAS DE MAHY, MAB-
QTTIS DE (1744-90). A French general, born at
Blois. He entered the French army, and in
1772 became first lieutenant in the Swiss Body-
guards of the Count of Provence (afterward
Louis XVIII). In 1787 he organized and com-
manded a legion of Emigre's in Holland. Two
years later he was accused of conspiracy with
the Coxnte de la Chatre to secure the escape from
Paris of the King and was condemned to death,
and executed. Consult the memoir (Vienna,
1881) by Freiherr von Stillfried Ratenic, a de-
scendant of Favras's daughter, and the elabo-
rate article by Monin in La grande encyclopedic.

FAVBE, fa'vr*, AIPHONSE (1815-90). A
Swiss geologist. He was born at Geneva, stud-
ied at the academy there, and was appointed pro-
fessor of geology in the academy. He was a
correspondent of the French Institute. His
researches regarding the geology of the Alpine
regions gained for him a prominent place in
the list of scientists who have devoted them-
selves to the investigations of mountain struc-
ture. His experimental work on the folding of
rocks also commanded wide attention. His more
important works include: 8ur la structure en
^entail du Mont Blanc (1865) and Recherches
gfologiques dans lea parties de la Savoie, du
Pitmont et de la Suisse voisines du Mont Blanc
(3 vols., 1867).

FAVBE, JULES CLATJPB GABBIEL (1809-80).
A French advocate, author, and politician. HP
was born at Lyons, March 21, 1809, and sin/lied
for the bar at Paris, where he took ai Vtive

407

part in the July revolution of 1830. On re-
turning to Lyons, the same year, he became
noted for his ardent republicanism. In 1834
he defended the cause of workingmen accused
of illegal association and identified himself with
radical causes. He developed a wonderful ora-
torical style and became a prominent lawyer in
Paris after 1835, but still found time for liter-
ary work. After the February revolution of 1848
he was Secretary in the Ministry of the In-
terior, in which capacity he inspired a circu-
lar demanding that the commissioners of the
Republic be invested with dictatorial author-
ity in the provinces. He was also active as
a member of the Committee of Foreign Affairs.
Aiter the election of December 10 Favre showed
himself a persistent antagonist of Louis Na-
poleon and after the flight of Ledru-Rollin be-
came the orator of the radical "Republicans. Ho
was an ardent Republican but a Liberal of the
older type with a leaning to the Right and no
sympathy with Socialism. In questions of taxa-
tion, freedom of the press, and the death penalty
lie voted with the Left. The coup d'etat of Dec.
2, 1851, closed his political career for the time.
In 1858 he defended Orsini, who had attempted
to murder Napoleon III. In the same year he
became a member of the Corps Legislator, and a
leader of the small group whose persevering op-
position to the Empire promoted the revival of
Republican opinion that finally submerged it.
He gradually gave place in popularity to younger
Republican leaders like Rochefort and Gambetta.
In his discourse on entering the French Academy
in 1868, he appeared as a spiritualist and an
anti radical. In 1808 he founded the Republican
journal L'Eleatcur, and he opposed with all his
power the policy which led to the broach with
Prussia. After Sedan, Favre called for the depo-
sition of the Emperor and the formation of a
Government of National Defense. He was chosen
Vice President and became Minister of Foreign
Affairs and carried on negotiations with Count
Bismarck, but was less successful as a prac-
tical administrator than lie had been as a
polemist and orator. When Thiers became Chief
of the Executive, he appointed Favre Min-
ister of Foreign Affairs, and as such he signed
the definitive Treaty of Paris at Frankfort, May
10, 1871, He resigned office in July, 1871,
and resumed his law practice. Favre was a
voluminous writer on social and political sub-
jects. He died at Versailles, Jan. 19, 1880.
Among his works may be mentioned: Rome et
Id rGpublique fran^aise ( 1871 ) ; Le gouverne-
ment du J\ tfeptvmbre (1871-72) ; Conferences et
melanges (1880-82). Consult: Man tain, Jules
Favre, melanges politiques (Paris, 1882) ; King,
French Political Leaders (New York, 1882) ;
Bcnoit-Levy, Jules Favre (Paris, 1884) ; G.
Hanotaux, Histoire de la France oontemporaine
(ib., 1903).

EAVBE, Lotns (1826-79). A French engi-
neer and contractor. He was born at Oh&ne-
Bourg, near Geneva, and studied railroad
engineering in France. He displayed great en-
gineering skill at Lyons and elsewhere, and in
1872 was awarded the contract for the con-
struction of the St. Gotthard Tunnel within the
spaco of eight years.

The severe competition for the contract ap-
pears to have caused bad feeling against Favre,
who subsequently encountered not only unex-
pected difficulties in construction, but also, it
is said, the opposition of the chief engineer

of the tunnel. F&vre conducted the work with
ability up to the time of his death, and it was
completed not long after the expiration of the
contract period. Contentions over the respon-
sibilities for this delay and other financial
claims on both aides resulted in litigation which
extended until 1885. The executors appear to
have got the best of the litigation, although,
according to the London Contract Journal (ar-
ticle reprinted, Kngweenng News, July 11,
1885), Favre lost his fortune before his death,
and the aiim recovered by his executors
was not adequate compensation for the work
done.

FA'VTTS (Lat., honeycomb, Tinea favosa,
crusted r ingworm ) . A disease of the skin, chiefly
of the scalp, characterized by yellowish, dry
incrustations of more or leas roundish form,
and often cup-shaped, composed of the sporules
and mycelia (q.v.) of a vegetable growth, the
Achorion scJionleinii. The disks of favus are

S reduced with great rapidity and spread rap-
lly, if not attended to at the first, over the
whole scalp, destroying the bulbs of the hair,
winch bocomos very snort and thin and then
falls out altogether. Favue spreads only where
cleanliness is greatly neglected and is there-
fore almost unknown among the better classes.
It is very rare in the United States and in Eng-
land; common in Hungary, Russia, Italy,
France, and Scotland. It is far more common
among children than among adults. It may oc-
cur on the nonhairy parts of the body and also
on the nails. In treating favus the fungus must
be removed with the point of a knife from the
free surface of the skin or the nails, and mer-
curial ointment should be rubbed in. If on the
scalp, the cure is attempted by a variety of
ointments and lotions, principally consisting of
sulphur or mercury, and by pulling out the
hair by tho roots, or "epilation. In inveterate
cases long persistence in habits of the most
scrupulous cleanliness is essential, and there-
fore the cure is seldom permanent, though easily
attained for the time. X-ray treatment has
been successful in many cases. Favus is almost
always followed by permanent baldness of the
part affected, unlike ringworm (q.v.), which
disease it somewhat resembles.

FAWCETT, EDG-AB (1847-1904= ). An Amer-
ican poet and novelist, born in New York, May
26, 1847. He was graduated at Columbia Uni-
versity in 1867. From an early age he was a
voluminous contributor to journals and a popu-
lar writer of poetry, drama, and fiction. Among
his very numerous volumes are: Short Poems
for Short People (1871) ; Purple and Fine
Linen, a novel (1873) ; Poems of Phantasy and
Passion (1878); A Hopeless Case (1880); The
False Friend, a successful play (1880) ; The
New King Arthur: a Dramatic Poem (1884);
Song and Story (1884), poems; Romance and
Reverie: Poem* (1886); Song* of Doubt and
Dream, collections of verse; and the novels Fair
Fame (1894), Outrageous Fortune (1894), and
The Ghost of Guy Thyrle (1897). He also pub-
lished Agnosticism and Otlier Essays (1889).

EAWCETT, HEWEY (1833-84). An English
economist, born at Salisbury. He was educated
at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, of which he was a
scholar; graduated with high mathematical hon-
ors in 1856, and was elected a fellow in the
same year. Mr. Fawcett was totally deprived
of Ma sight in 1858 by an accident when shoot*
in#. Having written and published A Manual

408

of Political ficunomy (1863), the Economic Po-
sition of the British Laborer ( 1865 ) , and having
been an extensive contributor of articles on
economic and political science to various maga-
zines and reviews, he was elected, in 1863, pro-
fessor of political economy in the University of
Cambridge. He unsuccessfully contested for a
parliamentary seat, on Liberal principles, South-
wark, in 1857; the borough of Cambridge in
1862; and Brighton in February, 1864; but he
was returned for the last-named constituency in
1865 and was reflected in 1868. He was un-
seated at Brighton at the general election of
February, 1874, and was elected for Hackney
in April of the same year. In 1880 he became
Postmaster-General and conducted the affairs of
his office with great zeal and energy. He pub-
lished, besides his manual, Pauperism: Its
Causes and Remedies (1871) ; Speeches on Some
Current Political Questions (1873); Free Trade
and Protection (1878); etc. In his economic
writings Professor Fawcett was an uncompro-
mising advocate of free trade and the indi-
vidualistic economic doctrines with which that
policy is associated ; in politics he was a Liberal.
Consult Leslie Stephen, Life of Henry Fawcett
(5th ed., London, 1886).
FAWCETT, MILLICENT GABBETT (1847-
). An English writer, born at Aldeburgh,
Suffolk. In 1867 she married Prof. Henry Faw-
cett, the political economist, and soon after-
ward she began to take an interest in the wo-
man's suffrage movement, becoming eventually
president of the National Union of Women's
Suffrage Societies. St. Andrew's University
conferred upon her the degree of LL.D. She
published among other books: Political Econ-
omy for Beginners (1870); Essays and Lec-
tures, with her husband (1872) ; Tales in Politi-
cal Economy (1875); Janet Doncaster, a novel
(1875) ; a Life of Her Majesty, Queen Victoria
(1895); Five Famous French Women (1906);
Women's Suffrage (1912).

FAWKES, faks, GUY, or Guroo (1570-1606).
An English conspirator. The son of Edward
Fawkes, a Protestant ecclesiastical proctor and
notary, he was born in York. Under a step-
father's influence he became a Roman Catholic,
and, after coming into possession and disposing
of his father's property, he enlisted as a soldier
of fortune in the Spanish army, serving in
Flanders. He returned to England on the acces-
sion of James I (James VI of Scotland) and
became associated with Catesby and other con-
spirators, who hoped to restore Roman Catholi-
cism by blowing up the King, his Ministers,
Lords, and Commons, at the assembling of the
Houses of Parliament on Nov. 5, 1605. Fawkes
was chosen to be the chief agent in the deed,
and when he was arrested all arrangements had
been made for applying the fuse to the train
leading to barrels of gunpowder which had been
stored in a cellar of the Houses of Parliament.
Though he at first refused to divulge the names
of his companions, he finally succumbed to tor-
ture and confessed. He and six of his ac-
complices were brought to trial before a special
commission Jan. 27, 1606; and, four days later,
he and three accomplices were hanged and
quartered. Parliament set apart November 5
forever as a day of .thanksgiving. The commem-
oration of the event, although fast dying out,
still prevails, especially in cathedral towns,
where grotesque effigies called "Guy Fawkes,*'
or "Guys," with high cap and lantern, after

being carried in procession through the streets
by fantastically garbed and masked attendants,
are committed to the flames of huge bonfires.
(See GUNPOWDEB PLOT.) Consult: A True and
Perfect Relation (London, 1606), reprinted, with
new materials, as The Gunpowder Treason
(ib., 1679); Howell, State Trials (34 vols.,
ib., 1809-28) ; Winwood, Memorials (3 vols., ib.,
1725); The Fawl-s of York w the Sixteenth
Century (ib., 1850); Gardiner, What the Gun-
powder Plot Was (ib., 1897) ; id., History of
England (ib., 1893-95); and Hazlitt's articles
justifying Fawkes, in the November Examiner
(ib., 1821).

FAWNIA, fft'nl-a. The lady love of Doras-
tus, in Robert Greene's Pandosto (or Dorastus
and Fawnia). The character suggested the Per-
dita of Shakespeare's Winter's Tale.

FAX/WAX, or PAX/WAX. The ligament
sustaining the weight of the head. See LIGA-
MENT.

FlT, ft, ANDRAS (1786-1864). An Hunga-
rian author, born at Kohany, County of Zem-
ple"n. He studied philosophy and law at the
Protestant College of Sfirospatak, was called
to the bar, and for a time held an official posi-
tion at Budapest. Ill health, however, soon led
him to resign, and he henceforth devoted his
life to literary pursuits and to the cause of
national progress. After two volumes of poems
appeared a collection of fables, Mesek (1820),
which first brought him into prominence. Some
of his fables have been translated into English
by E. D. Butler (Hungarian Poems and Fables,
London, 1877). His other writings include a
tragedy, A ket Bdthory (The Two Bathorys)
( 1827 ) ; several comedies, the best of which is
Pigi Pentsek (Ancient Coins) ; the first attempt
at an Hungarian society novel, A. Belteky haz
(The House of the B&tekys) (1832); and a
humorous novel, Jdvor orvos es Bakator Ambrus
szolgdia (Doctor iJfivor and his Servant Am-
brose Bakator) (1855). In 1835 he was elected
to the Hungarian Diet. Fay was a constant
contributor to literary and scientific periodicals
upon important social questions and contributed
largely to the accomplishment of many impor-
tant reforms, such as the establishment of a
national theatre at Budapest and the introduc-
tion of life insurance and of savings banks into
Hungary. Since his death the Budapest savings
banks have established a fund in his memory,
the income of which is awarded each year to
the most notable literary production of the year,
exclusive of belles-lettres. Fay's collected works
are contained in 8 vols. (Budapest, 1843-44);
his novels in a more recent edition (3 vols.,
ib., 1883). For his biography, consult Badics
(Budapest, 1890) and Erdelyi (ib., 1890).

FAY, fa, CHABUBJS ALEXAKDBE (1827- ).
A French general and military writer. He was
born at Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port and was edu-
cated at Saint-Cyr and at the school for the
general staff. He was engaged in the topograph-
ical work in the Pyrenees, served in Africa, and
had his horse shot under him at the battle of
Laghouat (1852). During the Crimean War he
was aid-de-camp to General Bosquet and fought
brilliantly at the Alma and Inicerman. Upon
the outbreak of the Franco-German War, in
1870, he was appointed lieutenant colonel on
the staff of Marshal Bazaine and was taken
prisoner at the capitulation of Metz. In 1874
he was charged with, the organization of the

FAY

409

FAYE'S COMET

bureau of the general staff and appointed brig-
adier general. On Feb. 1, 1890, he was ap-
pointed commander of the Eleventh Army Corps
and was retired in 1892. He wrote: Souvenirs
de la guerre de Crimee (1867); Etude sur la
guerre d'Allemagne en 1866 (1867); De la loi
militaire (1870) ; Journal d'un officier de I'armee
du Rhw, (1871; 5th ed., 1890); Etude de
marches: Jena, Sedan (1899).

FAY, CHABLES ERNEST (1846- ). An
American linguist and Alpinist, born at Rox-
bury, Mass. He graduated in 1868 at Tufts Col-
lege and became instructor in mathematics there
in 1868, in modern languages in 1869, and pro-
fessor of modern languages in 1871. In 1883 he
assisted in founding the Modern Language Asso-
ciation, of whose pedagogical section he was pres-
ident in 1890, and he was president of the New
England Association of Colleges and Preparatory
Schools in 1888-89 and of the New England
Modern Language Association in 1905. He is
author of various monographs and articles on
modern-language subjects. A pioneer in the de-
velopment of mountaineering in the Canadian
Rockies and the Selkirks, he served as president
of the Appalachian Mountain Club in 1878,
1881, 1893, and 1905, and as first president of
the American Alpine Club (1902-08) ; has been
elected honorary member of several foreign Al-
pine clubs; since 1879 has edited Appalachia,
and since 1907 Alpina Americana, the second
number of which is his monograph on "the Rocky
Mountains of Canada." A contributor to the
NEW INTERNATIONAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.

FAY, EDWIN WHITEFIELD (1865-1920). An
American classical scholar and educator. He
was born at Minden, La., and was educated at
the Southwestern Presbyterian University (A.M.,
1883) and at Johns Hopkins University (Ph.D.,
1890). He also studied at Leipzig. In 1800-
91 lie was instructor in Sanskrit at the Univer-
sity of Michigan and in 1893-99 held the pro-
fessorship of Latin at Washington and Lee
University. At the University of Texas he was
acting associate professor in 1892-93 and after
1899 professor of Latin. Besides essays on
Sanskrit and contributions on philology, he
published: The History of Education in Loui-
siana (1898); The Mostellaria of Plautus
(1902); Culture in Education (1912).

FAY, THEODOBE SEDGWICK (1807-98). An
American poet, essayist, and story-writer, born
in New York City. He studied law, but never
practiced, and in 1828 became associate editor .
of the New York Mwror, for which he wrote
during extended travels in Europe. He was
Secretary of the American Legation in Berlin
(1837-63), then Minister Resident in Bern,
Switzerland (1853-61), and lived for some years
in Berlin. Among his books are: Dreams and
Reveries of a Quiet Man (1832) ; Norman Les-
lie, a tale, long popular, of New York,
afterward dramatized (1835); Sydney Clifton
(1839); Countess Ida (1840); Hoboken, a ro-
mance (1843); and Robert Rueful (1844). To
poetry he contributed Ulric, or the Voices
(1851); to theology, Views of Christianity
(1856); to history, Switzerland (1860) and
History of the Three Germanys (1889); to
education, Great Outlines of Geography (1867)
and First Steps in Geography (1873).

FAYAL, ft-al' (Portug., place planted with
beech trees; so called on account of some trees
mistaken for beeches by the early European col-
onists of the island). One of the Azores (q.v.),
\OL. VIII.— 27

in lat. 38° 25' N., and long. 28° 35' W., situated
a little to the west of the island of Pico (Map:
Portugal, A 4). It is about 10 miles long;
area, 64 square miles. It has a mountainous
surface, rising to an altitude of over 3300 feet.
Its soil is fertile, producing grain, oranges,
potatoes, and onions. There is a scarcity of
water and wood. The salubrious climate at-
tracts many visitors. The island has in former
times suffered from volcanic outbreaks. Fayal
has a population of 22,385. Its chief port is
Horta (pop., 6734), where the German sub-
marine cable from Borkum to New York has a
station.

IT AYE, fa, HBBV^ AUGTJSTE ETIENNE ALBANS
(1814-1002). A French astronomer. He was
born at Saint-Benoit-du-Sault (Indre) and was
educated at the Ecole Polytechnique, which he
left in 1834, before completing his course, to ac-
cept a position in the observatory at Paris to
which he had been appointed on the recommen-
dation of M. Arago. He made rapid progress in
his astronomical studies and investigations, and
on Nov. 22, 1843, attracted world-wide atten-
tion by the discovery of the periodical comet
which boars his name. This discovery won him
the Lalande prize and a membership in the
Academy of Sciences. In 1848 he became an in-
structor in geodesy at the Polytechnique, and in
1854 rector of the academy at Nancy and pro-
fessor of astronomy in the faculty of science
there. -He was inspector general of secondary
education from 1857 to -1862 and was appointed
professor of astronomy and geodesy at the Ecole
Polytechnique in 1873. He served as president
of the Bureau of Longitudes in 1876 and chief
inspector of higher education in 1877, and in
the latter year for a short time was Minister
of Public Instruction in the Rochebouet cabinet.
His work covers the entire field of astronomical
investigation. It comprises the determination
of comet periods, the measurement of parallaxes,
and the study of stellar and planetary move-
ments. He advanced several original theories
on the nature and form of comets, meteors, the"
aurora borealis, and the physical constitution
of the sun. In collaboration with Charles Ga-
luaky he translated Humboldt's Cosmos (4 vols.,
1846-59), and, in addition to numerous contri-
butions to scientific periodicals, published the
following important works: Sur les dtclinaisons
abftolues (1850) ; Legons de cosmographie (1852;
2d ed., 1854) ; Sur les cyclones solaires (1873) ;
Cours d'astronomie de I'Ecole Polytechnique (2
vols., 1881-83); Sur Vorigvne du monde (1884;
3d ed., enlarged, 1895) ; Nouvelle etude sur les
lemp$tes, cyclones, trombes, ou tornados (1897).
See FATE'S COMET.

FAYERWEATHEB, far/wetH-5r, DAfflBto B.
(1821-90). An American merchant and philan-
thropist, born at Stepney, Conn. He accumulated
a fortune, as a leather dealer in New York City.
He made special bequests to charitable and edu-
cational institutions, aggregating more than $2,-
000,000, and directed that about $3,000,000 more
should be placed with three executors for similar
distribution. His will was subjected to a re-
markable and prolonged contest, which resulted
in a complete victory for the beneficiaries.

FAYE'S COMET. A comet discovered at
Paris by Faye, Nov. 22, 1843. It is one of the
periodic comets, whose return has been observed
several times; viz., in the years 1851, 1858,
1865.' 1873, 1880, 1888, 1895, and 1910. See
COMETS.

410

I'AYTJM

TAYETTE, fu~eV. A town in Fayette Co.,
iowa, 128 miles northwest of Davenport, on the
Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul Kailroad
(Map: Iowa, F 2). Upper Iowa University
(Methodist Episcopal), founded in 18f37, is sit-
uated here, and the town contains a Carnegie
library. Fayette has a creamery and agricul-
tural interests. Settled in 1856, it was incor-
porated as a town in 1874 under a genertil State
law. The water works and electric-light plant
are municipally owned. Pop., 1000, 1315; 1910,
1112.

FAYETTE. A city and the county seat of
Howard Co., Mo., 135 miles (direct) west by
north of St. Louis, on the Missouri, Kansas,
and Texas Railroad (Map: Missouri, D 2). The
Howard Payne College for Women (Methodist
Episcopal, South), opened in 1844, and the
Central College (Methodist Episcopal, South),
opened in 1857, are situated here, and the city
contains a Carnegie library. Fayette has flour-
ing mills and agricultural interests. It owns
its water works and lighting plant. Pop., 1900,
2717; 1910, 2586.

FAYETTEVILLE, fa-StMl. A city and the
county seat of Washington Co., Ark., 63 mil^H
north by cast of Fort Smith, on the St. Louis
and San Francisco and the Kansas City and
Memphis railroads (Map: Arkansas, A 1). It
is a popular summer resort,, noted for its pic-
turesque situation and mineral wells, and is
the seat of the University of Arkansas. A na-
tional cemetery, containing 1230 graves, 782 of
unknown dead, and a Confederate cemetery, in
the centre of which stands a handsome monu-
ment, are situated here. The city contains also
a hospital, county jail, and a courthouse. Fay-
etteville has manufactures of lumber, flour,
wagons, foundry products, etc,, and a trade in
live stock, grain, fruit, and agricultural produce.
The water works are owned by the municipality.
Pop., 1900, 4061; 1010, 4471. 73?^

PAYETTEVILliE. A city and the county
seat of Cumberland Co., N. C., 60 miles south
1 by west of Raleigh, on the Cape Fear River, at
the head of navigation, and on the Aberdeen
and Rockfish, the Norfolk Southern, and the
Atlantic Coast Line systems (Map: North Caro-
lina, D 2). The State Colored Normal School
and the Donaldson -Davidson Academy are sit-
uated here, and there are hospitals, a military
school, and an Elks Home. The city is in a
fertile agricultural region, carries on a trade
in cotton and naval stores, and has extensive
manufactures of cotton, silk, cottonseed oil, lum- *
ber, furniture, flour, woodenware, tools, etc.
There is also a large vineyard. Manufacturing
has been greatly enhanced by the development
of electrical power from the Buckhorn Rapids
above the city, and the canalization of the Cape
Fear River from Fayetteville to Wilmington,
insuring a depth of 8 feet. The city government,
under a charter of 1803, is vested in a mayor,
chosen annually, and a municipal council, elected
on a general ticket. It owns the water works and
electric-light plant. Pop., 1900, 4670; 1910, 7045.

Settled by the Scotch in 1736 and laid out as
Canipbellton in 1762, Fayetteville received its
present name during a visit of Lafayette in 1784
and was incorporated as a city in 3893. Tn
1831 it was almost completely destroyed by firo.
On April 22, 1861, Governor Ellis of North Caro-
lina seized the United States arsenal here, con-
taining a number of cannon, a large quantity
of ammunition, and 35.000 small arms. In 1865

General Sherman's forces occupied the village,
destroying the arsenal and considerable propeitv.

FAYETTEVILLE. A town and the county
seat of Lincoln Co., Tenn., 75 miles south of
Nashville, on the Elk River, and on the Nash-
ville, Chattanooga, and St. Louis Railroad (Map:
Tennessee, D 4). Ft contains the Morgan Train-
ing School, high schools, and a public library.
It is thp centre' of a fertile agricultural district,
producing corn, cotton, wheat, tobacco, fruits,
and live stock. There are lumber, cotton, and
flour mills and an ice factory. The water works
arc owned by the municipality. Pop., 1900,
2708; 1910, 3439. Andrew Jackson encamped
here on Oct. 7, 1813, when he was campaigning
against the Creek Indians.

FAYOLLE, GENERAL (French commander).
For his biography see VOLUME XXIV.

PAY'RER, SIB JOSEPH (1824r-1907). An
English physician. He was born at Plymouth
and was educated at London, Edinburgh, and on
the Continent. Entering the medical service of
the navy, he served on H. M. S. Victory and
later in the military hospital at Palermo dur-
ing the siege of 1849. He acted as assistant
surgeon in the Bengal Medical Service from
1850 to 1874, served in the Burmese AVar of
1852 and in the Indian Mutiny of 1S37, and was
residency surgeon during the siege of Lucknow.
From 1859 to 1874 he was professor of surgery
at the Medical College of Bengal and was suc-
cessively president and vice president of the
Bengal Asiatic Society. He was appointed sur-
geon-general and president of the India Office
in December, 1874, and in 1901 became physi-
cian extraordinary to King Edward VII. His
principal works are the following: Clinical Sur-
gery in India (1866); The TJianatophidia of
India (1872), a work on the poisonous snakes;
Lettsomian Lectitres on Fever and Dysentery
fa India (1881) ; On the Preservation of Health
in India (1898) ; RccolleetionB of my Life (1900) .

FAYTTM, ffoota', THE (Coptic phiom, sea,
lake). An Egyptian province west of the Nile,
in the Libyan Desert. It contains 670 square
iniles, had a population (1907) of 441,583, and
is as celebrated for its fertility and productive-
ness to-day as it was in antiquity. Fruits of
all kinds grow in abundance, and it is the only
part of Egypt where the olive attains perfec-
tion. Its chief products are cotton and cereals.
The greater part of the district originally formed
the bed of Lake Mceris (q.v.), but great em-
bankments constructed by the kings of the
twelfth dynasty, especially by Amenerahat III
(q.v.), reclaimed a large amount of land, and
a considerable area was also diked off under the
second Ptolemy. The modern representative of
Lake Mo?ris IR the Birket el-Kerun, or 'Lake of
Horns' (so called from its shape), some 34 miles
long by 4% miles wide, which extends along
the western and northern aidea of the province.
The Fayum is watered by the Bahr Yusuf
(Joscph'R Canal), a channel which diverges
from the Nile to the north of Siut, enters the
Fayum through a narrow opening in the Ly-
bian chain, and then divides into numerous rami-
fications. From very ancient times the district
was the seat of worship of the crocodile-headed
god Sobk (q.v.), and its chief town was called
by the Greeks Orocodilopolis. Ptolemy II Phila-
delphus established a colony of veterans in the
district which he renamed the Arsinoite nome,
and its capital, the old Crocodilopolis, was later
called Arsinoe*. It is now called Medinet el-

FAZIO

411

FEAR

Fayura; pop., 1807, 31,262. Consult: Petrie,
Sahara, Biahmu, and Arsmoe (London, 1889) ;
R. H. Brown, The Fayfim and Lake Moms ( ib.,
1892); Sir William WiJlcocks, The Assudn
Reservoir and Lake Mceris (ib., 1904) ; Brad-
well, The Topography and Geology of the Fayum
Provinces of Egypt (Cairo, 1905).

FAZIO, fii'tse--o. A tragedy by Dean Milman,
published in London, 1815. The r61e of Bianca
was a favorite with Fanny Kemble and Madame
Ristori.

PAZY, ffl/z5' (JEAN) JAMES (1794-1878). A
Swiss statesman and author, born in Geneva and
educated in Paris, where he began the study of
political economy. When the Carbonari (<].v.)
spread to France in 1820, he became affil-
iated with them and actively opposed the gov-
ernment of the Restoration. In 1826 he returned
to Geneva, where he began the publication of
Le Journal de Geneve. Returning again to Paris
some time before the end of the reign of Charles
X, he entered journalism. In July, 1830, Fazy
was one of the first to sign the protest of the
journalists against the ordinance restricting the
freedom of the press. He participated in the
July revolution, favored the establishment of
a republic, opposed the candidature of the Duke
of Orleans, and became a member of the Radi-
cal opposition. He published the Kevue lie-
pullioaine, and his advocacy of radical republi-
can principles resulted in his being fined and
imprisoned. In 1833 Faxy returned to Geneva.
His attacks on the Swiss government in the
Remie de Gendve, which he established, resulted
in the overturning of the Conservative party in
October, 1846, and the establishment of the Lib-
eral regime. Until the fall of the Liberal party
from power in 1864, the history of Fazy was
that of the cunton, in which, from 1847 to 1853
and again from 1855 to 1861, he held the high-
est oflice. He occupied a prominent place in
the Swiss Federation, and was one of the
authors of the constitution of 1848. In his
later years he lived quietly as professor of in-
ternational law at the University of Geneva.
Among his published works are, besides novels
and dramas, fShommc auat portions: Conversa-
tion,* politiques et pliilosopMques (1821) ; Prin-
dpes d* organisation industrielle (1830); His-
toirc de Geneve (1838-40); De Intelligence
collective dcs sotietes (1874). Consult Henry
Faxy (a cousin), James Faay, sa me et son
OBuvre (Geneva, 1887).

FEA, fii'a, CABLO (3753-1836). An Italian
archaeologist, born at Pigna. Ho studied law
and received the degree of LL.D. from the Uni-
versity of La Sapienza, but later, in 1798, took
holy orders that he might have better oppor-
tunities to prosecute Ids study of archaeology.
He was for years director of excavations in
Rome. His valuable works on archaeology con-
sist of the following: a translation, with notes
(1783-84), of Winckelmann's Qeschiohte der
Kunst; Miscellanea, filologiGO-critica ed mti-
quarto, (1790-1837); L'mtegrita del Pantepne
rivendicata a M. Agrippa (1807-20) ; Relassione
d* un viaggh ad Ostia ed alia villa di Plvnio
(1802); an edition of the works of Horace
(Rome, 1811) ; Delia statua di Pompeio Magno
del palassiso Spada (1812) ; Isarieioni di monu-
menti puoUoi (1833); Descrizione di, Roma
(1822). In 1820 he published new fragments
of the Fasti (q.v.) 0<mw/arew, in his Frammenti
di Fasti Qonsolari. He is the principal founder
of the modem study of Roman topography.

AND DFVOT (Scotch fe&l, sod, prob-
ably from Swed. vail, sward, pasture, and divot,
turf). A prsedial servitude, peculiar to the law
of Scotland, in virtue of which the proprietor
of the dominant tenement possesses the right of
turning up and carrying off turf from the serv-
ient tenement for the purpose of building
fences, roofing houses, and the like. This, as
well as the servitude of fuel, implies the right
of using the nearest grounds of the servicnt
tenement on which to lay and dry the turf
peats or feal. These servitudes do not extend
beyond the ordinary uses of the actual occupants'
of the dominant tenements. They are strictly
analogous to the commons, especially the com-
mon of turbary, of the English common law.
See COMMON; PEOFIT A PEBNDBE.

FEAI/TY (OF. fealte, feaute, feelteit, from
Lat. fidelitas, faithfulness, from fidelis, faithful,
from fides, faith, from fidere, to believe). The
obligation which binds the vassal or tenant to
his feudal lord; "the very essence and founda-
tion of the feudal association," in the words of
Chancellor Kent. The oath of fealty, which was
inseparable from almost every feudal tenure of
land, took the following form: "Know ye this,
my lord, that I shall be faithful and true unto
you, and faith to you shall bear, for the lands
which I claim to hold of you, and that I shall
lawfully do to you the customs and services
which I ought to do at the terms assigned, so
keep me God and His saints." The right of
the landlord to fealty is still an incident of
tenure in England, although it is not exacted,
except from copyholders. It is obsolete in this
country. It was retained by statute in some
of our States, for a time after their separation
from England, but it was not enforced, and the
oath of fealty has resolved itself here, as it
has in England, into the oath of allegiance
(q.v.). Consult Kent, Commentaries on Ameri-
can Law (14th ed., 4 vols., Boston, 1806).

PEAK (AS. far, Ger. Gefahr, danger; con-
nected with Gk. ireipa, peira, trial, attack, vepdv,
prran, to cross, Skt. par, to cross). A term
which has been used in two senses in psychology.

(1) As one of the cardinal emotions of time
(see KMOTION), the opposite of hope, fear is
essentially n transient experience, passing of
necessity into one or other of the qualitative
emotions, alarm and relief. But, since fear and
alarm are both unpleasurable and the passage
from the one to the other is not definitely marked
in consciousness, fear is also used to designate

(2) the state of fear fulfilled, for which alarm
is the bolter term. Fear proper is an unpleasant
expectation (q.v.) ; fear fulfilled is a typical
emotion of quality, with characteristic expres-
sion. Darwin seeks to explain the bodily phe-
nomena of fear, in part, by appeal to the prin-
ciples of habit, association, anct inheritance.
We open the eyes and raise the eyebrows, e.g.,
that we may see as clearly as possible all that
is going on about us. In past generations fear-
stricken men have taken to headlong flight or
struggled violently with their enemies, and the
utter prostration, pallor, sweat, and trembling
of this exertion still appear when the emotion
is set up, though the actual movements of escape
or resistance are not made. He admits, how-
ever, that the symptoms are directly due, in
part, to "disturbed or interrupted transmission
of nerve force from the cerebrospinal .system
to various parts of the body/' James seems to1
agree when he says that ^trembling, which is.

FRAft

412

FEAST OF POOLS

found in many excitements besides that of ter-
ror, is quite pathological." The standing on
end of the hair in extreme fear Darwin regards
as a relic of the bristling up of animals, whose
appearance is thus made more terrible to their
antagonists.

Fear is exceedingly contagious, as the records
of battles and of commercial crises sufficiently
show. Morbid fears play a large part in the
classification of insanity (q.v.), and are also
connected with certain organic and functional
diseases of the heart (panphobia). Consult:
Darwin, The Expression of the Emotions (Lon-
don, 1890) ; James, Principles of Psychology
(New York, 1890) ; Mantegazza, La, physfogno-
mie et I'e&pression des sentiments (Paris,
1885) ; Mosso, Fear (London, 1896).
FEAR, CAPE. See CAPE FEAB.
FEAKN, fern, RICHARD LEE (1862- ).
An American newspaper correspondent. He was
born at Mobile, Ala., studied at the University
of the South and the University of Alabama,
and graduated from Stevens Institute of Tech-
nology in 1884. He was secretary of foreign
affairs for the Chicago Exposition in 1891-93.
Entering journalism, he was a member of the
Brooklyn Eagle staff in 1886-91 ; was Washing-
ton correspondent in 1893-97 and London cor-
respondent in 1896 for the United Press; and
after 1896 was a member of the New York Trib-
une staff and chief of its Washington bureau
in 1902-09. He was president of the Gridiron
Club (Washington) in 1906.

EEABKTE, fern, CHARLES (1742-94). An
English legal author, born in London. He was
the son of Charles Fearne, well known as judge
advocate of the Admiralty. The younger Fearne
was educated at Westminster School and made
his way to the bar through the Inner Temple.
He was a man of many gifts and of more varied
attainments than are often found in the masters
of the legal profession, and was especially ad-
dicted to classical studies and to the making
of mechanical inventions, in which he was an
adept. Notwithstanding these distractions and
a certain love of ease which often paralyzed his
energies, his extraordinary legal talents, and
especially his capacity for refined analytical
reasoning, speedily made him a leader of the
English bar. He was only 30 years old when
he produced the remarkable Essay on the
Learning of Contingent Remainders and Ex-
ecutory Devises, on which his fame mainly
rests,

It was characteristic of Fearne that he should
have devoted himself to the elucidation of the
most technical and abstruse doctrine of the law
of real property. It was as a piece of artificial
mechanism, ingeniously calculated to produce
certain practical results, that it attracted him,
and he did nothing to furnish it with a philo-
sophical or rational basis — perhaps an impos-
sible task. But his analysis of the doctrine, his
arrangement of its parts, and his description
of its complicated operation gave it a foremost
place in the artificial system of which it formed
a part. The essay at once became a standard
textbook of real-property lawyers, taking its
place with Littleton's Tenures, and Coke upon
Littleton, and in the decade after its publication
went through several editions. It has retained
its place as a legal authority and has had much
learning expended upon it by subsequent editors.
The best editions are those of Butler (1809-24)
and J. W. Smith (1831).

Fearne's success at the bar was equally con-
spicuous. He was said to have been "more con-
sulted than any man of his time," and for a
time he enjoyed a great professional income.
But he soon wearied of the exclusive devotion
to legal pursuits which his position in the pro-
fession called for, and allowed his practice to
slip away from him, and fell into straitened
circumstances. He died at Chelmsford, Feb. 25,
1794, broken in mind and body, at the compara-
tively early age of 52. His published works
include an historical sketch of land tenures in
England, an "Impartial Answer" to a letter of
"Junius" (published in 1770), and a volume
of posthumous legal essays (1797).

FEABNXEY, fSrnll, CAHL FREDEBIK (1818-
90). A Norwegian astronomer. He was born
at Frederikshald, and after studying at Chris-
tiania, was appointed Hansteen's assistant at
the astronomical observatory in that city. After
further studies at Bonn and KSnigsberg, Ger-
many, he returned to Christiania to prosecute
his investigations. In 1857 he became professor
of astronomy at the university, and in 1861,
upon the resignation of Hansteen, succeeded him
as director of the observatory. In 1876 he was
appointed chairman of the commission for the
geodetic survey of Norway. In addition to nu-
merous essays in Norwegian and German re-
views, he published: Zur Theorie der terres-
triscJien Refralction (1S84) ; Zonenbeobachtun-
gen der Sterne ewschen 64° 50' und 70° 10'
ndrdlicher DeUfaation (1888); Katalog von
39 W Rternen (1890).

FF.ATCNXEY, THOMAS (1802-42). A Nor-
wegian painter, of English parentage, brother
of the preceding, born at Frederikshald. He
studied at Christiania, Copenhagen, and Stock-
holm, and from 1829 to 1830 was the pupil of
Dahl at Dresden. A constant traveler, living
but little in his own country, he spent some
time in England, where he exhibited at the
Royal Academy and British Institute (1837-
38). His art has points of resemblance to that
of Corot and Constable, but is more primitive.
A.t best his landscapes are good in color and
his treatment is sincere and harmonious. Among
the best of them are: "Justedal Glacier1' (1829) ;
"View of Romsdalshorn"; "Grindelwald" ; "View
of Stockholm" (Hamburg Museum) : ^Gravena-
ford," "Labrofos Waterfall" (Christiania Gal-
lery) ; "Hilly Landscape" (Weimar Museum).
His clever caricatures of Turner also deserve
mention.

FEAST OF FOOLS. A survival into and
through the Middle Ages of the spirit of the •
Roman Saturnalia (q.v.). The details of its
observance varied much in different places, but
it was everywhere marked by the same broad,
boisterous drollery. The donkey played so fre-
quent a part in the pageantry that he often im-
posed his name on the celebration. < (See Ass,
FEAST OF THE.) In every instance there was
more or less attempt at dramatic representation,
the theatre being generally the chief church of
the place, and the words and action of the
drama being often ordered by its book of cere-
monies. Several rituals of this sort are still
preserved. That which was in use at Beauvais,
in France, has a rubric ordering the priest when
he dismisses the congregation ' to bray three
times, and ordering the people to bray three
times in answer. As the ass was led towards
the altar he was greeted with a hymn of nine
stanzas, of which the first runs thus:

FEAST OF WEEKS 413

" Orientis partibua,
Advenavit Asinus,
Puloher et fprtisaimus,
Sarcinis aptissimus*
H6, Sire Ane, M!"

{Prom the regions of the East-
Blessings on the bonny beast I—

Came the donkey, stout and strong,

With our packs to pace along.
Bray, Sir Donkey, Bray']

Where the ass did not come upon the stage
the chief point of the farce lay in the election
of a mock pope, patriarch, cardinal, archbishop,
bishop, or abbot. These mimic dignitaries took
such titles as Pope of Fools, Boy Bishop, Pa-
triarch of Sots, Abbot of Unreason, and the like.
On the day of their election they often took
possession of the churches, and even occasion-
ally travestied the performance of the Church's
highest office. The license which finally pre-
vailed in these mummeries at length called for
the intervention of ecclesiastical authority, and
the bishops and popes began to prohibit them.
The Feast of Fools maintained itself in many
places till the middle of the sixteenth century.
At Antibes, in the south of France, it survived
till the year 1644. The scene was a church, and
the actors, dressing themselves in priests' robes
turned inside out, read prayers from books
turned upside down, through spectacles of orange
peel, using coal or flour for incense, amid a
babblement of confused cries and the mimic bel-
lowings of cattle and grunting of pigs. Con-
sult Tilliot, M6moires pour servir d> Vhistoire
de la f$te des fpus (Lausanne, 1741), and see-
also BOY BISHOP; MISBULE, LOBD OF.
FEAST OF WEEKS. See WEEKS, FEAST OF.
FEASTS. See FESTIVALS.
FEATH/ER (AS. feper, Ger. Feder; con-
nected with Lat. penna, feather, Gk. irrep6v,
pteron, wing, from vfoeo-Qat, petesthai, Skt. pat*
to fly ) . One of the nu-
merous complicated out-
growths from the skin
forming the protective
coat or plumage of
birds and peculiar to
this class. They exist
in great variety, and
serve various ends in
bird economy, and are
applied to diversified
uses in human arts and
industries.

Origin and Struc-
ture of Feathers. For
the probable origin of
plumage as a character-
istic and essential ele-
ment in the class of
birds, and its influence
on their evolutionary
development, see BIBD.
In the individual birds,
as now known, the first

c, calamus or barrel/' part •*«* °.f feathers ap-
of which has been out away pears in the embryo,
to show the series of horny about the fifth day of

'WfflSU*k'S±£ Cation of the eg*
fom pit whence arises the af- as slight, backward-
tershaft (a); n raohis; w, web leaning, conical pimples
Sn^-^^^rS which* arise fro'm 'the
d, downy portion. ' mesoderm. (See EM-

BBYOLOGT.) Such a pim-
ple gradually sinks into the akin, forming a fol-
licle with the papilla rising in its centre; and

PAET8 OF A FEATHER.

the walls of this follicle and surface of the papilla
are formed of Malpighian cells. This central
papilla forms the "feather pulp," and its upper
portion becomes changed and filled with blood,
forming the nutritive organ of the feather. In

STRUCTURE OF A FBATHBR.

Perspective view of a portion of two adjacent barbs J
(b, 6), looking from the shaft towards the edge of the vane;
bd, posterior or distal barbules, overlapping and locking
into the proximal or anterior barbules (op) of the next barb.

the space between the pulp and the walls of the
follicle the feather is molded, by the hardening
and splitting off of the three superficial layers
of cells. The innermost and thinnest stratum
forms a transparent sheath for the pulp, and
persists ultimately as the series of thin caps
observable in the stem of a feather. "The middle
stratum is the thickest and becomes the feather
itself, while the outermost forms a transparent
and coherent cylindrical sheath, which incloses
the growing feather, giving it its well-known
spinelike appearance ["pin feather"], until, peal-
ing off as scurf, it sets free the rami (vanes)
of the young product." (Newton.) This is
the history of the first growth, but the process
is substantially the same for all feathers, which
arise from the same pulps. For an account of
the periodical shedding and renewal of plumage,
see MOLTING. See also INTEGUMENT; SKELETON.
A complete feather consists of a shaft and a
vane. The shaft is made up of the cylindrical
hollow barrel, or calamus, which extends to the
beginning of the vane, where it is succeeded by
the opaque, pith-filled, squarish stem or rachis;
in many birds the feather also bears upon the
inside of its calamus an aftershaft, or hypo-
rachis, which is a counterpart of the main
feather, and occasionally, as in the emu, may
equal it. The vane, or web, is the bladelike ex-
pansion along the sides of the distal part of the
feather and consists of several elements: first,
a row of horny lamelli, called barbs or rami,
which are wedge shape in section, the thin edge
being turned towards the bird's body. Their
number varies : a crane's wing feather, 14 inches

BABBICBL8 AND HA.MULI.

Oblique section through the proximal barbules in a plane
parallel to the distal barbules of the other illustration:
b,b, barbs; W, distal batbules; o, o, o, barbioels and hamuh
of the ventral side; o, barbicels of the dorsal side, without
hamuli; 6p, barbioels of the proximal barbules.

long, has about 650 in its inner web. These
barbs bear on each side similar lamelli, called
barbules or radii, very minute and exceeding a

FEATHER

414

FEATHER

million in number for such a feather as the
crane's; and each one of these has its upper
margin turned over like a flange, towards the
raehis; furthermore, the end of each radius on
that side of the ramus which looks towards the
tip of the feather is split up into a fringe of
hooks that reach over the radii of the next
forward row and hook on to their flanges, thus
connecting them all into the firm, springy, and
almost air-tight fabric presented by moat sur-
face or "contour" feathers — especially a "flight
feather," as a wing quill (remex) or a tail quill
(rectrix). Other kinds of feathers, as the soft
and fluffy underlying downs, the hairlike, de-
generate flloplumes, and scaly or wiry feathers,
exhibit the absence of some or all of these con-
necting parts, or their modification.

The purpose of the feathers is mainly protec-
tion from cold and wet; they are exceedingly
warm because their substance (resembling horn)
is a poor conductor of heat, checking radiation,
and because of the air which they contain or
entangle forming a blanket of dry air about
the body. To enable them the better to resist
wet, most birds are provided with a store of
grease in the oil gland (see BIKD), with which
they often anoint the plumage. Moreover, the
skin of many birds, especially aquatic species
of cold climates, is covered with a thick coating
of doicn feathers, each of which is composed of
a very small soft tube lying in the skin, from
the interior of which arises a minute tuft of
soft filaments, without any central shaft. This
downy covering secures warmth without weight,
like the soft fur at the base of the hair of Arctic
mammals, and is an adaptive survival of the
earliest form of plumage.

The embryo within the shell, and afterward
in the nest, is clothed with ''nestling down,"
which consists of short, incomplete, nearly col-
orless feathers, called neossoptiles, which in
some birds grow only on limited spots or, rarely,
do not appear at all; and sometimes they re-
semble hairs or bristles more than feathers.
This first coat soon disappears, being pushed off
in the first molt by the growth of the real
plumage, which arises from the same places and
areas as did the nestling down.

Feather Tracts. Feathers do not grow uni-
formly over the body as might be supposed, but
.are arranged in definite areas, called feather
tracts or pterylse. These consist chiefly of con-
tour feathers, but also bear many filoplumes
and sometimes true down. The arrangement of
the pterylse forms a special study in ornithology
known as pterylography. (See BIBD; PTEBY-
LOSIS.) Feathers grow with great rapidity, and
in some birds attain a length of more than 3
feet. They are almost always renewed at least
once, and in some cases partially or wholly
twice, annually; hence it may readily be con-
ceived how much vital energy must be exhibited
in their development and how critical the period
of molting must be. The plumage is generally
changed several times before it attains the state
characteristic of the adult bird; these changes
may occupy a period ranging from one to five
years, but some birds attain their adult plu-
mage with the first molt. (See MOLTING.)
When the sexes differ in color, as they frequently
do, the young birds resemble the duller colored
sex, generally the female. When the male in
breeding plumage is brighter colored than the
female, he usually dons a coat similar to hers
after the breeding season is over.

Colors of Plumage. The colors of the
feathers, to which birds owe their distinctive
appearance and beauty, may be due to pigments
lodged in the substance of the feather, or it
may be the result of a condition of the surface
which interferes with the complete deflection
of light. To the latter cause is due the metallic
sheen of the gorget of a hummingbird, the eyes
of a peacock's tail, the "livelier iris" of the
burnished dove. It is, in fact, an iridescence.
Notwithstanding their extravascular nature,
feathers undergo a change of color after they
are completely formed, but such changes ob-
viously cannot be due to any new deposits of
pigment in the feather, for it is actually dead
tissue. No subject connected with ornithology
has been more earnestly discussed in the last
few years than the method of color change in
birds. Those who hold that birds can change
color by some unexplained changes in the
feathers are rapidly losing ground, however, and
those who have given the subject most careful
study are agreed in rejecting this theory of
aptosochromatism, as it is called. It is well
known now that most remarkable changes in
color are produced merely by the wearing away
or abrasion of the tips of the feathers, and this
process, combined with the ordinary changes in
the molt, is thought to be sufficient to account
for all possible color changes.

Feathers vary in form in different parts of the
body and afford important zoological characters
for 'the distinction of species. For those of the
wings and tail and their service in flying, see
BIBD; FLIGHT. Consult: Coues, Key to North
Amwican Birds (Boston, 1903) ; Beebe, The Bird
(New York, 1906) ; Pycraft, A. History of Birds
(London, 1910) ; and for fossil feathers, Shufeldt,
Journal of Geology \ vol. xxi (Chicago, 1913).

Uses of Feathers. The chief uses to which
feathers are applied in the arts are three — pens,
due to the peculiar elasticity of the barrels;
fc eel fcatJicrst due to the combined softness
and elasticity of the barbs; and ornament, due
to the graceful forms and delicate tints of the
whole feather. The mode of preparing the bar-
rels for pens is described under QUILL.

Bed feathers were used in England in the
time of Henry VII, but it is not known how
much earlier. At the present day, goose feath-
ers are preferred, the white rather than the
gray. What are called poultry feathers, such
as those of the turkey, duck, and fowl, are less
esteemed, on account of their deficient elastic-
ity. Wild-duck feathers are soft and elastic,
but contain an oil difficult to remove. The fol-
lowing is one among several modes of prepar-
ing feathers for beds: Clean water is saturated
with quicklime; the feathers are put into a
tub, and limewater is added to the depth of a
few inches; the feathers are well steeped and
stirred for three or four days; they are taken
out, drained, washed in clean water, dried upon
nets, shaken occasionally while drying, and
finally beaten to expel any dust. The larger
establishments, however, now prepare bed
feathers by steaming, which is found to be a
more profitable and efficient process. The down,
which is of so light and exquisite a texture as
to have become the symbol of softness, is mostly
taken from the breasts of birds, and forms a
warm and delicate stuffing for beds, pillows, and
coverlets. The most valuable is that obtained
from the eider duck, described under BIDES.
Feathers used for headdresses, or other pur-

FEATHER

415

FEATHER

poses of ornament, arc selected according to the
forms and colors which they display. The
ostrich, a very valuable kind of feather, may
be taken as an example of the way in which
ornamental feathers generally are prepared by
the plumassier. The mode of catching the bird
itself is noticed under OWTBICH; it suffices here
to state that the hunters endeavor to avoid in-
juring the feathers by blood or blows. When
brought to market, the feathers are assorted
according to quality; those from the back and
above the wings are the best, the wing feathers
next best, and the tail feathers least valued.
The feathers of the male axe rather more prized
than those of the female. They are cleaned
for use by repeated soakmga and washings in
water, sometimes with and sometimes without
soap. There is also a process of bleaching by
means of burning sulphur. When dried by
being hung upon cords, the feathers pass into
the hands of the dresser, who opens the fibres
by shaking, gives pliancy to the ribs by scrap-
ing them with bits of glass, and curls the
filaments by passing the edge of a blunt knife
over them. If the feathers, whether of the
ostrich or any other bird, remain in the nat-
ural color, little more has to be done; but if
a change of tint be required, the feather is
easily dyed. A process of bleaching is adopted
before the dyeing, except for black.

The kinds of feathers chiefly used for or-
nament are those of the ostrich, adjutant, rhea
or American ostrich, emu, osprey, egret, heron,
bird of paradise, swan, turkey, ' peacock, argus
pheasant, ibis, eagle, and grebe. White ostrich
feathers are prepared chiefly for ladies' head-
dresses and black for the Highland regiments
and for funeral trappings. The white and gray
marabout-stork feathers, imported from Cal-
cutta, are beautifully soft and light, and are
in request for headdresses, muffs, and boas; the
white kinds will sometimes sell for their weight
in gold. The flossy kinds of rhea feather are
used for military plumes, and the long brown
wing feathers for brooms and brushes. Osprey
and egret feathers are mostly used for military
plumes by hussar troopers. Bird-of -paradise
feathers are much sought after by Oriental
princes for turban plumes. Cocks' feathers
are also used for ladies' riding hats and for
military plumes. Sec AIGRETTE.

Feathers in Costume. Feathers of birds
have always formed a part of decorative dress
of savages, and of those people removed above
savagery but Htill of low civilization. The most
showy, 'and perhaps the most tasteful, use of
feathers was probably in those feather cloaks
of which we read as a gala dress of the natives
of tropical and subtropical America at the
time of the Spanish Conquest. Similar decora-
tive surfaces nave been produced by many peo-
ples of low civilization, who can procure feath-
ers of great brilliancy and variety of color.
The feathers need little preparation, and the
system of mounting is the very simplest; what
is wanted, then, is merely that power of ar-
rangement of brilliant colors which is hardly
ever lacking in peoples of low but established
civilization. In another direction one of the
most tasteful u«es of feathers is that of the
Zulu warriors, the men of the great military
kingdom or empire constituted by Chacka in
the first quarter of the nineteenth century.
These soldiers, highly organized indeed for na- '
tive warfare, with weapons especially adapted

to their purpose and an admirable system of
military command, but defenseless as compared
with Europeans armed with long-range rifles,
attracted the attention of Europe by their mag-
nificent resistance to the encroachments of the
British. They wore no feathers nor other bril-
liant decoration except in time of actual con-
flict, when each warrior's head was adorned
with as many and as splendid ostrich feathers
as even South Africa could furnish him. Some-
what in like manner the red Indians of North
America used the eagle feather, and the placing
of these in one or another part of the head-
dress or at one or another angle showed the
tribe to which the wearer belonged.

In Europe feathers have always been used
for plumes in the hats or helmets of men and
in the headdresses of women, although directly
combined with the hairdressing (q.v.), or ar-
ranged in a hat or cap. Fn the sixteenth cen-
tury the flap hats of men of position or of mil-
itary rank were adorned with drooping plumes
dyed of various colors, \vhite being rather the
exception, as is denoted by the famous white

?lume of Henry IV, which was white because
hat was the color of the house of Bourbon.
The epoch from about 1830 to 1850 was dis-
tinguished for the wearing of ostrich plumes
upon the head in connection with the most ele-
gant evening dress by the ladies of France and
Great Britain. At the same time the cliapcau
bras, \\oru sometimes by military officers and
sometimes by civilian officers, was decorated
with a large ostrich feather, usually at the
front of the flat two-pointed hat and carried
along what might be called its ridge, and se-
cured to it at intervals to prevent its floating
off at one side. The famous chapeau of Murat,
Napoleon's marshal and most famous of cavalry
leaders, wan adorned with a standing egret
(aigrette), on each side of which were drooping
ostrich feathers. The curious and not graceful
feather-like plume of certain military hats in
the service of Great Britain seem to be com-
posed of f outliers much smaller and less showy
than ostrich plumes, and the effect aimed at is
a smooth, nearly conical mass. Cock feathers
are us<»tl for the hats of the Italian Bersaglieri,
the very dark-colored feathers with a curious
metallic iridescence being the ones chosen. The
egret ia, however, more commonly worn by wo-
men, nnd is often set in the most elaborate and
costly fashion in gold with precious stones. It
is at certain epochs of fashion a headdress of
special dignity. It appears that other feathers
than the actual tuft of the egret heron are often
used. Marabouts are used to adorn the edges
of fans, their floating delicacy seeming to add to
the lightness of the pretty implement itself.
Swan's-down, when used to trim gowns and
children's dresses, may be considered a hum-
ble imitation of the marabout.

The interest in ornithology inspired origi-
nally by the work of Audubon has led to the
formation of many societies with members
'pledged to wage a crusade against the killing of
birds for the purposes of mere adornment. In
some instances the destruction has proved! so
wanton that the extinction of certain feath-
ered tribes has either followed or been nar-
rowly averted. In the United States a league
has been formed looking towards the protection
by national legislation of such birds as are likely
to become the prey of milliner*' agents. $«e

PEATHEBBACK

416

FEBIGER

Commercial Uses. Since the introduction of
the steel pen and the disappearance of the quill
from correspondence, the chief commercial use
of feathers other than adornment has been the
stuffing of beds, cushions, and quilts. The in-
troduction of the quill toothpick followed as a
result of the abandonment of the quill for
writing. M. Bardin, of Paris, raised annually
two million geese for the purpose of supplying
the quills for writing. The substitution of the
steel pen threatened to overwhelm him in dis-
aster and, in seeking for some other use for
quills, he hit upon the toothpick.

For upholstery purposes feathers are consid-
ered valuable because of their lightness and
elasticity. The best combination is that of
goose and aquatic feathers. The feathers are
plucked in the springtime from the living bird,
as these are cleaner and more wholesome than
those plucked from dead birds. The feathers
of the eider duck would be the best of all, ex-
cept for their property of matting. They are
therefore more desirable for quilts than for
mattresses. When chicken feathers are used in
combination with those of swans, ducks, and
geese, the feathery portion is plucked from the
quill in order to insure a uniform softness.
The feathers are prepared by being subjected
to a powerful drying process in a heated com-
partment. They are then shaken thoroughly.
Otherwise they would be likely to breed disease
and vermin. Even carefully prepared, they are
no longer regarded as the most hygienic mat-
tresses, and the use of hair has become quite
general in their stead. Germany, Russia, and
France are the chief countries engaged in feather
raising.

JTEATHOERBACK (so called from the form
of the dorsal fin). One of a family (Notopte-
ridse) of isospondylous fishes of West Africa
and the Orient, which form a transition between
the least specialized bony fishes and the ganoids.
Outwardly they are characterized by their loz-
enge-like outline, the tail tapering to a point,
and the caudal fin being continuous with the
long anal. Both the body and head are covered
with small scales, the base of the skull is double,
the opercular bones are incomplete, and there is
no adipose fin. Three species are known inhabit-
ing brackish estuaries and lagoons in India
and Borneo, and two species in West Africa;
none exceeds 2 feet in length.

PEATHER GRASS (Stipa). A genus of
grasses. The species, of which there are about
100, are mostly natives of warm temperate cli-
mates. All have a peculiarly graceful appearance
which is due to the great length of the awns. In
some of them the awn is beautifully feathered.
This is the case in the well-known species, the
common feather grass (Stipa pennata), found
on dry hills in the middle and south of Europe.
It is perennial, easy of cultivation, and orna-
mental. When gathered before the seeds are
ripe, its feathery awns remain attached, so that
tufts of feather grass retain their beauty
throughout the winter. A variety, Stipa pen-
nata neo-measicana, is indigenous to the United
States. A number of other species are native
in the United States; among them are Stipa
avenaoeum, black oat grass, and Stipa spartea,
porcupine grass. In these the awns are rigid
rather than feathery. The esparto (q.v.) grass
(Stipa tenacissima] of Spain is nearly allied to
the common feather grass.
FEATHER RIVER. A river with numerous

head streams which rise in northeastern Cali-
fornia, in the Sierra Nevada Mountains, and
flow in a generally southwest direction, unit-
ing in Butte County, a few miles northeast of
Oroville (Map: California, D 3). From this
point the Feather runs nearly due south, re-
ceiving Yuba River and Bear Creek on the east,
and joining the Sacramento in Sutter County,
about 15 miles above Sacramento. The stream
is about 200 miles long, but is navigable only
to Marysville, a distance of 30 miles. It flows
through one of the richest gold fields in the
State, and the scenery is magnificent in its up-
per course.
FEATHER STAR, or ANTEDON. See CBI-

KOIDEA.

FEATH'ERSTOMTE. A coal-mining town in
the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 2 miles
west of Pontefract. It was the scene of a riot
on Sept. 7, 1893, which occasioned a royal com-
mission of inquiry owing to the killing of two
miners, and the wounding of others, by the
military. In 1912 the Local Government Board
approved of a proposal to begin the erection of
a group of workmen's dwellings. Pop., 1901,
12,100; 1911, 14,377.

EEATHERSTONHATJG-H, fStn'Sr-ston-ha,
GEORGE WILLIAM (1780-1866). An English au-
thor and geographer. He spent the early part
of his life in travel in the western part of the
United States and in the Canadian Northwest.
In 1834-35 he was employed by the War De-
partment in making geological surveys in the
legion now included in Wisconsin, Iowa, and
Minnesota. In 1842 he was appointed a com-
missioner to act for the British government
with Lord Ashburton in drawing up the Web-
ster-Ashburton Treaty, and to determine the
boundary between the United States and Can-
ada under the treaty. For these services he
was appointed to the consular service, serving
as British Consul for the departments of Cal-
vados and Seine, France, where he died. His
numerous publications include: a translation
of The Republic of Cicero (1828) ; Geological
Report of the Elevated Country between the
Missouri and Red Rivers (1834); The Geology
of Green Bay and Wisconsin (1836); Observa-
tions on the Ashburton Treaty (1842); Excur-
sion through the Slave States (1844); Canoe
Voyage to the Minnesota (1847).

FEATHERWING. See PLUME MOTH.

FEBIGER, fe'bl-ger, JOHN CARSON (1821-
98). An American naval officer, born in Pitts-
burgh, Pa. He entered the navy Sept. 14, 1838,
and served successively on the Macedonian, the
Concord, the Chippola, the Potomac, the Dale,
the Columbus, and the Germantoivn, and saw
much hard work in South American and Afri-
can waters. Commissioned a commander Aug.
11, 1862, he successively commanded the Kana-
wha, of the West Gulf blockading squadron
(1862-63), which was conspicuous in the en-
gagement in Mobile Bay, April 2, 1862; the
Osage, Neosha, and Lafayette, of the Mississippi
squadron ; and the Mattabeset 'of the North At-
tantic blockading squadron, which participated
in the spirited engagement with the ram Albe-
marle in Albemarle Sound, N. C., in May, 1864.
From 1866 to 1868 he commanded the AsTvuelot,
of the Asiatic squadron. He was made a com-
modore in 1874, and from 1876 to 1880 was
commandant of the Washington Navy Yard. On
Feb. 4, 1882, he was promoted to the rank of rear
admiral, and was retired in the following July.

FEB&IPtTGKE

417

PEBBTTARY REVOLUTION

FEB'RIiFTJG'E (from Lat. felrifugia, cen-
taury, a plant supposed to cure fever, from
febris, fever + fugare, to put to flight, from
fugere, to flee). A medicine calculated to re-
move or cut short a fever (q.v.). The term was
much used before the nature of infection was
understood, and before it was understood that
a certain amount of fever is necessary to the
completion of the chemical process by which
oxidation of poisonous products is accomplished.
Among; the febrifuges are aconite, antipyrin,
acetanilid, phenacetin, and sweet spirit of nitre.
Some of these are absolutely dangerous in cer-
tain fevers, as in the rise of temperature of
pneumonia. Quinine is an efficient febrifuge in
many cases. In typhoid fever (q.v.) and in
pneumonia (q.v.) cold water is an excellent
febrifuge.

PEOBBIS DLA/BIA. See EPHEMEBA.

FEBBiO'NT A.NISM. In theology, a system
of doctrine asserting the independence of na-
tional churches and the rights of individual
bishops in matters of local discipline and
church government — in other words, Gallican-
ism. (See GALLIGAN CHURCH.) It holds that
the final court of appeal is a general council of
the church, and the Pope, as well as other prel-
ates, is subject to its authority. The name is
derived from the nom de plume, Justinus
Febronius, assumed by Johann Nikolaus von
Hontheim (q.v.), Coadjutor Bishop of Tr6ves,
in a work on these subjects ( 1763 ) , which led
to a violent and protracted controversy.

FEB'BtTABY. See MONTH.

FEBRUARY REVOLUTION, THE. The
revolution of 1848, which brought about the
downfall of the July monarchy in France and
the establishment of the Second Republic. The
immediate cause was the political contest
against the Guizot ministry, but the under-
lying factor in the situation was the dissatis-
faction of all classes with the policy of stag-
nation of the regime of Louis Philippe and
the seething discontent of the working classes
with a completely bourgeois, business adminis-
tration. The July monarchy had disappointed
the expectations of all. It had not supplied bread
for the workers, nor glory for the Patriots, nor
persecution of the Church for the Voltaireans,
nor a clerical regime for the Catholics. The
one thing it had done was to increase the pos-
sessions and power of the upper middle class.
But Guizot's "enrichissez-vous" was not addressed
to a large enough part of the population to
keep the Orle*amst monarchy in power. The
very restricted property franchise and the in-
sidious attacks on popular .rights roused the
Liberals and Socialists. The Republicans of the
Left combined with bourgeois Socialists and with
Revolutionaries of the type of Blanqui and Barbe*s.
(See GUIZOT.) The agitation leading to the
Revolution began in 1847, when the more radical
factions held banquets in which a propaganda
was carried on for the lowering of tne tax-pay-
ing qualification for voting, which at this time
was 200 francs. Gradually at these banquets
the usual royal toasts disappeared, and finally,
on Feb. 21-22, 1848, the government forbade a
great reform banquet in Paris. The people were
aroused by this arbitrary act of the ministry,
and by the following day the Revolution had
become an accomplished fact. Barricades sprang
up everywhere in Paris, the workingmen armed
themselves, and Guizot was dismissed. It
seemed as if the last measure would end the

disturbance; but a small riot created the im-
pression that the government was dissembling,
and matters became worse 'than before. In
vain Louis Philippe abdicated in favor of his
grandson, the Count of Paris. Nothing would
satisfy the populace of Paris now but a repub-
lic, and the Iting, losing heart, fled (February
24). A provisional government was formed, in
which the leaders were Arago, Cr&nieux, Blanc,
and others, and by clever manipulation gained
over the spontaneous radical assembly at the
hotel de ville, so that the Moderates were kept
in power. But they were unable to resist the
demands of the proletariat and, as a concession,
established a sort of Labor ministry at the
Luxembourg under the presidency of Louis Blanc.
National workshops were also established on
Louis Blanc's suggestion to provide work for
the starving workingmen of Paris. On Febru-
ary 26 a decree was adopted, as follows: "The
government of the French Republic undertakes
to guarantee the existence of the workman by
labor and to provide labor for all citizens," and
on the following day national workshops were
actually established. Laborers from all over
France thronged to Paris, and the government
soon found itself burdened with the support
of an army of 100,000 men for whom it could
find no work. No effort having been made to
organize the national workshops on productive
and efficient lines, on May 4 a National As-
sembly of 900 members was convened and in-
trusted the government to an Executive Com-
mittee of five members, which in its turn was to
appoint the ministers. In this Constituent As-
sembly the more conservative Republicans ob-
tained control. This led to violent demonstra-
tions on the part of the Extremists. On May
15 there was an unsuccessful rising under
Barbc*s, Blanqui, and others, having for its ob-
ject the dissolution of the Assembly. The clos-
ing of the national workshops on June 21 was
followed by a bloody insurrection, June 24-26,
in the course of which more than 4000 workmen
perished on the barricades. The Assembly on
November 4 adopted a constitution for France.
There was to be a president elected for a term
of four years, and a single legislative chamber
of 750 members. The election was in Decem-
ber, 1848, and the candidates for the presidency
were Ledru-Rollin (Socialist), Cavaignac ( Con-
servative )9 and Louis Napoleon. (See NAPO-
LEON III.) The last carried the election; for
the charm of the great Napoleon's name was
on the increase in France, now that the glories
of his reign were remembered and the evils
long forgotten. By electing the head of the
Imperialist party, the country virtually decreed
the downfall of the Second Republic. See
FBANOE.

In other countries of Europe the February
Revolution had a marked effect. Throughout
the whole Continent the cause of popular liberty-
had been suffering from the policy of Metter-
nich (q.v.), and the news from Paris proved to
be the impetus necessary to arouse the people.
Especially was this true of Germany and Aus-
tria. In the former country an attempt was
made to carry out the union, which had been
hoped for in 1815; but though a parliament as-
sembled at Frankfort, 1848-49, it produced no
lasting results. In some of the individual
states, notably Prussia, constitutions were ob-
tained, which never again disappeared entirely.
In Austria Metternich was overthrown, and

4*8

for a long time Austrian supremacy in Italy
and Hungary was seriously menaced. See GER-
MANY ; PRUSSIA; AUSTRIA-HUNGARY; ITALY.
Consult: Stein, G-eschichte der soaialen Beice-
gung in FranJcreicfr (Leipzig, 1850) ; Haym,
Die devtsche Xationalversammlung (3 vols., Ber-
lin, 1848-50) ; Louis Blanc, Histoire de la re-
vohition de 18J/8 (Paris, 1870) : La revolution
de ie wrier au Luxembourg (ib., 1849) ; Lamar-
tine, Hitttone dc la revolution de 18 $8 (ib.,
1859) ; Thomas, Emile, ff is to ire des ateliers na-
tionaux (ib., 1848) ; Weill, G., Histoire du parti
rfyublicain en France de ISlJf A 1810 (ib.,
1900) ; Blanqui, Les classes ouvritres en, France
pendant I'annee 1848 (ib., 1849); Robinson and
Beard, Development of Modern Europe (2 vols.,
New York, 1910).

FEB'BTnjS. An epithet of Faunus (q.v.),
conceived of as a god of purification and,
through such purification, of fertility in man
and beast. The ceremony itself, called felrua,
was held on February 15; Februariits (Mensis)
was the "month of purification." In it occurred
the great festival in honor of the dead, the
ParentaUa. Later the Eomans made Fcbruus
an independent god and worshiped him also as
a god of the lower world and identified him with
the Greek Pluto. Consult Wissowa, Religion
und Kultus der ft (inter (2d ed., Munich, 1912).
FBBVBB, fg'vr', ALEXATTPBK FB&D&REC (1835-
). A French comedian, after 1867 a member
of the Come'die Frangaise. He was born in
Paris and was a musician till he was called
above the footlights to fill, it is said, an ac-
cidental vacancy. He played for a time in
Havre, then in Paris, chiefly at the Ambigu,
Beaumarchais, Porte-Saint-Martin, Galte", Ode"on,
and Vaudeville theatres. At the Ode*on,
especially, he created roles in Daniel Lambert
and Le rocher de Sysiphe. Having won a repu-
tation, he made, in 1800, his ddbut at the na-
tional theatre, as Philippe II in Don Juan
d'Autriche. His most frequent successes wore
in modern comedy, among his creations being
roles in L'ttrangfac, L'ami Frits, Daniel Rochat,
Les corbeaufSy Le roi s3 amuse, and Mar go. In
1894 he made a tour of the principal cities of
Europe. The following year he was sent to
the United States to make a study of the
American stage. His published works include:
Au bord de la sctne (1880) ; Le journal d'un
comedien (1806); La, clef des champs -(1899);
Le roman d'un msas~ti(-vn.

PfiCAMP, fiVkUN' (OF. Fescamp, Lat. Fis-
oannwn; derived by popular etymology from
Lat. Ficurt Campus, Fig Plain, on account of
a legend that a fig tree, in which some of the
precious blood of Christ had been placed by
Joseph of Arimatheea, was washed ashore there) .
A manufacturing town and seaport in the De-
partment of Seine-Infe'rieure, France, situated
in a narrow valley of the Fe'camp, flanked on
either side by steep cliffs, on the English Chan-
nel, 23 miles northeast of Havre (Map: North-
ern France, F 3). Its principal buildings are
the abbey; church of the Benedictines, in the
early Pointed eleventh to sixteenth century
style; a pilgrimage chapel, Notre Dame du
Salut; the church of Saint Etienne, a museum,
a library of 12,000 volumes, and a hospital.
The harbor is a port of entry for English col-
liers and Baltic timber ships and fishing ves-
sels. Fe'camp has cotton mills, foundries, cor-
dage'works, agricultural machinery works, tan-
neries, oil mills, distilleries and textile factories.

It has also large herring fisheries. Pop. (com-
mune), 1901, 15,381; 1911, 17,383. The town
was built up from a convent founded in 664,
which was destroyed in 841 by the Northmen.
In 998 Richard I, Duke of Normandy, rebuilt it
as a Benedictine abbey.

PECHWER, f?K'ne"r, GUSTAV THEODOB (1801-
87). A German physicist and philosopher, the
founder of modern psychology and psychophys-
ics. Ho was born in the village of Gross-
Siirchen, near Muskau, in Lower Lusatia. Af-
ter completing his school education at the
Kreuzscnulc, in Dresden, Fechner in 1817 en-
tered the University of Leipzig as a student of
medicine. Disappointed at the unscientific
character of his medical teaching, and strongly
influenced by Oken's Naturphilosophie and
Biot's Physics, he soon turned his attention to
the study of theoretical and experimental phys-
ics, and after Gilbert's death, in 1824, lec-
tured as a substitute for the professor. From
this date till 1845 he made valuable contribu-
tions to the doctrine of electricity, his well-
known Masftbenttmmungen uber die galvanische
Kette being issued in a single volume in 1831.
In 1833 he was appointed associate professor
and in 1834 full professor of physics in the
University of Leipzig. In 1838-40 he was en-
gaged upon investigations in the sphere of phys-
iological optics. Meantime he had, under the
pseudonym of Dr. Mises, published a long se-
ries of Inimorous and satirical essays, of which
we may mention the Proof that the Moon is
Made of Iodine (1821), a sharp arraignment of
the existing state of materia medica, and the
Comparatire Anatomy of the Angels (1825), a
work of delicate humor, containing in germ
many philosophical ideas which were later put
forward with serious intention. In 1839 Fech-
ner published a notable piece of art criticism,
and in 1841, as Dr. Mises, a volume of lyric
poetry. The years 1840-43 were spent, for the
most part, in the sick room— Fechner had
broken down nervously and was threatened both
with blindness and with insanity. His recov-
ery, when it set in, wns rapid and complete.
He now turned his thought towards philosophy,
and issued in 1846 an ethical treatise, Ueber
das hoohste Gut. This was followed in 1848 by
the curious but most suggestive work, Nanna,
odor ilbcr das Scelmlcbeu. der Pflanscn, in which
mentality, of however low an order, is ascribed
to the plant world, and this in turn by the
Zend- trrjrtff, odcr i'thcr die Dinge des ffimmels
und des Jenseits (1851), in which Fechner set
forth a comprehensive system of metaphysics
from the standpoint of natural science. Here
we find the fundamental ideas of what was later
to be elaborated as psychophysics. Finally, the
work Uebcr die phi/sikahsche und philosoph-
ische AtomenleJwe (1855) marks Fechner's de-
linitivo rupture with the speculative nature phi-
losophy of Schelling and his school. The re-
maining years of Fechnor's life (1860-87) were
devoted principally to the study of psychology
and aesthetics. In 1860 appeared the epoch-
making fflemente der Psychophysik (reprinted,
1889, 1907). We have seen that as early as
1838 Fechner was busied with psychophysical
problems, and the general question of the re-
lation of mind to body had long held his at-
tention.

The new science called forth lively discus-
sion, and Fechner's personal views evoked much
opposition. In 1877 he published In Sacheti

3TEOHTER

4*9

COtTffGXL

to objections by
and others, and

der Psychophysik, a
Helmholtz, Mach, Brenibano,
in 1882 the Revision der Hauptpunkte der Psy-
cliophysik, a reply to G. E. Mttller'a Grimdle-
gung der Psychophysik (1878). In 1871 ap-
peared Zur experimentalen JEsthetik, and in
1876 the profound and comprehensive work,
Vorschule der jEsthetik. In 1879 came Die
Tagesansicht gegeniiber der Nachtansicht, a
summary of the author's religious and meta-
physical beliefs. Fechner's last piece of pub-
lished work was, characteristically enough, an
article on Weber's law (q.v.), printed in
Wundt's Philosophische Studien (Leipzig,
1887). He died in Leipzig, Nov. 18, 1887. An
important mathematical treatise, the Collektiv-
masslehre, was issued posthumously, under the
editorship of G. F. Lipps (1897).

Fechner's general philosophy has not as yet
received the attention that it deserves. His
aesthetic work, on the other hand, has borne rich
fruit. But his enduring fame will, of course,
rest upon the Psychophysik. In this work lie
laid, once and for all, the foundations of an
exact psychology. But he did more. He worked
out a series of psychophysical measurement
methods (see PSYCHOPHYSICS ) which are those
still employed in our psychological laborato-
ries. He carried out extended researches, which
are not only models of scientific patience and
caution, but also permanent contributions to the
literature of psychology. He levied tax upon
all departments of scientific inquiry (see PSY-
CHOLOOY, EXPEBIMEWTAL) for facts and laws
which might bear upon the psychophysical re-
lation, bringing order and consistency into the
chaos of separate observations.

Consult: Kuntze, Gustav Theodor^ Fechner:
ein deutsches Gelchrtenleben (Leipzig, 1802) ;
Lasswitz, Gmtav Theodor Fechner (Stuttgart,
1896) ; and for a bibliography of Fechner's
works, Fcchnor, filcmente der Psychophysik,
i (3d ed., Leipzig, 1907).

FECHTER, feVtSr, GHABLES AIBERT (1824r-
79). A noted actor. He was born probably in
London (though accounts from another source
say Paris), his father being of German and his
mother of Italian descent. He was educated in
France, and in 1840 appeared in private theatri-
cals; in 1841 he went with a strolling company
to Italy, returning to Paris the same year and
entering the Conservatoire with a view to the
Theatre Francois. At the same time he studied
sculpture, but gave it up for the stage, and
in 1844 made his d6but at the Thdatre Fran-
cais as SeTde in Voltaire's Mahomet. After-
ward ho played in Berlin, and in 1847 took a
French company to London. In 1847 he mar-
ried Mllo. El&onore Babut, a French actress of
note. (She died in 1895.) From 1848 to 1860
he was the reigning favorite in Paris. He was
the original Annand Duval in La dame auno
camelias, in which part he won remarkable suc-
cess. In I860 he made his first appearance in.
English drama in London, in Ruy Bias, follow-'
ing with Corsican Brothers, Don Cesar de Ha-
ssan, Hamlet, Othello, Bel Demonio, and other
plays, among them an adaptation of his own
called Rouge et Noir. While not altogether at
home on the English stage, Fechter showed him-
self capable of appreciating the difficulties he
had to contend with and, in some measure, of
surmounting them. His impersonation of Ham-
let was, upon the whole, one that marked
him as an actor of very high powers. For a

time he was the lessee of the Lyceum Theatre,
playing the chief parts in most of the pieces
produced. In 1870 he came to the United
States, where, except for a brief return to Eng-
land two years later, he thenceforward re-
mained. He met with great success as an actor,
particularly in Boston; but his imperious tem-
per made him so many enemies that his at-
tempts to manage theatres in both Boston and
New York were speedy failures. In 1874,
though his first wife was still living, he was
married to Lizzie Price, an American actress
with whom he had appeared in New York. In
1876, after an accident which somewhat dis-
abled him, he retired to a farm near Quaker-
town, Pa., where he died. Consult Field,
Charles Albert Fechter (Boston, 1882).

EECK'EMHAM, JOHN DE (c.1518-85). The
last abbot of Westminster and the last mitred
abbot who sat in Queen Elizabeth's Parliament.
He was born in Feckenhara Forest, Worcester-
shire, about 1518, and his family name was
Howman. He became a monk at Evesham, and
there took the name by' which he is now known.
He studied at Oxford. After holding other po-
sitions, in 1543 he became chaplain to Bonner,
Bishop of London, and when the latter was de-
prived of his sec, Feckenham was sent to the
Tower (1549). Although for much of the time
a prisoner, he was active in political matters.
Queen Mary released him and made him her
chaplain (1553). In 1556 Queen Mary re-
founded the Benedictine monastery of St. Peter,
Westminster, London, and made him mitred
abbot. Elizabeth was personally friendly to him,
but would do nothing for him, as he would not
conform to the new (Protestant) faith. All
his influence was thrown against the Reforma-
tion and its doctrines. In 1559 he was removed
and sent to the Tower in 1560, and though
released on bail in 1574, was practically a pris-
oner till his death, at Wisbech, near Elyin,
1585. Consult Taunton, English Black Monks
of 8t. Benedict (London, 1897).

FEC'Uinxa/TION, IN PLAOTS. See FERTI-
LIZATION.

FEDERAL COTTtfCII. OF THE
CHURCHES OF CHRIST IN" AMERICA.
A body which held its first meeting in Phil-
adelphia in 1008 and was largely the culmina-
tion of previous voluntary federative move-
ments, the chief of which had been the Evan-
gelical Alliance and the National Federation
of Churches and Christian Workers. The im-
portant preliminary work leading up to the
organization was accomplished by the Inter-
church Conference on Federation, a body com-
posed of official delegates from 30 denomina-
tions, which met in New York City in 1905.
This conference adopted the constitution of the
Federal Council and transmitted it to the vari-
ous denominations with the understanding that
approval by two-thirds of them would give it
full effect This approval was secured early
in 1908. The difference between the Federal
Council and the previous movements is that
it is not an individual or voluntary agency or
simply an interdenominational fellowship, but
is an officially and ecclesiastically constituted
body. It is differentiated from other general
movements for the manifestation of Christian
unity in the fact that it is the cooperation of
the various denominations for service rather
than an attempt to unite them upon definitions
of theology and polity. The Federal Council

FEDERAL COUNCIL

420

FEDEBAL

has no authority over the constituent bodies
adhering to it, and its province lies in the ex-
pression of its counsel and the recommending
of a course of action in matters of common in-
terest to the denominational bodies, the
churches, local councils, and individual Chris-
tians. It has no authority to draw up a com-
mon creed or form of government or of wor-
ship, or in any way to limit the full autonomy
of the Christian bodies adhering to it. The
council meets quadrennially and consists of
about 400 qualified delegates officially elected
by the various denominational assemblies or
other constituted authorities.

The work undertaken by the council is indi-
cated by the titles of its most important com-
missions, which are as follows: State and Lo-
cal Federations, Foreign Missions, Home Mis-
sions, Religious Education, Social Service,
Evangelism, Family Life, Sunday Observance,
Temperance, and Peace and Arbitration. The
Commission on the Church and Social Service
also has a Committee on Church and Country
Life. Other special commissions, such as the
Joint Commission on Theological Seminaries,
on Interdenominational Movements, and on In-
ternational Relations, are appointed from time
to time to take up special activities calling
for united action upon the part of the churches.

The Commission on the Church and Social
Service is perhaps the most conspicuous of
the departments of the council in its relation
to the public at large. Among the specific
principles for which it asserts that the Church
must stand in its relation to labor are the
following: (1) the gradual and reasonable re-
duction of hours of labor to the lowest practi-
cable point, and that degree of leisure for all
which is a condition of the highest human life;

(2) a release from employment one day in seven;

(3) a living wage as a minimum in every in-
dustry, and the highest wage that each indus-
try can afford.

While the Federal Council is constituted solely
of the national denominations, it has a co-
operative relationship with State and local fed-
erations. There were, in 1914, 21 State feder-
ations and about 130 city and county federa-
tions. Among the investigations made by the
different commissions of the council are re-
ports on the Country Church, on Industrial
Conditions in Several Cities, and on the Church
and Modern Industry. The council in 1913 had
charge of the collection of religious statistics
under the direction of Dr. H. K. Carroll. The
constituent bodies of the council are as fol-
lows: Baptist Churches (North), National Bap-
tist Convention, Free Baptist Churches, Chris-
tian Church, Congregational Churches, Disciples
of Christ, Friends, German Evangelical Synod,
Evangelical Association, Lutheran Church (Gen-
eral Synod), Mennonite Church, Methodist
Episcopal Church, Methodist Episcopal Church
(South), African M. E. Church, African M. E.
Zion Church, Colored M. E. Church in America,
Methodist Protestant Church, Moravian Church,
Presbyterian Church in the U. S. A., Presby-
terian Church in the U. S. (South), Protestant
Episcopal .Church Commissions on Christian
Unity and Social Service, Reformed Church in
America, Reformed Church in the U. S., Re*
formed Episcopal Church, Reformed Presbyte-
rian Church (General Synod), Seventh Day
Baptist Church, United Brethren Church,
United Evangelical Church, United Presbyterian

Church, Welsh Presbyterian Church. The Na-
tional Offices are at 105 East 22d Street, New
York City. The general secretary in 1914 was
Rev. Charles S. Macfarland.

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT (Lat. fcedera-
tus9 bound by treaty, from fcsdus, a treaty).
When two or more states, otherwise independ-
ent, bind themselves together by a treaty or an
organic act so as to present to the external
world the aspect of a single state, without
wholly renouncing their individual powers of
internal self-government, they are said to form
a federation. The contracting parties are sov-
ereign states acting through their representa-
tives, and the extent to which the central over-
rules the local legislature is fixed by the terms
of the contract. In so far as the local sover-
eignty is renounced and the central power be-
comes sovereign within the limits of the feder-
ated states, the federation approaches to the
character of a nation; but the only renuncia-
tion of sovereignty which a federation, as such,
necessarily implies consists in abandoning the
power which each separate state otherwise
would possess of forming independent relations
with foreign states. "There are," says J. S.
Mill, "two different modes of organizing a fed-
eral union. The federal authorities may rep-
resent the governments solely, and their acts
may be obligatory only on the governments as
such, or they may have the power of enacting
laws and issuing orders which are binding di-
rectly on individual citizens. The former is
the plan of the German so-called confederation,
and of the Swiss Confederation previous to
1847. It was tried in America for a few years
immediately following the War of Independence.
The other principle is that of the existing Con-
stitution of the United States, and has been
adopted within the last dozen years by the
Swiss Confederacy. The Federal Congress of
the American Union is a substantive part of the
government of every individual State. Within
the limits of its attributions it makes laws
which are obeyed by every citizen individually,
executes them through its own officers, and en-
forces them by its own tribunals. This is the
only principle which has been found, or which
is even likely, to produce an effective federal
government. A union between the governments
only is a mere alliance, and subject to all the
contingencies which render alliances precari-
ous."

The difference between these two dissimilar
forms of federation is aptly described by the
terms employed in German political philosophy
to differentiate them, and for which we have no
equivalent terms in English — Staatenbund, a
federation of states, and JBundesstaat, a feder-
ated state. The federal governments of antiquity
and of the Middle Ages were all of the former
type, loosely knit confederacies, like those of
Athens and the ephemeral combinations of petty
Italian states in the thirteenth and fourteenth
centuries. Of a similar character is the union
of two or more states under a single monarch,
as of Castile and Aragon under Ferdinand and
Isabella, Austria and Hungary under Francis
Joseph, and the union of Sweden and Norway,
which was dissolved in 1905. Confederations of
this character have generally proved to be un-
stable and of short duration, and none of those
at present in existence seems likely to prove an
exception to this rule. It is to the more en-
political consciousness of modem

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

421

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

times, and especially to the institution of rep-
resentative popular governments, that the more
durable type of federal government — the feder-
ated state — owes its existence. The formation
of the United States of America under the pres-
ent Constitution was the first attempt to real-
ize this form of federation on a scale large
enough to command the attention of the world,
and the great success of the experiment of com-
bining local independence with national power
has impressed itself upon the political con-
sciousness of Christendom. Thus, just as the
British constitution has become the model of
representative government for the nations of
western Europe, the American federation has
become the type of federal government for two
continents.

One of the chief difficulties which arises in
organizing a federal government of either type
consists in discovering means by which disagree-
ments between one or more of the local gov-
ernments and the central government as to the
limits of their respective powers are to be dis-
posed. The arrangement by which this object
was sought to be effected in America, of which
Tocqueville expressed his admiration, is thus
explained by Mill: "Under the more perfect
mode of federation, where every citizen of each
particular State owes obedience to two govern-
ments— that of his own State and that of the
federation — it is evidently necessary not only
that the constitutional limits of the authority
of each should be precisely and clearly defined,
but that the power to decide between them in
any case of dispute should not reside in either
of the governments, or in any functionary sub-
ject to it, but in an umpire independent of
both. There must be a supreme court of jus-
tice, and a system of subordinate courts in
every State of the union before whom such
questions shall be carried, and whose judgment
on them, in the last stage of appeal, shall be
final. Every State of the union, and the fed-
eral Government itself, as well as every func-
tionary of each, must be liable to be sued in
those courts for exceeding their powers, or for
nonperformance of their federal duties, and
must in general be obliged to employ those
courts as the instrument for enforcing their
federal rights. This involves the remarkable
consequence, actually realized in the United
States, that a court of justice, the highest Fed-
eral tribunal, is supreme over the various gov-
ernments, both State and Federal, having the
right to declare that any new law made or act
done by them exceeds the powers assigned to
them by the Federal Constitution, and, in con-
sequence, has no legal validity." The tribunals
which act as umpires between the federal and
state governments naturally also decide all dis-
putes between two states, or between a citizen
of one state and the government of another.
The usual remedies between nations — war and
diplomacy — being precluded by the federal
union, it is necessary that a judicial remedy-
should supply their place. The supreme court
of the federation dispenses what is in effect
international law, and is tlie first great example
of what is now one of the most prominent wants
of civilized society — a real international tri-
bunal.

A federal government, then, is a body politic
composed of the people of several different, and
in some respects independent, states, over
which.., in its own prescribed sphere, it exerts a

supreme authority; while outside of that sphere
the states and the people thereof are sovereign
within their respective jurisdictions. The
character of a federal government varies with
the extent of its powers. The first form of fed-
eral government established in the United
States was that created by the Articles of Con-
federation, adopted by the Continental Congress
in 1777. The separate Colonies, finding some
form of central government indispensable to
the efficient prosecution of the War of Independ-
ence, gave a reluctant consent to those articles,
which, while the war lasted and all felt the
presence of a common danger, worked tolerably,
though not without some embarrassing friction
arising from notions of Colonial or State sover-
eignty. But after the. independence of the coun-
try was established, and the pressure of a com-
mon danger no longer existed, there was a dis-
position to exalt the State and to depreciate the
national authority, which to some extent was
regarded as a burden. The national govern-
ment had no judicial tribunal to make an au-
thoritative exposition of its powers, and no
executive officers to enforce its decrees; it was
entirely dependent upon the voluntary action of
the States for means to carry on its operations;
so that, in the language of Washington, it was
"little more than a shadow without the sub-
stance," and "Congress a nugatory body, their
ordinances being little attended to." There
was, in short, an utter want of all coercive au-
thority on the part of the government to carry
into effect its own constitutional measures. The
embarrassments growing out of this state of
things were endured till 1787, when a conven-
tion of delegates from the several States was
held in Philadelphia, "for the purpose of re-
vising the Articles of Confederation and report-
ing to Congress and the several legislatures
such alterations and provisions therein as shall,
when agreed to in Congress and confirmed by
the States, render the Federal Constitution ade-
quate to the exigencies of the Government and
the preservation of the Union." The conven-
tion encountered many difficulties arising from
diversities of opinion among its members and
from conflicting local interests, but finally suc-
ceeded in framing a constitution which the peo-
ple of the several States ratified, and which,
with various amendments, has continued to this
day. From the time of its adoption different
theories of interpretation have prevailed, and
these conflicting theories have to a greater or
less extent determined the character and aims
of political parties. It has been contended on
the one side that the Union was merely a league
between the several States in their organized
capacity, and that each State had the right* at
its pleasure, of withdrawing therefrom. On the
other side it has been held that the Union, in-
stead of being the creation of the States, as
such, was formed by "the people of the United
States," acting, indeed, through their respec-
tive State organizations, but still as citizens
of a common nationality. According to this
theory, no right of secession on the part of a
State has any existence; but it is the right and
the duty of the national government to main-
tain the Union by force. This question was
brought to an issue in the Civil War, the
slaveholding States seeking to exercise the as*
Burned right of secession for the protection of
slavery, and the non&laveholding States taking
up arms for the defense of the Union. The ve*

FEDERALIST

suits of the war are generally regarded as a
vindication of the antisecession theory, though
there are still some disputed questions as to the
relative powers of the national and State gov-
ernments. See Articles of Confederation, under
UNITED STATES; CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED
STATES.

Other modern examples of federal government
are afforded by the Dominion of Canada, founded
in 1867 by a union of the provinces of Upper
and Lower Canada, New Brunswick, and Nova
Scotia, and afterward enlarged by the acces-
sion of the provinces of Manitoba, British Co-
lumbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan, and Prince
Edward Island; by the Commonwealth of Aus-
tralia, established in 1901 by the organic union
of the several Australian colonies of Great
Britain; and by the present German Empire,
which was born of the sentiment of German
nationality evoked by the Franco-Prussian War
in 1870-71. See CONSTITUTION; DEMOCRACY;
GOVERNMENT; SOVEREIGNTY.

Consult: Mill, Considerations on Representa-
tive Government (London, 1905); De Tocque-
ville, Democracy in America (2 vols., New
York, 1898);' Bryce, The American Common-
wealth (rev. ed., 2 vols., ib., 1912) ; Burgess,
Political Science and Comparative Constitu-
tional Law (2 vols., Boston, 1902).

FEIXERAXIST, THE. A series of essays is-
sued in 1787 and 1788 in favor of the adop-
tion of the proposed Federal Constitution for
the United States. The Constitutional Con-
vention at Philadelphia adjourned Sept. 17,
1787; the text of the new Constitution was
first published in New York on September 27;
and on October 27 the first number of the Fed-
eralist appeared in the Independent Journal, a
semiweekly newspaper of New York, the suc-
cessive essays continuing to appear therein un-
til April 2, 1788. All of the 85 essays (the
concluding eight of which did not appear until
the Federalist was printed in book form) were
published over the name of "Publius," but they
were composed severally by Alexander Ham-
ilton, James Madison, and John Jay. The au-
thorship of several of the numbers has been
the subject of prolonged and inconclusive dis-
cussion, but the chief credit for the conception
of the enterprise and for its execution has at
all times been given to Hamilton. In news-
paper and in pamphlet form the Federalist had
a wide circulation, and its influence was con-
spicuous in turning popular opinion in favor of
the Constitution. Especially in New York, to
whose inhabitants it was particularly addressed,
it was an important factor in the conver-
sion of the State from antifederalism to fed-
eralism. No contemporary exposition of the
text of the Constitution, of the purposes of its
framers, and of its relation to the actual devel-
opment of the State was so complete, so schol-
arly, or so authoritative as was that in the
Federalist. It has, consequently, become rec-
ognized, even by the courts, as the most reliable
commentary on the Constitution, and as an es-
sential aid in the interpretation of such pas-
sages as are of obscure 'or disputed meaning.
Many editions have been published; the latest
and most useful (containing for the first time
a full index of the essays) is that by Paul L.
Ford (New Y^rk, 1898). In the edition edited
by John C. Hamilton (Philadelphia, 1875)
there is an elaborate essay on the authorship
of the several papers. .The discussion.. is al*

422

FEDERAL THEOLOGY

most as interesting to the antiquary as that
concerning the identity of "Junius." Useful
editions have also been published by H. B.
Dawson (New York, 1864), H. C. Lodge (ib.,
1888), and by E. H. Scott (Chicago, 1895). On
the authorship of the Federalist, see also
Bourne and P. L. Ford, in the American His-
torical Kemew, vol. ii (New York, 1897).

FEDERALISTS. In American history, the
name given to those who in -1787 and 1788 ad-
vocated the adoption of the new Constitution of
the United States, and who later contended, for
the most part, for a liberal construction of the
Constitution and the establishment of a strong
national government. In the end Washington
undoubtedly favored their views; but Hamilton,
with his plans for a national bank, a sinking
fund, the assumption of State debts, and the en-
couragement of manufactures, was the real
leader of the Federalists, while Jay, John
Adams, Gouverneur Morris, Ames, and later
Marshall were prominent members of the party.
The Federalists were conservative in their be-
lief in popular government and had little sym-
pathy with the French Revolution, being upon
these two, as upon other points, opposed by
the strict construcrionists under the leadership
of Jefferson and Madison, known as the Repub-
licans, or Democratic Republicans. (See DEM-
OCRATIC PABTT.) The Federalists controlled
the first three administrations — those of Wash-
ington and of John Adams — but the party was
disrupted by factional controversies during
Adams's administration, and was overthrown
by the Republican victory of 1800, which placed
Jefferson in the presidential chair. Their can-
didates for President from 1804 to 1816 received
scarcely any support outside of New Eng-
land, and in 1820 no Federalist nomination was
made. During these years the party was kept
alive in New England by those who had op-
posed Adams's administration, and who formed
the most aristocratic and pro-English faction.
(See ESSEX JUNTO.) Their opposition to the
Embargo and kindred measures, and to the
War of 1812, culminated in the Hartford Con-
vention (q.v.) in 1814. The convention was
immeasurably denounced, and was fatal to the
little life still left in the Federalist party.
One of the last appointments of President
Adams was that of John Marshall as Chief
Justice of the Supreme Court, and during his
tenure of that office Marshall succeeded in
stamping indelibly upon the Constitution the
best portions of the Federalist doctrine. More-
over, the Republicans in power gradually be-
came scarcely less liberal in their interpreta-
tion of the Constitution than the Federalists
had been before them; and while in 1708 the
Federalists denounced the Virginia and Ken-
tucky resolutions (q.v.) passed by the Repub-
licans in favor of State's rights, in 1814 the
Federalists were vigorously opposed to any
extension of the authority of the central gov-
ernment, while the Republicans were wholly
committed in this respect to the former Feder-
alist policy. Consult Bassett, The Federalist
System , (New York, 1906), and Morse, The
Federalist Party in Massachusetts to the year
1800 (Princeton, 1909).

FEDERAL THEOLOGY. The designation
of a type of Calvinism which developed in Hol-
land during the latter part of the seventeenth
century and spread to England. Its chief ex-
ponents were tfobann. Kocji .(d. 1669)., Franz

Burmann (d. 1679), Hermann Wits (d. 1708),
and perhaps one should add Vitringa (d. 1722).
The theological system taught by these schol-
ars was in general a system of covenants
(fcedera), conceived as being made between God
and man, whence the name "federal theology."
Koch (or Cocccius) (q.v.), as he is commonly
known, professor at Francker, and afterward
at Leyden, is usually regarded as the founder
of the school; but the federal idea did not orig-
inate with him. Something similar had been
taught by Olevianus, one of the framers of the
Heidelberg Catechism, by the Swiss theologian
Eglin (in his De Feeders Gratia, 1613), and by
William Ames, an English Puritan, who was
professor at Franeker in Koch's student days.
John Ball's Treatise of the Covenant of Grace
proves the early currency in England of a
federal system, and it is adopted in the West-
minster Confession of Faith (chap. vii). It
accounted for God's condemnation of man for
original sin, and took the place of Augustine's
theory of the unity of human nature in Adam.

Koch started with the biblical history of re-
demption, which he arranged under what he
called covenants. By the term "covenant" he
meant a promise on God's part, conditioned
upon obedient acceptance of the promise by
man. It is a gift rather than a contract. There
can be nothing like a quid pro quo, for God's
part is infinite and man's finite. As developed
by Burmann, the federal system includes: (1)
The Covenant of TTorfrs, made with Adam as the
federal hoad of the race. God would give man
eternal felicity, upon condition that man should
remain in his first estate of holiness. This
covenant wns broken by the fall and was re-
placed by (2) the Covenant of Grace between
God and fallen man. Man was not released
from his former obligation to obedience, al-
though, owing to the fall, he was rendered in-
capable of performing it. Hence God in His
mercy substitutes grace for works. But in or-
der to render this new covenant possible, God
is obliged to ^end His Son, Jesus Christ, to sup-
ply the obedience lacking on the part of fallen
man, and to be the full divine sacrifice for sin.
This second covenant is arranged in three "econ-
omies"— viz., (a) tlie antelegal, or the grace
promised to the patriarchs; (ft) the legal, pre-
sented in the Mosaic system of laws and cere-
monies, which are all typical; and (o) the
postlegal, including 'the advent of Christ on
earth and the whole of Christian history. To
complete the scope of the federal theology, its
ruling idea was projected back into eternity
by the transcendental conception of a cove-
nant between the persons of the Trinity, whose
aim was the creation and redemption of man.
This gave a series of three covenants, under
which all history, divine and human, might bo
subsumed. It constituted a philosophy of his-
tory on the basis of an assumed divine plan.
This threefold system is a later development
from Koch's teaching.

The ideas of Koch and his school were dis-
tasteful to the orthodox Calvinists, for they
shifted the emphasis away from predestination.
Hence the federal theologians were always un-
der suspicion, and sometimes were openly
charged with heresy. Koch himself narrowly
escaped condemnation. Their chief service to
tbe "advancement o! Christian thought consists
?n having broken wit(i scholastic Protestantism
and, in fidelity to the genuine Beformation

23 FEDERATED MIALAY STATES

principle, having once more directed men's
minds to the Scriptures themselves. They are
not improperly represented as leaders in the
study of what is now called biblical theology.
Wits (Witsius) and Vitringa are justly honored
as the foremost Old Testament scholars of their
day. Consult: Cocceiua, Opera Omnia (Am-
sterdam, 1673-75; 3d ed., 1701); Zovanyi, Ge-
scJwchte des Coccejanismits (Budapest, 1890) ;
Fisher, History of Ohristicm Doctrine (New
York, 1896).

FEIXEBATED MALAY STATES. A fed-
eration of native states, under British protec-
tion, spanning the Malay Peninsula between
Kodah, Siam, Kelantan, and Trengganu on the
north and Malacca and Johore on the south.
The states, with their area, their population
according to the 1911 census, and their admin-
istrative headquarters, are as follows:

Sq. Miles

Pop., 1911

Head-
quarters

Perak

7,800

494,057

Taiping *

Negri Sembilan .
Pahang

3,156
2,550
14,000

294,035
130,199
118,708

Kuala I/umpur
Seremban
Kuala Lipis f

The Federation

27,500

1,036,999

Kuala Lumpur

* The native capital is Kuala Kangsa.
I The native oapital is Pekan.

The population included 420,840 Malays, 433,-
244 Chinese, 172,465 natives of India, 3284
Europeans and Americans, and 2649 Eurasians.
Males numbered 725,062, and females 311,937,
the great preponderance of the former being
due to Chinese immigration. Total immigrants
and emigrants in 1000 were 570,411 and 500,172
respectively; in 1010, 305,803 and 237,438. The
country is generally fertile and well watered.
Parts are mountainous; mountains on the east
boundary of Perak exceed 7000 feet in height;
in Sclangor there are several peaks of over
5000 feet and one of 5812 feet; on the Pahang-
Kelnntan boundary Gunong Tahan reaches a
height of 7186 feet and is probably the highest
point in the Malay Peninsula, the second high-
est being Gunong Kerbau, on the Pahang-Perak
boundary. The states produce coconuts, rubber,
rice, sugar, tapioca, pepper, gambier, etc. The
states have valuable mineral deposits, and their
output of tin is the largest in the world. In
1910 imports and exports were valued, in Straits
Settlements dollars (par value 50.770 cents), at
47,843,541 and 102,851,000 respectively; in 1911,
66,532,039 and 116,280,927. The export values
of rubber, tin, and tin ore respectively were as
follows in 1911: Perak, 10,994,087, 9,188,008,
and 31,946,988 dollars respectively; Selangor,
23,852,273, j5,097,877, and 16,643,259; the Ne_gri
Sembilan, 5,039,968, 8517, and 2,741,591; Pa-
liang, 28,319, 1,436,156, and 2,603,819. At the
end of 1912 the Federated Malay States Bail-
ways had a mileage of 614 in operation ( in-
cluding 23 miles in Province Wellesley and 21
in Malacca). In- addition 120 miles had been
constructed and are workexl in Johore by the
company. The main lino connects Prai, on the
mainland opposite Penang, with Johore Bharu,
opposite Singapore, and steam ferries at each
end complete the connection between Penang
and Singapore. .There are several branch lines.
The total revenue and eitpenditure of the states
in 1910 were 26,553,018 'and 23,598,610 dollars

FEDERATION OF LABOB

424

respectively; in 1911, 35,056,544 and 25,202,-
749. The British protectorate began in 1874,
when, as a result of prevailing anarchy, espe-
cially in Perak, British residents were stationed
in the states of Perak, Selangor, and Sungei
Ujong (now one of the Negri Sembilan, ''nine
states"). The supreme authority in each state
is vested in the state Council, which is presided
over by the native sultan or ruler, who is as-
sisted by the British Resident. In 1909 a fed-
eral council was created by an agreement be-
tween the British High Commissioner for the
Malay States (who is also Governor of the
Straits Settlements) and the four native rulers.
The Council includes the High Commissioner,
as president, the Chief Secretary, the sultans
of Perak, Selangor, and Pahang, the yam
tuan of the Negri Sembilan, the four British
residents, and four unofficial members nomi-
nated by the High Commissioner. The Council,
which meets at least once a year, considers
the drafts of laws which are to apply to more
than one state, and the annual estimates of the
revenue and expenditure 'of the four states.
Consult Swettenham, British Malaya (London,
1906).

FED'ERA'TIOJOT OF LABOB, AMERICAN.
See LABOB, AMERICAN FEDEKATION OF.

FEDEBTVrAITO, fa'de"r-man, NIKOLAUS ( 1501-
c.43). A German traveler in South America.
He was born at Ulm, Swabia. In 1529 he was
sent to Venezuela in command of an expedition
of 129 Spanish soldiers and 24 miners in the
employ of the Welsers, merchants of Augsburg,
to whom the Emperor Charles V had granted
Venezuela. Up to the year 1532 he was en-
gaged in extensive explorations in the interior
of that country, the results of which he pub-
lished in the work entitled Indianische Historia
(1557; Fr. trans, in the Ternaux-Compans col-
lection, 1837). In 1537 he again visited Vene-
zuela as the lieutenant of George of Speyer, then
Governor-General, and entered upon a second
expedition which brought him to New Granada.
He was brave, but rapacious and cruel.

FEDERtf, fa'dern, KABL (1868- ). A
German author and translater, born and edu-
cated in Vienna. In 1891-94 he practiced law,
but thereafter devoted himself entirely to litera-
ture, living in Vienna, Berlin, London, and
Italy, and writing on Italian literature, espe-
cially Dante, and on American and French litera-
ture. He published German versions of Emer-
son's Essays (1894) and Representative Men
(1906), of Whitman's Leaves of Grass (1904),
and of St. Evremond's works (1912); and he
wrote Essays zur amerikanisohen Litteratur
(1899), Dante (1900), Dante and his Time
(1902), Ussays ssur vergleichenden Litteratur-
geschiohte (1904), and several novels and
romances.

FEDI, fa'dfc, Pio (1815-92). An Italian
sculptor. He was born at Viterbo and studied
engraving at the Academy of Vienna 5 but after
practicing this art for a short time he turned
to sculpture, which he studied at the Florence
Academy and in Borne, making his artistic
d<§but there with "Christ Healing the Sick."
In 1846 he was employed by Leopold II, Duke
of Tuscany, for whom he executed the statues
of Niccola Pisano and Andrea Cesalpino (on the
fagade of the Uffizi), which are somewhat lack-
ing in personality; and in 1852 he carved the
funeral monument of the daughter of the Rus-
sian general Swov. His other works include

the monument to the poet Nicolini in Santa
Croce; the fine figure of "Sacred Poetry," in
the Museo Civico, Verona; and his masterpiece
— the "Rape of Polyxena," which was placed
with the antique and Eenaissance sculptures
in the Loggia dei Lanzi in 1866. It is a group
of four figures in the antique style, executed
with great technical ability.

FEDORA, fa'do-'ra'. A popular play by Sar-
dou, produced in 1882. The title character is
among the rdles of Sarah Bernhardt.

FEDTCHENTKO (also spelled FBDCHENKO),
fe'd-ch&i'ka, ALEXEI PAVLOVITCH (1844-73). A
Russian naturalist and traveler. He was born
in Irkutsk, was educated at the University of
Moscow, and in 1868-71 made a journey for
study and exploration to Turkestan and the
lower course of the Sir-Darya or Jaxartes. He
made detailed investigation and maps of the
Maghian district on this journey. In 1871 he
accomplished a second journey to the desert of
Kizil-Kum and to Khokan, proceeding to the
western end of the Terek-Davan Pass. He was
killed during an ascent of Mont Blanc. The
scientific results of his expeditions were pub-
lished in Russian at St. Petersburg (1873-76).

PEE, FIEF, or FETID (AS. feoh, Goth, fahn,
cattle, property; connected with Lat. pccus, Skt.
pasu, cattle). In the feudal system of land ten-
ure, a freehold estate in land, held of another
and in subordination to certain paramount
rights of the latter. These rights, taken to-
gether, constituted lordship of the land, while
the interest of the subordinate owner was de-
scribed by the term "freehold" (liberum tene-
mentum), or tenancy. This relation of landlord
and free tenant was the correlative of the per-
sonal relation of lord and vassal, upon which it
was founded, and which it gradually superseded.
The lord owed his vassal protection and justice,
in return for which he exacted loyal allegiance,
and the performance of certain services in ac-
cordance with the station and means of the
vassal. In the course of time, when the lords
became great landowners, these services came to
be connected with the lands granted by them to
their vassals, and then the lands were regarded
as held by such and such services, and the
different forms of freehold tenure were described
by the service appropriate to each, as the tenure
of knight's service, the tenure of grand ser-
geantry (or grand service: magnum servitium)t
the tenure of free and common soeage (i.e., the
service of socmen), etc. See FEXTPALISM;
TBNUBB.

Understood in this feudal sense--of lands held
of a superior lord by some definite service or
duty — thi* fee stands in contrast to the allodial
or absolute ownership of land, free from any
obligation of service or any relation of vassalage
to a superior lord. It is doubtful how far this
conception of absolute and independent owner-
ship of lands was ever realized in practice in the
Middle Ages; certainly there was none of it in
England after the ascendancy of the feudal sys-
tem had become complete. See ALLODIUM.

As the term "fee" stood for land held in any
form of freehold tenure of a superior lord, it
was originally applicable to such land, whatever
the estate of the tenant might be* Probably the
earliest fees were for the life of the tenant only,
but the lord might and often did grant them to
the tenant "and his heirs," in which case they
became estates of inheritance. Before long, how-
ever, the term "fee" changed its meaning. ' AB

2TEEBLE-MINDED

425

FEEDING FARM ANIMALS

early as the thirteenth century it was commonly
used in the sense of an inheritable estate, and
this has continued to be its signification to the
present day. It no longer denotes an estate
held of another, as distinguished from an estate
which owes no duty to any superior, but any
estate, whether feudal or allodial, which is
capable of transmission to the heirs of its owner.
But its quality of heritability still depends in
common-law jurisdictions on the use of words
of inheritance in the instrument creating the
estate. A gift to John Doe "absolutely and for-
ever," or to him "and his assigns forever," will
vest in him only a life estate, while a grant to
one and his heirs will give him a fee. This
technical rule has been abrogated by statute in
most of the United States, and the more reason-
able rule substituted that the intention of the
grantor shall govern.

The right of freely alienating fees was not
acquired until the quality of heritability had be-
come definitely attached to them. It was finally
established by the famous statute Quia Emp tores
(Stat. Westminster III, 1290), which granted
and ordained that from thenceforth "it should
be lawful to every freeman to sell at his own
pleasure his lands and tenements or part df
them," and at the same time provided that the
feoffee, or person to whom the lands were con-
veyed, should hold them not of his seller, but
"of the chief lord of the fee, by such service and
customs as his feoffor held before." See FEOFF-

MBNT; StJBINFEUDATION.

A fee with the qualities of general heritability
and unlimited alienability is known as a fee
simple (feodum simplex), and this is the form
of estate commonly referred to when the term
"fee" is employed without a qualifying adjec-
tive. Side by side with the fee simple, however,
there has grown up an inferior kind of fee, with
limited rights of inheritance and with restricted
rights of alienation, known as a fee tail; but
this is now, after 600 years of existence, dying
out. See ESTATE; FEE SIMPLE; FEE TAIL.

In Scottish law the term "fee" is employed to
describe the full right of proprietorship of lands,
as contrasted with a life rent, which is the
limited right of usufruct during life. A fee
farm is land held by another in fee — i.e., in
perpetuity by the tenant and his heirs, but sub-
ject to a perpetual rent, payable to the lord of
whom the land is held. It was a common form
of landholding in several of the American
Colonies.

Consult the Commentaries of Blackstone and
Kent; and Pollock and Maitland, History of
English Law (2d ed., Boston, 1899); Digby,
History of the Law of Real Property (5th ed.,
Oxford, 1897) ; Williams, Principles of the Law
of Real Property (22d ed., Toronto, 1914).

FEEBLE-MINDED. See MENTAL DEFEC-
TIVES.

FEEDING FABM ANIMALS. The proper
and economical feeding of farm animals is re-
ceiving far more attention and is conducted in a
much more intelligent manner than formerly. A
generation ago stock was pastured during the
summer, no grain was given during that season,
and in winter hay and straw were fed with such
corn or other grain as the farmer raised. While
this practice still prevails over a part of the
United States, the soiling system (see SOILING)
is coming into extensive use, especially in the
East, and greater attention is being paid to
-growing a variety of feeds for stock. Succulent
VOL. VIII.— 28

feeds are now generally advocated for use with
the dry feed, and the general adoption of the
silo provides these, while furnishing the cheap-
est feed which can be produced on the average
American farm. Roots are used to some extent
to furnish succulent food, but their growth has
increased but little in extent in the United
States, although they are extensively grown for
feeding in Great Britain. The increasing supply
of by-products from oil and flour mills, starch
and glucose factories, breweries, etc., has been
accompanied by the extensive employment of
these materials to supplement the coarser and
less concentrated feeds grown on the farm; and
the introduction and cultivation of different
kinds of leguminous crops, such as clovers, soy
bean, cowpea, alfalfa, etc., has increased the
supply of protein, which is the most expensive
of the nutrients.

Stock feeding is an art in which experience
and judgment are very important elements of
success. The aid of science has been invoked,
and, as a result of investigations in animal
physiology and the chemistry of nutrition, many
of the scientific principles underlying the art
have been worked out and formulated. These
studies have shown that the animal body is
composed mainly of four classes of substances —
water, ash, fat, and nitrogenous materials — the
proportions of each varying with the age of the
animal, treatment, purpose for which it is kept,
etc. These materials are being constantly broken
down or consumed as a result of the life of the
animal. To keep the animal in a healthy and
vigorous condition there must be a constant sup-
ply of new material, i.e., food, and of the kind of
food that furnishes the necessary nutrients. If
an animal is growing, or producing milk, or per-
forming heavy work, food is required in addition
to that needed to supply the natural waste of
the body. The principles of feeding animals rest
upon replacement of the natural losses of the
body and upon supplying the proper materials
for making growth, milk, wool, etc. The various
materials used as food for animals contain the
same four constituents found in the body, viz.,
water, ash, fat, nitrogenous substances (pro-
tein), and in addition carbohydrates (sugar,
starch, etc.), and fibre. Regarding their func-
tions, it may be said, first, that food, when
assimilated, is in part consumed to yield heat
and energy for work and action, and in part
stored up in the body for repair of the organs
and as additional supply of fat, muscle, and
other tissues. The sources of heat in the body
and energy for work are supplied mainly by the
fat and carbohydrates, and, under some con-
ditions, by the protein. The value of fat as a
heat producer is nearly two and a half times
that of carbohydrates or protein. The sources
of fat in the body are mainly the fat and car-
bohydrates of the food; the carbohydrates are
not incorporated into the body as such, but are
chanced to fat. The exclusive source of protein,
which is the essential constituent of blood, skin,
muscle, tendon, nerve, hair, wool, casein of milk,
etc., is the protein of the food. Hence the im-
portance of supplying a liberal amount of pro-
tein in the food. The excess of protein may be
worked over into fat, or it may be consumed by
the body to yield body heat and energy for
work. The fibre serves the same purpose as the
carbohydrates, and the ash is used in the frame-
work—the bones— and is also a constituent of
'the blood and other components of the body.

FEEDING STUFFS

426

FEEDING STTTFFS

The needs of farm animals under different con-
ditions of growth, work, and production have
been studied in intricate experiments, and as a
result the body requirements, in terms of di-
gestible protein, fat, and carbohydrates, have
been largely determined. These requirements
have been formulated in the shape of so-called
"feeding standards," which, while not absolute
and inflexible measures of the body needs, are
convenient and helpful indications of the
amounts of nutrients required per day. The
composition, fuel value, and digestibility of the
principal feeding stuffs have been determined
and are set forth in tables in convenient form
for calculating ratios.

Abstract knowledge cannot take the place of
experience in stock feeding, but it will prove of
great value when combined with experience, en-
abling more intelligent practice, and giving a
deeper insight and a wider range of vision. The
agricultural experiment stations have worked
out and tested a great variety of rations for dif-
ferent kinds of animals, and, from studies of the
rations which were being fed by farmers, have
been able to suggest modifications of them
which, while more scientific, were also more
economical and effective. It is impossible, in
the space here available, to give rations or di-
rections for feeding under the varied conditions
which prevail in different localities. The kinds
of feeding stuffs available and their cost, and
the system of farming which is practiced, all
have to be taken into account. Since the farmer
usually has sufficient carbohydrate materials,
he seeks to increase lus supply of protein in the
concentrated feeds he buys. The tables of com-
position will assist him in selecting these ma-
terials. In addition to the publications of the
experiment stations, several excellent books have
been written which treat the subject of feeding
from both the scientific and the practical side.
Consult: Armsby, Manual of Cattle Feeding
(New York, 1890) ; Henry, Feeds and Feeding
(Madison, Wis., 1910) ; "The Feeding of Farm
Animals," in United States Department of Agri-
culture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 22 (Washington,
1902) ; Jordan, Feeding of Animals (New York,
1903) ; Armsby, The Principles of Animal Nutri-
tion (ib., 1903) ; H. P. Smith, Profitable Stock
Feeding (Lincoln, 1006) ; 0. Kellner, The Scien-
tific Feeding of Animals, trans, by W. Goodwin
(London, 1909) ; C. W. Burkett, First Principles
of Feeding Farm Ammals (New York, 1912).
See CATTLE; DAIRYING; FEEDING STUFFS; HOGS;
SHEEP.

FEEDING STUFFS. A general term ap-
plied to all kinds of food materials used for
farm animals, including so-called "fodder,"
"forage," and grain feeds. These materials are
very diverse in character. They may be green,
wet, or dry; the whole plant, as in the case of
hay; only a part, as in the case of root crops;
and the seeds of grains, or by-products from
various manufactories. They are vegetable for
the most part, although ground meat and bone
and blood are used to some extent, especially in
Europe, and the by-products from the dairy —
skim milk, buttermilk, and -whey — find extensive
use for young animals. Tbe number and .variety
of feeding stuffs have increased, greatly in recent
years. Formerly hay, corn fodder, straw, and
the cereal grains constituted the main supply,
but now the supply of home-grown and com-
mercial feeding stuffs has become exceedingly
varied, by the introduction and wide cultivation

of a long list of field crops, such as millets,
cowpea, field peas, soy bean, vetch, rape, alfalfa,
sorghums, etc.; by the extensive production of
brans from the flour mills, oil cakes from linseed
and cottonseed-oil mills; and by numerous by-
products from the manufacture of sugar, starch,
breakfast foods, beer and malt liquors, which
are prepared from corn and cereal grains. New
kinds appear upon the market annually, and
variations in the method of manufacture cause
changes in the composition and character of the
by-product.

Feeding stuffs may be classified in a general
way as (1) coarse fodders, also called "rough-
age," or ''roughness," including hays, straw, corn
fodder, silage, and similar coarse materials, and
(2) concentrated feeds, often referred to as
grain feed or "concentrates," which include such
materials as cereal grains, leguminous seeds, and
the by-products mentioned above. These classes
of feeding stuffs differ widely in composition,
i.e., in the proportion in which the various
nutrients are present. They all contain the
same general groups of substances, viz., water,
protein, fats, carbohydrates (starch, sugar,
etc.), fibre, and ash. However dry a feeding
stuff may be, it always contains a considerable
amount of water, which can be driven off by
heat. The amount may be only 10 or 15 pounds
per 100 pounds of materials, as in the case of
dry fodders, but in green fodders and silage it
amounts to nearly 80 pounds, and in some root
crops to 00 pounds per hundred. The rest of
the material, which contains the nutrients, is
dry matter, and since the water varies so widely
foeding stuffs are often compared on the dry-
matter basis. Protein is the name of a group
of materials containing nitrogen; all othor con-
stituents are nonnitrogenous or nitrogen free.
Albuminoids, the casein of milk, and lean meat
are examples of protein. They are the "flesh
formers" of the food. The fat includes, besides
the real fats, wax, the green coloring matter of

Elants, and other materials extractable by ether :
eni'e it is usually designated as crude fat. The
carbohydrates likewise include a variety of ma-
terials, and from the manner of their determina-
tion are usually designated in analyses as "nitro-
gen-free extract." The fibre or cellulose is also
of this class, but, as it is determined separately,
is usually so stated. The ash is the incom-
bustible part of the fodder — the part left when
it is burned. It consists chiefly of lime, mag-
nesia, potash, soda, iron, and phosphates, and is
used largely in forming bone. These constit-
uents, except the water, are called unutrients/'
as they are the materials which nourish the
body.

The protein is the most expensive nutrient,
and the percentage of it largely determines the
value of the more concentrated feeding stuffs.
Another factor which influences the comparative
value of feeding stuffs is the digestibility, or the
proportions of the several nutrients which are
digested by the animal. The digestibility varies
widely in the case of different materials. In the
case of corn meal, e.g., 68 per cent of the pro-
tein, 95 per cent of the nitrogen-free extract* and
92 per cent of the fat are digested, on an aver-
age; while in the case of wheat straw only about
23 per cent of the protein, 50 per cent of the
nitrogen-free extract, and 35 per cent of the fat
are digested. The undigested portions are of no
use in the nutrition of the animal and are voided
as manure. Tables of digestibility have been

FEEDING STUFFS

427

FEEDING- STTTFFS

worked out, covering the more important feeds
in general use. For these and further analyses
of feeding stuffs, the reader is referred to com-
pilations published by the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture.

The composition of feeding stuffs, or the pro-
portion in which these nutrients are present, is
determined by chemical analysis. A very large
number of analyses of American feeding stuffs
have been made, and while they show that the
3ame kind of material varies in composition, de-
pending upon the season, the stage of growth and
other factors, the following table will serve to
show the average composition of a number of
the more important kinds:

of protein, fat, etc., in their products, and which
shall provide a feeding-stuff control, similar to
that for fertilizers. Such laws have been passed
in the New1 England and Central States and are
rapidly spreading. They have afforded protec-
tion in the purchase of these materials. Similar
protection is provided by the Fertilizer and
Feeding Stuff Act of England and by a voluntary
control in Germany. From time to time various
mixed or "condimental" feeds are extensively
advertised, with extravagant claims for their
effect on the general health of animals or for
their ability to increase milk production greatly.
Tonic or medicinal properties are claimed for
many of them. They often contain a consider-

AVERAGB COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS

Water

Ash

Protein

Fibre

Nitrogen
free
extract

Fat

GREEN FODDER '

Com fodder

Per cent
79.3

Per cent
1 2

Per cent
1.8

Per cent
5.0

Per cent
12.2

Per cent
0 5

65.3

2.3

2.8

11.0

17.7

0.9

Timothy • . .

61.6

2.1

3.1

11.8

20.2

1.2

Kentucky blue grass

65.1

2 8

4.1

9.1

17.6

1 3

Red clover

70.8

2.1

4.4

8.1

13.5

1.1

Alfalfa

71.8

2.7

4.8

7.4

12.3

1 0

Cowpea vines

83.6

1.7

2.4

4.8

7.1

0.4

Corn silage

79.1

1.4

1.7

6.0

11.0

BOOTS AND TUBERS

Potatoes

78.9

1.0

2.1

0.6

17.3

0.1

86.5

0.9

1.8

0.9

9.7

0 1

90.9

1.1

1.4

0.9

5.5

0.2

Turnips

90.6

0.8

1.1

1.2

6.2

0.2

Rutabagas

88.6

1.2

1.3

7.5

0.2

Carrots

88.6

1.0

1.1

1.3

7.6

0.4

HAT AND DRY, COARSE FODDER

Corn fodder *. . . .

42.2

2.7

4.5

14.3

34.7

1.6

Redtop hay

8.9

5.2

7.9

28.6

47.5

1.9

Timothy hay

13.2

4.4

5.9

29.0

45.9

2.5

Kentucky blue-grass hay

21.2

6.3

7.8

23.0

37.8

3.9

15.3

5.5

7.4

27.2

42.1

2.5

Red-clover hay

15.3

6.2

12.3

24.8

38.1

3.3

12,9

5.5

10.1

27.6

41.3

2.6

Alfalfa hay

8.4

7.4

14.3

25.0

42.7

2.2

Cowpea hay

10.7

7.5

16.6

20.1

42.2

2.2

Wheat straw

9.6

4.2

3.4

38.1

43.4

Oat straw

9.2

5.1

4.0

37.0

424

2.3

Cottonseed hulls

11.1

2.8

4.2

46.3

33.4

2.2

GRAIN AND OTHER SEEDS

Corn (maize) kernel

10.9

1.5

10.5

2.1

69.6

5.4

Barley '.

10.9

2.4

12.4

2.7

69.8

1.8

Oats

11.0

3.0

11.8

9.5

59.7

5.0

Rye ...

11.6

1.9

10.6

1.7

72.5

1.7

Wheat

10.5

1.8

11.9

1.8

71.9

2.1

Soy bean (seed)

10.8

4.7

34.0

4.8

28.8

16.9

Pea meal

10.5

2.6

20.2

14.4

51.1

1.2

BT-PHODUCTS

Gluten meal

8.2

0.9

29.3

3.3

46.5

11.8

Gluten feed

7.8

1.1

24.0

5.3

51.2

10.6

Malt sprouts

10.2

5.7

23.2

10.7

48.5

1.7

Brewers' grains, dried

8.2

3.6

19.9

11.0

51.7

5.6

Wheat bran .

11.9

5.8

15.4

9.0

53.9

4.0

Rye bran

11.6

3.6

14.7

3.5

63.8

2.8

Cottonseed meal

8.2

7.2

42.3

5.6

23.6

13.1

Linseed meal (new process)

10.1

5.8

33.2

9.5

38.4

3.0

Peanut meal

10.7

4.9

47.6

5.1

23.7

8.0

The large demand for the more concentrated
feeds, especially the by-products, has led to adul-
teration with cheaper and inferior materials to
some extent and to the use of names which may
deceive the purchaser. Cottonseed meal, e.g.,
has been diluted with a quantity of ground
cottonseed hulls and sold under the name of
cottonseed feed, the mixture being greatly in-
ferior to the meal. Furthermore, the by-prod-
ucts vary widely in composition, due to changes
in the process of manufacture or to the separa-
tion of the germs from the rest, or to the addi-
tion of the hulls. These facts have suggested
the desirability of legislation which shall re-
quire manufacturers to guarantee the percentage

able quantity of salt, and frequently a harmless
quantity of fenugreek (q.v.), sulphur, gentian,
ginger, and similar substances. None of them
are concentrated feeds, in the common accept-
ance of the term; and Sir John Lawes many
years ago showed condimental feeds to be of no
advantage to healthy stock. They are usually
sold in small packages, the price ranging from
10 to 20 cents & pound, which, from the stand-
point of their feeding value, is exorbitant. In
spite of this large quantities of these feeds are
sold throughout the United States.

A new class of feeding stuffs has recently come
into use in Europe and America, in which the
molasses from sugar-beet factories is a promt-

4*8

FEES

nent component. Various materials, such as
palm-nut meal, bran, ground cornstalks, peat,
and dried beet chips are used to absorb the
molasses. Some of these molasses 'feeds have
given surprisingly good results, and they appear
to be relished by stock. Blood has been used to
some extent in a similar way. See FEEDING
FABM ANIMALS.

EEE'HAN, PATBIOK AUGUSTINE A. (1829-
1902). An American Eoman Catholic arch-
bishop. He was born in Tipper ary, Ireland, and
was educated at Maynooth College, Kildare.
He came to the United States in 1852, settled in
St. Louis, Mo., and became pastor of St. John's
Church in that city. In 1854 he was appointed
president of the Seminary of Carondelet and in
1859 pastor of the Church of the Immaculate
Conception. He was consecrated Bishop of
Nashville, where he showed his great ability as
an organizer in completely reconstructing the
diocese, which had become demoralized during
the Civil War. With great obstacles to over-
come, and with his work made more difficult by
three successive epidemics of yellow fever, he
made his diocese administratively one of the
strongest in the country, and its educational
institutions models for parochial schools in
other dioceses. He founded the Catholic Knights
of America, a lay organization which spread
throughout the United States. In 1880 Bishop
Feehan was installed as the first Archbishop of
the newly created archiepiscopal see of Chicago.
FEEI/nrQ (AS. felon, OHO. fuolen, Ger. fuU-
len, to feel; ultimately connected with Lat.
palma, Gk. ira\(£/«7, palame, palm of the hand,
Skt. pani, hand, AS., OS. folm, hand). A term
whose variety of meaning has caused much con-
fusion in psychology. It is used (1) for per-
ceptions of touch: we say that a thing "feels"
hard or soft or rough; and we "feel" for our
matches in the dark or (metaphorically) "feel"
our way in some delicate undertaking. This,
the popular usage, would seem to be etymplogi-
cally correct. It is, however, being discontinued
in psychology. (2) The word is used for certain
organic sensations of diffuse character, which
are ordinarily tinged with strong affection: we
speak of "feeling" hungry, thirsty, fatigued, etc.
This usage approximates very closely to (6)
below. (3) As touch is the primordial sense,
from which all others have been developed, it is
but natural that the term "feeling," the per-
ception of touch, should be extended to embrace
every mode of mental process. Feeling, in this
sense, covers all sorts of mental elements and
formations: sensations, affections, perceptions,
ideas, emotions, actions, etc. It is being re-
placed by "mental process" (q.v.).

In modern psychology there is a well-marked
tendency to restrict the term "feeling," to some
kind of affective process. (See AFFECTION.)
So we- find (4) a classification of mental func-
tions as those of the intellect, the feelings or
sensibilities, and the will: feeling here including
emotions, sentiments, moods, and feelings
proper. We often say, too, that we "feel" sorry
or glad or depressed; or that we "feel" the
beauty of a landscape or the sublimity of a
work of art. (5) Since this usage is unneces-
sarily wide, we find the meaning of the term
restricted. Some authors make "feeling" the
equivalent of the German reines Gefuehl, or
pure feeling, i.e., define it as affection is de-
fined. (6) It is, however, better to regard
feeling as a concrete process, compounded of

sensation and affection, and lying in order of
complexity next below the emotion (q.v.). It
would then be correct to talk of the "feeling"
of drowsiness or suffocation or ill health, since
in all such cases we have a complex of sensa-
tions (for the most part organic) dominated
by a pleasantness or unpleasantness. It would,
again, be correct to speak of "feeling" hungry
or thirsty or tired (see (2) above), provided
that we had in mind the total consciousness of
affectively toned organic sensations and not
merely the sensations as such. Consult: James,
Principles of Psychology (New York, 1890) ;
Wundt, Outlines of Psychology, trans, by Judd
(Leipzig, 1902); Titchener, Text-Book of Psy-
chology (New York, 1910) ; Kuelpe, Outlines of
Psychology > trans, by Titchener (London, 1909).
FEEW, DIE. The first opera of Wagner
(q.v.), first produced at Munich, June 28, 1888.
FEER-HERZOG, far'her'tsoG, KARL (1820-
80). A Swiss statesman and political econo-
mist, born at Rixheim, Alsace. After 1852 he
was a member of the .Grand Council, of which
he was twice elected president. From 1865 until
his death he represented Switzerland in the
Latin Monetary Union and in this capacity was
an advocate of the gold standard. In 1867 he
was director of the Swiss section of the Paris
Exposition, and for more than 16 years he was
president of the Financial Commission of Swit-
zerland. His principal works are: L'Unifioa-
tion monetaire Internationale ( 1869 ) ; La France
et ses allies monetaires en presence de I'Unifica-
tion universelle des monnaies (1873) ; O-old oder
Silberf (1874).

PEES. The compensation of lawyers, phy-
sicians, and certain public officials for their
professional or official services. In England
neither barristers nor physicians could recover
their fees by legal proceedings against their
clients or patients, except under a special con-
tract. The ground of this rule was that such
fees are regarded not as payment, but as an ex-
pression of gratitude for services the value of
which cannot be expressed in money. The origin
of the rule in the case of the advocates is
traced to the relation which subsisted between
the patron (pair onus) and his client in ancient
Rome. When the former appeared as the de-
fender of the latter, he practiced, as Blackstone
says (iii, 29), gratis, for honor merely, or at
the most for the sake of gaining influence; and
so, likewise, it is established in England that a
counsel can maintain no action for his fees,
which are given, not as locatio vel conductio, but
as quiddam honorarium; not as a salary or hire,
but as a mere gratuity, which a counselor can-
not demand without doing wrong to his reputa-
tion. The rule at Rome was maintained even
under the Emperors, and Tacitus mentions
(Ann., lib. ii, c. 5) that it was directed by a
decree of the Senate that these honoraria, should
not in any case exceed 10,000 sesterces, or
about $400. It has further been decided in
England that no action lies to recover back a
fee given to a barrister to argue a cause which
he did not attend. But special pleaders, equity
draftsmen, and conveyancers, who have taken
out certificates to practice under the bar, and
are not rated as counsel, may recover their
reasonable charges for business done by them.
As regards physicians, the rule that a fee could
not be recovered by an action at law was ap-
plied in the case of Chorley v. Bolcot, in 1791
(4 T. R. 317). If, however, either a barrister

1T!EE SIMPLE

429

FEE TAIL

or a physician acted tinder a special agreement
or promise of a certain payment, then an action
might be brought for the money. But all medical
practitioners were relieved from the above code
of honor by the Act of 21 and 22 Viet. c. 90,
which applied to the United Kingdom and en-
abled them to recover in any court of law their
reasonable charges as well as costs of medicines
and medical appliances used. This rule applies
to physicians, surgeons, and apothecaries as
defined by the statute. Members of the inferior
branches of both professions — attorneys, solici-
tors, etc., on the one hand, and surgeons,
dentists, cuppers, and the like on the other —
were always entitled to maintain an action for
their fees. In Scotland the same rules prevail
as in England with reference to both professions.
In France, though the delicate sense of honor of
the bar has always been preserved with quite
as much care as in England, the rule is some-
what different. In law an action for the re-
covery of fees would be maintainable in that
country by an advocate; but "in Paris the rule
of the ancient bar, founded on the disinterested-
ness which was its characteristic and according
to which any judicial demand of payment of
fees was strictly forbidden under pain of erasure
from the table [of advocates], has been re-
ligiously preserved." There is no law in the
United States which puts contracts for services
by lawyers or physicians on any different basis
from contracts made by other persons. In most
of the American States an attorney at law has
a lien on the cause of action and on the papers
in his hands for the costs of the suit, including
his fees. (See ATTORNEY; BABBISTER; COSTS.)
The practice of compensating sheriffs, jail
keepers, and certain other officials by fees, which
formerly prevailed generally in the United
States, has fallen into disrepute and has been
almost everywhere abandoned.

FEE SDCPLE (Lat. feodum simple®}. A
fee, or estate of inheritance, which has the
qualities of general heritability and unlimited
alienability. It is distinguished from the fee
tail. See FEE TAIL.

A fee simple may be absolute, in which case it
is unhampered by any condition or limitation
whatsoever; or it may be qualified, or limited,
as where it is to come to an end upon the hap-
pening of a definite event. The conditional fee
of the early common law, out of which the fee
tail has been developed, was a variety of the
qualified or limited fee simple. It was a gift
of lands to a man and his heirs, provided and
so long as he should have heirs of his body.
(See CONDITIONAL FEE; DONIS CoNDixrowALi-
BTTS, STATUTE DE.) Of this nature is a con-
veyance to A and his heirs so long as St. Paul's
Church shall stand, or so long as the Republic
shall endure, or until a certain charity shall be
established.

But, though a fee simple may be made ter-
minable by a limitation, as above described, it
is not possible to deprive it of either of its prin-
cipal incidents of alienability and heritability.
No restriction upon either of these is valid,t and
a condition providing for a forfeiture on aliena-
tion or limiting 'the course of descent, will be
wholly disregarded. The same is true of the
only surviving feudal incident attaching to fees
simple— that of escheat. This will take effect
on failure of heirs, irrespective of any attempt
to qualify or prevent it. Thus, a gift of lands
to A and his heirs, with the proviso that on

failure of heirs the property shall go to B, will
vest an absolute fee simple in A, subject to the
right of escheat, and the attempted gift to B
will fail. See ESCHEAT; ESTATE.

As a fee simple is the largest estate that a
man can have, falling short of absolute owner-
ship only through the operation of the doctrine
of tenure, and subject only to the dominant
rights of the lord (usually the state) of whom
the land is held, it was not possible at common
law to grant any remainder or other future
estate over after a fee simple. Under modern
statutes, however, a fee simple terminable by a
conditional event may be followed by another
fee simple. See EXEOUTOBT DEVISE. Consult
the authorities referred to under FEE.

FEE TAIL (ML. feodum talliatum, abbre-
viated fee). A fee, or estate of inheritance, in
which the inheritance is restricted to the lineal
descendants of the tenant. The right of inher-
itance, which is the principal characteristic of a
fee, is not ordinarily capable of restriction, but
the fee tail was devised for the express purpose
of permitting such a restriction in a limited
class of cases. Its object was to tie up estates
and keep them in the family of the donor, and
it achieved this end by giving effect to a con-
ditional gift of lands to a person and the heirs
of his body. This was originally known as a
fee simple conditional and was construed to
vest in the donee a conditional estate, which be-
came absolutely subject to his disposition on
birth of issue. As such power of disposition
was inconsistent with the purposes of the gift,
the celebrated statute De Donis Conditionalibus
(Concerning Conditional Gifts) was passed in
1285 (stat. Westminster II) to restrict the
power of the donee of such an estate and to pro-
tect the interests of the issue and of the persons
to whom the estate was to go upon failure of
issue. This it did by forbidding the alienation
of the property by the tenant in tail.

For nearly 200 years after the passing of this
act land settled in the form which it prescribed
continued to be held under the fetters of a
strict entail. But the tendency of the law,
which in Scotland was to strengthen the power
of entail, was in England in the opposite direc-
tion. For a long time tenants in tail, taking
advantage of legal technicalities, were able prac-
tically to defeat the limitation in tail by means
of a discontinuance. But it was not till the
time of Edward IV that an effectual means of
evading the provisions of the act was brought
into use; this was achieved by means of a proc-
ess called a common recovery (q.v.). By this
process a tenant in tail could bar the entail and
convert the estate into a fee simple. Another
mode of barring an entail was by means of a
fine (q.v.) . It had been declared by the statute
De Donis that levying a fine of lands should be
tio bar to the entail; but by 32 Hen. VIII, c. 36,
it was enacted that a fine of lands, when duly
levied, should be a complete bar to the tenant
in tail and those claiming under him* It is to
be observed that the operation of a fine was
confined to those claiming under the tenant in
tail; those who had rights of reversion or re-
njainder under the grftntor of the entail were
not excluded by this species of assurance; so
that by means of a recovery only could an estate
tail be converted into a fee simple. From the
introduction of common recoveries till the pass-
igg of the Finos and Recoveries Act (3 and 4
Wm. IV, c. 74), a period of more than 300

430

years, it was impossible that an estate could be
held under the fetters of an entail if the tenant
in tail and the next heir chose to combine to
defeat the entail. By the Fines and Recoveries
Act the technicalities formerly necessary in
order to bar an entail were removed, and a
tenant in tail may now by a simple conveyance
alienate his estate at pleasure.

Estates tail are classified according to the
form of the gift. If the limitation be to the
heirs of the body of the tenant in tail without
special qualification, it is a fee tail general; if
it be to the heirs of the body of the tenant and
his wife Joan, it is a fee tail special; if it be to
the male heirs of the body, it is a fee tail male.
So there may be fees tail special male, fees tail
special female, etc. But the limitation must al-
ways be to the issue of the tenant in tail. As
a fee tail is an abbreviated fee — a less estate,
i.e., than a fee simple — it is, unlike the fee
simple, capable of supporting a future estate
by way of remainder or reversion. Thus, it is
possible, even at common law, to make a con-
veyance of lands to A and the heirs of his body,
with remainder, on failure of such heirs, to B.

Prior to the Revolution the English law of
entails prevailed in the British Colonies in
America. But, though it still exists in a few
States, it has generally been abolished in the
United States by statute— in Virginia as early
as 1776 and in New York in 1782. In most
States it is provided that an attempt to create a
fee tail shall result in a fee simple. Consult the
authorities cited under FEE.

EEHLHTG, faOlng, HEBMANN (1811-85). A
German chemist. He was born at Ltibeck and
was educated at Heidelberg. After being asso-
ciated with the Liebig Laboratory at Giessen
and studying for a time with Dumas at Paris,
he was from 1839 to 1886 professor of chemistry
at the Polytechnic Institute, Stuttgart. His
most noteworthy researches were in the depart-
ments of analytical and industrial chemistry,
his process for measuring the amount of glucose
in substances being especially well known. (See
FEELING'S SOLUTION.) He edited and published
the new edition of the Handworterbuch der
Ohemie by Liebig, Poggendorff, and Wo'hler
(1871 et sect.), and translated Payen's Precis de
oJwmie industrielle into German (2d ed., 1852).
FEHLING'S SOLUTION" (named from Her-
mann Fehling, who first introduced the solution
into analytical practice). A deep-blue alkaline
solution of cupric oxide used to detect the
presence and determine the amount of sugar in
a given mixture. The solution is best prepared,
according to Soxhlet, by adding 34.6 grams of
copper sulphate made up with water to 600
cubic centimeters, to a mixture of 60 grams of
caustic soda and 173 grams of Rochelle salt
(sodium-potassium tartrate) likewise made up
to 500 cubic centimeters with water. It is still
better to keep the two solutions in separate
vessels and prepare Fehling's solution proper by
mixing equal volumes of the two just before
using, as Fehlinfi£s solution is liable to undergo
decomposition. The simpler varieties of sugar
reduce the cupric oxide (CuO) contained in this
solution to cuprous oxffie (CujO), which is in-
soluble and has a bright-red color. Thus,
one-half gram of dextrose added to 100 cubic
centimeters of Fehling's solution prepared as
described above would, on gentle warming, com-
pletely destroy the blue color of the solution
and cause copper to precipitate in the form of

cuprous oxide. Conversely, therefore, if a mix-
ture is submitted to a chemist for examination
and he is called upon to determine the amount of
dextrose present in it, all he has to do is to
determine carefully the volume of Fehling's
solution that may be completely decolorized by
the given mixture.

Ordinary cane sugar has no direct action on
Fehling's solution. By fermentation, however,
or by the action of dilute acids, it may be
"inverted," i.e., split up into simpler varieties
of sugar ; and then, of course, it becomes capable
of reducing Fehling's solution. Similarly Feh-
ling's solution is not reduced by cellulose; but
cellulose may be hydrolyzed by acids, and the
resulting simple sugar will again reduce Feh-
ling's solution. Among the disaccharides
which, unlike cane sugar, do reduce Fehling's
solution are maltose (malt sugar) and lactose
(milk sugar). See CABBOHYDBATES.

PEHMARN, fa'm&rn, or FEMERiNV fii'mSrn.
An island in the Baltic Sea, belonging to the
German Province of Schleswig-Holstein, sepa-
rated from Holstein by a strait called the Feh-
marn Sound, and from Laaland on the north by
Fehmarn Belt (Map: Germany, D 1). It has an
area of 71 square miles. The surface of the
island is flat and but sparsely wooded; the soil
is fruitful. Agriculture, stock raising, fisher-
ies, and the making of stockings for exportation
form the principal employments of the inhabit-
ants. Fehmarn has a population of about 10,000.
Its harbors are very shallow and can be navi-
gated only by vessels of light draft. The chief
towns are Burg, the capital, and Petersdorf.
The island was transferred from Denmark to
Prussia in 1866.

FEHMGERICHTE, f am'ge-rlK'te. See VEHM-

GEEICIITE,

FEHmC (fa'mlk) COURTS. See VJSIIM-

GERICIITE.

EEIA, fa'ya. A lake of Brazil, in the state
of Rio de Janeiro, about 12 miles south of
Campos, a short distance from the coast. It
covers an area of about 190 square miles, but is
very shallow; its waters teem with fish. It is
connected by a canal with the Atlantic on the
east and is in water communication with the
Parahyba River on the north.

EEIJ6, or FEIJdO, fi-zho7, DIEGO ANTONIO
(1784-1843). A Brazilian statesman. He was
born at Sao Paulo, took holy orders in 1807, and
was a priest in Parahyba, Campinas, and Itfi.
In 1822 he was appointed deputy to the Cortes
at Lisbon, but resigned from that body with
four other Brazilian deputies upon the declara-
tion of Brazilian independence. As deputy and
representative of the Liberal party (1823-33)
he presented the bills proposing the reform of
the municipalities and advocating the abolition
of clerical celibacy, which he declared to be anti-
social and antireligious. On July 4, 1831, he
was appointed Minister of Justice and served
until July 20, 1832. He was regent during the
minority of Pedro II, from Oct. 12, 1835, to
Sept. 18, 1837, during which time his liberal
policy was bitterly attacked by the Conserva-
tives. Because of this opposition he finally re-
signed. Later he was persecuted and exiled.

FEIJ<5O Y MONTENECKRO, BKNITO JB-
EONIMO. See FBTTJOO y MONTBNBGBO, BBNTTO

JBR6NIMO.

FEILDEN, feld'em, HENEY WEMYSS (1838-
). An English naturalist and explorer.

431

He was educated at Cheltenham College and
served in the British army in the Indian Mutiny
and in I860 in China. In 1862-65 he was
assistant adjutant general in the American Con-
federate army, serving until the very end of the
war in the Army of the Tennessee. Fn 1875-
76 he was naturalist to the British polar ex-
pedition led by Nares and made valuable studies
in Greenland, where a peninsula is named in his
honor. He fought in the Boer wars of 1881
and 1899-1902 and in 1900 was made Companion
of the Bath.

EEILDIiro, folding, ROBERT (Beau Feild-
ing) (c.1651-1712). An English courtier. He
commanded a regiment under James II, was a
member of the Irish Parliament of 1689, was
pardoned by William III in 1696, but upon his
return to England passed a season in Newgate
jail. He was convicted of bigamy in 1700, one
of his wives being the Duchess of Cleveland.
Swift, in "Mean and Great Figures" (Works,
1814), has intense scorn for him, and Steole
described him in two Tatler papers (Nos. 50, 51,
Aug. 4 and 6, 1709) as "Orlando the Fair."
Lely painted a portrait of "handsome Feilding."

FEINT, fant (Fr. femte, sham, from feindre,
to feign, from Lat. fingere, to fashion, Gk. #17-
ydjfeiVf thinganein, to touch, Goth, deigan, to
knead, Skt. dili, to smear) . A military strategic
or tactical device, designed usually to deceive
an enemy or to cover a real design or purpose.
See ATTACK:; TACTICS, MILITARY; DEMOXSTBA-
TION; BATTLE; STRATEGY.

FEIS-CEOIL, fashlc'-yol' (Ir., assembly for
music, from feis, assembly, and ceoil, gen. sing,
of oeol, music). An Irish musical society
founded at Dublin in 1897 for the advancement
of music and for the purpose of giving a stimu-
lus to musical studies in that country. It has
an annual session at which prizes are distributed
among the successful competitors. There arc
separate competitions for bands, choirs, vocal
and instrumental soloists, and original com-
positions. It is specially designed to encour-
age native talent and is a very successful in-
stitution.

FEISI, fl'sS, or FEIYASI, ABUL FEIS IUN
MUBABAK ( 1647-95 ) . A celebrated Indo-Persian
poet and scholar, born in Agra. In 1572 he
received an appointment as court poet to the
Emperor Akbar. He wrote many lyrics, some
epics (mostly unfinished), a commentary on the
Koran, and translations from Sanskrit into
Persian of the M ahabharata and Lilivati as well
as various mathematical and philosophical
works. His Persian version of the well-known
episode of Nala and Damayanti from the
Bharata under the title Nal u Daman is espe-
cially worthy of mention. In Max Mtiller's In-
troduction to the Science of Religion (New
York, 1870) there are a number of metrical para-
phrases of the poems of Feisi.

FEITH, fit, Bmnms (1753-1824). A Dutch
poet, dramatist, and romancer, of melancholy
humor. He was born at Zwolle, where, after
graduation at Leyden (1770), he became burgo-
master in 1780 and published in 1783 the novel
Julia, the Dutch Werther, steeped in romantic
gloom. This he followed by tragedies, Tlwrsa
J1784) and The Patriots (1785), and another
Werther novel, Ferdinand en Oonstantia (1785),
which made him the most popular poet of Hol-
land, but provoked bitter criticism for their
morbid sentimentality. He published a third
tragedy, Lady Jane Grey (1791), and The Grave

(1792), a didactic poem. Other tragedies and a
didactic poem in six cantos on Old Age (1802),
with five volumes of miscellaneous poems (1796-
1814), and Poems for Public Worship (1804),
complete his works, of which an edition (13
vols.) appeared in 1825.

FEJEB, ffi'yflr, GYOBGY (1760-1851). A
Hungarian author. He was born at Keszthely
(Zala), and was educated at Pest and Press-
burg. Tn 1808 he became professor, and in 1824
librarian, at the University of Pest. There he
devoted the greater part of his life to the
preparation of the Code® Diplomaticus Hun-
garice (45 vols., 1829-44), which consists of
documents relating to the history of Hungary
from 104 to 1440 A.D. He wrote important
historical and political works in his native
language, one of which, on Political Revolu-
tions (1850), was suppressed by the Austrian
government.

FEJifeRVARY DE XOML6S-KEKESZTES,
ffi'yar-va'rl de kton'losh-ker'e's-tSsh, GEZA, BABON
(1833- ). A Hungarian statesman and gen-
eral, born at Josefstadt. For his services at
iSolferino he was ennobled, in 1865 he was ap-
pointed major and aid-de-camp to the Emperor,
and soon afterward he became secretary in the
Ministry of National Defense. In 1883 he was
advanced to the rank of lieutenant field marshal,
then succeeding lladay as Hungarian Minister
of National Defense, a post which he held under
various premiers till 1903. He was an officer
in the royal bodyguard in June, 1905, when he
was made head of an extraparliamentary minis-
try to cope with the difficult situation created
by the defeat of the Liberal Tisza cabinet and
the refusal of the Coalition Opposition tb take
office. His ministry dissolved the Chamber and
occupied the buildings of Parliament with
soldiers. The Coalition then yielded, Fej6rv5ry
in April, 1900, resigned, and Wekerle formed
a Coalition cabinet. Sec HUNGARY, History,
and consult the sketch by Szalay (Pressburg,
1901).

PELANITX, fil'la^nflch', or FELAZTCCIIE (an-
cient Vanati). A town on tho island of Majorca
(q.v.), in the Province of Balcares, Spain (Map:
Spain, G 3). It is situated in a valley sur-
rounded by mountains and is well built, with a
number of squares, one of which has a fountain.
The municipal building and the parish church
of San Miguel are among the more pretentious
structures. On a neighboring hill is an old
Moorish castle with subterranean vaults. Fela-
nitx has some trade in agricultural products
and wine and manufactures liquors, pottery,
cloth, soap, lime, etc. Stock raising and fishing
also are carried on. Puerto Colom, its port, has
a safe but shallow harbor. Pop., 1900, 11,558;
1010, 11,223.

FEIiCH, ALPiratrs (1806-96). An American
jurist, born in Maryland. He graduated at
Bowdoin College in 1827 and removed to Michi-
gan, where he served in the State Legislature
in 1836-37, and in 1838-39 was one of the State
Bank Commissioners, in which capacity he ex-
posed many frauds under the banking law* He
wan judge of the Supreme Court of the State
in 1842-45, and Governor in 1840-47; but before
the expiration of his term he resigned to enter
the Senate of the United States, in which he
served six years (1847-53). He was then made
president of the commission appointed to adjust
the Spanish and Mexican land 'Claims growing
out of the provisions of the Treaty of Guada*-

43*

IPELIBBKjKfi!

lupe-HIdalgo, and from 1879 to 1883 was profes-
sor of law in the University of Michigan.

FEI/DER, CAJBTAN, BABON (1814-94). An
Austrian politician. He was born and educated
at Vienna and in 1841 became lecturer on politi-
cal history, statistics, and international law at
the university there. As burgomaster of the
city (1868-78), he introduced numerous re-
forms. In 1869 he became a member of the
Upper House, and in 1878-84 was marshal of
Lower Austria. He wrote Die Gemeindeverwal-
tung der Reichshaupt- und Residenzstadt Wien
(2d ed., 1872; 2 additional vols., 1876-78), and
some papers on entomology, especially the sec-
tion on lepidoptera in Reise der Fregatte Novara
urn die Erde (1864-75).

EEIrDKEBCH, felfkint. A town of Vorarl-
berg, Austria, picturesquely situated about 1500
feet above sea level, in a rocky pass, which
forms a natural fortress of great strength com-
manding the Vorarlberg pass, on the river 111,
near its junction with the Rhine (Map: Austria,
A3). It is 23 miles west-southwest of Bregenz.
There are a handsome Rathaus, a Jesuit train-
ing college (Stella Matutina), a gymnasium,
and a teachers' seminary. The town's industries
include flour, woolen, and saw mills, dye works,
and a bell foundry. Above Feldkirch rises the
ruined castle of Schattenburg, once the seat of
the counts of Montfort. Pop., 1900, 4617; 1910,
5057.

FELDSPAR, fel'spar (Ger. Feldspath, from
Feld, field + Spath, MHG. spat, laminated stone;
connected by popular etymology with spar) . A
group of minerals, all the species of which con-
sist of silicate of aluminium in combination with
one or more of the following metals: sodium,
potassium, calcium, or barium. For many rea-
sons the feldspars are considered the most im-
portant group of minerals in the large division
of the silicates. The various species and their
numerous varieties, all of which occur originally
in igneous or metamorphic rocks, form an essen-
tial constituent of a number of rocks such as
granite, syenite, gneiss, etc., which are of
primary importance as building materials and
are largely quarried in all parts of the world.
As a group of minerals, the feldspars are in
general characterized by a close agreement in
crystal habit, prism angle, and methods of
twinning, and especially by two easy cleavages
inclined to one another at an angle close to 90°,
the cleavage surfaces being smooth and of high
polish. Their hardness is not quite that of
quartz, and their specific gravity varies between
2.5 and 2.9, while their colors range from white,
through pink, yellow, green, and red, to dark
greenish brown. According to their crystalline
form the different varieties are divided into
monoclinic and triclinic feldspar, and under
each of these heads they are grouped into species,
according to their composition. Orthoclase, a
potash feldspar, is a very common kind, occur-
ring in monoclinic crystals of glassy, white, pink,
and flesh-red color, in granite, gneiss, syenite,
and many volcanic rocks. Adwlaria, or moon-
stone, is a white variety of orthoclase that> be-
cause of its pearly, opalescent reflections, is cut
as a gem. MicrooUne, a triclinic potash feld-
spar, is the most common species of the group,
being largely present in pegmatite veins. It
has a green variety, amazon stone, found in
granite at Pike's Peak, Colo., and in the Ural
Mountains; this variety is also cut as a gem
stone.

The plagioclase feldspars, embracing albite,
oligoclase, andesine, labradorite, anorthite, and
their several varieties, are soda-lime feldspars
that vary in composition between the allite,
which is high in soda and low in lime, and anor-
thite, which is low in soda and high in lime.
Among the members of this group labradorite
is the most important, as it forms a large part
of the volcanic rocks of Pre-Cambrian age, such
as those in the Adirondack region of New York
and in many other similar localities of America
and Europe. Some varieties of labradorite ex-
hibit on the polished surface a beautiful play of
iridescent colors and have on this account been
employed to a considerable extent as ornamental
stones.

All the feldspars weather readily under the
action of both atmospheric agencies and acidu-
lated surface waters and yield a form of clay
known as kaolin, which is of great economic
importance in the pottery industries. Unaltered
feldspar, especially such as occurs in veins in
granite and gneiss, is quarried, crushed, washed,
and made into a paste that is applied to the sur-
face of pottery to form the glaze. See KAOLIN;
PORCELAIN; POTTERY; and the names of the
different forms of feldspar mentioned above.

PfeLEGYHAZA, faiagsh-ha'sa, or KISKUN-
FiXEGYHAZA, klsVkoon. A town in Hun-
gary, about 65 miles southeast of Budapest
(Map: Hungary, F 3). It manufactures bricks
and cereals and trades in fruit, grain, wine, and
tobacco. The surrounding country furnishes
rich pastures, and cattle raising is an important
industry. Its educational institutions include
a trade school, a teachers' institute, and a gym-
nasium. Pop., 1900, 33,408; 1910, 34,924.

FELIBIEtf, famyiN', ANDKJ& (1619-95).
A French architect and historiographer. He
was born at Chartrcs and was a protege" of
Fouquet and Colbert. He became historiog-
rapher of buildings (1666), secretary of the
Academy of Architecture (1671), and director
of the Cabinet of Antiques (1673). He wrote
a great number of works on architecture, paint-
ing, and sculpture, which, apart from their
historical value, faithfully reflect the opinions
of the Royal Academy, of which he was long the
recognized exponent. Of these the following are
the more important: Origins de la peinture
(1C60); Entretiens sur les vies et sur les
ouvrages des plus excellent* peintres, anciens et
modemes (3 parts, 1666-1688) ; Conferences de
I9 Academic de peinture ( 1669 ) ; Principes de
rarchitecture, de la sculpture, de la peinture,
etc.t avec un dictionnaire des termes propres
(1676-90).

F^LIBBES, fa'lfi^br', LBS. See FI&LIBBIOB.

F&LIBBIGE, fa'le'brezh'. An association
founded at the Chateau of Fontsegugne, near
Avignon, on May 21, 1854, and organized in its
present form at Avignon on May 21, 1876. Its
purpose is stated in the first article of its con-
stitution: "to bring together and to encourage
those who by their writings preserve the lan-
guage of the land of Oc, and also those scholars
and artists who study and work in the interest
of this region." The langue d'oc, so called be-
cause of the word for "yes" (oc), has never
ceased to be spoken in a multitude of dialects
all over the south of France, as it still is by
some ten millions of persons. No literature, of
any real value or importance was written in
Provencal from the middle of the fourteenth cen-

433

tury to the beginning of the nineteenth, but the
language never entirely died out as a written
language. Joseph Roumanille (q.v.), born in
1818, at Saint-Remy near Avignon, first con-
ceived the idea of purifying and perfecting the
dialect' of his own region. Surrounding himself
with a few enthusiastic friends, he strove to
systematize its grammar and orthography and,
above all, to produce works of genuine poetic
value that should speak to the hearts and souls
of the humbler classes in the lower Rhone
valley as no poems in French could ever do. He
himself wrote several volumes of verse and in
1852 edited a collection of Provengal poems by
various authors, called Li Prouvengalo.

These works form the starting point of a re-
markable linguistic and literary revival, which,
owing to the national exuberance of the southern
French temperament, has not lost its impetus
and still embodies the purest and noblest ideal
of the race. The names of the seven poets who
met at Fontsegugne are Joseph Roumanille,
Fre*de"ric Mistral, Theodore Aubanel, Eugene
Garcin, Anselme Mathieu, Paul Giera, and Al-
phonse Tavan.

The word "Felibre" was furnished by Mistral
(q.v.), who had found it in an old canticle,
wherein Jesus is referred to as disputing with
the seven F&ibres of the law.

Besides the task of pruning and purifying the
dialect, the Felibres had to create a public for
their works. To this end they set about pub-
lishing an annual called the Armana Prouvengau,
which began with 'an edition of a few hundred
copies and has now reached a circulation of
many thousands. In 1859 Mistral published his
first long narrative poem, "Mireio" ("Mireille"),
which met with very great success, being praised
in the most glowing terms by Lamartine, so that
the Provengal Renaissance became known to the
literary circles of Paris and soon to the world in
general. From this time on the output of verse
in Provencal steadily increased; scores, nay,
hundreds of writers appeared, and to-day the
bibliography of the Felibrean literature nils a
large volume.

The movement speedily found adherents, not
only in southern France, but even in Spain,
where the Catalan poets established Floral
Games in 1859 and were soon recognized as
brothers by the Felibres. In 1867 the distin-
guished Catalan poet and patriot Victor Bala-
guer was received with enthusiasm at Avignon
and elsewhere and on his return home sent the
Felibres a silver cup, which has become the
sacred emblem of the association. In the same
spirit of Latin fraternity, the Felibres sent a
delegation to take part in the Dante celebration
'at Florence (1890).

In 1876 the formal organization was effected.
There is a consistory of 50 members, called
Majoraux, which elects its own members; the
consistory is presided over by the Capoulie*. All
the Felibres are divided into the four Mainte-
nances of Provence, Languedoc, Aquitaine, and
the Spanish Province of Catalonia. Any seven
Felibres dwelling in one locality may ask the
M afatenance to form them into a Sohool. Every
seven years floral games are held, when a poet
is crowned laureate. He chooses the queen of
the Felibrige, who is the living symbol of beauty
for the Felibres, as was the lady of his choice
for the troubadour in the days of courtly love.
The Capoulie's have been: Mistral from 1876
to 1884, Joseph Roumanille from 1884 to 1891,

Felix Gras from 1891 to 1901, and Pierre
Devoluy.

The language used by Mistral and the Felibres
is based upon the dialect of Saint-Remy. It is
not the language of the troubadours any more
than an Italian dialect spoken to-day in Lorn-
bardy is the language of Dante, though it be-
longs, of course, to the same general family.
Furthermore, six centuries have elapsed since
the days of the old poets, bringing great changes
in the speech of the people. Mistral deliberately
set to work to purify his dialect, casting out
forms due to the influence of French, and to
render the rustic speech of his home capable of
literary expression. The result is a language
exceedingly rich in vocabulary, full of terms
expressive of what is exclusively Provencal. It
is, however, an artificial, literary language that
does not represent exactly the speech of any one,
although readily understood by nearly all the
inhabitants of the region. As the movement
progressed, more and more writers claimed the
privilege of writing in their own unaltered
dialects. The Felibres of the Limousin advo-
cate the general use of their dialect, because
theirs is the original language of the ancient
troubadours, while others claim that theirs is
the most centrally located, since it is spoken
around Montpellier in the heart of that dis-
trict. Mistral, the greatest Provencal poet,
favored the dialect used east of the Rhone.

But the language of the Felibres tends to pre-
vail because of the sheer superiority of their
literature. They count among their number one
poet of very high rank, who has revealed the
wonders and beauty of the land, the charm of
its legends and history, the traits of its people,
in verse of great originality and exquisite
literary finish. Aubanel and Roumanille were
real poets; Felix Gras wrote a number of long,
ambitious poems, but succeeded best in the his-
torical romance, and is possibly the best prose
writer among the Felibres. Song writers and
story-tellers abound. An astonishing number of
magazines and periodicals bear witness to the
ceaseless activity of these enthusiastic writers.
One of its plays, Lou pan d6u pocat, by The"o-
dore Aubanel (1829-86), was deemed worthy
of being translated and produced at the TheTitre
Libre under the direction of the famous Antoinc
(1878); and Daudet, that brilliant son and
interpreter of southern France (though living
in Paris), translated into Provencal his Lettrcs
de mem moulin.

This modern literature in no way continues
the literature of the troubadours. Mistral's
first inspiration lay in his love of Homer and
Vergil; he and his fellow poets were long in-
different to the troubadours, and even while
extolling the glories of the past they have
written for the Provence of to-day. Mistral at
least succeeded in combining this modernism
and localism with classic beauty of form, and
it would be difficult to find an instance of a
more thoroughly original and independent crea-
tion in the history of letters.

The only adequate history of the Felibrige is
that of G. Jourdanne (Avignon, 1897). Mistral
published a large dictionary, Trfoor dou F6li*
brige (Aix, 1879-86) ; and there is a Grammavre
historique de la Iwgue des F&ibres by Kosch-
witz ( Grief swald, 1894). Consult also: Kosch-
witz, Veber die provewsalisohen Wetfber (Berlin,
1894) ; H. Oddo, La. Provenoe, uMges, ooutwnw,
idiomes, depute les origines (Paris, 1902);

FELICE

434

FELIX

Armand Praviel and J. R. de Brousse, L'An-
tJwlogie du Ftlibrige (ib., 1900); Cecil Head-
lam, Prorence and Languedoc (London, 1912).

FELICE, fa-le'cha, FOBTUNATO BAKTOLOMMEO
(1723-89). An Italian author, born in Rome,
of a Neapolitan family. He studied at Rome
and Naples under the Jesuits and in 1746 be-
came a successful professor of physics at Naples
after taking orders at Rome. He fell violently
in love with a young Roman matron, the
Countess Panzutti (whose husband had put her
in a monastery), ran away with her, narrowly
escaped capture at Lyons and Geneva, and was
finally overtaken at Genoa. Felice was acquitted
by the Italian ecclesiastical court, but felt that
his career in the church was ruined; so he went
to Bern, became a Protestant, and in 1762
established a famous press at Yverdon. He pub-
lished the Dizionario universale regionato delle
umane cogwsioni, in 42 vols. (1770-75), with
a supplemento in 6 vols. (1776-76); and 10
vols. of Tavole (1775-80), in which he had the
collaboration of Euler, Dupuis, Lalande, Haller,
and others. Among his other works are: Bui
modo di formare la mente ed it cuore dei fan-
ciulU (1763); Prmoipii del diritto della naiitra
e delle genti (1769) ; Lezioni di logica (1770) ;
Element* del governo intenore di uno stato
(1781); Quadro filoaofico dello, religione cris-
tiana and De Keictoniana Attraotione, adversvs
Hambergerum (1757).

FE'LICIS'SIMTTS. The leader of a schism
in the church at Carthage about the middle of
the third century. Bishop Cyprian having with-
drawn at the outbreak of the pecian persecution,
the church was governed during his absence by
the presbyters, among whom was one Novatus,
who made Felicissimus his deacon. The records
seem to show that Novatus ordained him, regard-
less of the rule that ordination must be only at
the hands of bishops. Felicissimus and his sym-
pathizers, objected to the episcopal board of ad-
ministration which Cyprian had appointed to
visit the Carthaginian church in his absence;
they were displeased with Cyprian himself on
account of his retirement from the scene of
action ; and they were liberal in dealing with the
lapsed (weak brethren, who had abjured their
faith under pressure of persecution), readmitting
them to the church on easy conditions, which
was contrary to Cyprian's express commands.
Felicissimus' conduct seemed to warrant his
deposition, which Cyprian pronounced as early
as 250 A.D. After his return from exile Cyprian
convened an important synod at Cartilage
(251), which excommunicated the offending
deacon. Felicissimus, however, had a consider-
able following. The schismatics completed their
organization by the choice of Fortunatus as rival
Bishop of Carthage, and Felicissimus visited
Rome in the hope of winning sympathy from
that important see. His mission was a failure,
and Cyprian's vigorous measures of discipline
in Carthage, together with the practical agree-
ment as to the treatment of the lapsed, soon
reached by Western Christendom, left the schis-
matics little hope of success. Felicissimus dis-
appears from view, and Ms movement soon faded
out of sight- Some writers find in this schism
an effort after presbyterial church government,
as against the episcopal system with which
Cyprian's name is -so prominently identified.
Consult Benson, Cyprian: His Life, his Times,
his Work (New York, 1897).
FELICITAS, fe-llst-tns, SAINT. The name

of two reputed Christian female martyrs. The
first is said to have been beheaded at Rome, with
her seven sons, under Antoninus Pius, about 150
A.D. The second was a slave who, with her
mistress, Pei^petua, suffered in the amphitheatre
at Carthago under Septimius Severus in 202 or
203 A.D. Her day is March 7. The narrative
is bettor attested than that of many of the early
martyrdoms. Consult Harris and Gifford, The
Acts'of the Martyrdom of l*erpetua and Felicitas
(London, 1890), and Robinson, The Passion of
J'erpctita (Cambridge, 1891).

FEOJIDJE (Neo-Lat. nom pi., from fells, cat).
The cat family, distinguished primarily by pos-
sessing retractile claws. See CAT.

FE'LIX. The name of four popes and an
antipope.— FELIX T (Pope, 269-274). His pon-
tificate is interesting as an early example of the
relations of the Christian Church to the Roman
Empire and of the recognition by the state of
the civil rights of Christians. In the pontificate
of Felix's predecessor, Dionysius, Paul of Samo-
sata, Bishop of Antioch, had been deposed by a
council held in that city. Paul having resisted
the sentence, the matter was laid before Felix,
Dionysius being now dead; and, as Paul held
possession of the church and church buildings,
the bishops were obliged to claim the inter-
ference of the Emperor Aurelian, who was pass-
ing through Antioch on his return from Pal-
myra. Aurelian returned a decision to the effect
that the buildings should belong to the person
"to whom they should be adjudged by the bishops
of Italy and Rome." Felix is, perhaps incor-
rectly, said to have suffered martyrdom in the
persecution of the same Emperor, Aurelian,
probably in 274. His day is May 30. Certain
letters of a later date have been ascribed to him.
—FELIX II (Pope from 355 to 358). He was
chosen to occupy the Roman see after the ban-
ishment of Liberius. When the latter returned
to Rome in 358, it is said that the Emperor
Constantius proposed that Liberius and Felix
should exercise jurisdiction jointly; but the
Romans rejected the proposal, and Felix had to
give way. He retired to his estate on the
Aurelian Way, and, according to the Libr.r
J>ontificaUs, died a martyr's death in 365. In
the Roman Calendar he appears as saint and
martyr, and his day is July 29, but he is excluded
from the number of the popes. — FELIX III (Pope
from 483 to 492). He was a native of Rome
and of the family from which afterward sprang
Pope Gregory the Great. His pontificate is
memorable as presenting the true commence-
ment of the disruption of the Greek and Roman
churches. The contemporary occupant of the
wee of Constantinople, Acacius, as well as the
Imperial court, were favorers of the Monophysite
party, who refused to accept the decision of the
Council of Chalcedon. (See MONOPHYSITBS.)
By their influence the Patriarch of Alexandria
was deposed and replaced by the Monophysite
Peter Mongus. The deposed Patriarch having
appealed to Rome, Felix sent two legates to
Constantinople to require his restoration; and
the legates having failed in their trust, and
Acacius still adhering to the heterodox party,
Felix assembled a council at Rome, and ex-
communicated not only the offending legates, but
also Acacius, the sentence being pinned by a
monk upon the back of the Patriarch's robe
while he was actually officiating in the church.
Felix had previously rejected the ffenrtiooa, or
decree of union between the orthodox and the

FELIX

435

Monophysites, published by the Emperor Zeno
in 482. The schism thus inaugurated (484)
was not healed till the year 519. The only
literary remains of this pontiff are the letters
and other acts of this controversy. He is a
saint in the Roman Calendar, and his day is
February 25. — FELIX IV (Pope from 526 to
530). He was a native of Benevento. His
pontificate presents no noteworthy event. He
is also a saint in the Roman Calendar, and
his day is January 30. — FELIX V (Antipope
from 1439 to 1449). He was Amadeus VIII,
Duke of Savoy. He was born in 1383 and
succeeded his father, Amadeus VII, as Count
of Savoy in 1391. In 1416 Savoy was erected
into a duchy. As a ruler, Amadeus was mild,
just, and successful, and distinguished for his
piety. In 1434 he resigned the rule to his
son and retired to the hermitage of Ripaille,
on the south bank of Lake Geneva. There he
and some companions lived as hermits. He was
nominated in the Council of Basel to succeed
Eugenius IV (q.v.) in 1439 and elected on the
fifth ballot, although it was objected to him that
he had been married and had children, and that
he was not an ecclesiastic and had no knowledge
of theology or other fitness for the position.
His election was not well received, and he so
conspicuously failed to get recognition as Pope
from the princes of Europe that he voluntarily
resigned after a schismatical reign of 10 years.
He was then rewarded by being made Cardinal
Bishop of Basel, Lausanne, Constance, and
Strassburg, and also Papal Vicar-General for all
the states ruled by the house of Savoy. He died
Jan. 7, 1451. Consult Pastor, The History of
the Popes, vols. i, ii (London, 1899).

FELIX, ANTONIUS. Eoman procurator of
Judaea (52-? A.D.). He was a younger brother
of Pallas, the favorite of the Emperor Claudius,
and, like his brother, evidently a freedman of
Antonia, the mother of Claudius. Because of
this fact, perhaps, he received the honor, un-
usual for frcedmen, of military command as well
as civic office. Of the earliest part of his public
career little is known. His character has been
painted by Tacitus in darkest colors, as that of
a cruel, lustful, and unprincipled man, with the
disposition of a slave, who thought that his in-
fluential friends at Rome would afford him such
protection that he could commit all kinds of
crime with impunity. He was thrice married —
once to a granddaughter of M. Antony and
Cleopatra; the third time to Drusilla, daughter
of Herod Agrippa I and sister of Agrippa II,
whom he persuaded to desert her husband, the
King of Emesa. Ho succeeded Cumanus as
procurator of Judaea in 52 A.D., and probably
held the position till 58, although the latter
date is disputed. Previous to this he may have
been Governor of Galileo for a short time (so
Tacitus). His appointment to the procurator-
ship of Judaea is said to have been at the sug-
gestion of the high priest Jonathan, then in
Rome in connection with the trial of Cumanus
for misgovernment. His rule was marked by
ceaseless disturbances and revolts, against which
he acted with a severity that finally resulted in
his recall to Rome. Most noted among the up-
risings was that of the Zealots, his oppression
of whoin gave rise, or at least new impulse, to
the fanatical Sicarii. (See ZEALOT.) The dis-
turtyance which occasioned his removal from
office was the riot between the JewfBh and
Syrian inhabitant* of Gsesarea, regarding the

equality of their political privileges, in the
quelling of which Felix acted with great cruelty
but was unsuccessful, and the consideration of
the case was removed to Rome, Felix being re-
called before a decision was given. It was only
through the influence of Pallas that Felix escaped
punishment for his maladministration of nis
office. Nothing is known of his later career.

It was to Felix that Claudius Lysias. for rea-
sons of safety, sent Paul from Jerusalem after
his arrest in that city (56 AJD.)> and it was
before this procurator that the Apostle's first
hearings were held. From these no decision was
reached. Paul was remanded to prison, where
he was kept, though under lenient regulations,
through the remaining two years of Felix's term
of service, his trial never being completed.
There, also, for the sake of pleasing the Jews,
with whom his relations were at that time
specially strained, Paul was left by the procura-
tor on his return to Rome (Acts xxiii. 23-xxiv.
27). See NEW TESTAMENT CHEONOLOGYJ PATJL;
FESTUS.

FELIX, ELISE RACHEL. See RACHEL, MULE.

FE'LIX, MABCTTS MINUCIUS. A Roman law-
yer and Christian, author of Octcwius, a dia-
logue in defense of Christianity, probably the
oldest Christian work extant in the Latin
tongue. Nothing is known of the author. The
date of the book is put about 160. It is in
Migne, Patrologia Latino,, iii, and in English
translation in the A.nte-Nicene Fathers, vol. iv
(Buffalo, 1889).

FELIX, SAUTT, THE MABTTB. A Christian
missionary of the third century. Regula, his
sister and fellow martyr, and he are said to
have been the first preachers of the gospel at
Zurich, Switzerland. The legend is that they
were executed by the Governor Decius at the
order of the tyrant Maximian. Before the
Reformation they were venerated as patrons of
the city, on whose seal they appear with their
severed heads in their hands. Their day is Sep-
tember 11. Consult Mittheilungen der anti-
qitarisohen Q-esellsohaft su Zurich, vols. i and ii
(1841).

FELIX HOLT, THE RADICAL. A well-
known novel by George Eliot (1866).

EELIXOANS. A Spanish sect of the latter
part of the eighth century, so called from Felix,
Bishop of Urgella. See ADOPTIAN CONTBOVERST.

FE'LIXBIAB^TB OF HYKCANIA, hSr-ka'-
nl-a. An old Spanish romance, chiefly notable
as being among the works with which Don
Quixote fostered his idealism before setting
forth upon his adventures. The title character
is a valiant knight who slays many giants.

FELIX OF VALOIS, yalwa' (1127-1212).
A cofoundcr of the Trinitarians (q.v.) . He gave
his goods to be sold for the poor and retired to a
hermitage near Moaux. In 1198, accompanied
by St. John of Matha, he obtained from Pope
Innocent III the right to found the Order, of
the Trinitarians, which worked for the redemp-
tion of Christian captives from the 'Moors.
Felix was canonized in 1666, and his feaat is
November 20.

TELL, JOHN (1625-86). An English clergy-
man and educator, born at Longworth (Berk-
shire). He graduated at Christ Church, Oxford,
in 1643, was a zealous Loyalist during the Com-
monwealth, and was appointed cation and then
dean of Christ Church in 1660. From 1666 to
1668, and during a portion of 1669, he was vice
chancellor of the university. H* added several

FELLAH

436

FELLOWS

buildings to Christ Church and greatly improved
its scholastic discipline. He also developed the
press of the university and encouraged the col-
lation of manuscripts and other scholarly under-
takings. In 1684, by command of James II,
he expelled from his studentship in, Christ
Church John Locke, whom he had publicly de-
fended two years before. He became Bishop of
Oxford in 1675. His publications include a
critical edition (1682) of the works of Cyprian
and a critical New Testament (1675); and he
aided John Mill in his New Testament studies.
He was the subject of a well-known epigram by
Thomas Brown (q.v.), and he was bitterly
criticized by Anthony fi, Wood, whose History
of Oxford Fell published (1674) in a Latin
version with notorious editorial changes, espe-
cially an attack on Hobbes.

FEI/LAH (pi. Fellahm; AT. fellah, laborer,
from falalia, to till). One of the agricultural or
laboring class of the people of the Nile valley.
In Egypt there was a partial differentiation of
the population in early times analogous to that
which in India developed into caste (q.v.). This
division was perhaps based at least in part on
an original diversity or race, and the chief sur-
viving classes are the Bedouin, who are the war-
like and wandering people of the deserts, and
the Fellahin, who comprise the peaceful and
sedentary folk of the annually inundated bottom
lands. In general, the Fellahin constitute the
peasantry and the Bedouin the soldiery of
Egypt; i.e.» the distinction is industrial and
social rather than ethnic — indeed, there are no
constant ethnic differences. As a class, the
Fellahin are docile and lacking in initiative, but
they retain in form and feature the characteris-
tics of their ancestors, the monument build-
ers of ancient Egypt. The women are espe-
cially noted for their comeliness. See EGYPT,
ETHNOLOGY.

FELLATAH. See FULA.H.
FELLENBERG, fellen-bSrK, PHILIP EMAN-
tJEL VON (1771-1844). A Swiss agriculturist
and educator. He was born in Bern and .was
educated at Ttibingen. After a sojourn in Paris
he settled in Bern, whence he was banished dur-
ing the French invasion in 1798. Subsequently
recalled, he was sent as Ambassador to Paris,
where his services largely contributed to amel-
iorate the political conditions then prevailing
in Switzerland. Later in life he devoted him-
self exclusively to the advancement of agricul-
ture and the improvement of Swiss education
through experiments on his estate at Hofwyl.
In 1804 he established an orphan asylum, which
began to be used only after he associated Wehrli
with the work in 1808. In 1807 he founded
the Literary Institute or Academy for children
of the nobles and gentry. A colony for poor
boys was established in 1816, and in 1827 a
real intermediate school was opened for boys
of the middle classes. Normal courses for the
training of Swiss teachers were held during
vacations. While Fellenberg aimed to provide
an all-round education according to the needs of
each class, he also hoped by associating all the
classes together to bring about a feeling of
sympathy and understanding^ between them. At
Hofwyl more than 2000 pupils are said to have
been taught. Endeavor was twice made to unite
Fellenberg's establishments with those of Pesta-
lozzi; but the two teachers were not sufficiently
in harmony. The practical educational influ-
ence of Fellenberg upon his native land was,

perhaps, even greater than that of Pestalozzi,
while abroad Hofwyl was almost as well known
as Yverdon. The manual-training movement in
which many American institutions had their
origin is probably due to Fellenberg's influence,
while at least one well-known school with which
Professor Tyndall was associated was estab-
lished on similar lines in England. His literary
activity was comparatively unimportant. Con-
sult Hamm, Felleribergs Leben und Wirken
(Bern, 1845).

FEZ/LING. A town in Durham Co., Eng-
land, constituting an eastern suburb of Gates-
head. It has manufactures of chemicals and
glassware, and there are large collieries in the
vicinity. Pop., 1001, 22,467; 1911, 25,026.

FELLOW COMMONER. A term applied
formerly at Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin uni-
versities to those undergraduates who were ad-
mitted to cojleges by paying at a time when
they were intended only for fellows and scholars
on the foundation. The class of undergraduates
had the privilege of dining at the fellows* table
— whence the name, which for a time was super-
seded by the term "gentleman commoner." Both
terms are now practically obsolete, Worcester
College, Oxford, being the only instance where
the term fellow commoner still appears, and
Downing College, Cambridge, being the last
which used the term until within recent years.

PEI/LOWS, SIB CHARLES (1799-1860). An
English antiquarian, born at Nottingham. He
early showed a fondness for travel and after
1832 spent a large part of his time in the Levant.
In 1838 he began a series of journeys from
Smyrna into parts of Asia Minor, at that time
almost unknown to Europeans. His chief dis-
coveries were in ancient Lycia, where he as-
cended the valley of the Patara, finding the
ruins of Xanthus, the ancient capital, Tlos, and
other sites, copying inscriptions, and making
drawings of the architecture and sculpture.
He then returned to England and published A.
Journal Written during an Excursion in Asia
Minor , ly Charles Fellow (London, 1830). In
1839 he again visited Lycia and discovered the
ruins of no fewer than 13 cities, each of which
contained works of art. Another work, entitled
An Account of Discoveries in Lycia, Being a
Journal Kept during a Second Excursion in Asia
Minor (London, 1841), was the result of this
journey. In 1841 an expedition left England
for the purpose of selecting works of art from
the ancient cities discovered by Fellows, who
accompanied the expedition and directed its
operations. Authorized by a firman from the
Sultan, they made their selections and returned
in the spring of 1842. Another expedition,
under Fellows, sent out by the trustees of the
British Museum, brought home 27 cases of mar-
bles and casts in 1844. The sculptures, among
which are the so-called Harpy and Nereid monu-
ments from Xanthus, are now exhibited in the
Lycian Room of the British Museum. In all his
expeditions he paid his own expenses. In 1845
he was rewarded by the honor of knighthood.
His other works are: The Xanthian Marbles:
Their Acquisition and Transmission to England
(1843) ; An Account of the Ionic Trophy Monu-
ment Excavated at Xanthus (1848); a reissue
of his earlier journals under the title Travels
and Researches in Asia Minor, Particularly in
the Province of Lycia (1852); and Coins of
Ancient Lycia before the Reign of Alexander:
with an Essay on the Relative Dates of the

FELLOW SERVANTS

437

FELLOWSHIP

Lycian Monuments in the British Museum
(1855).

FELLOW SEBVANTS. A term used in the
rule governing the liability of employers to their
employees for injuries sustained by the latter
in the course of their employment, to designate
those who are employed by a common master in
the promotion of a common enterprise, and
whose relations are such as to make the safety
of any one depend, in the ordinary and natural
course of things, on the care and skill of the
others. Accordingly an engine driver is a fel-
low servant of a switchman when they are serv-
ing a common employer in conducting a common
business; while the seamen of one ocean steamer
are not fellow servants of those of another
steamer, although the vessels are owned by the
same person. In the latter case the relations
of the two crews are not such as to render the
safety of one dependent, in the * natural and
ordinary course of things, upon the care and
skill of the other.

Although the definition of follow servant
stated above is sustained by the English de-
cisions, by those of our Federal courts, and by
those of the great majority of our State tri-
bunals, it has been rejected in a few jurisdic-
tions. There the view has prevailed that the
employees of a common master are not to be
deemed fellow servants within the rule relating
to employers' liability unless they are of equal
rank. In these jurisdictions the conductor of a
railway train, accordingly, is not the fellow
servant of a brakeman; nor is the superintendent
of a mill, nor the foreman of a gang of laborers,
a fellow servant of those who are subject to his
control. If a subordinate is injured through
the negligence of his superior, the master is
liable for such injury.

In the other class of jurisdictions the master
is not liable unless the act is one which he is
under an absolute legal duty to perform
properly. This legal duty binds the employer to
provide for his employees a safe place to work;
to provide safe machinery and appliances; to
formulate suitable rules and regulations for the
safe conduct of his business, if such rules are
needed; to warn his employees of danger which
they could not or would not ordinarily discover;
and to provide suitable superintendents and
colaborers. If he delegates either of these duties
to an employee, no matter what his grade or
rank, the negligence or misconduct of the em-
ployee in the performance of that duty is in
law the negligence or misconduct of the em-
ployer. For it he is liable to the injured serv-
ant. Perhaps it should be added that the
negligent servant is liable to the person injured
by his negligence, whether the latter is a fellow
servant or not.

Consult: McKinney, Treatise on the Law of
Fellow-Servants (Northport, 1890), and Bailey,
The Law of Master's Liability for Injuries to
Servants (St. Paul, 1894). See EMPLOYEE'S
LIABILITY.

FEI/LOWSHIP (from fellow, Icel. felagi,
from felag, partnership, from /e, property, Eng.
fee + lag, a laying together, AS. lagu, Eng.
law + Eng. -ship; of. Icel. f&agsskapr, fellow-
ship). An institution which arose in connection
with the medieval colleges, originally eleemosy-
nary in their character. The members, or "fel-
lows" (soeti), as they are called, usually had a
boarding place in common and received regular
stipends provided for out of the income of the

foundation. Such a college, was established at
the University of Bologna as early as 1267, and
the beginning of the institution at the Uni-
versity of Paris is traced to a permanent though
humble provision for sleeping accommodations
and for small stipends to be given to 18 scholar
clerks, the founder being a pious man, one
Dominus Jocius of London. At Oxford a foun-
dation was in 1243 established for two priests,
who, while pursuing their studies, should say
mass for the soul of their benefactor. In 1249
University College was founded with an income
for the support of 10 or more masters of arts,
who were studying theology. At Cambridge, St.
Peter's College was founded in 1284. The re-
cipients of these benefactions were usually re-
quired to pass certain examinations or to have
attained a certain standard and often to show
their need of such support. Frequently, how-
ever, the founder retained the patronage, which
was restricted to his kin or to the members
of a certain diocese or district. By the Uni-
versity Act of 1854 such restrictions were re-
moved in England. At present the fellowships
there are ordinarily confined to the graduates of
the university to which the college belongs.

At Bologna the College of Spain still survives,
having five or six students. The great Parisian
endowments disappeared as a result of wars and
revolutions. A fellowship in the Sorbonne is
now merely an honorary distinction. In England
the fellowships steadily increased in number and
value for a time, but the tendency at present is
to limit the emoluments and to require some
research or other work from the holders. To-
day their income ranges from £200 to £300 per
annum. To this is added the privilege of oc-
cupying certain apartments and in some cases
of enjoying perquisites in meals or commons.
The ordinary length of tenure of a fellowship is
six or seven years; a few are tenable for life.
In general they are forfeited should the holder
attain to certain preferments in the Church or
at the bar and sometimes in the case of his suc-
ceeding to property above a certain amount.
Except by special vote of the college the holder
of a fellowship forfeits it by marriage. The
English fellows usually carry OIL instruction
in their own colleges and are frequently pro-
fessors in the university as well or hold other
academic positions. In the newer English uni-
versities the fellowships are, as a rule, tenable
for from one to three years, are rarely worth
more than £150 a year, and require research
work from the holder.

In the colleges and universities of the United
States the term "fellow" often, means trustee,
as, in one sense, at Harvard. On the other
hand, the ordinary fellowship is an honor bear-
ing with it a certain annual stipend, which
varies from $120 to $1500. The average amount
is, however, about $500. The fellowships are
bestowed according to merit and usually with-
out restriction as to the collegiate institution of
which the candidate is a graduate. The holder
is expected to pursue graduate work in some
special department to which the fellowship is
attached, and in most cases this work is to be
done at the institution which grants it. Oc-
casionally, however, the fellow is allowed or
even required to travel. Some institutions re-
quire certain services in connection with, in-
struction from the holders of fellowship
others expect their time to be devoted to
In 1911 there were 272 fellowships in 13

FELLTHAM 438

ing institutions of the country — California, Chi-
cago, Clark, Columbia, Cornell, Harvard, Johns
Hopkins, Michigan, Pennsylvania, Princeton,
Virginia, Wisconsin, Yale — of a total value of
$139,250.

Probably the most valuable fellowships are
the Kahn traveling fellowships awarded in
England, Germany, France, Russia, Japan, and
America and of the annual value of $3000, for
the purpose not so much of promoting academic
research as international comity through a better
understanding and appreciation of foreign con-
ditions. For the current status of fellowships
in various institutions, consult: The Handbook
of Graduate Clubs (Chicago) ; College Year-
Book (New York, 1896 et seq.) ; Minerva Jahr-
buch aer Oelehrten Welt (Strassburg, 1892 et
seq. ) . See UNIVERSITY.

FELI/THAM, OWEN (c.1802-68). An Eng-
lish author. He was born in Suffolk and was
connected with the household of the Earl^ of
Thomond, at Great Billing, Northamptonshire.
An enthusiastic Royalist, his boundless devotion,
innocent of euphemistic intent, prompted him
to call the dead Charles I "Christ the Second."
His name has survived in literature as the au-
thor of a thoughtful and agreeable series of
moral essays entitled Resolves, written "to hold
himself and others within the limits of pru-
dence, honor, and virtue" (1st ed., 100 essays,
c.1620; 2d ed., 200 essays, 1628; 4th ed., 1631,
reprinted by W. Pickering, London, 1846). He
also wrote A Brief Character of the Low Coun-
tries (1652), which was incorporated with the
eighth edition of the Resolves.

FE'LO DE SE (ML., traitor to himself). Iu
criminal law, the technical description for a
self-murderer, a suicide. As defined by Black-
stone, "A felo de Be, therefore, is he that de-
liberately puts an end to his own existence, or
commits any unlawful act, the consequence of
which is his own death" (Cowm., iv, 189).
For legal consequence of self-murder, see SUI-
CIDE.

FBI/ON" (OF. felon, felun, fellon, Fr. felon,
. ML. felo, fello, wicked man, from OF. fel, It.
fello, wicked, from Gael, feallan, Bret, falloni,
teachery, Ir. feal, evil; connected with Lat. fal-
lere, to deceive, Gk. ff<f>6,\\eiv, *pAa/fcin. to fall,
Skt. phal, to deceive, OHG. fallan, Ger. fallen,
Icel. falla, AS. feallan, Eng. fall), or PABO-
NYCHIA. A whitlow; properly, a painful inflam-
mation (generally suppurative) around the
nail or at the matrix or root of the nail. Com-
monly, however, the term is applied to a sup-
purative circumscribed inflammation anywhere
on the fingers or thumbs. If superficial, the in-
flammatory process may undermine the epider-
mis only; if deep, it may burrow under the
sheath of a tendon or under the periosteum.
Pathologically felon is- a celMitis, and it is
due, in people of reduced resistive power, to an
injury, such as a puncture, cut, or scra-tch, fol-
lowed by infection of the wound with pus germs.
Pain is a prominent symptom, with tenderness
on pressure, heat, throbbing, and much tension.
If amelioration does not appear before pus is
present, under treatment with rest, elevation,
and applications of hot-water compresses, inci-
sions must be made so as to release the exudate.
Pus generally appears in 48 hours after infec-
tion. The incisions must generally be deep and
occasionally multiple. A joint of the finger has
been lost through delay after pus has appeared.
To avoid contraction and stiffness as the cicatrix

MLS

forms, the finger or hand must in some cases be
supported on a splint.

FEI/ONY. In the common-law classification
of crimes, the second in atrocity and in im-
portance, the first being treason, and the one
comprehending all minor offenses being mis-
demeanors. Omitting treason (which, though
sometimes classed as a felony, really stands by
itself in our legal system), the distinction be-
tween felonies and misdemeanors corresponds
roughly to that between grave offenses and such
as are less heinous in character. But the dis-
tinction is a purely artificial one. Our law has
never made a classification of crimes which was
based on their inherent nature, but has had ref-
erence in its divisions rather to the kind of pun-
ishment inflicted. A felony was any crime pun-
ishable by forfeiture of the criminal's lands, or
goods, or both. Blackstone adds that capital
or other punishment might be superadded to the
forfeiture, according to the degree of guilt, and
in England, for a long time, most felonies were
punishable by death. But at common law for-
feiture was always an essential part of the pen-
alty, and punishment by death was never the
true criterion. In England important statutory
changes in the laws as to forfeiture (33 and 34
Viet., c. 23, 1870) have taken away the practi-
cal utility of the former test of a felony. But
those crimes are still held to be felonies and
misdemeanors respectively which were so when
the test was operative. Many crimes have been
expressly declared felonies by the statutes
creating them. Even in the absence of such
declaration all crimes for which by statute the
penalty of death may be decreed are there held
to be felonies. In some of the United States
the distinction between felonies and misde-
meanors is practically discarded, the punish-
ment for each particular crime being prescribed
by statute, and the word "felony," if used at
all, being employed in a loose and indefinite
sense. In other States the distinction is re-
tained by statute and made to depend on the
kind of punishment. Thus, in a considerable
number, statutes have declared that crimes
punishable by death or by imprisonment in the
State prison shall be felonious. In those States
it is sufficient to constitute felony that those
penalties may be imposed, though the court or
jurjr may be given power to inflict a less severe
punishment or to suspend sentence. See CRIME;
INFAMOUS CBBIB.

PELS, fflss, JO/JEPH (1854-1914). An Amer-
ican manufacturer and single-tax advocate,
born at Halifax Court House, Va. After four
years as a traveling salesman for manufactur-
ers of soap he undertook in 1874 the manu-
facture of this commodity at Baltimore with
his father, under the firm name of Fels & Co.
Later the business was transferred to Phil-
adelphia. Having amassed a great fortune,
Fels became an ardent advocate of single-tax
reforms, for the promotion of which he estab-
lished the Joseph Fels Fund of America; to
this he contributed $125,000, and to similar
funds in Denmark, Germany, France, Spain,
Australia, New Zealand, and Canada he sub-
scribed generously. He also introduced profit
sharing in his factories, backed single-tax
colonies near Mobile, Ala., and Arden, Del., and
established a labor colony at Hollesley Bay,
England. As a lecturer and as a magazine con-
tributor, he promoted the single-tax propaganda
by his personal efforts.

439

FELT

FELSINA. See Bo LOGS A, History.

PELSINO, f fil'rfng, GEOBGH, JAKOB ( 1802-83 ) .
A German engraver, born at Darmstadt. He
studied under his father, Johann Konrad Fel-
sing, and under Giuseppe Longhi at the Acad-
emy of Milan, where ho won the first prize in
1828 with his "Christ on the Mount of Olives,"
after Carlo Dolci. He was later influenced by
Raphael Morghen and was noted for the accu-
racy with which he produced the peculiar char-
acteristics of paintings which he engraved, par-
ticularly those of the Diisseldorf school. Among
liis finest engravings may be mentioned: Correg-
gio's ''Marriage of St. Catharine"; Raphael's
"Violin Player"; Overbeck's "Holy Family";
"Ralvator Mundi" (after Da Vinci) ; "Hagar and
Tshmael" (after KShler) ; "Jeremiah on the Tlu-
ins of Jerusalem" (after Bendemann) ; ''Christ
Taken Prisoner" (after Hofmann) : and "Poetry
and Love" (after Kaulbach). He was an hon-
orary member of the academies of Milan and
Florence and of the French Institute.

FELS1TE (from Ger. Pels, rock). A name
applied to the dense igneous rocks which have
a stony texture with a fairly light color, and
which require the use of the microscope to de-
termine their mineral nature. It is a conven-
ient general term for the classification of rocks
in the field and is now used as such, although
it was formerly applied in a more restricted
sense to the fine-grained equivalents of the
quartz porphyries. According to present usage
felsite may mean any of the dense volcanic or
dike rocks which correspond to granite, syenite,
or diorite among the coarsely crystallised class.
Thus, basalts and diabases are not included. If
a felsite contains scattered crystals of recog-
nizable minerals (phenoe.rysts), it is known as
a felsite porphyry, or leucophyre. Fel sites oc-
cur in the form of dikes, sheets, and as surface
lava Hows, the latter often covering many hun-
dreds of square miles. They are found along
the Appalachians from Maine southward, aluo
in the Rocky Mountain and Coast ranges, and
elsewhere in regions of volcanic activity.

tfELT (OHG. filts, Ger. Filss, OOhurch Slav.
pluatl, felt; probably connected with OHG. fain,
Ger. Fals, fold). A fabric formed without
weaving by taking advantage of the natural
tendency of the fibres of hair and wool to in-
terlace with and cling to each other. As to the
origin of the knowledge of felt making, its be-
ginnings antedate by many centurioa the Chriw-
tian era, and the fabric is mentioned by the
earliest writers. In fact, St. Clement is tho
patron saint of the felt makers, since he was
said to have put carded wool between his foot
and the soles of his sandals at tho beginning of
a journey and found it .transformed into cloth at
its end. On account of greater simplicity
of its structure, it is probable that felt was
made long before the art of producing cloth by
spinning and weaving had been discovered.

The felting quality of fibres of hair or wool
results from their structure. When examined
by the microscope, the hair of all animals is
found to he more or less jagged or notched on
its surface; in some animals it is distinctly
barbed; and this structure is so directed that
the teeth or barbs all point towards the tip of
the hair. If a piece of human hair (in which
this structure is less marked than in most
animals) he held between the finger and thumb,
and rubbed in the direction of its length, it will
invariably move between the fingers in the di-

rection of its root; for the skin, while moving
towards the tip of the hair, slides freely upon
it, but, moving in the other direction, against
the inclination of the barbs, it brings the hair
with it. It will be easily understood that when
a number of hairs are pressed together those
which lie in opposite directions to each other
and in contact \rill interlock at these barbs or
teeth and thus resist any effort to tear them
asunder. When onco this close contact and in-
terlocking is established between any two or
moie hairs, they remain attached, but the
others that are differently arranged, or not in
contact, will still be free to move upon each
other; and therefore, if subjected to continual
blows, pushing, and pressure, the unattached
hairs will be continually shifting until they
reach others in suitable positions for clinging
together, either by crossing obliquely or by ly-
ing in the same line and overlapping at their
ends or any other portion. When the hair has
a natural tendency to curl, the felting is still
more readily brought about by the additional
interlacing. Although the felting property is
possessed in a preeminent degree by wool, it
TwlongB to the hair or fur of other animals, in-
cluding, the goat, ox, hare, rabbit, and beaver.

The first mechanical process for the produc-
tion of felt was invented by J. R. Williams,
an American, about 1820. Many patents have
since been taken out for the various details of
felting machinery, but the main principle is the
same in all. The wool is carded more or less
perfectly into laps t>'f the length and breadth
of the web to be made. One layer of these laps
is placed upon another to secure the desired
thickness of the fabric, and the two outside
layers are often of a finer quality than the in-
terior. The bulky sheet is now passed between
rollers which arc partly immersed in water,
and some of them are heated internally with
steam. The material is subjected to a heating
and oscillatory motion as well as to pressure.
The completed fabric is dyed and finished like
ordinary cloth. The details of manufacture
wore at one time strictly guarded trade secrets,
each factory having its own processes and spe-
cially made machinery.

Felt is used for many purposes. It is em-
ployed as a covering for floors and as an up-
holsterer's material. It is made Tip not only
into hats, but into cloaks and other garments.
Carriage linings, polishing cloths, pianoforte
hammers, surgical dressings, and many other
objects requiring a soft, thick cloth are made
from felt. The felt used for women's hats is
cut from tho piece, but that employed in the
manufacture of men's hats is made in special
shapes. The material used for men's hats is
usually the fur of raccoons, beavers, or rabbits,
mixed with some good felting wool. See HATS.

Various fabrics which are technically known'
as fel^ and which possess in greater or less de-
gree the qualities of this material, are manu-
factured for uso in different industries. In these
coarse grades of felt cow's hair is often an im-
portant ingredient. The felted sheathing used
as a nonconducting covering for retaining the
heat of steam boilers is a substance interme-
diate between felt and paper. It is made from
woolen refuse and other cheap materials reduced
to pulp, beaten and dried. Lining and roof-
ing felts are used in the construction of build-
ings and act as nonconductors of neat and
sometimes of moisture and sound. , Such felts

440

FEME COVEErTE

are made chiefly from coarse animal fibres, such
as cow's hair, with varying proportions of mill
waste, and incorporated with pitch or asphalt.

The asbestos lining and roofing felt is made
of pure asbestos, saturated with asphalt, the
body fibre in certain brands containing no or-
ganic matter. The process of manufacture is
similar to that employed in making paper.
Paper-maker's felt is not a true felt, but a
coarse, loosely woven material which has been
neither teaseled nor spun. Little detailed in-
formation regarding the manufacture of felt
appears to be available in printed form, and
such references as can be found are scanty and,
for the most part, were written long ago. An
interesting chapter on "Felt and Felting" will be
found in Murphy, The Textile Industries, vol.
ii (London, 1912).

Statistics. According to the thirteenth cen-
sus of the United States, there were in the
country, at the end of 1909, 43 establishments
devoted to 'the manufacture of felt goods, pro-
ducing goods valued at $11,852,626. The prin-
cipal products were felt cloths, boot and shoe
linings, upholstery felts, trimmings and lining
felts, felt shirts, and endless belts for paper
manufacture.

FELT, JOSEPH BABLOW (1789-1869). An
American antiquarian. He was born at Salem,
Mass., and graduated at Dartmouth in 1813.
After holding pastorates in the Congregational-
ist Church at Sharon, Mass. (1821-24), and
Hamilton. Mass. (1825-34), he was commissioned
by Gov. Edward Everett in 1836 to arrange the
Colonial and early State papers of Massachu-
setts. At this work he continued for 10 years.
He was librarian of the Massachusetts Histori-
cal Society (1842-58), president of the New
England Historic-Genealogical Society (1850-
53), and recording secretary of the American
Statistical Association (1839-59). He was the
author of the following works on New England
history: Annals of Salem (1827; 2d ed., 2 vols.,
1845-49) ; History of Ipswich, Esseto, and Ham-
ilton (1833); The Customs of New England
(1834); Historical Accounts of Massachusetts
Currency ( 1839 ) ; Ecclesiastical History of New
England (2 vols., 1855-62) ; and several other
genealogical and biographical works.

FEL'TON", CORNELIUS COWWAY (1807-62).
An American classical scholar, born at West
Newbury, Mass. He graduated at Harvard in.
1827 and taught first at Geneseo, N. Y., 1827-
29. In the latter year he was appointed tutor
in Latin at Harvard; in 1830, tutor in Greek;
in 1832 he became university professor, and two
years later Eliot professor of Greek literature;
in February, 1860, he was made president.
Among his publications were: Homer: ivith
English Notes and Plaa>man's Illustrations
(1833), a valuable work; Munzel's German Lit-
erature (1840) ; Clouds and Birds of Aristoph-
anes; Anoient Literature and Art; Poets and
Poetry of Europe; Panegyrics of Ispcrates; The
Agamemnon of JQschylus: Classical Studies
(1843); Guyofs Earth and Man (1849). In
1853-54 he made a European tour and in 1855
he revised for publication Smith's History of
Greece, with an edition of Lord Carlisle's Diary
in Turkish and Greek Waters. A selection
from modern Greek writers was published by
Mm in 1856. Other works of his were: "Life
of General Eaton," in Sparks's American Biog-
raphy; Addresses; and contributions to the
North American Review, Consult Proceedings

of the Massachusetts Historical Society (Boston,
1866).

FELTON", Joim (c.1595-1628). The assassin
of the Duke of Buckingham, the favorite of
Charles I. He was descended from an old Suf-
folk family and entered the army at an early
age. Of a sullen and churlish disposition, he
was generally disliked, and his applications for
promotion were disregarded. He felt that he
had a special grievance against Buckingham,
who had personally refused his petitions, and
after reading the declaration of the House of
Commons that the Duke was a public enemy,
he stabbed him, at Portsmouth, Aug. 23, 1628.
The crime was popular with the army and navy
and with the people of England generally, as
numerous poems and songs were written in Fel-
ton's praise. He was tried on November 27,
pleaded guilty, and was hanged at Tyburn the
next day.

FELTON", SAMUEL MORSE (1853- ). An
American railroad president, born in Philadel-
phia. He was educated at Massachusetts Insti-
tute of Technology. Beginning railroad work
as a rodman in 1868, he rose rapidly, becoming
chief engineer, general superintendent, and gen-
eral manager of various railroad lines between
1873 and 1885. He was vice president of the
Erie (1885-90), the Memphis and Charleston,
the Mobile and Birmingham (1891-93), and the
Knoxville and Ohio (1891-92) railroads, and
president of the Louisville Southern and the
Alabama Great Southern (1891-93), the Cin-
cinnati, New Orleans, and Texas Pacific (1890-
99), the Chicago and Alton (1899-1907), and
the Mexican Central (1907-09). He was also
receiver of the Columbus, Sandusky, and Hock-
ing Railway in 1897-99 and the Kentucky and
Indiana Bridge Company from 1893 to 1900.
In 1909 he became president of the Chicago
Great Western Railroad, and in 1912 he was
elected president of the Pere Marquette Rail-
road.

FELTRE, fSl'tri (Lat. Feltria). A city in
the Province of Belluno, north Italy, 850 feet
above sea level, and 34 miles northwest of Ven-
ice (Map: Italy, D 1). The bishopric was
united in 1819 to that of Belluno. Feltre has
a Venetian Gothic palace with fine mural paint-
ings, a beautiful cathedral, a seminary, a gym-
nasium, an industrial school, a hospital, an
orphan asylum, and a municipal pawnshop, es-
tablished in the fifteenth century. It is a mar-
ket for silk, wine, and oil, spins silk and
bleaches wax, and makes baskets and ironware.
In 1809 Napoleon gave Marshal Clarke the title
of Duke of Feltre. To Pamfilo Castaldi, as the
discoverer of the art of printing and as a native
of the town, a monument was erected in Feltre
in 1868. Pop. (commune), 1901, 15,243; 1911,
15,465.

FELTRE, MOBTO DA. See MOBTO DA FEZ/THE.
FELTTC'CA (It., from Ar. fal&ka, fulk, ship,
from falaka, to be round) . A small, fast-sailing
vessel, formerly much used in the Mediterra-
nean and still common there as a coasting or
fishing vessel. It has usually two masts, each
carrying a lateen sail, and is also fitted with 8
to 16 oars. Feluccas are not ordinarily decked
over, but a small shelter is sometimes built aft.
FEMALE QTJIXOTE, THE. A satirical ro-
mance by Charlotte Lennox (1752), written in
ridicule of the artificial fiction of Gomberville
and Scude'ry.
FEME COVERTE, fern, or f&m, kuv'Srt (OF.,

44!

protected woman). The common-law term for
a married woman, having reference to her legal
status. The corresponding status of an unmar-
ried woman was indicated by her legal descrip-
tion as a feme sole. When the feme sole mar-
ried, she was said to be under coverture, which
signified that her legal personality had for many
purposes become merged in that of her husband.
These terms have lost their significance in those
jurisdictions in which married women have been
invested with the full legal rights and respon-
sibilities of unmarried women. The legal status
of the feme coverte will be considered under the
title HUSBAND AND WIFE. See also MARRIAGE;
WOMAN.

FE3MCESN". See FEHMABK".

FEMINISM (from Fr. feminisme, from Lat.
femina, woman). Feminism is a terra which
originated in France about 1890 and has been
used increasingly in English during the last 20
years to describe the body of ideas and motives
which lie at the root of the modern woman
movement. Feminism as a social theory stands
for the complete emancipation of woman, eco-
nomic, political, social, and personal. Tt would
elevate her from a condition of inferiority and
perpetual minority similar to that of children to
a position of full equality with men, in which
she would find open to her every opportunity
without distinction of sex. Feminism, its sup-
porters take care to emphasize, is thus merely
humanism. It signifies the emergence of woman
as a human individual with the same rights and
the same duties as all others of the species.
Emancipation, the struggle for freedom from
the trammels of custom and law, is, however,
only one side of tho feminist movement. Free-
dom cannot come without responsibility, and
the feminist realizes that with her bonds she is
casting away also her privileges. Her plea is
for no discrimination, favorable or unfavorable,
for the right to share with man all the activities
of modern civilization. This movement is no
recent upgrowth, no upstart radicalism of the
last decade, but is the natural accompaniment
of the whole transformation of thought, on the
one hand, and of the economic basis of society,
on the other, which distinguishes the last two
centuries from the rest of human history. To
understand feminist thought one must therefore
comprehend its historical development and its
sociological implications.

The modern feminist movement traces its
origin to the same forces which gave birth to
the modern idea of democracy — to the forces
which brought about the great French Revolu-
tion, the American Revolution, and the transfor-
mation of England from a feudal aristocracy to
an industrial democracy. These forces, which
gathered power towards the end of the eighteenth
century, sprang partly from the unconscious
economic transformation of society which in-
volved the breakdown of the feudal system and
the growth of a new industrial organization, and
partly from a conscious intellectual current
which took its rise from the great French phi-
losophers of the eighteenth century, Voltaire,
Rousseau, Montesquieu, and others, the general
tendency of whose thought may be summarised
in the watchwords of the democratic movement:
liberty, equality, and fraternity.

The new reliance on the efficacy of the human
reason as against the weight of tradition and
authority, the discovery of the enormous influ-
ence of environment ii. determining character,
VOL. VIIIr-29

combined with a romantic feeling for the majesty
of simple humanity and the claims of the in-
dividual against tyrannous external influences,
created a new confidence in the possibilities of
human development and led to the enunciation
of the doctrine of natural rights. It was not
until the eighteenth century that these ideas
were applied to men in general, and then only
after long and bloody struggles with the con-
servative and aristocratic forces of the past.
This period thus gave birth not only to a
women's movement, but more immediately to a
men's movement, or, rather, to a human move-
ment of which men were able for various
reasons to reap the advantage more swiftly than
women, but, say the feminists, no more surely.
Feminism is thus merely one aspect of modern
humanism and has developed into a special
movement merely because it had special obstacles
to overcome and not because of any difference
in its final aims. For both the men's and the
women's movements these aims are still those
of the French Revolution interpreted in the light
of contemporary conditions: liberty for the in-
dividual in so far as it does not encroach upon
the liberty of others; equality of opportunity
for all alike, • rich and poor, man and woman ;
fraternity, the spirit of comradeship, coopera-
tion, and brotherly love as a basis for social
solidarity.

Since, then, modern humanism, or the "dis-
covery of man as man," makes its appearance
only in tho eighteenth century, it is not surpris-
ing that there are few traces before that period
of feminism, which may be called the discovery
of woman as man. But these traces appear in
precisely the periods in which the estimation of
the human personality and the general level of
culture wore high. In the Greece of the third
and fourth centuries B.C. which developed the
highest ideals of personality to be found in the
ancient world, the position of one class of women
at least, the lietairai, was very favorable. They
mingled freely with the men in public gatherings
and shared to a great extent their high intellec-
tual culture, privileges which were forbidden to
the respectable women, who lived a secluded
harem-like life. In this period, too, Plato in his
Republic first advanced the idea of the complete
social and political equality of the sexes. He
based his claim upon the proposition that, so far
as mental and moral qualities were concerned,
there was no qualitative difference between the
sexes. The sexes are to cooperate in the ideal
state in all their activities and in their gym-
nastic and musical education as well as in their
study of science and art.

At the time of the Renaissance also there are
certain anticipations of modern feminism. The
otherworldliness of early Christianity, with its
denunciation of the joys of the flesh and of
woman as their incarnation, had not been favor-
able to woman's development; but the revival of
pagan, feeling at this period, the unabashed joy
in beauty and life, lifted the ban. In the new
feeling of individuality, in the new interest in
art and literature, in the new consciousness of
personality, women shared with men. They
were educated with great care, appeared in pub-
lic in Italy and Spain as artists, poets, and
orators, and gathered about themselves at their
courts the talent and learning of the time. But
this was a purely individualistic and aristocratic
development and not, like the feminism of mod-
ern times, democratic and social*

442

One of tiie earliest feminist works was pro-
duced in the fifteenth century by Christine de
Pisan, the French poetess, who made a plea in
her Gite des dames for the emancipation of
woman. Somewhat later Mademoiselle de Gour-
nay, the foster daughter of Montaigne, proclaimed
the equality of the sexes, and Marguerite de
Valois, the wife of Henry IV, attempted to
prove the superiority of the feminine intellect.
Jaequette Guillaume published in 1665 Les
dames illustres (Illustrious Ladies, wherein, is
proven by good and strong arguments, that the
feminine sees surpasses the masculine in every
icay). In Germany the humanistic influence
was strong. Cornelius Agrippa entered the lists
in favor of the higher education of women, and
in the seventeenth century a few German women
reached a high stage of intellectual development.
But these as well as the ladies of the great
salons of the seventeenth and eighteenth cen-
turies were rather sporadic phenomena than in-
dications of any general improvement in the
position of women.

In England the modern discussion begins with
the appearance of Mary Astell (1668-1731), who
demanded better education for women and criti-
cized the unnatural relations of the sexes. In
1694 she published anonymously A Serious Pro-
posal to the Ladies, by a Lover of their 8 ess; in
1606, An Essay in Defence of the Female Sev,
and in 1700 Some Reflections upon Marriage.
Her works met with general contempt and
ridicule, though she found a strong supporter in
Daniel Defoe, who remarks that "all the world
are mistaken in their practice about women.
For I cannot think that God Almighty ever
made them so delicate, so glorious creatures, and
furnished them with such charms, so agreeable
and delightful to mankind; with souls capable
of the same accomplishments with men : and all,
to be only Stewards of our Houses, Cooks and
Slaves."

In the France of the eighteenth century, where
the idea of the rights of man was germinating,
the rights of woman received scant considera-
tion. Even the writers of the many Utopias
who attempted to picture the ideal state think
of her only as wife and mother, and by some
her moral and social inferiority is distinctly
preached. Few appreciate her social signifi-
cance, and fewer still her social and political
rights. Man belongs to the state and woman
to man is the theme of all the utopists. By a
strange paradox Rousseau himself, upon whose
philosophy more perhaps than that of any
other writer modern feminism lests its claims,
thought that the sole function of woman was to
please man, and that her power to please was in
direct proportion to her stupidity. But his
doctrines could not escape in time their logical
implication, though he pimself did not choose
to make it. His conception of a society founded
on natural principles and ideas of social utility
rather than on mere tradition and authority,
and of the individual as the centre and supreme
end of that society, is at the root of modern
feminism. By the end of the eighteenth century
the ferment of the philosophy of Rousseau among
women became visible. On Oct. 28, 1789, a few
months after the outbreak of the Revolution, the
Parisian women presented a petition to the
National Assembly for equal political rights,
and in the same year Olympe de Gouges (q.v.)
presented to the Queen Marie Antoinette her
Declaration des droits de la femme (Declaration

of the Rights of Woman). The philosopher
Condorcet included a proposal for full equality
of the sexes in his plan for a new constitution
in 1793. From 1789 to 1793 Revolutionary clubs
of women nourished in Paris (Soci£te" des
femmes republicaines et reVolutionnaires, Amies
de la Constitution, etc.). Petitions for the full
political, economic, and legal equality of woman
were made. The first feminist paper, Le Jour-
nal de VEtat et du Citpyen, was published. The
women attended meetings of legislative assem-
blies and took part in the Revolutionary move-
ments, often with arms in their hands. Their
enthusiasm was so great, in fact, that it became
embarrassing to the Committee of Public Safety,
who ordered the suppression of the women's
clubs, 9th Brunaaire, 1793, in spite of their
protests. A period of reaction succeeded, which
culminated under the Napoleonic regime in the
harsh attitude of the Code Napoleon, the spirit
of which is well expressed in the remark of
Napoleon himself, "There is something which is
riot French, that is, when a woman may do as
she pleases." The Code embodied in law the
antifeministic spirit of the period and gave the
husband a position of absolute superiority in the
marriage relation — a position which holds good
to-day in every part of Europe in which the
influence of the Code Napoleon persists.

The idea of the rights of woman was carried
to England by Mary Wollstonecraft, an English-
woman whose own life, full of hardships and
responsibilities, had given her an insight into
the woman question far in advance of her con-
temporaries. Her Vindication of the Rights of
Woman applied the French social philosophy to
woman as well as to man. Natural rights, she
says, are the property not of one sex, but of all
humanity. The system of gallantry is really
insulting and offensive. If woman is inferior to
man morally and intellectually, that is due not
to her inner nature, but to her social position
sncl poor education. She demands the participa-
tion of women in legislation and the opening to
\vomon of all professions as well as of various
trades and businesses in order that they may be
protected from prostitution, which she analyzes
clearly in its relation to the economic and
social dependence of woman. She demands an
equal moral standard for both sexes as the only
sound basis of social ethics., Mary Wollstone-
craft's work aroused contempt and indignation
in women as well as men. Horace Walpole
called her a "hyena in petticoats," and her in-
fluence over her contemporaries was slight.

The philosophical radicals of the school of
Bcntham, who dominated English social philos-
ophy during the earlier part of the nineteenth
century with their idea of utility as the final
tost of social institutions, were indifferent to the
idea of the rights of woman, as indeed they
were to all abstract theories of natural rights.
James Mill expressed himself in 1824 adversely
and was answered by William Thompson in his
Appeal of One Half of the Human Race9 Women,
against the Pretensions of the Other Half, Man
to Retain them in Political, and thence in Civil
and Domestic Slavery (London, 1825). John
Stuart Mill, however, was destined to become
the prophet of the modern Englishwomen's move-
ment, which he sought to justify on the ground
not of abstract rignt, but of social utility, in
hid Subjection of Woman (1867), a most elo-
quent arraignment of the social and political
oppression of woman. He demanded her com*

443

FEMINISM

plete legal and political emancipation from the
condition of slavery in which she had been kept.
This work, which aroused much enthusiasm and
much acrimonious discussion, drew the English-
women's movement into line with the pre-
dominant middle-class liberalism with its em-
phasis on political liberty and the efficacy of the
suffrage as a means of emancipation. Through
Mill's influence a movement sprang up which
resulted in the modern English woman's suffrage
movement, the most powerful of its kind in the
world.

Of greater importance for the emancipation
of woman, however, than any enunciation of
theories was the change in the economic basis
of society which began at the end of the
eighteenth and continued through the nineteenth
century, through which the old system of manual
and agricultural production was replaced by
machine industry. The vast changes wrought in
the social structure by this industrial revolu-
tion were the factors which made not only
possible but necessary the economic independence
of woman. By the system of factory production
a new division of labor was created which de-
manded and indeed enforced a readjustment of
women in all social classes to their new eco-
nomic position. The home lost its old im-
portance as an economic institution now that
all the necessaries of life were produced outside
of it, and the woman of the home in the middle
classes became conscious of the necessity of
finding new fields of work outside in order to
satisfy her ideals of usefulness or even to make
a living for herself. Thus was laid the founda-
tion for the so-called middle-class or bourgeois
women's movement. For the women of the
working classes, however, the new conditions
assumed a more serious aspect. They and their
children were employed in vast numbers in the
factories instead of men because of the com-
parative cheapness of their labor, and were
subjected to long hours, starvation wages, dis-
ease, and misery. The old domestic relations
disintegrated completely, and woman exchanged
subjection in the family for subjection in the in-
dustrial system. The result was demoralization
for the man, deterioration, physical and moral,
for the woman, and degeneration for the chil-
dren. The evils of woman and child labor have
occupied the attention of economists and re-
formers with ever-increasing force for the last
century, and have been one of the most serious
problems which the woman movement has had to
face. The women of the middle classes early
realized their responsibilities towards their work-
ing sisters, and the improvement of the condition
of the working woman has always occupied an
important place in their programme, through
such measures as improved technical and general
education for working women, employment
bureaus, cheap hostelries, legislation for im-
provement of working conditions and the restric-
tion of hours of labor, provision of creches for
children, and insurance of motherhood.

With the development of the capitalistic
economic system, Socialism made its appearance
and the result of the application ^ of Socialis-
tic philosophy to the woman question produced
a new feminism, the extreme radicalism of which
has often, though erroneously, been ascribed to
feminism in general. The Utopian Socialists of
Prance, whose theories were much in vogue be-
fore 1848, included in their ideal of a future
state the complete equality of men and women.

Fourier bitterly attacked the ideals of bourgeois
marriage and proposed freer sexual relations
with the monogamic union as the ultimate ideal.
The followers of Saint-Simon also cherished the
free union as their ideal and proposed equality
of men and women in all departments of public
life in their future state. These theories were
carried so far by Enfantin that they led to a
division among the leaders of the Saint-Simonian
school and the final break-up of the move-
ment. Their ideas had had a great effect upon
the thought of the time, however, especially
through their embodiment in a genius like George
Sand, whose literary reputation gave currency
to her feminist ideas. A fearless prophet of
Saint-Simonism in the struggle for truth and
justice, she held up the ideal of the free person-
ality for woman and the right to dispose of her
love as she felt inclined.

With the supersession of Utopian by modern
Socialism a new type of Socialistic feminism
appeared, based upon an analysis of actual
economic conditions and their effect upon
woman's position. Already in the Communist
Manifesto (1847) Marx and Engels had alluded
to the woman wageworker, driven out of the
home, underbidding men in the labor market,
and suffering more than they from capitalistic
exploitation. For the woman worker as well as
the man they could see no liberation but in the
abolition of the capitalistic state. August
Bebel gave this idea its greatest development
in his work on Woman and BocMism, which
has become the gospel of Socialist feminists.
He analyzed the position of woman on the basis
of the economic interpretation of history and
concluded that bourgeois marriage had developed
from bourgeois property relations; that it did
not even satisfy the sexual instinct, as was in-
dicated by the growth of prostitution; that it
was not suited to modern economic relations and
should therefore be changed to suit moral and
natural requirements. A new order must be
established in which the means of production
should be the property of society, all possible
technical and scientific improvements should be
made in industry, the working hours reduced to
a minimum, and the physical and spiritual de-
velopment of society raised to the highest level.
Only thus, says Bebel, can woman become a
useful and independent member of society,
develop all her physical and intellectual poten-
tialities, and fulfill her sexual rights and duties.
Marriage should be a private contract, and the
rearing of children should become a social
responsibility. The German Socialist party fol-
lowed the same lino of policy, vaguely at the
Congress of Eisenach in 1869, more definitely at
Gotha in 1875, and finally at the Congress of
Erfurt in 1891 made a clear enunciation of the
theory of equal rights: "The Social Democratic
party of Germany struggles, then, not for new
class privileges, but for the abolition of class
mastery and of the classes themselves, and for
equal rights and equal duties for all without
distinction of sex and race. From this point
of view it combats in present society not only
the exploitation and oppression of the wage-
worker, but every kind of exploitation and op-
pression, be it directed against a class, a party,
a sex, or a race." This declaration sums up
the attitude of Socialists in general on the
•woman question. They have stood everywhere
for woman suffrage and the abolition of all
legal disabilities of women. They have often

444

refused, however, as in Germany, to cooperate
with, the middle-class women's movement on the
ground that they represented the interests of
the working woman which were opposed to those
of the middle-class woman and that the move-
ment of the working women was a class struggle
and not a question of sex. Their main efforts
are concentrated on organizing the working
women economically in trade-unions and politi-
cally in the Socialist party.

The current of thought during the nine-
teenth century gave considerable support to
feminism. The Romantic movement in art and
literature during the first half of the century
introduced a new personal type of love and a
higher spiritual ideal of the sexual relation,
ivhich reacted upon the old patriarchal insti-
tution of marriage and tended to elevate it to
a, loftier plane of spiritual comradeship. This
Romantic tendency in feminism culminates at
the end of the century with the work of Ellen
Key, the Swedish writer, who would bring beauty
and harmony into life with a renaissance of
love. She deprecates any type of feminism in
which woman, in her search for equal oppor-
tunities and her eagerness to use them, forgets
the all-essential elements of her happiness, love
and maternity. Only the highest type of mono-
gamic relation with perfect equality and com-
radeship can secure happiness in love. But
even if excluded from love, maternity can still
make woman happy. Upon this argument she
bases the right to motherhood for every woman.
For maternity is essential to woman's spiritual
and physical development. But the child is the
aim of all life. It should be the child of love
and of health. Only the healthy and strong
have a right to reproduce the species.

The most important scientific contribution to
feminism during the last century has been the
growth of knowledge with regard to the position
of woman in the past and its causes. Beginning
with purely historical works, such as those of
Segur (1803), Laboulaye, Recherches sur Id
condition civile et politique des femmes depuis
lea Remains jusqu'a nos fours (1843), and
Legouve, Sistoire morale de la femme (1848),
the research on this question extended into the
field of anthropology, and a number of impor-
tant works on the position of woman and
the nature of marriage in primitive society, be-
ginning with those of Bachofen, Lewis Morgan,
and others, have introduced the evolutionary
point of view into discussions of the woman
question. The institution of marriage and of
the family and the position and "sphere" of
woman appeared in the light of science to have
evolved gradually to their present state and to
have differed greatly according to the special
society in which they were found. This dynamic
standpoint has revolutionized discussion upon
feminism.

In the field, too, of a realistic understanding
of sex great advance has been made. Researches
into sexual psychology and pathology have
thrown valuable light upon many sides of the
woman question and supported the demand that
social institutions be better adapted to procure
the happiness and welfare of the individual.
The work of Forel, Krafft-Ebing, and others on
the Continent, and that of Havelock Ellis in
England, are examples of this movement.

A new attitude towards woman has entered
into -literature, especially since the advent of
Ibsen, whose great dramas presented to society

u tragic picture of woman as an individual
struggling in the toils of a hypocritical social
system and emphasized the claims of the per-
sonality in woman even against those of society
and the family. This tendency has since per-
meated literature to an increasing extent. The
work of Bjornson and Strindberg in exposing
"social lies" and that of Ellen Key in developing
a constructive philosophy of feminism have had
an enormous effect, not only in Scandinavian
countries, but in the world outside. In present-
day English literature a marked feminist tend-
ency is manifest in the work not only of Ber-
nard Shaw and H. G. Wells, but also in that of
Arnold Bennett and other milder spirits. Fem-
inism has always counted some of the most
illustrious French writers among its defenders,
such as Dumas, Victor Hugo, Michelet, Marcel
Prevost, and the brothers Margu6ritte. The
most conspicuous recent contribution is that
of Brieux, whose expose" of the marriage system
and the foundations on which it rests has created
a profound impression in all countries.

The recent movement in philosophy, with its
extreme individualism, on the one hand, and, on
the other, its emphasis upon social solidarity,
has given a great impetus to the women's move-
ment, the results of which are visible in the
recent literature of the subject, typical examples
of which are Olive Schreiner's Woman and
Lai) or, in which not only the right to work is
demanded for women, but their duty to work is
emphasized with an eloquent attack upon the
"parasitism" of the modern woman of the middle
classes, and the works of Charlotte Perkins Gil-
man, who bases upon biological and sociological
premises her protest against a one-sided civiliza-
tion or "androcentric culture," which can only
be improved by the full participation of woman
in the *4human" work of the world and the re-
striction of her purely sexual functions within
moderate limits, the reorganization of domestic
work and child rearing on an efficient basis.

But feminism as a whole is by no means a
conscious philosophical movement. The entrance
of women into industry and the professions is
often merely the result of economic pressure, but
independence brings with it the desire of greater
independence, and gradually the psychological
foundations for a conscious movement are laid.
Furthermore, even where this stage has been
i cached every possible gradation of radicalism is
to be found — from the Christian feminism of
European countries, which would improve some-
what woman's legal position without changing
her relation to society and the family, to the
feminism of the Socialists and extreme indi-
vidualists, which would emancipate her com-
pletely in both these relations. The feminist
movement as a social process includes all these
manifestations, conscious and unconscious, con-
servative and radical. It is thus impossible to
assign to it any definite uniform programme.
Equality before the law and the right of suffrage
are the most general demands at present, but
many women's organizations in European coun-
tries do not indorse this. From the beginning
the movement has stood strongly for education,
or the right to knowledge, in the higher fields
of science and philosophy, in the lower grades of
primary and secondary education, ana in the
field of industrial and technical education, so
that woman may be prepared professionally and
industrially to take her place beside man in the
\iork of the world— a step for which another

FEMINISM

445

FEMINISM

struggle has to be made, which takes the form
of demands for admission to all posts in the
government service and for equal pay for equal
work, for the right to practice medicine and
law, the conquest of new fields of activity, the
right of married women to work, the raising
of the general level of women's wages and
salaries, and the protection of the working
woman from exploitation. Next comes the cam-
paign against prostitution and the white-slave
traffic. For the economic independence of woman
not only freedom to work is necessary; she
must be legally protected in the possession of
her property and earnings. This involves the
acceptance in law of the principle of "separation
of goods." More radical proposals involve
salaries for wives, widows' pensions, the state
endowment of motherhood and the state re-
sponsibility for the rearing of children, and the
emancipation from domestic work of the highly
trained woman.

Lastly, feminist thought has developed ses-
thetic and moral ideals of its own. Dress re-
form, the introduction of hygienic aesthetic dress
freed from the tyranny of style and the confine-
ment of corsets, and the increase in athletic
activity and open-air life will produce a new
physical type of woman in whom freedom and
beauty will be combined, say the feminists. At
the same time this new woman will have quite
new ethical principles, a stronger feeling of
social responsibility, and a higher ideal of love
and of maternal duty.

The nature and tendencies of feminism can
perhaps best be explained by showing their
actual course of development in certain typical
countries. Feminism, though an international
movement rising everywhere from the same
causes, intellectual, economic, and moral, ex-
hibits local differences in the individual coun-
tries. In Great Britain its aims have been
predominantly political since the formation in
1866 of tho National Society for Woman Suf-
frage under the influence of John Stuart Mill.
The great interest which Englishwomen have
taken in politics found expression in 1884 in the
formation of the Primrose League, a powerful
organisation of Conservative women formed to
aid the Conservative party in its support of
church, throne, and empire. This was followed
by the Women's National Liberal Federation,
and by the Women's Liberal Unionist Associa-
tion in 1888. Through these organizations Eng-
lishwomen have exercised a great indirect in-
fluence upon politics. The improvement of the
legal position of women early occupied the at-
tention of the women's movement. Until 1870
the married woman, when not protected by a
marriage contract, had no rights with regard
to property and could not even make a legal
will. In 1870 women were given complete con-
trol over their earnings (in Scotland, 1877),
In 1882 the Married Women's Property Act for
Great Britain and Ireland extended this control
over a woman's whole property and earnings and
gave her a legal personality distinct from that
of her husband.

Since the time of Mary Wollstonecraft the
Englishwomen's movement had given up its atti-
tude of sex antagonism and the struggle for
"natural rights" and had come to realize that
the position of women was due to economic and
social causes for which no individual or sex
could be held responsible, but that new economic
conditions required a readjustment of the rela-

tions of the sexes and a cooperation of both in
the world's work. During this period the move-
ment was for the most part a middle-class one.
The attempt was made to assist the middle-class
woman, whose work was being taken out of the
home into the factory, to take her place in the
new division of labor. Education was necessarily
the first point of attack. The foundation of
Queen's College (1848) and Bedford College
(1879), the admission of graduates of the latter
to degrees in London University in 1879, the
foundation of Girton College (1869) and Newn-
ham (1871) at Cambridge and of Somerville
College and Lady Margaret Hall at Oxford in
1884 and of Royal Holloway College in 1888
made provision for real academic training for
women. In Cambridge and Oxford they are still
refused degrees, though they are allowed to take
the examinations. The University of Wales and
several of the newer municipal universities, how-
ever, now admit women on a purely coeduca-
tional basis. The entrance to the professions,
especially those of law and medicine, was more
difficult. Women are not yet admitted to the
bar, and were allowed to practice medicine in
1876 only after bitter struggles. There were,
in 1012, 553 women physicians in Great Britain.
The feminists of the period after 1850 were in-
terested in promoting, not only higher education
for women, but also secondary and lower educa-
tion, and also in providing technical and in-
dustrial training which would enable women to
enter new fields of industry. In this latter ob-
ject they were very successful through the for-
mation of educational and industrial unions.
In general education also they effected great
improvements. In 1867 the Schools Inquiry
Commission inquired also into female education
at their instance, and in 1860 the Endowed
Schools Act recommended the use of a part of
educational endowments for girls' education.
Also through private gifts new schools were
built, and a transformation worked in the edu-
cation of girls.

The struggle against the legal regulation of
prostitution began in England under the in-
spiration of Mrs. Josephine Butler. In 1864
the system of regulation had been introduced
into England by the Contagious Diseases Act,
which established inspection at certain garrisons
and seacoast towns. In 1869 Mrs. Butler and
others made a protest on moral, political, and
hygienic grounds, organized the National Union
of English Women, held meetings, and addressed
petitions to Parliament. In 1870 they acquired
their own paper, the Shield. In 1874 the cam-
paign was extended to the Continent, became
international in scope, and has continued in
other countries, though it attained its ends in
Great Britain in 1886. There have also been
attempts at mitigating the social evil' — rescue
leagues, vigilance societies, and recently severe
legislation against procurers in the Criminal
Law Amendment Act. Trade-union organiza-
tion is progressing among working women under
the stimulation of Miss Mary McArthur, who
reports 300,000 organized working girls in 1912
out of 5,500,000 women engaged in industrial
occupations. In some cases also the women
belong to the men's unions. Schools for mothers
have been organized, and a Women's League of
Service to prevent infant mortality. Mother-
hood insurance, a beginning of which was made
in the Insurance Act of 1911, is now being de-
manded on a ^rider scale, and for the more

446

FEMTNTSM

radical nothing short of a generous endowment
of motherhood by the state will suffice.

The whole energies of the movement seem
concentrated now upon the attainment of the
suffrage, but only as a means for carrying out a
wider programme of feminism. In France
feminism was identified with Socialism in the
revolution of 1848. Two attempts were made,
in 1848 and 1851, by the Socialists Considerant
and Leroux to obtain the suffrage for women.
Feminist societies were organized and feminist
journals were founded: the Politique des
Femmes, L' Opinion, Voiao des Femmes, and
feminists and Socialists went into exile together
at the fall of the Second Republic. The feminism
of the Second Empire was of a more bourgeois
character. Maria Desraismes and her friend
Leon Richer were the leading spirits. They
founded in 1876 the Society for the Improvement
of Woman's Condition (Societe" pour l'ame"liora-
tion du sort de la femme) and conducted an
energetic campaign for the civil and political
equality of the sexes, of which the controversy
with the antifeminist anarchist Proudhon and
the conversion of Dumas fils were interesting
features. Victor Hugo, Emile de Girardin, and
other illustrious men became adherents of the
cause. Petitions presented to the Chamber of
Deputies were without results. In 1880 was
founded La ligue pour le droit des femmes, in
1890 L'Union universelle des femmes, in 1891
La Solidarity and in 1896 Le f£minisme
chre'tien. A committee founded in 1896 to urge
special legal reforms was successful in 1907 in
procuring the legal control of a woman over her
own earnings. Another group, L'Egalite, founded
by Madame Vincent, devotes its attention ex-
clusively to historical research on the position of
women. Philanthropic organizations of women
have a society of their own. In 1897 was founded
a daily feminist paper, La Fronde, which is
edited, published, and printed exclusively by
women.

The morality movement, which follows the in-
spiration of Mrs. Josephine Butler, includes a
society, Adelphia, which, with the institution
(Euvre lib&ratrice (founded 1901), attempts to
aid unfortunates and assist them back to a
normal life. Trade-union organization has pro-
gressed and has been assisted by middle-class
women, between whom and the Socialist women
there is no such sharp line drawn as in Germany.
The movement for women's education has been
assisted by the government since 1880, since it
fell in with the anticlerical policy of the Re-
publicans, who sought to get the education of
girls out of the hands of the Catholic church.
State lycees and normal schools for women were
organized, and in elementary education both
sexes were treated alike. French universities
have admitted women since 1867. They have ob-
tained the privilege of practicing medicine and
law. Madame Curie became in 1907 the first
woman professor at the Sorbonne. The National
Council of Frenchwomen has promoted trade-
union organization among women, investigated
the marriage laws, and organized a woman's suf-
frage department. Since 1907 the paper La
Frangaise has appeared. In 1909 the French
Woman's Suffrage Society was organized.

The legal position of Frenchwomen is still
very low under the influence of the Code Na-
poleon. The woman is strictly subordinate in
the marriage relation, the authority of the
is unlimited, and the investigation of

paternity in the case of illegitimate children is
still practically forbidden.

In Germany the "emancipation of the heart"
which came to a few women with the Romantic
movement in literature was followed by the
democratic enthusiasm of the liberalism of 1848,
but the general decline of liberalism since that
time carried with it the enthusiasm for political
rights, and the suffrage movement has never
been so strong in Germany as some other sec-
tions of the feminist movement. This is due
also to the difficulty in leading women of dif-
ferent political convictions to cooperate and to
the wide gulf between Socialist and middle-class
feminists. The latter have, since 1865, followed
the English example in encouraging women's
work and education. In that year they founded
the Berliner Lette Verein for the improvement
of the industrial efficiency of the girls of the
upper classes, and also the Universal German
Women's Union for the improvement of women's
education as a whole and the bettering of the
conditions of the working women. Since 1888 a
more radical movement has developed which de-
mands complete equality of the sexes every-
where and places its political and social pro-
gramme more in the foreground. The Union of
Progressive Women's Unions was formed with
this policy, to encourage instruction in hygiene,
the protection of the working woman, the im-
provement of the legal position of women, the
training of women for philanthropic work, and
the admission of women to the higher state ex-
aminations, and to avoid the separation of
middle-class and working women. It had, in
1910, 23 branches with 2000 members and pub-
lished its own paper, Die Frauenbewegung. In
1889 the Union of Woman Employees was founded
and now numbers about 150,000 members. It
conducts a labor bureau, sick and accident in-
surance, loan bureau, evening and commercial
schools, and supplies its members with free
legal aid. It includes many subordinate unions
and exercises a powerful effect upon legislation.
A campaign for morality has been conducted
since 1889, when the society Jugendschutz was
founded. It has conducted a hygienic and ethi-
cal propaganda and has established a home for
working girls.

The Socialist women are organized on a basis
of equality with men in the Socialist party and
refuse all cooperation with the bourgeois women.
They have recently conducted special congresses
of their own in conjunction with the party
congresses and conduct a paper, Die Gleichheit,
under the editorship of Clara Zetkin. They
have been very successful recently in organizing
working women into Socialistic trade-unions.

The conquest of higher education has been
recent. In 1891 women were admitted to lec-
tures at Heidelberg and in 1901 allowed to
matriculate. Prussia and most other states fol-
lowed, though with hesitation. In 1908 Prussia
abolished all limitations, and now no German
university is closed to women. In the summer
semester, 1911, women to the number of 2252
constituted 4.4 per cent of the entire student
body in German universities.

In the United States, which has been called
"the promised land of feminism," the woman
movement is based upon the French Revolu-
tionary tradition of natural rights, which ap-
pears in American form in the Declaration of
Independence; in practical activity it dates from
the period of the antislavery agitation, in

FEMINISM

447

PEMUB

women were especially active. Their demand
for human rights and freedom for the negro
drew their attention to their own condition. In
1840 the American women delegates to the Anti-
slavery Congress in London were refused ad-
mittance upon the ground of their sex; there-
with one of them, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, con-
ceived the idea of a movement against woman
slavery, an idea which she carried into effect in
1848 with a conference to which she presented
a list of the grievances of women drawn up in
the form of the Declaration of Independence.
In 1850 a second conference was held, the Na-
tional Woman Suffrage Convention, and the
complete enfranchisement of women demanded.
After the war the propaganda revived, and in
1869 two suffrage associations were formed
which united in 1890 to form the National
American Woman Suffrage Association.

The agitation for political equality is the
most conspicuous side of the feminist movement
in the United States at present, hut the other
lines of development should not he ignored. In
the field of education extraordinary progress has
been made. With the opening of Oberlin College
to women in 1833 on equal terms with men be-
gan a great movement towards coeducation
which has affected all of the public high schools
and State universities and many of the pri-
vate institutions as well. In addition women
have several finely equipped colleges of their
own.

The suffrage movement has made great prog-
ress in recent years. Four States were added
in 1912 to five which already permitted women
to vote and strong campaigns are being con-
ducted for the franchise in other States. A
constant agitation is also carried on at Wash-
ington for a Federal amendment in favor of
woman suffrage. (See WOMAN SUFFBAGB.)

Perhaps the most important aspect of feminism
in America is the extent to which women are
entering every profession and every field of labor
naturally and efficiently. Women police, justices
of the peace, and even mayors are no longer a
novelty, and women are holding important public
offices with increasing frequency. The number
of women workers in all occupations has risen
from 2,647,670 in 1880 to 4,005,532 in 1890,
5,319,397 in 1900, and, in 1910, 8,075,772, as
compared with 14,744,942 men in 1880 and 30,-
091,564 in 1910. In 1910 in domestic and per-
sonal service 2,620,857 women were employed
and 2,740,176 men. In professional service there
were 073,418 women and 1,151,708 men. The
number of women physicians had risen from
2432 in 1880 to 13,687 in 1910, of women
lawyers from 75 to 1343 for the same period,
of government officials from 2172 to 14,544,
of journalists from 288 to 4181, of women hi
literary and scientific pursuits from 2764 in
1890 to 13,521. If this process continues at its
present rate, it means a revolutionary change in
the position of women. There are no indications
of its abatement. Bather the demand becomes
more insistent every 'year that no discrimination
be made in the civil service or in other public
positions against the employment of women on
the ground of their sex.

For the working woman a programme of pro-
tective legislation is being put into operation,
including restriction of hours, improvement of
working conditions, widows' pensions, regu-
larization of work, and a minimum wage; and
trade-union organization has progressed rapidly

with the assistance of the National Women's
Trade Union League and its local branches.

A fresh feminist agitation, hardly yet or-
ganized but apparent in the press and in litera-
ture, is making irreconcilable demands for ab-
solute emancipation of women in every field on
the lines of the more radical European move-
ment, and for the present has monopolized the
title "feminism" in the public mind. With the
success of the suffrage agitation, which present
conditions seem to indicate, strong support will
be given to all the other phases of the women's
movement, political, economic, and social.

Feminism is progressing more slowly in coun-
tries of inferior culture or undeveloped economic
conditions, but there are extraordinary indica-
tions of its presence in all countries, including
Turkey, India, Japan, and China. An extraor-
dinary feminist movement has developed also
in the Scandinavian countries.

The feminist movement is organized further
on an international basis, and in this American,
women took the lead. The National Council of
Women, formed in 1888 at the instigation of
Mrs. May Wright Sewall, soon extended to other
countries and became an international organiza-
tion which now includes 23 national unions. It
aims to establish regular intercourse between the
women's organizations of all lands and holds
congresses every five years, the last of which
took place in Home in 1914. In 1904 the Inter-
national Women's Suffrage Alliance was formed.
By 1910 it included 26 national branches and
since 1907 has published its own organ, Jits
Suffragti, and has held several international
congresses.

For the progress of the movement in other
countries, consult the works of Dr. Schirmacher
and Mrs. Snowden. See WOMAN SUFFRAGE,
Women in Industry.

Bibliography. Ethel Snowden, The Feminist
Movement (London, 1913); Kaethe Schir-
macher, The Modern Woman's Rights Movement
(New York, 1912) ; C. Gascquoine Hartley, The
Truth alout Woman (London, 1913); August
Bebel, Woman under Socialism (New York,
1904) ; Lily JBraun, Die Frauenfrage (Leipzig,
1901) ; Olive Schreiner, Woman and Labor
(London, 1911) ; Ellen Key, The Woman Move-
ment (New York, 1911), Love and Mwrriage (ib.,
1911), and The Century of the Child (ib., 1911) ;
Charlotte Perkins Oilman, Women and Eco-
nomics (ib., 1908) and The Man-Made World,
or Our Androcentric Culture (London, 1911) ;
Havelock Ellis, Man and Woman (ib., 1894) ;
Auguste Forel, Die sewuelle Fragre (Munich,
1908) ; Helene Lange and Gertrud Ballmer,
Handbuoh der Frauenbewegung (4 vols., Berlin,
1901 ) ; Edward Westermarck, The History of
Human Marriage (London, 1903).

FEMMES SAVANTES, fam sa'vaNt', LES
(Fr., The Learned Women). A comedy by Mo-
lidre (1672), adapted from Les prMeuses ridi-
cules. It is a satire on feminine pedantry.

PEOffiTTB (Lat., thigh). The thigh bone. In
general terms, it consists of a shaft, very slightly
curved, and two extremities. The upper ex-
tremity bears two projections, called the greater
and leaser trochantcrst for the attachment of
muscles, and a short neck, nearly at right angles
to the shaft, terminated by a hemispherical
head, which, being received into a cavity of the
pelvis called the acetabulum, forms the hip
joint — a ball-and-socket joint. The lower ex-
tremity of the femur has on each side an en*

448

FENCE

largement called a condyle, or knuckle. The
articular surface of the condyles is hemicylin-
drical, as also is the somewhat depressed space
between them, called the trochlea, and with the
large bone of the leg, called the tibia, forms
the knee joint — a hinge joint. The femur is
attached to the pelvis by two ligaments — a cap-
sular ligament, which incloses the head and
neck, and the lig&mentum teres, a short liga-
ment which joins the head with the bottom of
the acetabulum. It is attached to the tibia
by several ligaments, placed in different posi-
tions, to combine strength with freedom of mo-
tion; the most important of these bands are
the lateral ligaments an<J the crucial ligaments.
The crucial ligaments cross from one member
of the joint to the other in oblique directions.
Powerful extensor and flexor muscles, besides
performing their ordinary functions, aid in
keeping the parts in apposition. The femur
has a wide range of distribution in the animal
kingdom and is not the exclusive property of
warm-blooded animals. In man it is the strong-
est, longest, and largest bone. In the whale
it is only rudimentary. In fishes it is not rep-
resented, but is developed in varying degrees
in mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians.
It is a short bone in the ruminants and the
horse family. In the tortoises the curve is con-
siderable, while it is almost straight in car-
nivora, bats, etc. In many reptiles it is rudi-
mentary. For illustrations, see SKELETON.

FEMUR, COIEPABATIVE ANATOMY OF. Al-
though certain comparative anatomists have
attempted to find in the metoptcrygium of the
fin of a fish a homologue of the femur, it is
beyond question that such a bone is not actu-
ally found below the more or less terrestrial
amphibians. In the short-legged members of
that class (Urodela) the femur is a short and
relatively unimportant bone; but in those forms
whose chief mode of progression is by leaping
(Anura) it becomes the longest and most
important bone of the hind limb. Among rep-
tiles we find tiie femur, when present, a short
6ut very stout bone, reaching its strongest de-
velopment among the Crocodilia, though the
lizards and turtles are not far behind. Among
snakes a femur is present only in the families
TortricidsB and Pythonidse, and in those cases
it is greatly aborted. The femur is sometimes
lacking in lizards, and in other cases is rudi-
mentary. Among birds the femur is a short,
stout bone embedded in muscles and concealed
beneath the skin; its upper, articular end is
rounded and almost at a right angle with the
main shaft; the terminal condyles are large,
and on the outer is a ridge which plays between
the heads of tibia and fibula. Most mammals
possess a well-developed femur, the relative
length of which depends very largely upon the
habits of the animal and the proportions exist-
ing between the fore and hind limbs. No femur
is present in the manatee or the dugong, and
it is wanting also in most of the Cetacea. In
some whales, however, which possess a rudi-
mentary pelvic girdle, a small bone lying just
outside the latter is thought to represent the
femur. Monkeys possess femurs most nearly
like that of man, and this is especially true of
the anthropoid apes; yet even the gorilla, which
in this respect is the most manlike of all the apes,
has certain peculiarities of the femur by which
the expert can distinguish it from man. These
differences between the femurs of apes and

are so readily recognized that when the famous
remains of Pithecanthropus erectus were found
in Java by Dubois, their position, intermediate
between man, whom they approach in cranial
character, and apes, was determined by the
examination of the femur, this bone showing
certain pithecoid characters quite strongly.

FENCE (by aphaeresis for defence, defense,
from Lat. defendere, to ward off, from tie, down
+ fendere, to strike; connected with Gk. Beiveiv,
thcinein, to strike). In agriculture, a barrier,
more commonly constructed of stones, rails,
planks, pickets, or wire, used to inclose some
space or to separate it from an adjoining area.
Fences are primarily intended to confine farm
animals to a definite area, or to prevent those
of one farmer trespassing on the premises of
his neighbors.

Legal Aspect. Fence laws are quite gener-
ally in force in the United States, but their re-
quirements are very variable. In some cases
they require each person to fence in his own
stock, but not to fence out the stock of others.
In other cases the reverse is true, especially in
sparsely settled regions, where the amount of
unoccupied land is so much larger than the
occupied area, and the grazing system prevails.
Great legal diversity also obtains in different
States regarding division fences, highway and
railway fences, and what in a legal sense con-
stitutes a fence.

Necessity. Fencing is more general in the
United States than in European countries. It
has been stated that the farm fences of the
United States cost more than the farm build-
ings. Much fencing is undoubtedly done that
is useless, expensive, and unsightly. Many
fences, like the zigzag fence and the stone fence,
take up much valuable land that might other-
wise be profitably cultivated, and besides they
harbor weeds, insects, etc. The extent to which
fencing is necessary depends mainly upon the
laws in force. Where every owner of stock is
liable for the damage done by them, the fencing
may be limited to that required to keep the
stock confined on his own premises. Still, even
in this case many prefer completely to fence
their premises rather than be annoyed by the
unpleasant consequences of depredations of a
careless neighbor's stock. However, it may be
laid down as a general rule that from both
aesthetic and economical considerations only such
fences should be maintained on a farm as are
absolutely necessary.

Bail Fences. WTien timber is abundant, as it
is in the early days of the settlement of well-
timbered regions, the zigzag, worm, or Virginia
rail fence is commonly used. Such a fence
properly built, of good timber, is durable and
effective, but is wasteful of land and timber and
is expensive when the supply of the latter be-
comes limited. It is then often replaced by
other cheaper forms of pole, brush, or wicker
fences, or by the neater and more substantial
board fences.

Stone Fences. In regions where stones
abound, fences have been built to serve the
double purpose of a fence and of a place of
deposit for surplus stones. They are substan-
tial, but expensive, on account of the labor re-
quired in their construction, and often wasteful
of land, because they too frequently become
merely long piles of stones around the fields*

Sod Fences. Where both timber and stones
are lacking, sod has been successfully employed

449

in the construction of fences. At best, sod fences
are makeshifts.

Hedges. In England and other European
countries hedges are employed in place of fences
to a much greater extent than in the United
States. The objections to them are that they
are slow of growth, expensive to keep in order,
that they "draw" the adjacent land, harbor
weeds, insects, etc., and throw a considerable
amount of land out of cultivation. There are
many cases, however, in which the hedge proves
both useful and ornamental. The favorite hedge
plant in England is the hawthorn. In the Mid-
dle and Southern United States the o?age orange
is probably most commonly used. The arbor
viti and the boxwood (for evergreen hedges)
and the privet are also frequently used. When
used as fences, hedges are frequently planted on
embankments of ditches or double ditches.

Wire Fences. Post and wire fences are prob-
ably more extensively used than are any other
kind, especially in regions where timber is
scarce. The single wire does not resist changes
of temperature and is not as strong as the
twisted wire. Firmly twisted steel wire, with
barbs at short intervals, is the kind most widely
used. The barb-wire fence takes up little space,
is not destroyed by fire, is easily repaired, and
is readily adapted to inequalities of surface.
It may also be so constructed as to form an
effective barrier to stock and trespassers of all
kinds. The principal objection urged against
it is its liability to injure stock. For this reason
it is better suited to large areas than to small
inclosures in which animals are likely to bo
more or less crowded. Various means have been
proposed for overcoming this danger, but with
only partial success. Two-strand twisted wire,
with two-pointed and four-pointed barbs, are
used, as well as fiat and twisted, barbed and
unbarbed, fiat steel straps. The barbs should
be just long enough to repel infringing animals
without inflicting serious injury. Various im-
plements have been devised which greatly facil-
itate the construction of wire fences. It is
generally considered that two strands of barb
wire, 22 inches apart, the lower 22 inches from
the ground, will turn horses, cattle, and young
stock, and one strand is sometimes used as
a temporary barrier for the larger stock. A
fence of three strands, 12, 23, and 42 inches
from the ground, is more effective than a two-
strand fence. Four-strand fences, with the
strands 5, 12, 22, and 48 inches from the ground,
are commonly used, with or without a baseboard
close to the ground. Five strands, it is claimed,
will turn dogs, pigs, poultry, and other small
animals. With embankments, fewer strands
are required for an effective fence. It is com-
mon to use posts 8 feet apart, as in board fences,
but fewer posts are frequently made to serve.
The corner posts should be securely braced, in
order that the wires may be tightly stretched.
Flood Fences. Across streams subject to
floods, or sloughs too wide for floodgates (see
below), fences are often a necessity. These are
usually constructed in panels, on logs, which

are linked together and fastened to posta on
the banks with iron couplings, so that the fence
rises and falls with the flood.

Hurdles, or Portable Fences. These are
often useful. They may be constructed of wood
or of wire, in a variety of ways, depending
upon the purpose for which they are to be used.

Gates have generally replaced the more primi-
tive bars, being more sightly and convenient.
When properly made of well-seasoned lumber or
of metal, they are very durable. The styles of
construction are almost infinite. Gates for road-
ways should be at least 14 feet wide and should
be well braced so that they will not sag. The
styles of hinges and especially of fastenings are
almost as numerous as the kinds of gates. (See
also GATEWAY.) When fences cross streams or
gulleys subject to flood, it is necessary to employ
floodgates, which are panels of fence suspended
on hinges so that they yield to the force of the
flood and resume their position when it subsides.

Posts. The best timber for posts is probably
supplied by red cedar, yellow locust, black wal-
nut, white oak, and chestnut. Timber for posts
should be cut when the sap is dormant, e.g., in
midwinter or in August. The bark should be
removed before setting the posts. Various
means of preserving posts have been proposed.
Soaking the part to be placed in the ground
in kerosene and afterward coating with coal
tar has been found effective. Soaking in blue
vitriol (1 pound of vitriol to 40 of water) and
in hot oreosote and charring have also been
recommended. The creosote treatment has been
found most practical by the United States
Forest Service. In recent years, as a result of
scarcity or high cost of suitable timber for the
purpose, concrete posts for wire fences have
come into considerable use.

While the common law does not confer upon
a landowner the right to force his neighbor to
maintain a fence, it does permit him to acquire
such a right by grant or prescription. When
the right is so obtained, it is called an easement,
and the land, whose owner is thus bound to
maintain a fence, is said to be subject to a serv-
itude, A contract under seal by a property
owner with his neighbor to build and maintain
a fence upon the land of the former for the pro-
tection of the neighbor's premises, not only
creates a personal liability enforceable against
the promisor, but it may, if so intended, create
an incumbrance upon his land in .the nature of
an easement. A prescriptive liability of this
character is not common, nor is it easily es-
tablished. One who claims it must be prepared
to show not only that the person charged has
uniformly repaired the fence in question, but

FENCE LIZARD

450

FENCING

also that lie has so repaired it at the request
of the claimant and in recognition of the latter's
right.

In some of our States the common-law rule
that landowners are not bound to fence against
trespassing cattle has been rejected by the courts,
as unstated to the conditions and usages of
a new country; and the rule has been adopted
that the owners of cultivated lands can recover
for damages done thereto by trespassing cattle
only when they are inclosed by good and suffi-
cient fences. This rule has been recognized by
the United States Supreme Court as applicable
to the public lands of the Federal government.
In all of the States, and in England, the com-
mon-law doctrine has been modified by statute.
It is impossible here to describe this legislation
in detail, but its characteristic features are
these: 1. It imposes upon adjoining landowners
the duty of contributing equally towards the
erection and maintenance of division fences be-
tween the improved or cultivated portions of
their lands. 2. These fences are to be so built
that the line between the two estates shall pass
through the middle. At common law the owner,
who was bound to maintain a division fence,
was obliged to construct it wholly upon his
premises. 3. What constitutes a lawful fence
is generally fixed by the terms of the statute,
or is left for definition to local authorities. In
England barbed wire fences along highways arc
prohibited; but in this country their use is
permitted. 4. Division fences are intended,
under modern legislation, as a protection against
cattle rightfully on adjoining land, and only
against those. In some cases, however, the stat-
utory duty to fence is an absolute one. Such,
as a rule, is the duty of railroad companies.
Until they erect and unless they maintain the
statutory fences, they are liable to all damages
inflicted by their engines and cars upon cattle
straying upon their tracks.' They may even be
liable to passengers and employees who arc in-
jured in collisions with trespassing cattle. The
private-property owner, however, owes a duty
of fencing only to his immediate neighbor. If
his fence conforms to statutory requirements,
he is not liable to his adjoining neighbor for
the trespasses of his cattle upon the latter's
land, unless they are unruly beasts. On the
other hand, he cannot recover for the trespasses
of his neighbor's cattle if his own fences are
defective. A fence is a part of the land. This
is true even of a rail fence, although no stakes
are set into the ground. The same doctrine
has been applied to fencing materials which are
temporarily detached from the soil when there
was no intention of diverting them from their
original use. They are real estate, not chattels.
See Hunt, Law of Boundaries and Fences (Lon-
don, 1896) ; Thompson, LOAD of the Farm (San
Francisco, 1896) ; id., Law of Boundaries and
Fences (Albany, 1874) ; Thornton, Railroad
Fences and Private Crossings (Indianapolis,
1892).

FENCE LIZARD. A small, active, and
harmless iguanid lizard (Soeloporus undulatus),
common throughout all the warmer parts of
the United States and Mexico. It is exceedingly
variable in color, but Eastern specimens are
usually brown green above and whitish below,
with an indistinct stripe on each side, above
which is a double series of narrow undulating
V's, pointing forward. The males have a black
mark diverging from the chin to each shoulder,

and other blue and black patches and marks on
the under surface which are lacking in the
females. Texas and Sonoran examples form the
paler variety consobrinus, and a Rocky Moun-
tain variety (tnslichus) is distinguished by its
green color and eight crossbands.

This little animal is exceedingly active, run-
ning swiftly, dodging about tree trunks with
incredible agility, and hiding beneath loose bark,
etc., for repose and safety. It climbs trees to
some extent, but keeps mainly near the ground,
darting along fences and prostrate logs in pur-
suit of insects or in fear of hawks and similar
enemies. Be Kay states that it has some power
of changing its colors, and that when irritated
it elevates its spinous scales and bristles into
a formidable appearance; it is, however, entirely
harmless and makes an amusing pet. It multi-
plies by eggs laid in dry earth, probably in little
groups, in early summer. "The eggs are long
and narrow, are covered with a tough coat . . .
and are abandoned to their fate, but when the
young are hatched they are treated with the
utmost gentleness by all the adults." For sys-
tematic facts, consult Cope, Crocodilians, Liz-
ards, and Snakes (Washington, 1900) ; for
breeding habits, Hay, Batrachians and Reptiles
. . . of Indiana (Indianapolis, 1893) ; Ditmars,
The Reptile Book (New York, 1907) ; also popu-
lar accounts in the books of De Kay, Abbott,
Sharp, and similar writers.

FEIT'CIBLE, A term formerly applied to
bodies of militia, yeomanry, or volunteers in
Great Britain. They were enlisted entirely for
local defense. The name is now practically ob-
solete except as a designation of a few historic
corps. Formerly not an uncommon title as-
sumed by organizations of State militia in the
United States; as, "The State Fencibles."

FEIT'CINQ. Specifically, the art of attack
and defense with sword or rapier, but frequently
employed so as to include the use of such weap-
ons as foils, singlesticks, broadsword, quarter-
staff, bayonet, lance, etc. There is not much

FlG. 1. FENCING POSITION WITH TWO-HANI>KI> SWORD.

evidence to justify the assumption that fencing
as an art was practiced before the advent of
the rapier in the sixteenth century, although
it has been conceded that some crude system

4SI

of fence must have been necessary for the proper
play of the h&che d'armes, or poleaxe, a weapon
about 5 feet in length and used with both hands.
The knight depended, as a rule, on the strength

FlO. 2. TWO-EDGED SWORD AND BUCKLEB.

and temper of his armor for defense and on
the force and accuracy of his lance thrust for
attack; but the employment of a shield to ward
off attack, by sword or other weapon, suggests
that some form of fence was known. The swords
in use at this time were the heavy two-handed
swords (Pig. 1), the bastard sword (a heavy
weapon, which, however, might be used with
one hand), and the ordinary single-handed
sword. Each type was made with double edges
and a point. From the middle of the sixteenth
to the middle of the seventeenth century was
the most prolific period in the variety of weap-
ons introduced, and also the period from which
fencing may properly be said to date. The most
important weapon of the group was the long
Spanish-Italian rapier, with its adjuncts, the
poniard (Fig. 3) or the cloak (Fig. 4). It was
practically a development of the cross-hilted
sword, and arrived at its most perfect form
early in the seventeenth century, when the
"swept" hilt gave place to the "coup." Armor

FlG. 3. COMBAT WITH HAPtBR AND DAGGER.

was no longer worn, so that combatants fought
stripped to their shirts and, owing to the deadly
nature of a rapier thrust, were compelled to
cultivate the art of fence. Italian fencing mas-
ters were in demand, but, owing to the length

and general unwieldiness of the weapon, their
instruction was far from the complex method
it afterward became. In avoiding an opponent's
rapier recourse would be had rather to change
of position with the body than to changing posi-
tions of the weapon itself, and parries with the
dagger were equally few. The period of the
rapier has been described as the most quarrel-
some period in history. During the reign of
Louis XIII of France the rage for dueling be-
came more virulent than ever, and the use of
the rapier, and consequent knowledge of its
practice, grew to be widespread, with the in-
evitable result of considerably altering the style
and size of the rapier. The hilt gradually took
the shape of a cup, and the blade was so short-
ened and lightened that the possibilities of at-
tack and defence were greatly increased, and a
weapon for the left hand became unnecessary.
The parry, and as a natural consequence the
feint, which with the previous hoavy and un-
wieldly weapon had been impossible, became
now an absolute necessity and, combined with
the lunge, marked a great advance in the art
of fence. The "lunge/ror forward movement of
the leading foot, was first suggested, so far as
is known, by a celebrated Italian fencing master
of the sixteenth century, Di Grassi, whose work,
published in 1574, and translated into English
by " J. G., Gentleman," in 1594, was long regarded
as an authority. At this time such footwork as
was practiced consisted of passes, or steps for-
ward, backward, or to either side; with the
addition of voltes and demivoltcs as needed, dur-
ing which the swordsman was required to keep

FlG. 4. COMBAT WITH BAPXBB AND CLOAK.

the knees as nearly straight as possible. The
universal prevalence of dueling (q.v.) during
the eighteenth century brought about further
improvements in the weapons, and finally evolved
the slender featherweight rapier now known as
the small sword. The elementary circular, or
counterparry, proved to be of sufficient value
to compel sword makers to alter the shape of
the blade, by fining down its excessively broad
forte, and making it taper gradually from hilt
to point; thus, the "walking sword" of the clos-
ing decades of the eighteenth century became
as light and supple as is the fencing foil of the
twentieth century. Among the many famous
fencing men of this period may be mentioned
the Chevalier de Saint-Georges, the half-breed
son of a rich planter of Guadalupe; the French
Chevalier d'Eon de Beaumont (1728-1810), so
long believed to be a woman; and Angelo, the
founder of a family for several generations con-
spicuous in the annals of fencing in Great Brit-
ain. Since the days of armor, up to the eight-
eenth century, protection for the face or other
parts of the body in a fencing bout was un-
known, and all the great fencing masters of
the rapier recommended enormous buttons —
in many instances, it is recorded, as large as

FENCING

452

a tennis ball— which, being affixed to the point
of the weapon, afforded a measure of protec-
tion to an opponent. During the earlier part
of the small-sword period it had also been the
custom in the salles d'armes for a fencer to
withhold his riposte after making a successful
parry, in order that his opponent might have
time to recover from his lunge and escape any
possible injury to his face. The elder La Boes-
siere is said to have been the original advocate
of protection for the face, but his idea met with
a very indifferent reception from the fencing
fraternity, who vehemently denied the necessity
of such protection on the part of themselves.
When first introduced, the mask was of solid
metal, in which openings were made for the
eyes, and thus left exposed the very parts that
most needed protection. An accident, by which
a prominent instructor lost the sight of an eye,
soon demonstrated the necessity of eye covering,
which in time led to the present xneshwork mask.
At the beginning of the nineteenth century the
use of the glove, plastron, sandals, and mask
had become general, and while jgentlemen no
longer carried the walking sword, a form of it
still holds sway in France, in the ep$e de com-
latf the favorite weapon of duelists throughout
the world.

Fencing in Prance. It is supposed that
Henri Saint-Didier, who taught fencing in Paris
about 1570, was the first to give names to the
different thrusts then in use, such as main-
drette, renverse, fendante, estocade, and im-
orocade. Pater, a later teacher, divided the
various parries into five distinct classes, viz.,
prime, seconde, tierce, quarte, and quinte; and
similarly with few exceptions every other term
used in the art has had a French origin. Mod-
ern fencing in France owes most of its perfec-
tion to the military academy of Joinville-le-
Pont, near Paris, established by the govern-
ment in 1872, and known as the High School
of Military Gymnastics. In this institution are
trained the masters at arms, who on graduation
are assigned to the various regiments and corps
of the French army. The number of men grad-
uated each year, however, is in excess of the
number of appointments to be filled, so that
many of them are compelled to enter into com-
petition for their livelihood with the prevOts
or lieutenants of the civilian masters through-
out the country. In Italy fencing is not now so
popular as it is in France, nor is the Italian
method as practiced by its leading present-day
exponents as distinct from the French as it was
formerly (although the original Italian method
is still enthusiastically taught at Naples), but
is apparently being dispossessed by its French
rival from all the countries in which it was
formerly supreme.

Fending fa the duel is influenced in France
largely by the rules governing the use of foils
in the salles d'armes. There is usually an um-
pire to enforce the rules and see that the com-
batants maintain the regulation distances from
each other, so that only the hand or arm is in
danger. Occasionally a duel will have a fatal
termination, either designedly or by accident;
but in the vast majority of encounters, should
either combatant make too desperate an attack
or rush, the umpire interferes, and the first
scratch ends the affair. In Germany the duel
is more consistently prohibited than in France
(see DUELING) ; but even there, duels with the
rapier or dueling sword are of occasional oc-

currence and are almost invariably of a serious
character. The student duels are fought with
the Schldger, a pointed sword with a long
double-edged blade, sharpened only towards the
point, and the fencing in vogue partakes more
of the violence and action of the Italian than
the more reserved style of the French.

Some of the more important positions and
principles of fencing are as follows: Movements
for attack are called thrusts, and those for de-
fense parries; a feint is a movement designed to
mislead an opponent. When on guard, the body
is so placed as to present a profile to the oppo-
nent; the right foot forward, the right arm half
bent, with the elbow at the distance of about
10 inches from the body, the left foot 20 inches
behind, and at right angles to the right foot,
knees bent, body erect and well poised on the
hips, inclining slightly to the left, so as to
facilitate the right leg in the lunge. The attack
is an endeavor to hit, either by a simple or a
composite thrust — simple when resulting from
a single movement, and composite when result-
ing from several. A straight thrust is a direct
hit, obtained by straightening the arms and
lunging, and a disengagement is a change of
lateral lines followed by a straight thrust, which
differs from the coupe, or cut, in that it is under
instead of over the opposing weapon. To
riposte is to attack after having parried — either
immediately or after a single interval; and to
coicnlerriposte is to attack after having par-
ried a riposte. The coupe do temps , or time
thrust, is an attack anticipating or surprising
an opponent in the preparation of his own;
and the coup d'arre't, or stop thrust, is a rapid
attack developed during the advance of an op-
ponent. Feeling the blade is an operation de-
manding long practice, as well as a delicate
sense of touch; by it contact without pressure
is made with the opposing weapon, which to-
gether with the knowledge gained by the eyes
will indicate the beginning of an attack and
enable the defense to deflect a thrust without
unnecessary violence. An attack may be de-
livered either at the breast, or on the right
(the right side of the body or face), on the left
(corresponding to the right attack), and below,
the region under the sword arm. There are at
least 10 parries requisite to meet all the thrusts
that can be directed at the body, designated by
the old French ordinal numbers: prime, seconde,
tierce, quarto, quinte, six, sept, octavo, counter-
tierce, and counterquarte. To confuse an op-
ponent by making a feint, or to secure position
after retreating, resort is had to the appel,
which is executed by striking the right foot
smartly on the ground. The art of disarming
an opponent by twisting or forcing his weapon
out of his hands is but little practiced, owing
to modern fencing etiquette, which does not per-
mit the striking of a defenseless man. The
essence of good fencing is to exercise caution
and prudence before attempting a thrust, and
never to riposte until after the parry has been
made. Retreats must be covered by parries,
which should invariably be well and closely
made. To husband the strength and keep cool,
together with a constant watchfulness for a
successful lunge, constitutes almost certain suc-
cess against even a superior swordsman, should
the latter be impetuous and indiscreet in his
lunging. The use of the small sword is now
principally confined to dueling, and proficiency
in its play in nondueling countries is sought

FENCING

453

FENCING

more as an accomplishment or recreation than
as a means of self-preservation. The small
sword is for pointing only, which is of all at-
tacks the most effective, since in fencing the
point is made with the full force of the arm
reinforced when lunging by the weight of the
entire body; a combination impossible in the
"cut," which can only be delivered by the force
of the arm alone.

The substitute for the short sword is the foil
(see Fig. 5), and on no account should practice

FlG. 5. HAND POSITION, WITH FOIL.

against an adversary be engaged in without
the protection of a wire mask for the face.
There should also be worn a leather breast-
plate or pad, to cover the entire right side and
hang a little distance over the lower part of the
body. It should also have stitched to it a leather
collar buttoned at the back, for the protection
of the neck.

The foil is made of yielding steel, with a
leather-covered or rubber button fixed to its
point. The temper of the foil should always be
ascertained before commencing practice, by plac-
ing the point on the ground and pressing' down-
ward until the blade assumes a considerable
arc of a circle, after which it should be allowed
to spring back by suddenly releasing the point.
A well-tempered foil can at all times oe straight-
ened out by placing it under the foot, bent part
uppermost, and then drawing it backward to
the point.

Sword Fencing. The sword is a weapon
made for the purpose of cutting by the delivery
of a blow. It has two distinct parts available
for attack and defense, in addition to its point:
(a-) The centre of percussion, or that part of
the sword in which the' greatest force of the
blow is concentrated, comprising about one-
third of the blade's length from the point; and
(6) the forte, which measures about one-third
the sword's length from the hilt, and in which
the best strength for defense is maintained.
Although the weight of the sword tells against
its utility as a thrusting weapon, it is never-
theless fashioned for use with the point, and
the thrust is relied upon as an additional means
of attack. Any such scientific use of the sword
as is possible with the rapier is entirely pre-
cluded by its weight, consequently it has fewer
combinations for attack and defense. Sword
fencing consists of tho cut, guard, and point,
a combination equally available in the case of
sword versus sword, and sword versus lanoc
or bayonet.

The singlestick is a light ash rod or stick,
used as a substitute for the sword, the exercises
with which are identical.

Fencing in America. The most important
fencing competitions in the United States are
under the direction of the Amateur Fencers'
League of America, which was organized in 1891
and is now affiliated with the Amateur Athletic
Union. Four competitions are held each year,
which are open to amateurs of all countries,
viz.: (I) American Championship: With foils,
dueling swords, and sabres; (2) Foil Bandi^
cap: One held by each division of the Am-

ateur Fencers' League of America, at New
York, and other centres; (3) Team Champion-
ship: With foils; teams consisting of three or
four men; (4) Junior Team Championship:
With foils; teams of three men, in which no
man is allowed to participate who has ever
won any A. F. L. A. foil medal. The intercol-
legiate championship is usually competed for
by teams from the principal colleges and uni-
versities of the country; the Intercollegiate
Fencers' Association, founded in 1894, includes
Harvard, Yale, Columbia, Annapolis, Cornell,
West Point, Pennsylvania, and Princeton. There
are many important fencing clubs and organi-
zations throughout the country, the most influ-
ential being the Fencers' Club of New York,
founded in 1883. Philadelphia is regarded as
the most important fencing centre next to New
York, closely followed by Boston, San Francisco,
Chicago, and St. Louis. The German-American
athletic societies in every State of the Union
also make fencing a prominent feature of their
gymnasia, and more than any other factor main-
tain a strong interest in the development of
broadsword and sabre work. The Fencing Sec-
tion of the New York Turn Verein was founded
in 1850; its first master was the afterward fa-
mous Franz Sigel.

Bayonet Fencing, The bayonet is a weapon
made entirely for the thrust, consequently it is
most effectually used when in the hands of an
experienced user of the rapier. Of all forms of
fencing, that with the bayonet is most ex-
clusively military, yet curiously enough is only
within quite recent times receiving the attention
it has so long deserved; at a period, too, when
in the opinion of many the opportunities for
bayonet contact in actual warfare have been
reduced to a minimum. The old form of bay-
onet exercise, like tho old manual of arms, is
now practically a thing of the past and is being
everywhere superseded by bayonet attack and
defense practice, in which bayonet is opposed
to bayonet, and the modern principles of fence
are employed. For gymnasium bayonet fenc-
ing, a spring bayonet is employed; so that, when
contact is made in the thrust, the impact forces
the bayonet back on its spring. When employed
against the sabre, the bayonet is used on the
same principle as the foil, except that, owing
to its weight and form, only the more simple
foil movements are possible; the two weapons
are on fairly equal terms, however, as the sabre,
from its weight and shape, is similarly situated.
Whatever advantage the bayonet has in length,
the sword has in general handiness. A bayo-
neteer usually engages in tierce or quarte, from
which he is enabled to make a straight thrust,
a disengagement, feint a straight thrust and
disengage, or feint a disengagement into one
line and disengage into another. The swords-
man will parry with prime all straight thrusts
and disengagements received over his blade, and
with seoonde those received under the "blade.
A greater variety of returns are possible, how-
ever, if tierce and quarte are employed to meet
a thrusting attack at the breast. Against a
dismounted swordsman, the bayoneteer will
seek to keep the former outside his point, to
secure which he will constantly threaten dif-
ferent parts of the swordsman's body and thus
keep him on the defensive. On the other hand,
the swordsman will aim to get inside the point
of the bayonet, when by seizing the Tifle with
the left hand he has his opponent at .Ms mercy.

FENCING THE TABLES

454

Against a mounted swordsman the bayoneteer
will centre his attack on the left or near side
of the horseman and thus shorten the swords-
man's reach. If opposed to a lancer (mounted),
he will make his attack on the right or lance
side and strive to get inside the point. Manuals
of fencing for all fencing weapons, and particu-
larly the foils and singlesticks, are plentiful.
Consult: Button, The Sword and the Centuries
(New York, 1901) ; Thimra, A Complete Bibliog-
raphy of Fencing and Duelling (London, 1896) ;
Czeipek, Die Fechtkunst im Duett (Gratz,
1897); Hergsell, Die Fechtkunst im XV. and
XVI. Jahrhundert (Prague, 1896) ; Ristow, Die
moderne Fechtkunst (ih., 1896); Praktische
Bajonett-Fechtschule naoh der Bajonettir-Vor-
schrift fur die Infanterie (Berlin, 1889) ; Pol-
lock and others, Fencing, with a Complete Bib-
liography (London, 1902) ; Pavese, Foil and
Salre Fencing (New York, 1905); Brock,
"Fencing in America," in Outing Maga&me (ib.,
1912-13).

FENCING- THE TABLES. A term applied
in Scottish Presbyterian churches to the address
before the administration of the Lord's Supper,
setting forth who are "the worthy communi-
cants" and warning others from partaking.

FENODALL, JOSIAS (c.1620-?). A pro-
prietary and Colonial governor of Maryland
from 1656 to 1660. He was born probably in
England. He was one of Lord Baltimore's
trusted agents in his Maryland colony, and as
a reward for his services Lord Baltimore made
him a large grant of land and commissioned
him Governor. He was unable to enforce his
authority, and was taken prisoner by the Puri-
tan faction, but was released on taking oath
that he would not interfere with the established
government. Leaving Maryland, he proceeded
to England, where he conferred with Lord Bal-
timore and acted as his adviser in his attempts
to secure from Cromwell a recognition of his
proprietary rights. In November, 1657, Fendall
returned to Maryland as Governor. In the
interregnum which followed the abdication of
Richard Cromwell, Fendall seems to have de-
serted his former benefactor; for he placed his
resignation in the hands of the Assembly and
accepted from it a new commission as Gov*
ernor. The newly established government, after
a brief existence of six months, was again super-
seded by the proprietary, Philip Calvert being
appointed Governor in place of Fendall, who
was imprisoned. He was tried in the following
spring (1661) and sentenced to be banished, but
upon promising obedience was permitted to live
unmolested until 1681, when, again being im-
plicated in an insurrection, he was banished
and his estates confiscated.

FEN"O)EB (from fend9 abbreviation of de-
fend) . A device for protecting the sides of ships
or boats from chafe or other injury. They are
of numerous kinds. Rope fenders, made of
large soft rope covered with canvas, are used
for heavy boats, surrounding the hull just be-
low the washboard. Cork lenders, much used
on board modern vessels, consist of a closely
plaited rope netting in the shape of a bag, filled
with cork, and supported in place by a small
rope. Heavy wooden fenders, which are merely
solid cylindrical pieces of pine or other soft
wood, are also common. They are 3 to 8 feet
long and 6 inches to 1 foot in diameter; in some
cases they are wrapped with old rope, old fire
hose, or the like. During the Spanish War the

desirability of coaling the United States ships
at sea developed a special heavy class of fend-
ers; the best of these were made of cotton bales,
lashed with rope (which in some cases was
covered with leather where likely to chafe) and
supported from the deck by heavy rope slings.
The large fenders now in use in the United
States naval service are of somewhat similar
size and shape, but are made of Spanish cane
and are usually covered with a rope netting of
very coarse mesh. These cane fenders are more
resilient than the cotton bales, and are also
much lighter and more easily handled, but they
are not so durable.
FEW DISTEICT. See BRDFOBD LEVEL.

, fa'nMOn', FEANQOIS DE SALIGNAC
PB LA MOTHE (1651-1715). A distinguished
French author and prelate. He was born Aug.
6, 1651, in the Chateau F&ielon, Province of
Pe"ri£ord, in the present Department of Dor-
do#ne. He was the descendant of a family
which has given many celebrities both to the
church and to the state in France. His edu-
cation was conducted at home up to his twelfth
year. At a very early age he showed lively
interest in the classics and especially in Greek.
At the age of 12 he was sent to the University
of Cahors, noted at the time for its classical
course. Thence he was transferred to the fa-
mous Jesuit College Du Plessis in Paris. His
success in his studies was remarkable, and at
the early age of 15 he attracted the attention
of the literary coterie of the Hdtel Rambouillet.
At the close of a brilliant college career, when
scarcely 20 years of age, he entered the Semi-
nary of Saint-Sulpice, which, under the Abbe
Tronson, was worthily fulfilling the purposes
of its great founder, Olier. In 1675, at the age
of 24, Fe*nelon received holy orders. He wished
to enter upon mission work in Canada and,
when that was impossible, in Greece. For some
time after his ordination he was employed in
attendance at the hospitals and in other paro-
chial duties of the parish of Saint-Sulpice. In
the year 1678 he was made director of the
Nouvelles Catholiques, a community of women
founded for the purpose of furthering the con-
version of girls from Protestantism. While
thus occupied, he formed an intimacy with
Bossuet and took part in conferences on Holy
Scripture held under his auspices. Fexielon
looked up to Bossuet almost as a master. At
this time, at the request of the Duchess of
Beauvilliers, he wrote his book DG I Education
des filles, which was intended only for private
circulation. It attracted so much attention,
however, that it was given to the public in 1681.
(There are several English translations, e.g.,
"On the Education of a Daughter," Boston,
1856.) The book has been called an anticipa-
tory condemnation of Rousseau 's JSmile. The
efficiency with which he discharged his duties
as director led to his appointment as head of
a mission, which, on the revocation of the Edict
of Nantes in 1685, was sent to preach among
the I'rotostant population of Saintongc and
Poitou. Here his zeal and wisdom accomplished
much in converting the inhabitants. He re-
fused to allow force to bo employed wherever
his authority extended. In 1688 he resumed
his duties in the Maison des Nouvelles Conver-
ties, and in 1689 was named by Louis XIV to
the highly responsible post of preceptor of his
grandson, the youag Duke of Burgundy. Bos-

455

suet said that the position was a proper re-
ward for merit that took the greatest pains
to conceal itself. In this position Fenelon
showed himself a great practical educator.
While imparting the most varied knowledge,
he knew how to prepare the mind and heart
of his pupil for the great responsibility that
was to be his as the destined ruler of France.
He impressed upon him the great principles of
truth and justice and the vanity of earthly
glory, power, and happiness that are not ac-
companied by a sense of duty well done. In
order to fulfill these lofty purposes to his sat-
isfaction, Fenelon found himself under the ne-
cessity of composing his own textbooks. To
this we owe many works still popular in edu-
cational use — the Fables, the Dialogues des
worts, Altrege dcs vies des anciens philosophes,
and the preliminary sketch, at least, of T6le-
maque. There was also a translation of the
ffineid of Vergil, and a Vie de Charlemagne, but
unfortunately the first is lost, and the manu-
script of the second was destroyed by fire at
the burning of the archiepiscopal palace of
Cambray in 1697. It was later charged that
he had succeeded only too well, and made the
Duke religious at the expense of manly vigor.
In 1694 he was given the abbacy of Saint- Vatery
in the diocese of Amiens and in the following
year the archbishopric of Cambray. He accepted
the archbishopric only on the condition that he
should be allowed to live at his see the nine
months of each year required by the canons,
and that not even his duties as preceptor royal
should interfere with this requirement. Dur-
ing his preceptorship he became acquainted
with Madame Giryon (q.v.), a pious widow who
was wont to give spiritual conferences to ladies
of rank and who had written a Short and Easy
Method of Prayer, a commentary on certain
parts of the Bible, and several other mystical
works in which she expounded her views re-
garding the inner life. Not long before the
writings of Miguel de Molinos, the founder
of the Quictists, had been condemned as he-
retical. (See QUIETISM; MOLINOS.) Molinos
taught that perfect contemplation of God is
a state wherein one neither reasons nor re-
flects, but passively receives the impression of
heavenly light. In* this mental inaction a soxil
neither fears hell nor desires salvation. The
practice of the virtues of faith, hope, and love
becomes unnecessary in this state, which Mo-
linos called "quiet." Madame Guyon was not
a professed follower of Molinos, but she favored
liis spiritual doctrine at least to the extent
of teaching that in the state of perfect con-
templation the soul resigns itself so entirely
to tne will of God as to care not whether it is
to be damned or saved. She professed readi-
ness to submit to the decision of the church,
but her teaching was regarded as dangerous.
Bossuet, with characteristic acumen, recog-
nized the danger, but, with what cannot but
be considered now as intemperate zeal, harshly
condemned where gentle persuasion might have
sufficed. From this time on, Bossuet and Fene-
lon were antagonists. Fenelon, convinced of the
uprightness 01 Madame Guyon and her good
intentions, defended her. In a book written
during the controversy, called Maooimes des
saints, he showed the influence of Madame
Guyon's teaching. After considerable delay 23
propositions from the maxims were condemned
by the Pope, who rebuked the lack of modera-

tion of some of Fenelon's opponents by adding,
"He has erred through excess of Divine love,
but you have erred through lack of love for
your neighbor." Fenelon announced his con-
demnation to his own people at once and ex-
pressed his full submission. He seemed happy
to give an example of docility and humility
to his flock. Afterward he presented a golden
ostensorium to his cathedral on which appeared
the figure of the angel of Truth trampling on
forbidden books. One of the titles in evidence
was Maoeimes des saints. After this unfortu-
nate episode Fenelon, who had been banished
from the court, devoted himself entirely to the
care of his diocese. The fame of his benevo-
lence and enlightened charity spread far and
wide. When the region about Cambray was in-
vaded by the armies of Marlborough and Prince
Eug&ne, those commandei's gave strict orders to
respect the estates of Fenelon, and in a time of
great scarcity Marlborough provided a guard to
protect the Archbishop's granaries. Notwith-
standing these precautions, his valuable library
was burned. In it were some of his precious
manuscripts not yet given to the printer.
Fenelon's only remark was, "I would much
rather that this wore destroyed than the cot-
tage of some poor peasant." Fenelon fell into
disgrace at court by reason of his TeUmaque,
which was regarded as a masked satire' upon
the King and his policies. The work had been
printed from a copy surreptitiously obtained
by the Archbishop's servant. Critics freely
pointed out the characters presumably satirized,
Sesostris was supposed to represent the Grand
Monarch himself; Calypso, Madame de Montes-
pan; Protesilaus, Louvois; and Eucharis, Made-
moiselle de Fontanges. As Louis XIV fell into
decline, there were hopes that Fenelon would
be the Minister of the Duke of Burgundy when
he should follow his grandfather to the throne.
Fenelon even sketched a complete scheme of
political reform, which he sent to the Duke, who
still retained, in spite of the King's adverse
influence and continued hostility, all his pris-
tine affection for Ms former preceptor. Fene-
lon's political maxims were far in advance of
the time. These hopes were disappointed by the
premature death of the Duke in 1712. Fenclou
survived him only until Jan. 7, 1715, dying in
sentiments of the greatest piety and resigna-
tion to the Divine Will. Consult his works (23
vols., Paris, 1820-30) and his letters (11 vols.,
ib., 1827-20) ; Lettres et opuscules medits (ib.,
1850) ; selections from his letters have been pub-
lished in English (New York, 1906, 1910);
Bausset, Vie de Fenelon (3 vols., Paris, 1808) ;
Crausle, Fenelon et Bossuet (ib., 1895), in
favor of the latter; Sanders, Fenelon: ffis
Friends and his Enemies (London, 1901); Vis-
count Saint-Gyres, Francois de F6nelon (ib.,
1901) ; Duclaux, French Ideal: Pascal, P&nelon,
and Other Essays (New York, 1911).

F£NELON, FHANgois DE SALIGNAO DE LA
MOTHE (1641-79). A French missionary in
America, a half-brother of the great Fenelon.
He entered the Order of Saint-Sulpice in 1664,
and in 1666, when there came a request from
Bishop Laval at Quebec for volunteer mission-
aries in the New World, Fenelon was one of the
first to respond, and became an ardent and
devoted missionary. In 1668 he established a
Sulpician mission among, the Cayugas on, the
Bay of Quinte" on the north shore of Lake On-
tario. On Easter Sunday, 1674, F&ielon preached

HENELON FAILS

486

3TENTAN SOCIETY

a sermon at Montreal in which, in describing
the ideal chief magistrate, he made a covert
attack on Frontenac. The Sulpicians disclaimed
responsibility for the sermon, but, the question
of the privileges of their order being raised
they defended him. Fenelon was summoned to
appear before the council at Quebec, which hes-
itated to act, but Fenelon returned to France
and was commanded by the King not to re-
turn to Canada. Consult Parknian, Count
Fronteno.c and New France (Boston, 1877).

FEirELON" FALLS. A town of Victoria
Co., Ontario, Canada, on the Grand Trunk Rail-
way, 16 males north of Lindsay, between Cam-
eron and Sturgeon lakes (Map: Ontario, F 4).
Its name is associated with a picturesque water-
fall 20 feet high and 300 feet wide. The manu-
facturing industries include flour mills, a saw
and shingle mill, planing mills, boat building,
and a woolen mill. The town owns its electric-
light and power plants. It is a summer re-
sdrt. Pop., 1901, 1132; 1911, 1053.

FEN'ESTEL'LA (T,at., little window). A
fossil polyzoan found in rocks of Ordovician to
Permian age and especially abundant in those
of the Devonian and Lower Carboniferous se-
ries. The fragile colonies formed by the animals
are fan -shaped or funnel-form, and when ex-
amined with a lens are seen to consist of radial
branches that diverge from a common rootstock
and that bear on their inner surfaces the mi-
nute cells in which lived the individual animals.
These radial branches are joined by frequent
horizontal threads that give rigidity to the
network. See POLYZOA.

TEBTESTELLA (c.51 B.C.-19 A.D.). A Ro-
man historian. He wrote a work of 22 books,
entitled Amides, from which Plutarch derived
some material for his Lives of distinguished
Romans, and which was used as an authority
by Asconius Pedianus in his commentaries on
Cicero's orations, as well as by Pliny the Elder,
Gellius, and Lactantiua. The few fragments
preserved relate almost exclusively to events
subsequent to the Carthaginian wars. It is
certain that it included the greater part of
Cicero's career. There was much information
on antiquarian matters. The De Sacardotiis ot
Magistrates Romanorum, which was formerly
attributed to Fenestella, was the work of
Fiocchi, a Florentine who lived during the four-
teenth century. The fragments of the Annalcs
are collected in Peter's Historioorum Roma-
norum Fragments (Leipzig, 1883). Consult:
Mercklin, De Fenestella Historioo et Poeta
(Dorpat, 1844) ; Poeth, De Fenestella Historia-
rum Soriptore (Bonn, 1849) ; Peter, Histori-
corum Romanorum, Relliquice, vol. ii (Leipzig,
1906).

FEIT'ESTBA'TIOJN". The arrangement^ spac-
ing, and proportioning of the windows, doors,
and openings generally in the design of a build-
ing. The openings, of whatever character, are
called the voids, as distinguished from the
solids of walls and piers. Upon the fenestration
depends in large measure the style and char-
acter of an architectural design, especially in
its exterior aspect. In the warm southern
climes the openings are relatively small and
widely spaced; in cooler regions they are large
and more closely spaced. Massive 'walls with
infrequent openings produce an impression of
dignity and solidity; greater richness is possible
with larger openings and lighter masonry: com-
pare the smiling palaces of Venice, with their

grouped windows, with the sober and austere
Strozzi Palace at Florence. Certain styles em-
ploy particular types of fenestration, as is ex-
emplified by the pointed-arched, tracer ied win-
dows of the Gothic styles, the round-arched
openings of the Romanesque, Roman, Byzan-
tine, and Renaissance styles, the horseshoe
arches of the Moorish styles, and the four-centred
arches of Persia. The Roman and Renais-
sance styles also used the rectangular form,
framed in an architrave (q.v.) and often capped
with a cornice or pediment. In monumental
design generally, the openings are superposed
— "void over void, solid over solid" — and sym-
metrically spaced with reference to a central
opening on the axis or median line of a
fagade; but in less formal and more pictur-
esque design, as in country houses, this rule is
not necessarily followed. See WINDOW; ABCHI-

TECTTTEE.

FEM-GKHTTAH-a (fung'hwang') CHE3STG.
A town of southern Manchuria about 45 miles
northwest of Antung. Here the Japanese re-
pulsed a Chinese assault Dec. 13-14, 1804. The
town was occupied by the Japanese under Ku-
roki, May 6, 1904, in the pursuit of the Rus-
sians after the battle of the Yalu. See RUSSO-
JAPANESE WAS.

FEOfflAW SOCIETY. A political associa-
tion of Irish and Irish-Americans, the object of
which was the emancipation of Ireland from
British rule and the establishment of a repub-
lic. It has been said that the movement origi-
nated in America and was transplanted to Ire-
land; but, as a matter of fact, the plans for
both the Irish and American organizations were
drawn in Paris by a small group of the Irish
revolutionary exiles of 1848.

The Irish Society was organized by the ef-
forts of James Stephens, who in 1853 traveled
through Ireland and organized the small cen-
tres of disaffection into a powerful conspiracy.
It was necessarily secret, and known as the
Irish Revolutionary Brotherhood (popularly
called I. R. B.). Its aim was to convert the
people of Ireland into a soldiery capable of
resisting the British army. Stephens himself
was the absolute military head, known as chief
organizer (C. 0.)- He was assisted by four
executive officers (one for each Irish province),
known as "V's" (vice organizers) and chosen
by himself. The "V's" selected "A's" (colonels),
who in turn selected "B's" (captains) to
choose and drill the "C's" (privates), who were
all able-bodied men capable of bearing arms.
The political programme of the Brotherhood
contemplated the establishment, of an inde->
pendent republic based on universal suffrage
and peasant proprietorship of the land. The
possessions of hostile landlords were to be con-
fiscated, and optional purchase was to be made
at fair prices in other cases. Church property
was to be confiscated, and the clergy were to be
paid by the state. All religions were to be
alike before the law.

The American society was organized at the
same time by John O'Mahoney, according to
the arrangements made in Paris, but did not
obtain a really good footing until the arrival
of Stephens in 1858. Its principal object was
to supply money and arms to the Irish branch.
In America the ability to bear arms was not
a necessary qualification for membership. At
the head was O'Mahoney, called the head cen-
tre, who > appointed his own central, treasurer,

EENIAN SOCIETY

457

FENN

assistant treasurer, and central secretaries. He
also commissioned State centres, on the rec-
ommendation of delegates from circles. The
State centres commissioned district centres, who
in their turn organized circles (local associa-
tions). The membership dues were nominal,
but the society received large sums as volun-
tary contributions. The Fenian convention,
which met in Chicago in October, 1863, made
the constitution of the society more democratic
by making the office of head centre elective.
The growth of the Fenian Society was very rapid.
The American branch quickly spread into Can-
ada, and the Irish branch into western Eng-
land and Scotland. The funeral of Terence Mc-
Manus, an exile of 1848, TV ho died in San Fran-
cisco, gave occasion for demonstrations of
mourning in America and Ireland which greatly
increased the number of Fenians. Two news-
papers, the Phoenix in New York and the Irish
People in Dublin, were the official organs of the
society. The effort of the Fenians to win over
Irish soldiers in the British army is claimed
to have been successful, but this is denied. Be-
ing a secret society in Ireland, it necessarily
fell under the ban of the Catholic hierarchy,
although the lower clergy sympathized with
and in some cases participated in the movement.
In America the clergy were divided in sentiment.

The Civil War in the United States gave the
Fenians a great opportunity to obtain military
training. A large part of the Irish soldiers
engaged on both sides in the struggle were Fe-
nians, and at the end of the war there was a
formidable number of trained soldiers ready to
fight for Ireland. It was believed in Irish
circles that a definite understanding existed
between the Federal government and the head
centre to the effect that after the war in Amer-
ica was ended the Fenians should receive ma-
terial assistance. When the American officers
went to Ireland to assist in drilling and lead-
ing the expected recruits, they found the or-
ganization not sufficiently advanced for active
military measures.

Meanwhile the British government had kept
itself informed of the movement by the aid of
informers and spies. In 1805-66 it suppressed
the Irish People, suspended the habeas corpus
act, and caused several leaders of the Brother-
hood to be sentenced to terms of penal servi-
tude. Stephens escaped from prison and fled
to America, whoro he was joyfully received by
tho American branch and made head centre.
But the failure of the rising in Ireland and
the uncertain fate of the Irish-Americans who
were confined in British prisons caused dis-
sensions, and he was deposed. At a convention
hold in Cincinnati, in September, 1865, Will-
iam P. Roberts was chosen to succeed Stephens,
a constitution similar to that of the United
States was adopted for tho projected Irish
Republic, and preparations were begun for the
invasion of Canada. A proposed expedition of
10,000 men resulted in 500 men crossing the
Canadian border from New York and Vermont
in 1866. They defeated the Canadian militia,
but had to return to the United States on ac-
count of the failure of tho organization to pro-
vide them with reinforcements and supplies.
Their leaders were arrested by the American
authorities. A daring attempt to seize the arms
and ammunition stored in Chester Castle and
convey them by ship to Ireland was thwarted
in 1867. The general uprising in Ireland which
VOL. VIII.— 30

was to follow the seizure was suppressed at
every point. The rescue of two leaders by a
band of Manchester Fenians resulted in the
death of a police officer, for which three of
the rescuers were hanged. The demolition of
the wall of Clerkenwell prison and various
Fenian threats threw the British authorities
into a state of great alarm. Another attempt
to raid Canada was suppressed by the United
States government in 1871. This was the last
effort of the Fenians.

Tho cause of the repeated failures of the Fe-
nians is to be found in the fact that they had
no real leaders. Stephens was a model organ-
izer, but not a man of action. O'Mahoney was
loyal to the order, but not a man of ability.
There were endless dissensions among the lead-
ers in both countries, besides much corruption,
especially in the American branch. The dual
organization in Ireland and America prevented
harmony of action. But although they failed
in their immediate object, their attempted up-
rising tended to convince English statesmen
that it would be better to grant proposed re-
forms in Ireland than to be constantly engaged
in suppressing revolts.

The name has been the subject of much dis-
cussion. O'Mahonev, who was a student of Old
Irish lore, gave the name Fenian to the so-
ciety. This name he derived from Fionna
Eirinn^ an ancient military organization which
Existed in Ireland, taking its name from Finn,
the celebrated hero of Irish legend. Officially
the name "Fenian" applied to the American
brancli only, but in the mind of the public it
became connected with the entire movement.
At first the Irish branch was popularly known
as the Phoenix Society, owing to the aid Ste-
phens received from the Phoenix Club, especially
in counties Kerry and Cork. This club was
suppressed by the government in 1858. The
real name of the Irish branch was, as before
stated, the Irish Revolutionary Brotherhood.
Consult J. Gibbons, Proceedings of the First
National Fenian Convention Held at Chicago,
1863 (Philadelphia, 1863), and The Government
Proceedings against Fenianism (London, 1865).
The most detailed account of the movement is
J. "Rutherford, Secret History of the Fenian
Conspiracy (2 vols., London, 1877), partisan
English; A. M. Sullivan, New Ireland (Phil-
adelphia, 1878), chaps, xyii-xxv, is partisan
Irish, as is J. Savage, Fenian Martyrs and He-
roes (Boston, 1864), the author of which was
himself a Fenian. A good brief account of the
movement, Irish in sympathy, is to be found
in Justin McCarthy, Ireland since the Union
(London, 1877), chaps, xiv-xvii. Macdonald,
Troublous Times in Canada (Toronto, 1010), is
the best account of the Fenian operations
against Canada,

PENIN, fe-naw', PIEBBE DE (?-1506). A
French chronicler, born in Artois. His chron-
icle was for a long time attributed to his father,
another Pierre, who died in 1433. It consists
of an account of the rivalry between the Ar-
magnacs and the Bourguignons, from the mur-
der of the Duke of Orleans (1407) to 1427. The
second part is not in the old editions. It de*
scribos the first five years of the reign of Charles
VII. The best modern edition of the Memowes
de Fenw is that by Mademoiselle Dupont
(1837).

FE3OT, GEORGE MANYILLE (1831-1909). An
English journalist and author, born at West-

45$

FENNEL

minster. He was early a contributor to Cham-
lers3 Journal j the Star, and Once a, Week; be-
came editor of Cassell's Magazine in 1870, and
proprietor of Once a Week in 1873. He made
himself known as the writer of a very exten-
sive list of boys' stories, which have been cir-
culated in many countries and have proved
quite as popular in the United States as in Eng-
land. Among these may be named : Fi® Bay'nets
(1899); Charge: A Story of Briton and Boer
(1900); Stan Lynn: A. Boy's Adventures in
China (1902). In 1887 he produced a play,
The Barrister, and in 1888 another, The Bal-
loon. His publications include also several nov-
els, such as A Crimson Crime (1899) and The
Cankemcorm (1901).

PENN, HARBY (1838-1911). An American
illustrator and aquarellist, born in Richmond
(Surrey). He removed to the United States in
1857, lived there continuously after the early
eighties, and was one of the founders of the
American Water Color Society, where he exhib-
ited annually. He was an able draftsman and
was the suggester and chief illustrator of the
publication Picturesque America (1872-74),
which was epoch-making in the history of black
and white illustration. He also contributed to
Picturesque Europe, Picturesque Palestine, and
Egypt and Sinai; furnished the well-known il-
lustrations for Whittier's Snow-Bound, and
worked for the leading magazines, especially
Harper's and the Century. His drawings are
spirited, of exquisite finish, and reveal delicate
qualities of perception and feeling for nature.
He was a lecturer on Oriental subjects, and re-
ceived a gold medal at the Chicago World's
Fair in 1893.

PENN, WILLIAM WALLACE (1862- ).
An American, theologian, born in Boston. He
graduated from Harvard University in 1884
(A.M.; R.T.B., 1887), and, entering the minis-
try of the Unitarian church, he held pastor-
ates in Pittsfield, Mass. (1887-91) and Chicago
(1891-1901). He was also lecturer on biblical
literature at the Meadville Theological School
(1892-1901, 1905-07) and preacher to Harvard
(1896-98, 1902-05), and he became professor of
systematic theology in Harvard Divinity School
(1901) and dean (1906). He is author of Les-
sons on Luke (1890) ; Lessons on Acts (1894) -,
The Flowering of the Hebrew Religion (1894) ;
Lessons on Psalms (1900).

FENITEC (from Ar. fanaba, to remain in a
place), or ZERDA. The smallest of the canine
tribe — a pretty little foxlike animal (Canis, or
Fennecus, sserda) of the Sahara. It is about 15
inches long, besides the tail, which is nearly 7
inches in length and bushy like that of a fox.
The general color is pale rufous cream, harmo-
nizing with the desert sands; the breast* inside
of the ears, and eyelids are white, and the tail
is tipped with black. The erect ears are of
enormous size— each as large as the face, giv-
ing a quaint air of intense alertness to the
graceful little creature. It digs with remark-
able speed a burrow in the sand, often escaping
pursuit by fairly diving into the ground; and
in its burrow, which is furnished with soft bed-
ding and is remarkably clean, it sleeps most
of the day, going abroad at dusk to steal cau-
tiously to some drinking place and then to seek
its prey, which consists of mice, small birds,
lizards, insects, etc. The name is sometimes ex-
tended to related African species, such as Rtlp-
pelTs fennec (Canis famelicus), the pale fox

(Canis pallidus), and the asse (Canis chama)
of the Transvaal. See Plate of FOXES AND
JACKALS.

PEN'NEIi (AS. fenol, from Lat. fczniculum,
fennel, diminutive of foenum, fcsnum, hay),
Faeniculum. A genus of umbelliferous plants
allied to dill (q.v). The flowers are yellow.
All the species are aromatic and have much-
divided leaves with threadlike segments. The
best known is common fennel (Faeniculum vul-
gare), a native of the south of Europe. It is
a biennial, 3 or 4 feet tall, cultivated in many
gardens in both Europe and America, chiefly
for the sake of its leaves, which are used for
flavoring, but also for its aromatic seeds. Flor-
ence fennel, sweet fennel, Italian fennel, or
Cretan fennel (Fasniculum dulce) is of lower
growth, much cultivated in the south of Eu-
rope. The enlarged bases of its leafstalks, after
being bleached like celery, are boiled and served
with drawn butter like cauliflower. The fruit
(seed) is longer and paler than that of com-
mon fennel, has a more agreeable odor and
flavor, is the favorite aromatic condiment of the
Italians, and is used in medicine. Oil of fen-

(Fcsniculum rofcore).

Del, an aromatic, stimulant, and carminative
essential oil, is also made from it. Cape fen-
nel (FoynAculum^ capense, or Carum capense),
found in the vicinity of the Cape of Good Hope,
has a thick, aromatic esculent root. The Pan-
muhpree of India (Faenieulum panmorium) is a
species of fennel much cultivated in its native
country for its sweet, warm, and aromatic fruit>
which is much used as a carminative and in
curries. The "giant fennel" of the south of
Europe is a plant of a different genus (Ferula)
and abounds in a foetid juice. It is, indeed,
closely allied to asafoetid*. The species men-
tioned above, except Fceniculum oapense, have
recently been combined under the name F&nicu-
fam vulgare. The plant called "fennel flower"
is Nigella damasoena. Dog fennel is Anthemus
cotula and flupatoriwn capilUfoliwn, both of
which belong to the family composite.

459

FE1OTEL PLOWER. See NIGELLA.
_ FENITCEIiIi, JAMES (1766-1816). An Eng-
lish actor and writer, who went to America in
1793. He was born in London and was edu-
cated at Eton and Cambridge, but his extrav-
agant habits ended his university career, and
he undertook to support himself upon the
stage. His first appearance was in Edinburgh,
in 1787, as Othello, which remained a favor-
ite rOle. In 1793 an invitation to play in Phil-
adelphia brought him to the United States. For
several years he acted successfully in the chief
American cities, but his last years were spent
in poverty and obscurity. Consult his Apology
for the Life of James Fennell (Philadelphia,
1814).

FEN'OLLO'SA, EHNEST FBANOISCO (1853-
1908). An American Orientalist and educator.
He was born at Salem, Mass., and graduated
from Harvard University in 1874. Removing
to Japan in 1878, he was (between 1880 and
1886) professor of philosophy and political
economy and of philosophy and logic in the
University of Tokyo; became professor of
aesthetics and manager of the Tokyo Fine Arts
Academy; and for a time was Imperial fine-
arts commissioner and manager of the Impe-
rial Museum of Tokyo. He returned to the
United States in 1890 and was for six years
curator of the Oriental department of the Bos-
ton Museum of Fine Arts. In 1897 he ac-
cepted the professorship of English literature at
the Imperial Normal School at Tokyo. In 1800
he was decorated by the Mikado with the thiid-
class Rising Sun and with the third-class
Sacred Mirror. He is author of East and West :
The Discovery of America, and Other Poems
(1893); An Outline History of the UJtiyos-ye
(1901); Epochs of Chinese and Japanese Art
(2 vols., 1911; 2d ed., 1912).

EEMyBIB (Icelandic, probably connected with
fen, quagmire, swamp, sea; cf. Eng., fen). In
Norse mythology, the off-spring of Loki (the evil
genius) and Angurboda (anguish-boding), a
giantess from Jotunheim. Loki had a legiti-
mate wife, Sigyn; but by Angurboda he became
the father of three monsters: (1) the wolf
Fenrir; (2) the Midgard Serpent; (3) Hel, the
Goddess of Death. Fenrir was bred among the
gods, but only Tyr had the courage to give
him food. When the gods saw how much he
increased daily and remembered that the pre-
dictions were that he was destined to be their
destruction, they endeavored to chain him. But
he easily broke the first two chains. Then they
made a third, Gleipnir, composed of the
sound of a cat's- footsteps, a woman's beard,
the roots of a mountain, a fish's breath, and a
bird's spittle. Fenrir suspected some trick in
this, and was unwilling to be bound unless one
of the gods should place his hand in the wolf's
mouth as a pledge of good faith. Finally Tvr
consented to do this, and the wolf in his vain
struggles to break the chain bit off Tyr's hand.
Fenrir could not break the magic chain and
became a captive to the gods, who took him to
the cave Gjtill and put a sword into his jaws.
Out of these flows the river Von. Fenrir will
remain in the cave until RagnarSk (the end of
time) comes. He will then break loose, his up-
per jaw will touch heaven, his nether jaw the
earth; fire will blaze from his eyes and nos-
trils. IB the tremendous tumult which precedes
the general dissolution the wolf will swallow
Odin (father of gods) and 90 cause his death.

But at the moment will come Yidar, the silent
god, who wears a wonderful shoe made from
shoe parings since time began. With that shoe
he will hold down Fenrir's lower jaw and with
his hands tear off the upper jaw, and thus will
the monster wolf be slain. According to VQluspa,
from Eenrir are descended Skoll and Hati, the
monsters that are to devour the sun and moon;
elsewhere in the Edda Fenrir himself is spoken
of as the devourer of the sun. See SCANDINA-
VIAN AND TEUTONIC MYTHOLOGY.

ITEN'TON*. See STOKE-UPON-TBEOT.

FENTON, ELIJAH (1683-1730). An English
poet, born at Shelton, Staffordshire. He studied
at Jesus College, Cambridge, and became sec-
retary to the Earl of Orrery in Flanders. Sub-
sequently he was head master of the grammar
school at Sevenoaks (Kent), instructor in lit-
erature to Craggs, the Secretary of State, and
tutor to Lord Broghill, son of the Earl of Or-
rery. With Broome he assisted Pope in the
latter's translation of the Odyssey, executing
the first, fourth, nineteenth, and twentieth
books in so clever an imitation of Pope's man-
ner that his share cannot be distinguished by
any internal test. He wrote a tragedy, Mar-
iamne, presented in 1723, and published a col-
lection of poems (1707), and editions of Mil-
ton, and of Edmund Waller (1729). Consult
W. W. Lloyd, Elijah Fenton; His Poetry and
Friends (1804).

FEWTON, FEERAB (1832- ). An Eng-
lish Orientalist, born in Waltham, Lincolnshire.
He early became a proficient linguist and led a
remarkable life, being at one time a factory
operative and at another one of the origina-
tors of the De Beers Company, the South Afri-
can Diamond Mines monopoly. Beginning with
1884, when he published St. Paul's Epistles vn
Modern English, he brought out from time to
time versions of different parts of the Bible
"in modern English."

EENTON, REUBEN EATON (1819-85). An
American politician. He was born at Carroll,
N. Y., studied law, was admitted to the bar in
1841, and practiced for a time at Jamestown,
N. Y., but afterward gave up the profession of
law and became a merchant. He was a Repre-
sentative in Congress in 1853-55 and in 1857-
65, and was then Governor of New York until
1869, serving two terms. During the Civil
War he was a stanch supporter of the war
measures of Lincoln and his cabinet. He was
a United States Senator from 1869 to 1875
and in 1878 was chairman of the United States
Commission at the International Monetary
Conference at Paris.

FENTTGBEEX (AS. fenogrecum, from Lat.
fcBnum Gr&cum, Greek hay), Trigonella,. A
genus of plants of the family Leguminosse, al-
lied to clover and melilot. The leaves have
three obovate leaflets and scythe-shaped stip-
ules. The flowers generally have the keel very
small so that the wings and standard present
the appearance of tnpetalous corolla. The
common fenugreek (Trigonella fcewumrgrasvum)
is an annual, native of eastern Europe and
western Asia, naturalized in the Mediterranean
region, where, as in India, it has long been
cultivated as a fodder plant and for its strong-
smelling, oily seed, which is used in Egypt and
the East in bread and curry powder. In medi-
cine it is now used only in external applica-
tions, but is 'employed in veterinary practice as
an ingredient in condition powders. It is the

FENWICK

460

FEOXTKENT

common flavoring substance of patent stock
foods, which owe their strong, not unpleasant,
odor to it.

PEN'WICK, GEOBGE (c.1603-57). An Eng-
lish parliamentary leader and colonist in
America. He studied law, was called to the
bar at Gray's Inn in 1631, and became one of
the patentees of the Connecticut Colony in
1635, visiting Boston in the following year. In
1639 he removed with his family to Saybrook,
Conn., where he represented the patentees and
held the office of Governor until 1644. In 1645
he disposed of most of his property at Saybrook
and returned to England, where in the same
year he was chosen to the Long Parliament
from Morpeth. He served in the Civil War as
a colonel of militia and became Governor of
Berwick after its fall in 1648. He was one of
the parliamentary commissioners for the King's
trial, but did not act. He was with Cromwell
in his invasion of Scotland in 1650 and, after
serving as Governor of Edinburgh Castle, be-
came in 1651 one of the commissioners for the
government of Scotland. He was a member of
the parliaments of 1654 and 1656 from Ber-
wick.

FENWICK, or 3TENWICKE, JOHN (1618-
84). An English Quaker colonist in New Jer-
sey. Acting in conjunction with, or as a trus-
tee for, Edward Byllynge (q.v.), he bought for
£1000 the interest of Lord Berkeley in the
Province of New Jersey, in March, 1673, and
two years later led the company of Quakers
which emigrated from England in the ship
Griffin and founded Salem, N. J., the first Eng-
lish settlement in West Jersey. He and Byllynge
soon became involved in a dispute over the ex-
tent of their respective shares in the purchase,
but an adjustment was made by William Penn,
who was called in as arbitrator, and who awarded
one-tenth of the territory to Fenwick and the
remainder to Byllynge. Fenwick, however, soon
executed a contingent lease for 1000 years
to John Eldridge and Edward Warner, and the
property eventually passed out of his hands.
After his arrival at Salem a controversy arose
between him and Governor Andros of New
York over the question of jurisdiction, and late
in 1676 he was arrested, taken to New York,
and forced to give his parole that he would
not assume any authority on the east side of
the Delaware Kiver until regularly authorized
to do so by Andros or the Duke of York. Con-
sult Narratives of Early Pennsylvania, West
Neio Jersey, and Delaware, ed. by A. C. Mvers
(New York, 1912).

FENWICK, SIB JOHN (c.1645-97). An Eng-
lish conspirator, the eldest son of Sir William
Fenwick, of Wellington Castle. He served in
the army and was advanced to the rank of
major general in 1688. From 1677 to 1687 he
served in Parliament. Tt was he who brought
up the bill of attainder against the Duke of
Monmouth in 1685, After the accession of Will-
iam III, for whom he had a personal dislike —
due, says Macaulay, to a reprimand from the
Prince of Orange — he remained an ardent Jac-
obite and was involved in numerous plots
against the King. He entered into the conspi-
racy known as the Assassination Plot (1695)
and in the following year was arrested and
committed to the Tower. His family connec-
tions and political backing might have brought
him a pardon, had he not tried to implicate
Marlborougl), GodolpMn, Shrewsbury, and

other Whig leaders. A bill of attainder was
passed against him, with a very small margin
of votes to spare. He was beheaded on Tower
Hill on Jan. 28, 1697, being the last person
executed in England in consequence of attainder.
FfiJTYES, fa'nySsh, ALEXIUS (1807-76). A
Hungarian geographer and statistician. He
was born at Csokaly (County of Bihar) and
was educated at Grosswardein and Pressburg.
After spending two years at Budapest and in
European travel, he succeeded in collecting re-
liable data for his standard geographical and
statistical works on Hungary. In 1835 he be-
came permanently established at Budapest,
where his principal works were written. These
include a voluminous historical and geographi-
cal report on the contemporaneous conditions of
Hungary (1836-39), for which work 200 ducats
were awarded by the Learned Society of Hun-
gary; Magyarorsztig StatistiJcdja (2d ed.,
1844); and a school atlas of Hungary. In
1848 F£nyes was appointed chief of statistics
in the Ministry of the Interior.

FEODOB, fa'a-dOr, FEODOBOVITCH. See BEBG,
FBIEDRICH WILHELM REMBEBT.
FEODOSIA. See KAFFA.
EEOFPMENT, fef'ment (OF. feoffement,
from feoffer, fieffer, feffcr, to enfeoff, from fief,
ficn, fen, fied, fee, from ML. feudum, property
held in fee, from OHG. fihu, Ger. VieTi, AS. feoh,
(iotli. faihu, cattle; connected with Lat. pecus,
Skt. pasu, cattle). The oldest, and for a long
period the only, method for the conveyance of
freehold land known in England. It was a
ceremonial mode of conveyance which rested
upon and was derived from the primitive notion
that an actual physical transfer of possession
is essential to the transfer of title. It con-
sisted in the formal conveyance of the land from
the feoffor to the feoffee, the former stating dis-
tinctly the measure of the estate conferred,
whether it was in fee, in tail, or for life. This
conveyance of the land, in order to be complete,
required to be accompanied by livery of seisin
("delivery of possession").

Livery of seisin was of two kinds — by deed
and in law. In the former case, the parties being
actually upon the land, the feoffor, usually by
delivery of a twig or a turf, testified his con-
veyance of the land. In livery in law, the par-
ties being in sight of the land, the feoffor, refer-
ring to the land, gave possession to the feoffee
by indicating or describing the parcel to be
conveyed. This mode of making livery was
ineffectual unless the feoffee entered into pos-
session during the life of the feoffor. Livery in
deed might be effected by attorney, but livery
in law only by the parties themselves. In the
earliest times these ceremonies completed the
conveyance. But by degrees the practice of em-
bodying tha transaction in a deed was intro-
duced. When a deocl was used, it was custom-
ary to indorse on fhe deed the fact that livery
of seisin had boon made. But it was still the
livery and not the deed which effected the con-
veyance. By the Statute of Frauds (29 Car.
II, c. 3) it was declared that no estate created
by livery of seisin, unless accompanied by a
writing signed by the party or his agent, should
be of any effect, except as an estate at will, and
by 8 and 9 Viet., c. 106, 3, a feoffment is void
unless accompanied by deed.

The law formerly gave so great an effect to
a feoffment that even when the party oaten*
sibly making the conveyance was not lawfully

ITEIL2E ±\

seised of the estate, the feoffment was sus-
tained. This was called a tortious conveyance;
the party in whose favor it was made was said
to have acquired an estate by wrong, the right-
ful owner was disseised, and was left to his
right of entry (q.v.). But by the statute last
mentioned this tortious effect of a feoffment
was destroyed. The practice of feoffment above
described, and which has existed in England
from time immemorial, differed materially from
the old form of investiture in use in strictly
feudal times and from that which still prevails
in Scotland. In England the transaction was
simply a conveyance by the actual holder of
the land to a new tenant, attended by certain
ceremonies, but requiring no confirmation by a
third party to complete it. But by feudal usage
every holder of land was the vassal of some
superior lord, to whom he owed suit and serv-
ice and without whose consent he could not
part with his land; hence no conveyance was
complete without the reception of a new tenant
by the lord paramount as his vassal. In like
manner, to this day, in Scotland, no transfer of
a heritage is complete without formal confirma-
tion by the superior; and although by recent
legislation the old feudal usages have been
abolished, yet the fact of acceptance by the su-
perior, and the performance of the pecuniary
services attendant on that acceptance, are still
preserved. See CONVEYANCE; FEE; FEUDALISM.

PEIl-aS (Lat. nom. pi., wild). In the Lin-
nacan system of zoology, an order of mammals
including nearly all of the modern order Garni v-
ora, plus several genera now ranked under the
Insectivora and Marsupialia. In modern zool-
ogy the term IB little used.

EE^jffl MTATtnELffi (Lat., animals of "wild
nature"). In law, animals of wild nature and
habits, in contradistinction to domesticated ani-
mals. At common law, they are not the sub-
jects of absolute property, and persons having
them in possession are bound at their peril to
keep them from doing harm. A qualified prop-
erty in them may be gained by taming or confin-
ing them, or by reason of owning the land on
which are their habitual resorts, or by reason of
their inability to wander from such land, or by
reason of an exclusive legal privilege of hunting,
taking, and killing them. Even in such cases, if
the animals escape from the posssession of the
qualified owner or from his land, and are thus at
liberty in accordance with their wild nature and
habits, the qualified property ceases, and any
stranger may take them without incurring any
liability to the possessor. In accordance with
this doctrine it is held that, if a swarm of bees
fly from the owner's land, they remain in his
possession so long as he keeps them in sight and
is able to possess them; but if they escape from
his pursuit and light upon the land of another,
the latter may hive and keep them. • It is also
held that a landowner has a qualified property
in a swarm of wild bees in his woods, and a
stranger can acquire no title to them by finding
and taking them there without such owner's con-
sent. Wild animals once in captivity do not
regain their natural liberty so as to become sub-
ject to capture in case they have become so far
domesticated as to have formed the habit of
returning.

The liability of a person who has in his pos-
session animals feres natures is virtually that
of an insurer of -the safety of others against
harm from such animals: It has bean held, there-

fore, that one who keeps an elephant does so at
his own risk, and an action can be maintained
for an injury done by it, although the owner
had no knowledge of its mischievous propensities.
Consult: the Commentaries of Blackstone and
Kent; also Darlington, On Personal Property
(Philadelphia, 1891) ; Schouler, Treatise on the
Law of Personal Property (3d ed., Boston, 1890).
FEBA3COBZ, fSi-'a-mOrz. The young poet in
Moore's Lalla Rookh (q.v.).

PfiBATTD-GHBATTD, faW-zh^W, Lotus JO-
SEPH DBLPHIN (1819- ). A French jurist,
born at Marseilles. He studied at the Univer-
sity of Aix, and became a judge in that city in
1851. In 1878 he was appointed a councilor of
the Court of Cassation. He published several
legal works, including: Servitudes tie voirie

(1850-52) ; Traite de la grande voirie et de la
voirie urlavne (1865); Occupation militaire

(1881) ; Code des mines et des mineurs (1887) ;
Etats et souverains (1895) ; Traite des voies ru-
rales publiques et privies et servitudes rurales
de passage enclaues (1896).

EEB-DE-LANCE, far^laNs' (Fr., iron of
the lance) . A tropical American venomous snake

(LacJiesis lanceolatus) of extraordinary viru-
lence. It is a pit viper, or crotalid, of the sub-
family Lachesinae, and hence closely related to
the northern copperhead, the bushmaster (qq.v.),
and others of South America and Indo-Malaysia.
It resembles a rattlesnake, but has a tapering
tail ending in a hard point (hence one name is
"rat-tailed viper"), not rattle; reaches a length
of 7 feet, and is reddish-yellow brown, marked
with a black stripe from the eye to the neck, and
irregular dark crossbands; sometimes the sides
are bright red. It inhabits nearly all South and
Central America and is everywhere dangerously
abundant, being remarkable fecund. It is greatly
dreaded, especially at night, when it wanders
about. During the day it lies coiled in the fields
and roadside herbage and, unlike almost all
other snakes, will attack without warning or
waiting for disturbance. Its bite is very likely
to prove fatal, and even when the patient re-
covers it produces long-continued aftereffects.
The snake is of service, on the other hand, in
keeping down rats, etc., destructive to sugar cane.
It is most conspicuous in the French Antilles,
where aloue it is known by this name. Its intro-
duction to the islands of the mongoose (q.v.), in
the hope that it might thus be exterminated, has
proved useless. The beat account of the fer-de-
lance is that by Kuz, EnquGte sur le serpent de
la Martinique (Paris, 1859). Consult also
Gadow, Amphibia and Reptiles (London, 1901),
and Ditmars, Reptiles of the World (New York,
1910).

FERTONAND I (1503-64). Holy Roman
Emperor from 1556 to 1564. He was born at
Alcala, Spain, March 10, 1503, and was the
second son of Philip the Handsome of Austria'
and of Joanna the Mad (daughter of Ferdinand
V of Aragon and Isabella of Castile and Leon),
and was consequently the younger brother of
Charles V of Germany (Charles I of Spain) , who
soon after his accession to the Imperial throne
transferred the hereditary Austrian possessions
of the Hapsburgs to Ferdinand. In 1521 he
Carried Anna, sister of King Louis II of Hun-
gary and Bohemia. When Louis fell at Mohacs
in 1526 in battle with the Turks, leaving no
issue, the crown of Hungary wa» claimed by
Ferdinand in right of Ma wife, and some of the

FERDINAND II

462

FERDINAND II

nobles chose him King. He was at the same time
placed by election upon the Bohemian throne. In
Hungary Ferdinand became involved in a long
struggle with a rival, John Zfipolya, the Voi-
vode of Transylvania, who laid claim to Hun-
gary, and who was supported by the Turks. The
question was at last settled in 1538 by a division
of the kingdom between the rivals, the title of
King being given to Zupolya, but with the un-
derstanding that the Austrian line should have
the succession to the whole. But in 1540, at the
death of John Zapolya, the agreement was not
kept, and the Turks carried on the war on behalf
of his son Sigismund, while they themselves ap-
propriated a large part of the kingdom. In 1547
peace was purchased by means of a yearly
tribute to the Turks, but the war was again
renewed in 1552 and ended in the retention of
their conquests by the Turks. Meanwhile Ferdi-
nand had acted aa regent in Germany during the
frequent absences of Charles V and in 1531 had
been chosen King of the Romans. In 1552 he
acted as mediator between Charles V and Mau-
rice, Elector of Saxony, and concluded the Peace
of Passau with the Protestants, and in 1555 he
was chiefly instrumental in bringing about the
religious Peace of Augsburg. In 1656, on the
abdication of Charles V, Ferdinand mounted
the Imperial throne. The concessions lie had
made to the Protestants caused Pope Paul IV
to refuse to acknowledge him. His successor,
Pius IV, was more complaisant; but the Electors
resolved that for the future the consent of the
Pope should not be asked; and this was car-
ried out. Ferdinand made several attempts to
reconcile the Protestants and Catholics and
urged upon the Council of Trent the ref-
ormation of abuses. He effected institutional
reforms, notably in connection with the Aulic
Council (q.v.), and he reformed the German
currency. He died in 1564, leaving the reputa-
tion of a prudent and enlightened ruler, and was
succeeded by his son, Maximilian II. The most
elaborate work on his reign is F. B. von
Bucholtz, Geschichte der Regierung Ferdinands
L (Vienna, 1831-38). Consult also: K. Ober-
leitner, Oesterreiohs Finawen und Hccrwescn
unter Ferdinand I. (ib., 1859) ; A. Rezek, Ge-
sohichte tier Regierung Ferdinands I. in Bohmen
(Prague, 1878) ; Eosenthal, Die Behordenorgan-
isation Kaiser Ferdinands L (Vienna, 1887) ;
W. Bauer, Die Anfange Ferdinands L (ib.,
1907). See AUSTBIA-HUNGAEY; GERMANY.

FERDINAND II (1578-1637). Holy Roman
Emperor from 1619 to 1637. He was born at
Gratz, July 9, 1578, and was the son of Charles,
Duke of Styria, and grandson of the Emperor
Ferdinand I. His mother, Mary of Bavaria, was
a fervent Catholic, and from her, as well as from
his Jesuit instructors at Ingolstadt, he imbibed
that hatred of Protestantism which is the key-
note to the policy of his reigpn. In 1590 he suc-
ceeded his father in the duchies of Styria, Carin-
thia, and Carniola. As soon as he was of age
he proceeded to stamp out Protestantism in his
dominions by annulling his father's act of tolera-
tion and expelling the Protestant pastors. He
joined with Maximilian of Bavaria in forming
the Catholic League, the ostensible object of
which was the protection of the Roman Catholic •
interests in Germany. In 1617 Ferdinand was
crowned King of Bohemia, while the Emperor
Matthias was still reigning, and the year follow-
ing he was crowned King of Hungary as well.
The Protestants of Bohemia had enjoyed re-

ligious toleration since 1609, but Ferdinand, as
regent of the kingdom, showed little regard for
the rights of his heretical subjects. A dispute
regarding the right of the Protestants to build
new churches precipitated a conflict. All peti-
tions to the Emperor proving vain, the Protes-
tants tinder Count Thurn rose in Prague in May,
1618, invaded the council chamber of the castle,
and threw two members of the Council of Re-
gency, Martinitz and Slavata, out of a lofty
window. They then organized a national govern-
ment, and a Bohemian army under Count Thurn
advanced to the Austrian frontier. This was the
beginning of the Thirty Years' War (q.v.) . The
death of Matthias early in 1619 left the Im-
perial succession open to Ferdinand, but at this
juncture he was besieged in Vienna by the vic-
torious Thurn. The opportune victory of Buc-
quoi over Mansfeld and the approach of a
force under Dampierre caused Thurn to with-
draw, and Ferdinand was able to proceed to
Frankfort and receive the Imperial election,
August, 1619. Two days before his election he
had been deposed in Bohemia and the crown
offered to Frederick V (q.v.), Elector Palatine
of the Rhine. This prince, who was son-in-law
to James I of England, accepted the dignity,
but was ousted from his new dominions by the
army of the Catholic League under Tilly, which
won the battle of the White Mountain, near
Prague, November, 1620.

As soon as his success in Bohemia was as-
sured, Ferdinand proceeded to extirpate Protes-
tantism in that kingdom by the most violent
persecution. In Hungary, however, lie was forced
to grant religious toleration and to recognize
Bcthlen Gabor as ruler of half the kingdom. In
1026 Wallenstein took the field with a vast army
which he had raised for the Emperor, whose main
reliance in the war against the Protestants had
hitherto been the army of the Catholic League,
under Tilly, and the forces of Spain. In 1625
Christian IV of Denmark took up arms for the
German Protestants. The victories of Wallen-
stein and Tilly made the Catholic cause for the
King triumphant, and Denmark was forced to
the Peace of Lubeck in 1629. This was followed
by Ferdinand's Edict of Restitution, which was
to apply to all ecclesiastical property which had
become Protestant since the Peace of Passau
(1552). But the plans of Ferdinand for recon-
verting the Empire to Roman Catholicism were
suddenly checked by the irruption of Gustavus
Adolphus, King of Sweden, in whom the Protes-
tants found a deliverer. He landed in Germany
in 1630, at the moment of the dismissal of Wall-
enstein through jealousy on the part of the
Catholic League. Ferdinand had the mortifica-
tion of seeing the whole of Germany overrun by
the Protestants, and though Gustavus was slain
at Lfitzcn, in 1632, in a great battle against
Wallenstein (who had been reinstated), the
disasters to the Imperial cau&a continued. A
blot on Ferdinand's character was the assassina-
tion of Wallenstein (q.v.) in 1634, to which
there is little doubt the Emperor was privy.
Though the Imperial army was victorious at
Nordlingen in 1634, and the Elector of Saxony
made peace with the Emperor, yet when Ferdi-
nand died., Feb. 15, 1637, he left a heritage of
war to his son, Ferdinand III, who had been
chosen King of the Romans the year previous,
and who had been previously crowned King of
Hungary and Bohemia. Consult Hurter, Q-e-
whirhte Kaiser Ferdinands II. und seiner Eltern

FERDINAND til

463

FERDINAND I

• (Sehaffhausen, 1857-64). See AUSTBIA-HUN-

- GABY; GERMANY.

FERDINAND III (1608-57). Holy Roman
Emperor from 1637 to 1657. He was the son of
Ferdinand II and was born at Gratz, July 13,
1608. In 1625 he was crowned King of Hungary
and in 1627 ol Bohemia as well. After the deatii
of Wallenstein (1034) Prince Ferdinand was
placed in nominal command of the Imperial
forces, and in the same year, seconded by
Gallas, he gained a great victory at NO'rdlingcn
over the Swedes and their allies. In 1030 he
was crowned King of the Romans and the next
year succeeded his father as Emperor. Political
reasons forced Ferdinand to continue the war,
in which the French had become important
factors, but in 1648, after negotiations extending
over many years, the Peace of Westphalia (q.v.)
put an end to the Thirty Years' War. In the
Diet of that year, the last presided over by an
emperor in person, Ferdinand effected important
alterations in the administration of justice. He
died April 2, 1657, shortly after concluding an
alliance with Poland against Sweden. His son,
Leopold I, succeeded him in the Empire as well
as in the Austrian possessions and Hungary.
Consult Koch, Q-eschichte dea deutschen Reiohs
unter Ferdinand III. (Vienna, 1865-66). See
AUSTRIA-EUNGABY; GEBMANY; TniETY YEARS*
WAB.

FERDINAND I, surnamed THE JUST (1379-
1410). King of Aragon from 1412 to 1416. He
was the younger son of John I of Castile and
Leonora of Aragon. On the death of his elder
brother, Henry III, in 1406, he refused the crown
of Castile, but undertook the office of regent
during the minority of his nephew, John II. In
this capacity lie distinguished himself by his
prudent administration of home affairs and by
his victories over the Moors by land and sea.
He took the title de Antequcra on the surrender
of that fortress after a siege of five months
(1410). On the death of his maternal uncle,
King Martin of Aragon and Sicily, in 1410, hia
claims to the throne, though not derived through
the usual laws of descent, were taken up and
keenly pressed by a powerful party in the state.
The question of the succession was ultimately re-
ferred to a committee of nine judges, equally
representing Catalonia, Valencia, and Aragon,
and the result was his election by a majority in
1412. After he had defeated Count Jacme of
Urgel, the last and most formidable of his rivals,
he was formally crowned at Saragossa in 1414.
He died April 2, 1416, at Igualada, and was suc-
ceeded by his son, Alfonso V. Consult Burke,
History of Spain, yol. i (New York, 1904), and
Altamira, Historic* de Espana, vol. i (Barcelona,
1900).

FERDINAND H. King of Aragon. See
FERDINAND V OF CASTILE.

FERDINAND I, Ger. pron. feVdS-nant
(1793-1875). Emperor of Austria from 1835
,to 1848. He was the eldest son of Francis
I by his marriage with Maria Theresa, of the
house of Naples, and was born in Vienna, April
19, 1793. While Crown Prince, he traveled
through the Italian provinces of Austria, Switzer-
land, and part of France, and, showed great in-
terest in the various branches of industry.
In 1830 he was crowned King of Hungary, and
in 1831 married Anna, the daughter of victor
Emmanuel I, King of Sardinia. An unsuccess-
ful attempt to assassinate him was made by
a Captain Reinol in 1832. In 1835 he succeeded

his father on the throne. It was expected that
he would inaugurate a more liberal policy than
that of his predecessors; but the absolutist prin-
ciples triumphed, and Metternich was allowed to
carry on the government. A council of state
was formed, and reactionary measures continued.
Industrial and commercial activity was encour-
aged, however, and the term of military service
reduced from 14 to 8 years. In 1846 advantage
was taken of the insurrection in Galicia to
annex Cracow to Austria. In March, 1848,
Vienna became the scene of a revolutionary out-
break (see AusTBiA-HuNGABY), and the Em-
peror was forced to dismiss Metternich, who
fled from Vienna, and to appoint a responsible
ministry. Simultaneously a revolutionary move-
ment at Pesth secured the appointment of a
national Hungarian ministry. In May Ferdi-
nand retired with his court to Innsbruck, but
was induced to return to the capital in August,
when the turmoil had subsided. But the October
insurrection in Vienna made him again leave
the palace of Schonbrunn and retire to Olmiitz,
where, on Dee. 2, 1848, he abdicated in favor
of his nephew, Francis Joseph. He afterward
resided at Prague, where he died June 29, 1875.
Consult Stiles, Austria in 1848-J/9 (New York,
1852), from Kossuth's point of view.
FERDINAND I, KING OP BULGABIA (1861-
). He was born in Vienna, the youngest
son of Prince Augustus of Saxe-Coburg and
Princess Clementine of Bourbon-Orleans, a
daughter of Louis Philippe. He received an
excellent education and showed a marked apti-
tude for the study of natural history. The re-
sults of his botanical observations on a trip
which he made to Brazil in 1879 were published
at Vienna (1883-88). While serving in the
Austrian army, he was offered in 1886 the vacant
throne of Bulgaria, and on Aug. 14, 1887, took
the oath to the constitution and the title of
Prince. Although thoroughly acceptable to his
subjects, he was not recognized by Turkey or
the Great Powers until 1896. In 1893 he
married Marie Louise of Bourbon, eldest
daughter of Duke Robert of Parma, a^ the next
year the Bulgarian Sobranye confirmed the title
of Royal Highness to the Prince and his heir.
Ferdinand continued to adhere to the Roman
Catholic faith, but his son and heir, Prince
Boris (born 1894), was received in 1896 into the
Orthodox church. In 1908 Prince Ferdinand
took as second wife Eleanor, a princess of the
house of Reuss, and in the same year, taking
account of the increased prosperity of his coun-
try and of the difficulties, foreign and domestic,
which beset Turkey, he proclaimed the full in-
dependence of Bulgaria and assumed the title of
Bang. His royal title was recognized by Turkey
and the Powers in 1909. Ferdinand favored
the formation of the Balkan League and the

?roseeutioii of the Balkan War (q.v.) of 1912-
3. In the first period of that struggle the
prowess of Bulgarian arms was such as to en-
hance the King's prestige, but the lamentable
quarrel of Bulgaria with her former allies and
the pitiable collapse of his country in the con-
sequent second phase of the war discredited
Ferdinand, both at home and abroad. Although
by the final settlements of 1913 his kingdom
had been materially enlarged by the incorpora-
tion of part of Thrace, including some 60 miles
of seacoast on the JSgean, Ferdinand was deeply
chagrined that a relatively larger territory had
not been secured, and he even considered abdica-

464

7EBBINAKB V

tion. Consult John Macdonald, Czar Ferdinand
and his People (London, 1913). See BULGABIA,
History.

FEB/DINAND I ( ?-1065). King of Castile
and Leon, surnamed The Great. He was the sec-
ond son of Sancho the Great of Navarre, and in
1033, when Sancho forced Bermudo III of Leon,
the last direct descendant of Pelayo, in the male
line, to surrender Castile, Ferdinand received
that kingdom, together with Bermudo's sister
Sancha in marriage. Bermudo, shortly after
Sancho's death, sought to recover his lost pos-
session hut was defeated and slain (1037).
Ferdinand, now King of Leo"n as well as of Cas-
tile, by a conciliatory though firm policy, es-
tablished his authority over his conquered sub-
jects, and when his domains were invaded by
his brother, Garcia IV of Navarre, the attack
resulted in the death of the latter on the battle-
field of Atapuerca, near Burgos, in 1054, and
the annexation of a large portion of his domin-
ions. At an early period 01 his reign Ferdinand
began to direct his energies against the Moors
and by a series of successful campaigns carried
the Christian arms as far as the Mondego and
reduced the emirs of Toledo, Saragossa, and Se-
ville to subjection. He died at Leon, on Dec.
27, 1065, after having divided his dominions
among his children. Ferdinand laid claim to
the title of Emperor of Spain, a claim to which
the Emperor Henry III of Germany objected,
appealing in 1055 to Rome. According to a
very doubtful tradition, a decision favorable to
Ferdinand's Imperial pretensions, so far as they
related to the territories which had been con-
quered from the Moors, was given, chiefly in
consequence of the representations made by the
famous Cid, Ruy Diaz de Bivar. Ferdinand
effected many reforms, both in secular and ec-
clesiastical matters, and was very liberal to the
church. Consult Burke, History of Spain, vol. i
(New York, 1904), and Altamira, Historia de
Espana, vol. i (Barcelona, 1900).

PEHDmOTD H (?-1188). King of Leon
from 1157 to 1188. The death of his brother,
Sancho III of Castile, in 1158, led to a military
occupation of Castile by Ferdinand, professedly
in the interests of his nephew, Alfonso III,
but this occupation lasted only a short time.
Meanwhile Ferdinand repudiated his wife, Doiia
Urraca, and became involved in a war with his
father-in-law, Alfonso I of Portugal, which re-
sulted in the defeat and capture of the latter
at Badajoz, in 1169. He died in 1188 and was
succeeded by his son, Alfonso IX. Consult
Burke, History of Spain, vol. i (New York,
1904).

EEBDIITAND HI (1199-1252). A king of
Castile and Le6n, usually known as St. Ferdi-
nand. He was the son of Alfonso IX of LeOn
and of Berengaria, sister of Henry I of Castile.
On the death of Henry, without issue, in 1217,
Berengaria procured the proclamation of Ferdi-
nand. In 1230, on the death of his father, he
became King of Le6n as well as Castile, thus
finally uniting the two kingdoms under one
crown. Following up the advantages which had
been gained for the Christian arms by his father
and the allied kings in the great battle at Las
Navas de Tolosa, in 1212, he devoted all his
energies to the prosecution of the Moorish War.
Among his conquests may be mentioned those
of Cordova in 1236, of Jaen in 1246, and of
Seville in 1248. He was planning an invasion
of Africa when he died, , at Seville, leaving his

kingdom to his eldest son, Alfonso X. Though
not canonized until 1608, he came to be popu-
larly known as el Santo from a very early
period, for his remarkable religious zeal. He
laid the foundation of Las Siete Partidas, the
legal code of Christian Spain, which was com-
pleted by Alfonso X (q.v.). Consult Altamira,
Historia de Espaila, vol. i (Barcelona, 1900),
and Burke, History of Spain, vol. i (New York,
1904).

TEBDINAJSTD IV (1285-1312). King of
Castile and Leon from 1295 to 1312. He was the
son of Sancho IV. The early years of his reign
were disturbed by a series of civil wars, but
his mother, Queen Maria, succeeded in restoring
order. After Ferdinand took the reins of govern-
ment into his own hands, he proved himself en-
tirely unfit to govern. The chief exploit of his
reign, to which, however, Ferdinand contributed
little, was the expedition against Algeciras in
1 309, which resulted in the capture of Gibraltar.
He died suddenly, Sept. 17, 1312. According to
Mariana, he had condemned to death, unheard,
two brothers of the name of Carvajal, and these,
protesting their innocence, had summoned him
to meet them within 30 days at the bar of God;
hence the surname el Emplaxado, "the Sum-
moned." He was succeeded by his infant son,
Alfonso XI. Consult Burke, History of Spain,
vol. i (New York, 1904).

FERDINAND V, surnamed THE CATHOLIO
(1452-1516). King of Spain; as King of Cas-
tile, Ferdinand V; as King of Aragon, Ferdinand
II j as King of Naples, Ferdinand III. He was
the son of John II, King of Aragon, and was
born March 10, 1452. In 1469 he married, at
Valladolid, Isabella, sister of Henry IV of
Castile. On the death of Henry, in 1474, the
Cortes proclaimed Isabella and her husband
joint sovereigns of Castile and Lo6n. In 1479
Ferdinand became King of Aragon and Sicily,
on the death of his father, and the two kingdoms
of Aragon and Castile were united in the per-
sons of Ferdinand and Isabella. Isabella, how-
ever, as long as she lived, maintained her posi-
tion as Queen of Castile, and allowed her husband
no other share in the government than the priv-
ilege of affixing his signature to the decrees and
of uniting his arms with her own. Nevertheless,
his influence in developing the Spanish mon-
archy was of capital importance. Ferdinand's
reign was marked by uniform good fortune in
his wars and liis diplomacy. In Castile he dis-
tinguished himself by the effectual suppression
of the banditti, who had become formidable in
the confusion resulting from the civil wars. This
he accomplished by reorganizing and putting
in force against them the Hermandad, or Holy
Brotherhood, a kind of national militia, rep-
resenting all the cities of Spain. Not content,
however, with taking strong measures against
the Castilian outlaws, he also resolved to break
the power of the feudal nobility and made good
use of the Hermandad in carrying out this de-
sign. Cities and towns were encouraged to make
themselves independent of the nobles, who were
deprived of many important privileges. Among
other humiliations they were subjected to the
ordinary tribunals of justice. The reorganiza-
tion of the Inquisition in 1478-80, although pri-
marily and 'mainly intended to further religious
ends, likewise helped to lessen their influence.
Ferdinand also strengthened his power by vest-
ing in himself and his successors the grand-
mastership of the military orders of Calatrava,

FERDINAND VI

465

S'KRDINAND VU

Alcantara, and Santiago. In all Ms schemes he
was ably seconded by his Queen, Isabella, and by
the celebrated Cardinal Ximenes. The year 1492
was the most brilliant in his reign and is one
of the most important in the history of the ma-
terial progress of the -world. It was signalized
by the discovery of America by Christopher Co-
lumbus, though the honor of having aided the
great navigator belongs, not to Ferdinand, but
to Isabella. The beginning of the same year
witnessed the entry of Ferdinand and Isabella
into Granada and the end of Moorish domin-
ion in Spain. This event was immediately
followed by the expulsion of the Jews from the
Spanish dominions and from Sicily. This act of
barbarity entailed the loss of a large and indus-
trious body in the community. Ferdinand was
as successful abroad as at home. He was vic-
torious over Alfonso V, King of Portugal, while
his general, Qonsalvo de Cordova, decided the
contest for the possession of the Kingdom of
Naples between France and Aragon in favor of
the Spaniards in 1503. In the following year
Isabella died, but Ferdinand regained power after
1506 as Regent of Castile for his daughter,
Joanna the Mad (who had married Philip, son of
the Emperor Maximilian), and her son Charles.
In 1505 Ferdinand married Germaine de Foix, a
niece of Louis XII of France. He took part in
the famous League of Cambrai, formed against
Venice in 1508, made himself master of various
towns and fortresses in Africa, and in 1512 con-
quered the main portion of the Kingdom of Na-
varre, thus becoming monarch of Spain from the
Pyrenees to the Rock of Gibraltar. He died at
Madrigalejo, Jan. 23, 1516, and was succeeded by
his grandson, Charles I (afterward Holy Roman
Emperor as Charles V) . To Ferdinand and Isa-
bella Spain owes her unity and greatness as a
nation. Consult Prescott, Ferdinand and Isa-
bella (Philadelphia, 1900).

tfERDECTAiro VI (1713-59). King of
Spain from 1746 to 1759, called "The Sage." He
was the second son of Philip V and Maria Louisa
of Savoy. On succeeding to power he withdrew
from European complications by concluding the
Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748), and devoted
himself to internal reforms in his kingdom, aided
by his two able ministers, Carvajal and Ensenada,
and by his Irish adviser, Wall. Financial, agri-
cultural, and commercial reforms took place, and
the arts were encouraged by the foundation of
the Royal Academy of San Fernando and by
state support for the higher education of Span-
ish students. In 1753, by a concordat with Pope
Benedict XIV, the right of presentation to
Spanish benefices was confined to the King for
all save 60 offices. In the Seven Years' War
Ferdinand refused to join the French and the
English and remained neutral. In 1758 the
King, who had never enjoyed good health, broke
down almost completely after the death of his
consort, Maria of Portugal, and lost his reason.
Under these circumstances a regency was formed.
He died at the monastery of Villaviciosa, Aug.
10, 1759. As he left no heirs, the crown passed
by an act of settlement to his half brother,
Charles ITI. Consult Coxe, Memoirs of the
Kings of Spavn of the House of Bourbon (3 vols.,
London, 1815), and Villa, Marques de la En-
senada (Madrid, 1878). For a circumstantial
account of his last sickness and death, consult
Conde de Ferafln-Nufiez, Vida de Qarlos'IH,
publicada, con la Wograffa del autor, apMfoea
y notes per A. MorelrWatio y A, Pa» y MeUa,

y un prdlogo de D. Juan Valera (2 vols., Ma-
drid, 1898, in "Libros de Antaffo," vols. xiv, xv) .
FERDINAND VU (1784r-1833). King of
Spain, 1808 and 1814 to 1833. He was the son of
King Charles IV and "was born at San Ilde-
fonso, Oct. 14, 1784. In 1789 he was pro-
claimed Prince of Asturias, and his education
was intrusted to the Duke of San Carlos and
the Canon Escoiquiz. Encouraged by them, he

Ed himself in opposition to the powerful
ish Minister, Manuel de Godoy (q.v.), who,
the death of Ferdinand's first wife, Marie
Antoinette Therese of Naples, in 1806, sought
to marry the young Prince to Marie The*rfcse de
Bourbon. Upon this Ferdinand took the advice
of the French Ambassador, Beauharnais, and
wrote to Napoleon asking for the hand of one
of the Emperor's nieces. Spanish spies, acting
on behalf of Godoy and the Queen, unearthed
this correspondence, and the Prince was arrested
by order of Charles IV and confined in the Esco-
rial in 1807. These events were followed by the
French invasion of Spain, which so inflamed the
people against Godoy and the King and Queen
that they were forced to flee from Madrid. In
March, 1808, following on the rising at Aran-
juez, Charles IV abdicated in favor of Ferdinand,
who was immediately proclaimed as Ferdinand
VII amid great rejoicing. The French, under
Murat, however, entered Madrid a few days
later, and Charles IV, instigated by the French,
withdrew his abdication, in a letter to Napoleon,
on the ground that it had been extorted from
him. The Emperor thereupon invited Ferdinand
VII to a conference at Bayonne, and in spite
of warnings the new King repaired thither,
only to find himself a prisoner. The disorder
in Madrid consequent on Murat's occupation
was laid at Ferdinand's door, and after repeated
negotiations and threats the Prince signed one
paper renouncing the throne in favor of his
father, and another by which he ceded to Na-
poleon all his rights of succession to the Spanish
monarchy. In return, he was to receive a pen-
sion of 800,000 francs and the chateau of Va-
lencay. There he remained for the nest six
years, with his uncle, Don Antonio, and his
brother, Don Carlos.

In 1813, after Wellington's victorious cam-
paign in the Peninsula, Napoleon offered to re-
instate Ferdinand on the Spanish throne. In
March, 1814, the long-wished-for sovereign re-
turned and was received with every demonstra-
tion of loyalty. All acts promulgated during his
absence, including the constitution of 1812, were
abrogated, and the old order of things restored.
For six years Ferdinand sought to make him-
self absolute, and opposition was punished by
banishment, imprisonment, and death; but in-
surrection succeeded insurrection, until in 1820
a serious mutiny took place among the Spanish
troops, which was supported by the Cortes and
the people, and Ferdinand was forced to confirm
the constitution of 1812. But the struggle be-
tween the Constitutionalists and Royalists con-
tinued and finally ended in the triumph of the
former (1822); thereupon the Holy Alliance
sent a French army in 1823 to restore peace and
absolutism, which, after an obstinate resistance
on the part of the liberal clement, succeeded.
The Cortes, after the occupation of Madrid, re-
tired to Cadiz, but were unable to hold the place
against the invaders. Ferdinand, returned in
triumph to Madrid, and his first act was to
annul all liberal measures passed since 1820 as

466

FERDINAND I

having been forced upon him. The Absolutist
and Clerical party became practically supreme.
In 1829 Ferdinand married his fourth wife,
Maria Christina of Naples, and in 1830 abolished
by a Pragmatic Sanction the Salic law as re-
garded female succession to the Spanish throne.
This deprived his brother, "Don Carlos, of the
succession, bv making the Infanta Isabella (born
1830) eligible to the throne, and led to the for-
mation of the Carlist party in Spain. Through
the -influence of Calomarde (q.v.) Ferdinand was
induced to revoke the Pragmatic Sanction of
1830, but soon after recalled his action and re-
affirmed the succession of Isabella. In 1833 Isa-
bella was proclaimed Princess of Asturias and
heiress to the throne. Three months later (Sept.
29, 1833) Ferdinand died at Madrid, leaving his
Queen, Maria Christina, regent. His reign was
a most disastrous one for Spain, which lost al-
most all its possessions in North and South
America and passed through vicissitudes and
misfortunes that drained it of its best citizens
and from which it has never recovered. His-
torians have not yet discovered any redeeming
features in his character or his reign and his
motives were consistently base. Consult: Scigno-
bos, Political History of Europe since 1$14>
trans, by Macvane (New York, 1900) ; also
Espafia del siglo Z/J, by various authors (Ma-
drid, 1886-87) ; Baumgarten, OeschicUte Spani-
ens von 1789^ (Leipzig, 1865-71). The Count of
Casa Valencia published a diary that was kept
by Ferdinand VII during the years 1820-23,
Consult also: Historia de la vida y rcinado de
Fernando VII de Espana, con documentos justi-
ficativos, etc. (3 vols., Madrid, 1842) ; C. Le
Brun, Vida dc Fernando 8eptimo, rey de fis-
pafia (Philadelphia, 1826) ; M. A. 8. Hume,
Modem Spain (2d ed., London, 1900). See
SPAIN.

FERDINAND I (1423-94). King of Naples
from 1458 to 1494. He was an illegitimate
son of Alfonso V of Aragon. He succeeded his
father on the throne of Naples in 1458, but found
an enemy in Pope Calixtus III, who favored
John of Anjou. The latter invaded the kingdom
and defeated Ferdinand. Pius II, the successor
of Calixtus, supported him, however, and, with
the assistance of Scanderbcg, the famous Al-
banian chief, John was defeated with great loss
in August, 1462. In 1480 the Turks captured
Otranto and slaughtered most of the inhabitants,
but in the next year they were driven out. In
I486 a number of nobles revolted. Ferdinand
held out the promise of a general amnesty if
would make submission and then trcachor-
murdercd them. He died just as Charles
of France was about to invade his do-
minions. Though tyrannical, cruel, and treacher-
ous, Ferdinand fostered industry and commerce
and invited many humanists to his court, es-
tablishing a printing press at Naples in 1474.
Consult Delaborde, L3Eafp6dition dc Charles VIII
en Italie (Paris, 1888), and Sismondi, History
of the Italian Republics (new ed., London, 1906)'.
FERDINAND H (1409-96). King of Na-
ples from 1495 to 1406. He was the grandson
of Ferdinand I, and son of Alfonso II, who abdi-
cated in his favor in 1495. The kingdom was
invaded by Charles VIII of Franco, and Ferdi-
nand fled. He was able, however, with the aid
of Gonsalvo de Cordova, the general of Ferdinand
V, to regain his kingdom before his death. Con-
sult Delaborde, L' Expedition de Charles VIII en
(Paris, 1888).

FERDINAND III. King of Naples. See
FERDINAND V or CASTILE.

FERDINAND I (1345-83), called "The
Handsome." King of Portugal from 1367 to
1383, son of Pedro I. His reign was spent in
fighting to obtain Castile for hi in self, and later
for John of Lancaster, to the great loss of Portu-
gal. Ferdinand died in 1383, and in 1385 an
illegitimate son of Pedro I, John, founder of the
dynasty of A viz, was proclaimed King. Con-
sult Stephens, Portugal (New York, 1891).

FERDINAND I (1751-1825). King of the
Two Sicilies from 1759 to 1825. Ho was the
third son of Charles III of Spain and was born
at Naples, Jan. 12, 1751. When Charles as-
cended the Spanish throne, in 17»9, Ferdinand
succeeded him in Naples and Sicily under a re-
gency of which the progressive Minister Tanucci
was the head. Many reforms were inaugurated,
and in 1767 the Jesuits were expelled from the
kingdom. In 1708, after attaining his majority,
the young King married Carolina Maria, a
daughter of Maria Theresa of Austria, who was
given a voice in the royal council after the
birth of an heir and soon* undermined the influ-
ence of Tanucci, who was dismissed in 1777. An (
Englishman, Sir John Acton, succeeded him in '
favor and became virtually Prime Minister. The
Queen was cruel and dissolute and very much
under the influence of Acton. It was* at her
instigation that Ferdinand was led to join Eng-
land and Austria against France in 1793. He
was glad to make peace with the Directory, how-
ever, in 1796. In 1798 ho joined the secret alli-
ance of Russia, Austria, and England, and his
army occupied Rome. Ferdinand was no warrior
and sadly lacked personal courage, for as soon
as the French appeared and attacked his forces
he fled to Naples and, embarking in an English
man-of-war, escaped to Palermo. Naples was
entered by the French, who, aided by a party of
the nobles and citizens, established the short-
lived Parthenopean Republic. The lower clamwft,
who had fiercely opposed the French, were, hos-
tile to the new regime, and this, combined with
reverses in northern Italy, led the French army
to withdraw. The Republic collapsed before
Cardinal Ruffo's Calabrian forces, and Ferdinand
was restored. A reign of terror was immediately
inaugurated, and the Republicans suffered
greatly, but could do nothing in the presence
of an English fleet imdcr Nelson and a Royalist
army. Relief came in 1801, when Ferdinand
was forced to sign a treaty with Franco which
included, besides various concessions, a general
amnesty to political offenders and a claiwe allow-
ing French troops to occupy his dominions. In
1805, at the instigation of Queen Caroline, he
joined the Third Coalition and permitted 13,000
Russian and English troops to disembark at
Naples. Napoleon won the victory of Austerlitz,
and a French army forced the, King and Queen
of Naples to take refuge in Sicily. Naples was
handed over to Joseph Bonaparte and later to
Murat (1808), and it waa not until 1816 that
Ferdinand was restored. He had ruled over
Sicily, however, under tho title of Ferdinand
III, until 1812, when he resigned his authority
to his son Francis, under pressure from Eng-
land, after granting the Sicilians a liberal con-
stitution. After MB restoration Ferdinand united
the kingdoms of Sicily and Naples and assumed
the title by which he is generally known — Fer-
dinand I, King of the Two Sicilies. Although
he granted the Neapolitans a constitution as a

FERDINAND II

467

FERDINAND IH

condition of his recall, he speedily abolished it
when firmly established. By his declaration of
May, 1815, he had proclaimed individual and
civil freedom, security of property, access for
all alike to all posts and judicial independence.
At the same iimc he was negotiating a treaty
with the Emperor of Austria for the maintenance
of the evils of the old regime in Italy. His
tyrannical policy brought on the revolution of
1820, and he was forced to relinquish his author-
ity to his son, who was named Viceroy, and to
swear to observe the liberties of the people. At
the Congress of Laibach, in the following year,
however, he succeeded in securing Austrian aid
and entered Naples in triumph in 1821, with an
Austrian force at his back. Aided by his un-
scrupulous Minister, Canosa, Ferdinand took a
cruel vengeance on his siibjects. The system of
espionage and arrest was continued under Ca-
nosa's successor, Medici, becoming worse, each
day. Ferdinand died suddenly Jan. 4, 1825, and
was succeeded by his son, Francis I. For a
good account of Ferdinand's reign, consult: Col-
letta, titoria del rcame di Kapoli dal 1734 o,l 1$£~>
(Kng. trans., Edinburgh, 1858); Lanzilatti,
Memorie storiche di Perdinando I (Naples,
1827) ; Joaffroason, The Queen of Naples and
Lord Nelson (London, 1880) ; Probyn, Itali/,
1815-W (ib., 1884) ; ft. H. Johnston, The Na-
poleonic Umpire in Southei-n Italy (2 vols., Lon-
don and New York, 1004) ; G. Orloff, MSmoircs
Mstoriquctt, politiques et littfraircs sur le Roy-
aumc do Naples (5 vols., Paris, 1821) ; Pigna-
telli Strongoli, Mcmorie intonio al Rcgno di
Xapoli dal ISO.1) al J81S (Naples, 1820) ; A.
Rchimi, //. Rcgno <U Napoli sotto i Borloni
(ib., 1003).

FERDINAND II (1810-59). King of the
Two SieilioH from 1830 to 1859, known as
"King Honiba." Jlo was the son of Francis 1
by his second wife, Isabella Marfa of Spain, and
was born Jan. 12, 1810. On Buccocding his
father, in 1830, lie found the country in the
moat wretched condition. The beginning of his
reign was marked by specious promises of reform
in the economy and government of the country.
But Ferdinand soon began to listen to Austrian
counsels, which saw danger for the whole penin-
sula in liberal measures. From that time Naples
became the HCCIIG of incessant conspiracy, revolu-
tion, bloodshed, and political prosecutions. The
King was aided by his infamous Minister of
Police, Delcarreto, and an elaborate system of
espionage was established. The general dincon-
tent was greatly aggravated by this obnoxious
policy. After insurrections baa taken place in
1837, 1841, 1844, and 1847, Ferdinand was forced
to yield to the storm of 3848 and granted a con-
stitution to both part« of hit* dominions. After
following the. constitution so far as to call tho
chambers together, he quarreled with the, depu-
ties, and on March 13, 1849, diamiasod them,
impatient of any interference with hifl authority.
An insurrection which had broken out in Sicily
was put down by a ruthless bombardment of
Messina, an incident which earned for the King
the name of Boinba. After the subjugation of
Sicily he hastened completely to sot aside the
new constitution, while all who had taken any
part in the agitation for reform were subjected
to cruel persecution. In 1851 there were 13,000
political prisoners confined at Naples. Both
France and England made strong representations
in 1856, but in vain. Several attempts to aasas-
ti!ta.te Ferdinand failed, but in, }868 he

forced by Great Britain to liberate the political
prisoners. Ferdinand died May 22, 1859, after
terrible suffering, and was succeeded by his
eldest son, Francis II. Consult: Nisco, JFerdi-
nando II cd il BUO regno (Naples, 1884) ; Daw-
burn, Naples and King Ferdinand (London,
1858) ; Thayer, The Daic.n of Italian Independ-
ence (Boston, 1803); Stillman, The Union of
Italy (Cambridge, 1898); Colletta, Raeoolta di
documents che servono ad illustrare i trc ultimi
periodi rivolusionari di Napoli 11 '99-1820-1848
(Naples, 1803-66) ; Probyn, Italy, 18 J 5 to 1878
(London, 1884) ; C. Livaroni, Storia Critica del
Risorgimcnto Italiano (9 vols., Turin, 1888-
97) ; Johnston, The Napoleonic Empire in
Southern Italy (2 vols., London and Now York,
1904) ; King, A History of Italian Unity (2
vols., London, 1899).

FERDINAND I (1540-1609). Grand Duke
of Tuscany, fourth son of the first Cosimo de'
Medici. Tie became Cardinal at the age of 14,
and after the death of his brother, in 1587, suc-
ceeded to the rule of the grand duchy, being
suspected of murdering his predecessor and Bi-
anca Capello (q.v.). In 1589 he renounced the
cardinalate and married Christino of Lorraine
(died 1030), granddaughter of Catharine de'
Medici. II o favored the extension of commerce
and of public works, continued the construction
of the harbor of Leghorn, cultivated excellent re-
lations witli the other states of Italy, and per-
mitted the Jewish refugees from Spain to settle
in his realm. His numerous successful financial
enterprises made him the leading capitalist of
Europe.

FERDINAND U (1010-70). Grand Duke of
Tuscany, lie was a son of Conimo IF, whom he
succeeded in 1021, becoming of age in 1628. TTc
fell under tho Spanish and Austrian influence
of his mother, Maria Madelina of Austria. In
1042-44 ho formed an alliance with Venice,
Parma, and Modena, against the Papal States,
and conducted a disastrous war which imposed
heavy obligations on the people.

FERDINAND HI (1769-1824). Grand
Duke of Tuscany and Archduke of Austria. Tie
\ni« the Hocond son of tho Emperor Leopold If
and was* born at Florence, May 6, 1769. In 1700
lie succeeded his father in tho government of
Tuscany, when the latter became Emperor
through the death of Joseph IT. A lover of
peaceful progress, ho remained strictly neutral
in tho firnt coalition against Prance and was
the first sovereign in Tfrnropo to recognize the
French Republic, in 1702. In 1793, intimidated
by tho combined menaces of the Runsian and
British cabinet*, tho Grand Duke was con-
strained to relinquish his neutral policy and to
become a passive member of tho coalition against
France. In 170f>, on the French occupation of
Piedmont, he speedily reassumed friendly rela-
tions with France. In 1707, in order to save his
fltato from annexation to the Cisalpine Republic,
1m concluded a treaty with Bonaparte on the
most unfavorable terms, undertaking to pay a
war levy to France and to transfer to the Mu-
«eutn of Paris some of the chief masterpieces of
the Florentine galleries. Owing to tho continued
intrigues of France in his states Ferdinand was
forced to seek an Austrian alliance, which fur-
nished Bonaparte with a pretext for declaring
war against Tuscany. In 1709 Ferdinand had
to retire to Vienna, and in 1801, at the Peace of
LuneVille, he was forced to renounce all claims
on Tuscany, receiving the title of Elector ajid

FERDINAND IV

468

FERDINAND OF PORTUGAL

the Principality of Salzburg (1803), which after
the Peace of Pressburg, in 1805, he exchanged
for the Duchy of Wurzburg. He was one of the
princes in the Confederation of the Rhine (q.v.)
and in 1814 was reinstated in his Grand Duchy
of Tuscany by the Peace of Paris. In coopera-
tion with his Chief Minister, Fossombroni, he
reformed the institutions of the grand duchy ac-
cording to his policy of benevolent despotism.
He tried to divert intellectual force from danger-
ous channels. The people in vain opposed the
inefficient army and bureaucracy administered
by the indolent Fossombroni. Ferdinand died
June 7, 1824, leaving his state to his only son,
Leopold II. Consult: Schopis de Salermo, La
domination francaise en Italic, 1800-1814 (Paris,
1861 ) ; Tivaroni, L'ltalia prima della rivolu-
eione francese, 17S9-1815 (Turin, 1889) ; Tbayer,
Dawn of Italian Independence (Boston, 1893);
Inghirami, Storia della Tosoana (Fiesole, 1843) ;
Reumont, Storia della Toscana sotto la dinastia
di Lorena-Absburgo (Florence, 1877) ; Tivaroni,
Italia durante il dominio austriaco (Milan,
1892-94).

FERDINAND IV ( 1835-1908 ) . Grand Duke
of Tuscany. He was born in Florence, a son of
Leopold II and of Maria Antonia, daughter of
Francis I, King of the Two Sicilies. After his
father had renounced the throne (July 21, 1859),
Ferdinand assumed the title of Grand Duke and
on March 26, I860, issued a protest against the
incorporation of Tuscany with Sardinia. Most
of the remainder of his life was spent in the
Austrian castle of Salzburg.

FERDINAND (1577-1050). Duke of Ba-
varia and Elector of Cologne, son of William V,
Duke of Bavaria. He was born at Arnsbcrg and
was educated by the Jesuits at the University
of Ingolstadt. After the death (1612) of his
uncle Ernst, whose coadjutor lie had become in.
1595, he succeeded as Elector of Cologne and
as Bishop of Liege, Miinstcr, and Hildesheim, to
which, in 1618, Paderborn was added. He was
an enthusiastic disciple of the Jesuits and zeal-
ously strove to exterminate heresy. He carried
on with some success the contest with the
burghers of Li6ge.

FERDINAND (3721-92), Duke of Bruns-
wick and Prussian field marshal, a son of Fer-
dinand Albert II (q.v.). He was born at Wol-
fenbiittel, one of a family of 14 children. After
a journey through the Netherlands, France,
Italy, and Austria, he entered the Prussian serv-
ice in 1740 as colonel, served on the staff of
Frederick the Great during the first Silesian
War, and afterward remained the companion of
the King. Subsequently appointed major gen-
eral, he served as commander of the foot guards
in the Silesian campaign of 1745, whon he greatly
distinguished himself at the battle of Hohen-
friedberg. He was one of the most skillful com-
manders during the Seven Years' War, his most
notable achievements being his victories over
the French at Crefeld (1758) and Minden (1759).
He was estranged from Frederick in 1766 and
left the Prussian service. In the American Revo-
lutionary War he was suggested for the post of
commander of the British troops. Consult Von
der Osten's edition of Ferdinand's Tagebuoh
(Hamburg, 1805), and the military biographies
by Knesebeck (Hanover, 1857-58) and Wcst-
phalen (5 vols., Berlin, 1859-72).

FERDINAND (1816-85). Titular King of
Portugal, He was born at Vienna, Got. 29,
1816, the eldest son of Ferdinand, Duke of

Paxc-Coburg-Gotha. In 1836 he married Dona
Maria la Gloria, Queen of Portugal. He re-
ceived the title of King Consort the next year,
and after the death of the Queen, in 1853, he
acted as regent till 1855, during the minority
of his son Pedro V. In spite of his foreign
extraction Ferdinand was very popular in Portu-
gal. In 1869 he was offered the Spanish crown
by an influential delegation, but he refused,
chiefly because he had made a love marriage
with the celebrated American vocalist, Eliza
Hensler, whom he created Countess of Elba, and
whom he was unwilling to forsake. The rest of
his life was spent in retirement. He devoted
himself to painting and engraving with consider-
able success. He died in Lisbon, Dec. 15, 1885.
Of the three sons of his first marriage, two,
Pedro and Louis, became kings of Portugal.
Consult Geidraye, Resume de Vhistoire du Portu-
gal au XlXtme sitcle (Paris, 1875), also Me-
moirs of the Duke of Saldanha (London, 1880),

FERDINAND, Qer. pron. fej/dS-niint, VICTOR
ALBERT MAINRAD (1805-1927). Prince of Ru-
mania. He was born at Sigmaringen, Prussia,
the second son of Prince Leopold of llohenzollern,
elder brother of King Charles I of Rumania.
After his father and his elder brother had re-
nounced their title to the crown (Nov. 22, 1888),
he was declared heir presumptive. In 1889 he
became Senator and on March 18, 1880, was
formally invested with the title of Prince of
Rumania and pronounced by the King and the
Legislative Assembly the successor to the throne.
On Jan. 10, 1803, he married Marie Alexandra
Victoria, the eldest daughter of the Duke of
Edinburgh. He succeeded to the throne Oct. 11,
1014, ou the death of his uncle.

FERDINAND ALBERT II (1080-1735).
Duko of Brunswick. He' was a son of Ferdinand
Albert I (1638-87), first Duke of Brunswick-
Bevern. During the War of the Spanish Suc-
cession he fought with the Imperial army in
^yurttcmberg and Bavaria and in 1711 Iwcaone
lieutenant general. He fought in the Turkish
wars in the army of Prince Eugdne and dis-
tinguished himself at Temeavfir and Belgrade.
As field marshal of the Empire (1733), he con-
ducted the army from Pilsen to the Rhino in
1734 and subsequently took part in the opera-
tions there. He became Duke of Brunswick-
Wolfenbuttel March 1, 1735, the year of his
death. He was a particular favorite with King
Frederick William I of Prusaia. His non Anton
Ulrich was father of Ivan VT, Czar of Russia;
and his eldest daughter married Frederick the
Great.

FERDINAND AND ISABEI/LA, HISTORY
OF THE REIGN OF. A work by William H, Pres-
cott, published in 1837.

FERDINAND, COUNT FATHOM, THE
ADVENTURES OF. The third of Smollett's novels
(1753).

FERDINAND OF PORTUGAL (1402-43),
A prince of Portugal called the "Holy Prince,"
the sixth son of King John I. He took part in
the expedition against Tangiers, under the loader-
ship of his brother Henry (1437). Upon its
defeat Ferdinand was loft as hostage in the
hands of the Sultan of Fez for the city of Ceuta,
which Henry had promised as ranworu. King
John and the Cortes refused to yield it, and
Ferdinand dragged out a slavery of nix years.
His bones wore brought back to Pori^ual and
buried in Lisbon, at first in the convent of the
Saviour and later in the convent of Batalba.

WILLIAM 4

He was beatified in 1470, and the Bollandists
have included his life in their great publication.
FERDINAND WILLIAM ( 1659-1701 ) .
Prince of Wiirttcmberg-Neustadt. He was edu-
cated in mathematics and military science and
after serving in Denmark entered the Imperial
army in 1(583, and fought with distinction
against the Turks and the French, being severely
wounded at Neuhiiusel in 1685. In 1690 he
commanded the auxiliary Danish troops in
William TlTs campaign against Ireland. In
1692 he led the same troops to Holland, where
he distinguished himself in the conflicts with
the French at Stecnkerk and Neenvindcn and
became general of infantry. In 1608 he entered
the service of King Augustus the Strong of
Poland and defeated the Turks in the Ukraine,
compelling them to cede to Poland a portion of
Podolia. In 1700 he campaigned against Sweden
in Holstein.

FERENTINO, fa'rfin-te/nd. An episcopal
city in the Province of Rome, Italy, 1450 feet
above sea level, 50 miles southeast of Rome
(Map: Italy, D 4). Enormous blocks of stono
and a gateway on the west mark the course of
the walls of the ancient Ferentinum, a town of
the Hernici colonized by the Romans. The town
markets wine and oil and has a seminary, a
gymnasium, and a cathedral paved with ancient
marbles and mosaics. Pop. (commune), 1901,
12,279; 1011, 32,928.

PEBENTINTTM. A city of the Hernici, in
ancient Tttxly. Bee FEUENTINO.

FERENTINTJM. A city of the Etruscans,
in ancient Italy. See FEBKNTO.

FERENTO, fft-rGn'tA. A ruined city in cen-
tral Italy, 5 miles north of Viterbo. It is near
the site of the ancient Ferontintim, originally an
Etruscan city. Kxtonsive Etruscan, Roman, and
medieval remains of walk, baths, and a huge
theatre have boon excavated.

FERGHANA, fer-ga'na. A province (oblast)
of RusHian Turkestan, Contra! Asia, situated
betwoon East (or Chinese) Turkestan, the Pamir,
Bokhara, and the remainder of Russian Turke-
stan (Map: Asia, J 4), Its area in approxi-
mately 55,000 square miles. With the exception
of the central portion, which forms the valley
of the upper Sir-Daria, the surface of Ferghana
consists both of mountains and stcppos. The
Alai and Traua-Alai mountains traverse .it in
the south. The larger part of the country is
barren and unfit for cultivation. The climate
is hot and the rainfall insuftlcicnt The chief
rivers are the 8ir-l)aria and the Kissil-Ru. Lake
Kara Kul is situated in Ferghana. The agri-
cultural land is found mostly along the Sir-
Daria, where cereals arid fruit are raised to some
extent. The cultivated area is about 3,000,000
acres, mont of which is under constant irriga-
tion. The silkworm industry, for which Fer-
ghana was specially known, is no longer pros-
perous. The region is rich in minerals, including
coal, load, graphite, and petroleum. The manu-
facturing industries of Ferghana are of consid-
erable importance, although most of them are
carried on as house industries. The leading
manufactures are leather, silk, rugs, paper,
knives, and saddles. Cotton, raisins, dried fruits,
and tobacco are exported. Imports consist erf
textiles, silk stuffs, copper goods, tea, sueur, and
dyes. The trade is chiefly with Russia, Bokhara,
and Bast Turkestan. The value of imports and
exports aggregates about $17,000,000 annually.
The Transcaspian and Orenburg-Tashkent rail-'

ways cross portions of its area and have materi-
ally stimulated its commerce with Samarkand,
Bokhara, and Tashkent.

The population in 1911 was officially estimated
at 2,069,000, of whom the larger part were Sarts,
and the rest Kirghizes, Tajiks, Russians, Jews,
etc. The capital is New Marghelan, with a popu-
lation of about 12,000. Old Marghelan has a
population of 46,400; Khokam, 112,000. Fer-
ghana constituted a part of the Sogdiana of the
Greeks. It was invaded by the Arabs during the
eighth century and was under the rule of the
Samanids for two centuries thereafter. Con-
quered successively by a number of Oriental
rulers, including Timur, the country obtained its
independence at the end of the eighteenth cen*
tury, when it was known as the Khanate of
Kokand, or Khokand, the territory of the
khanate being then much larger than the pres-
ent territory of Ferghana. Internal dissensions
gave the Russians an opportunity for interfer-
ence, and in 1876 the khanate was annexed to
Russia under the name of Ferghana.

PEB/GTJS. A town of Wellington Co., On-
tario, Canada, on Grand River, and at the
junction of the Grand Trunk and Canadian Pa-
cific railways, 13 miles northwest of Guelph
(Map^ Ontario, DO). The manufactured prod-
ucts include farm accessories, lime, and building
stone, and there are marble works and cereal
and saw mills. Pop., 1901, 1396; 1911, 1534.

FEE/GITS PALLS. A city and the county
seat of Otter Tail Co,, Minn., 177 miles north-
west of Minneapolis, on the Great Northern and
the Northern Pacific railroads and on the Red
River (Map: Minnesota, A 4). It is in the
"park" region of the State, the centre of a pro-
ductive agricultural district, and has abundant
water power. The manufactures include flour,
woolen goods, cement tile, undertakers* supplies,
foundry and maehine-Hhop products, sawh and
doors, brooms, boer, etc. The city contains a
Carnegie library, two general hospitals, a State
hospital for the in Bane, and the Park Region
Lutheran and Northwestern colleges. Fergus
Fulls, chartered as a city in 1883, is governed
under the char tor of that date, which provides
for a mayor, annually elected, and a city coun-
cil. It owns the water works and electric-light
plant. Pop., 1900, 0072; 1910, 0887,

FER'CKTSOMT, ADAM (1723-18 JO). A Scot-
tish philoHOl>her and historian. He was born at
Logiorait, Perthshire, where his father was par-
ish minister; studied at the universities of St.
Andrews and Edinburgh, and in 1745 was ap-
pointed chaplain to the Forty-third (afterward
Forty-second) Kegiment, in which capacity he
was present at the battle of Fontcnoy and is
said to have charged the enemy aword in hand,
among the foremost of the regiment, In 1757 he
abandoned the clerical profession and succeeded
David Hume as keeper of the Advocates' Library
in Edinburgh, The same year he took a groat
interest in the success of the tragedy of Douglas,
written by Ms friend John Hume, and wrote in
its defense The MorMty of Stago Plays (1757),
which brought him into considerable notice. He
was appointed professor in Edinburgh Univer-
sity, first of natural philosophy, in 1759, and
subsequently (1704) of moral philosophy. The
next year ho published his K&xiy on the History
of Owl Society* He then devoted some time to
collecting material for a Roman history, but
his work was interrupted by travel on the Con-
tinent with the young Earl of Chesterfield in

FERGUSON

470

FERGUSON

1774^76, and in 1778 by Ms duties as secretary
to the commission sent out by Lord North to
try to arrange the disputes between the North
American Colonies and England. In 1783 ap-
peared his chief work, The History of the Prog-
ress and Termination of the Roman Republic
(3 vols.). It is a carefully written narrative
of the history of the Roman people during 500
years. In 1785 ill health forced Ferguson to
give up his professorship, and in 1792 he pub-
lished his academic lectures under the title of
Principles of Moral and Political Science. His
Institutes of Moral Philosophy (1772) has been
used as a textbook in several foreign universities.
Consult the biographical sketch by John Small
(1864).

FERGUSON, DONALD > (1839- ). A Cana-
dian legislator and administrator. He was born
at Marshfield, Prince Edward Island, was edu-
cated at the public schools, and early engaged
in journalism in his native province. In 1878
he was elected a Conservative member of the
Provincial Legislature, in which he retained a
seat until 1891. Appointed (1878) Minister of
Public Works, he subsequently became Provin-
cial Secretary and Commissioner of Crown
Lands, holding the two latter offices until his
retirement from provincial politics. In 1893 he
was appointed a Dominion senator. In the fol-
lowing year he became a minister without port-
folio in the cabinet of Sir Mackenzie Bowell,
and he held the same office in the succeeding
cabinet of Sir Charles Tupper until the defeat
of the Conservatives in 1890. He supported
legislation to repress the liquor traffic.

FERGUSON", ELSIE ( LOUISE) (1883- ).
An American actress, born and educated in Now
York City. In 1907 she married Fred Hoey.
She first played in The Liberty Belles in 1901
at Madison Square Garden, New York City, and
subsequently appeared in The Marl of Pawtitcket
(1903), and in 1908 toured the United States
in Pierre of the Plains, The Battle, and The
Traveling Salesman. She starred in Such a
Little Queen (1909), Dolly Madison (1911),
Primrose (1912), Rosedale and Ari&ona (1913),
and The Unseen Empire (1914).

FERGUSON, JAMBS (1710-76). A Scottish
astronomer, born near Keith, in BanfTshire. Of
humble origin, he enjoyed only three months of
instruction at school, and his subsequent ac-
quirements were the result of his own ardent
desire for knowledge. After being employed in
keeping sheep and drawing, he supported him-
self and his parents by making portraits, first in
Edinburgh, and afterward (1743) in London,
his leisure time being devoted to astronomical
pursuits. In 1748 he began to deliver popular
lectures on astronomy and mechanics with con-
siderable success, a feature of his lectures being
the remarkable apparatus of his own construc-
tion, which he used for purposes of illustration,
lie was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in
1763 and received from George III a pension of
£50. He now gave up portrait painting and de-
voted himself to lecturing and writing on his
favorite scientific subjects. Few men in Europe
did more to promote a knowledge of the results
of science among those who did not have the
advantage of regular scientific training. His
principal works arc: Astronomy Explained upon
Sir Isaac Newton's Principles (1750; Sir David
Brewster's ed., 2 vols., 1811); Lectures on Afo-
ohanics, Hydrostatics, Pneumatics, and Optics
(1760), also edited by Sir David Brcwster in

1805; Select Mechanical Exercises, with an auto-
biography (1773). Consult Henderson, Life of
James Ferguson, F.R.S. (London, 1867).

FERGUSON, JAMBS (1797-1867). An Amer-
ican astronomer and civil engineer. He was
born in Perthshire, Scotland, but in 1800 was
brought by his father to New York. He was
engaged, as assistant engineer, on the construc-
tion of the Erie Canal in 1817-19, was assistant
surveyor in the boundary commission appointed
in accordance with the Treaty of Ghent from
1819 to 1822, and was astronomical surveyor of
this commission from 1822 to 1827. From 1833
to 1847 he was first assistant in the United
States Coast Survey and from 1S47 until his
death was assistant astronomer of the United
States Naval Observatory. He discovered several
asteroids and was a frequent contributor to
scientific and other magazines.

FERGTTSON, JOHN CALVIN (1866- ).
An American in the service of the Chinese gov-
ernment. He was born in Ontario, Canada, and
graduated from Boston University in 1586
(Ph.D., 1902). He was president of Nanking
University from 1888 to 1897 and of Xanyang
College (Shanghai) from 1897 to 1902.* He
served as adviser to the viceroys of Nanking
(after 1898) and Wuchang (1900-10), and was
secretary of the Chinese Ministry of Commerce
( 1902 ) , the Imperial Chinese "Railway Adminis-
tration (1903-07), and the Ministry of Posts
and Communications (after 1911). In addition,
he was sent by the Chinese government on spe-
cial missions to the United States in 1901, 1904,
and 1907, was chairman of the Central China
Famine Relief Committee in 1910-11, and pro-
prietor of the Shanghai Times in 1907-11. He
became a member of many foreign orders and
societies and in 1911-12 was president of the
North China branch of the Royal Asiatic Society,
whose journal he had edited from 1902 to 1911.

EERGTJSON, Louis ALOYSIUS (1867- ).
An American electrical engineer, born at Dor-
chester, Miias. After graduating from the Mas-
sachusetts Institute of Technology in 188S ho
was employed by the Chicago Kdinon Company
as engineer of the underground department, but
was soon promoted, becoming electrical engineer
of the company in 1890, general superintendent
in 1897, and second vice preaident in 1002. He
also served as general superintendent (1NOX-
1002) and as second vice, president (1902-07)
of the Commonwealth Electric Company, to
which he devoted his entire attention after 1007.
In 1895 he became a staff lecturer at the Uni-
versity of Wisconsin. Ferguson contributed «ub-
atantially to efficient central-station practice.
He was president of the National Electric Light
Association in 1902-03 and of the American
Institute of Electric Engineers in 1908-09.

FEBCKTSOW, MARGARET CLAY (1803- ).
An American botanist, born at Phelim, N. Y.
She graduated (1S90) from Cornell University,
where she received the degree of Ph.1). in 1901.
Previously she had been ,a teacher and a princi-
pal of public schools (188tf-&8), had had charge
of science work at the Jlarecmrt Place Seminary
(Gambler, Ohio) (189&-D3), and had been in*
structor in botany at Wellesley College (1884-
96). Returning1 to Welleslev she became asso-
ciate professor in 1904, professor in IflOtt, and
head of the department of botany in 1J)04. She
was assistant in 1901 and 1902 and instructor in
1903 in the Cornell Summer School. The Ameri-
can Association for the Advancement of Science

FERGUSON

471

elected her a fellow. Her publications consist
of papers on plant embryology and physiology
and also Contributions to the Knowledge of the
Life History of Pinus toith Special Reference to
Sporogenesis, the Development of the G-ameto-
phytcs and Fertilization (1904).

PEBGTJSON-, PATKICK (1744-80). A Brit-
ish soldier, inventor of the fir^t practical breech-
loading rifle. He was born in Scotland and
was educated at a military academy in London.
Before he was 15 years old he was appointed
cornet in the Royal North British Dragoons, or
Scots Greys, and served with them in the Ger-
man campaign. The skill of the American
marksmen during the first year of the Revolu-
tionary War prompted him to devise several now
forms of breech-loading firearms. In the first
the breech was closed by a vertical screw plug,
which was lowered to admit the introduction of
the ball, followed by the cartridge or charge;
in the second, the breech was closed by a per-
pendicular or horizontal turnplate; and in the
third a sliding transverse bar was used. His
own demonstrations of his rifle were singularly
successful. He was ordered to America, where,
early in 1777, he formed a corps of riflemen,
consisting of volunteers from British regiments,
armed thorn with breech-loading rilled carbines
with screw-plug action, sighted for 100 to 300
yards. The corps distinguished itself at the
battle of Brandy wine (Sept. 11, 1777), but was
afterward disbanded by Sir William ITowo bo-
cause he had not been previously consulted as
to its formation. Ferguson played a conspicu-
ous part in the war iu the Carolina!*, but was
defeated and killed at King's Mountain, R. 0.
(Oct. 7, 1780).

PEBOTSOlSr, ROBERT (f-1714). A British
political writer and pamphleteer, known as tho
"Plotter." He was born at Biuli furrow, Abcr-
deenshire, Scotland, was probably educated at
the University of Aberdeen, entered the minis-
try, and held a living at GodmevHham, Kent,
from which in 1602 he was expelled by the Act
of Uniformity. Ilie flhafteabury party in 1080
sought and secured his aerviccH an a writer of
political pamphlets attacking the government,
fie wrote pamphlets of remarkable ingenuity,
attempting to prove the marriage of the King
to Lucy Waltors, the Duke of Monmouth's
mother, and opposing the. Exclusion Bill. Ho
was implicated in 1083 in the Rye ffoiwo Plot,
although he anserted that he entered it in order
to frustrate- it. JEIo saved himnelf by flooing to
Holland. He accompanied Monmouth an his
s<KTetary and chief adviser to the west of Eng-
land hi '1084, and after tho battle of Sedgmoor,
in ICHfS, escaped again to Holland. Ho accom-
panied William of Orange to England in 1088
and wrote various pamphlets in his behalf* but
not receiving the recognition ho had hoped for
and being removed (1092) from the Excise, ho
suddenly became an ardent Jacobite and was
in moat of tho plots during William'H reign. He
wa« several timos arrested and imprisoned, but
nevor brought to trial. Beaides hiw religious and
political pumphletn, he wrote: A History of the
Devolution (1700): Qualifications Requisite in
a Minister of 8t(tte (1710) ; The History of AH
the AfobSj Tumult*, and Insurrection* in Great
Britain (1715). Consult James Ferguson, For-
guson tho Plotter ("Edinburgh, 1887).

raBOTTSOtf, SIB SAMUEL (1810-80). An
frish poet and antiquarian, born at Belfast. He
at Bftlfawt and afterward went to Trin-

ity College, Dublin, where he graduated in 1826.
He practiced law for some timo and was then
made deputy keeper of the public records of
Ireland (1S07). For his services in this difficult
position, which entailed much research, he was
knighted in 1878. His poems and stories ap-
peared constantly in the Dublin University
Magazine, and he was also a contributor to
Blackwood's Magazine. In 1882 he was elected
president of the Royal Irish Academy. It is
said that his imperfect knowledge of the Irish
language interfered with an entirely faithful
rendering by him of Gaelic myth and legend.
Be this as it may, he holds an honored place
among those who in English poetry have made
the modern world acquainted with the strange
beauty of the ancient Celtic imagination. His
epic poem, Congal, in five books (1872), is prob-
ably his most important work; other volumes
are Lays of the Western Gael (18G5) and Poems
(1880). Talcs from lilackwood (1st series, vols.
iii, vii, viii, and xii) contain several examples of
his work. A collection of his stories and poems,
including among the latter many early ones, was
edited by Lady Ferguson and called Hibernian
Nights9 Entertainments (1887). He is now
known to bo tliei author of an extraordinary jou
d'cftprit formerly attributed to William Maginn
and entitled Father Tom and the Pope (183H),
which admirably represents the Irish fancy in
the full career of its wildcat wit and drollery,
lie also wrote several antiquarian studies, of
which the beat known is Ogham Inscriptions in
Ireland, Wales, and Scotland, cd. by Lady Fer-
guson (1887). Consult Sir Samuel Ferguson in
1/ie Ireland of his Day (2 vols., London, 1890),
by his wife, Mary C. Ferguson.

FEBatTSOW, SAMUEL DAVID (1842-1910).
An American negro bishop of the Protestant
Episcopal church. ITo was born at Charleston,
S. C., and emigrated (1848) with his parents to
Liberia, Africa, where he waa educated in mis-
sion schools. IIo became a teacher in 18C2, and
was ordained deacon in 1865 and priest in 1808.
In 1884 the House of Biwhops elected him 'mis-
sionary Bishop of Capo Palmas, and lie was*
consecrated in Grace Church, New York, in the
following your, lie received the honorary decrees
of D.D, from Kenyon College in 1885 and D.C.L.
from Liberia College in 1893. Ferguson was
tho first African to become a bishop of tho
Protestant Episcopal Church of America.

FEB'GKITSSOW, JAMES (1808-80). A Rcot-
tiwh architectural writer. He was born at Ayr
and was educated at the high school in Edin-
burgh. Ho afterward entered the firm of Fair lie,
FergiiflBon & Co., at Calcutta, India. Having
rmulo a fortune in the indigo trade, he retired
from busincHS and devoted himself to the study
of archaeological and architectural subjects. In
3857 he was appointed a member of tho Royal
Commission to immiro into the defenses of the
United Kingdom. He received a gold medal from
tho Royal Institute of British Architects in 1871
and was a vice president of the lloyal Asiatic
Society at the time of his death. Though he
never practiced architecture, his advice was often
nought by those in charge of the construction
of ptiblic buildings* Fergusson was the first to
show that architecture from the Renaissance to
tho present day consisted mainly of revivals and
imitations of ancient styles, whereas that of the
preceding agos was in general spontaneously
evolved. JTia writings include: Illvntrationtt tn
the Rock-Cut Temples of India (1845); The

472

Illustrated Handbook of Architecture (1855);
A History of Architecture in All Countries from
the Earliest Times to the Present Day (1867-
7G; 3d ed., 5 yols., 1891-99), which because of
its comprehensive scope and suggestive criticism
still ranks among the hest in the field; History
of Indian and Eastern Architecture (1876; new
ed., 2 vols., 1910). Consult the brief biography
in the Architect, vol. xxxv (1880).

FERCKCTSSOW, ROBEBT (1750-74). A Scot-
tish poet. He was born in Edinburgh and was
educated at the Dundee grammar school and at
the University of St. Andrews. Giving up the
church, for which he was at first intended, and
refusing to study medicine, he returned to Edin-
burgh, where he found employment as a copyist
in the office of the commissary clerk. This posi-
tion he held, for the most part, till his death.
In 1771 he contributed poems to Ruddiman's
Weekly Magazine, and they gained him great
local reputation. His society was eagerly sought,
and in that convivial time he was led into ox-
cesses which impaired his health. He became
melancholy and, from the effects of a fall, insane.
His Poems were published in 1773. In 1789
Burns placed over his grave a memorial bearing
a verse epitaph. Fergusson, a fluent and natural
versifier in the Scottish dialect, was the fore-
runner of Burns. Consult: Works, edited with
Life, and Essay on Poetical Genius by Grosart
(Edinburgh, 1851); Ward, English Poets, vol.
iii (New York, 1889); G. B. S. Douglas, Scot-
tish Poetry: Druinmond of Hawthomden to
ffergusson (ib., 1911).

FERGTJSSON", SIB WILLIAM (1808-77). A
British surgeon. He was born at Prestonpans,
Scotland, and was educated at Edinburgh. In
1831 he was elected surgeon of the Edinburgh
Royal Dispensary, and after 1836 he served in
the same capacity at the Eoyal Infirmary. He
afterward successively became professor of sur-
gery at King's College, London (1840-70), sur-
geon in ordinary to the Prince Consort (1840),
and to the Queen (1867), president of the Royal
College of Surgeons (1870), and clinical profes-
sor of surgery at King's College (1870-77). In
1866 he was created Baronet. He was for
many years the leading operator in London and
was the inventor of numerous ingenious surgi-
cal instruments, such as the "bulldog" forceps,
vaginal speculum, and the mouth gag for cleft
palate. He was especially successful with the
operations for harelip and cleft palate and for
the amputation of limbs. His principal works
are The Progress of Anatomy and Surgery in
the Nineteenth Century (1807) and a System of
Practical Surgery (5th ed., 1870).

FE'RLffi (Lat., holidays). Holidays in an-
cient Rome during which political and legal
transactions were suspended and slaves enjoyed
a cessation from labor. Ferioe were thus dies
nefasti, the opposite of the dies fasti. (See
FASTI.) Days which were consecrated to a par-
ticular divinity, on which any public ceremony
was celebrated, and the like, were ferise. In con-
tradistinction to these, which were ferice publics
(public holidays), there were ferice prwata,
which were observed by single families, in com-
memoration of some particular occurrence of
importance to them or their ancestors. Birth-
days, days of purification after a funeral, etc.,
were also observed as family feriae. The public
foriae were divided into those which were always
kept (stativce) on certain days marked in the
calendar, and those which were kept by com-

mand of the consuls or other superior magis-
trates on the occasion of any public emergency
( imperatives ) . There were 45 fixed holidays in
ancient Rome and a large number of movable
ferice, the most important of which were the
fcricc latince, the original common festival of the
Latin tribes, held on the top of the Alban Mount,
afterward carried to Rome along with the su-
premacy over Latium; the ferice sem entire?, or
sowers' festival, in the spring; and the ferice
vindemiales, or vintage festival, in the fall. Con-
sult Fowler, Roman Festivals (London, 1899),
and Wissowa, Religion und Kultus der Romcr
(2d ed., Munich, 1912).

FEJR.ISHTAH. See FIRISIITAH.

FEBLAND, farliiN', JEAN BAPTISTE A:*-
TOINE (1805-64). A Canadian clergyman, his-
torian, and biographer. He was born in Montreal
and was educated at Nicolet College, where
(after being ordained to the priesthood of the
Roman Catholic church, serving as vicar of
Quebec, and filling several pastorates in his
native province) he was appointed a professor
(1841) and superior (1848). In 1834 he served
as hospital chaplain at Quebec during the
cholera outbreak, and in 1847 he distinguished
himself by his courage during an epidemic of
typhoid fever. He was attached to the cathedral
at Quebec and was made a member of the
Bishop's council (1850); was appointed pro-
fessor of Canadian and American history in
Laval University (1855), and became dean of
the faculty of arts (1804). Ferland's work as a
historian was remarkable no less for its lucid
and charming style than for the patience, thor-
oughness, and impartiality with which original
sources were explored and the inaccuracies and
misrepresentations of former Canadian histori-
ans and biographers were corrected. In this
respect he ably carried on the work initiated by
F. X. Garneau. He published: Observations sur
une histoire du Canada par l\\.bbe Brawcur
( 1853 ) ; Notes sur les regHres de Notre Damo
de Quebec (1854); Cours df histoire du Canada
(vol. i, 1861; vol. ii, by Laverdierc, 1865);
Journal cVun voyage sur les cdtcs de la Gaspesie
(1861); Lettre sur la mission du Labrador
(1862) ; Notice biographique sur Monscigncur
Joseph Octave Plessis, Ev£quc de Quebec (1863) ;
Louis Olivier Qamache (1863).

FERLAND, JOSEPH AUGE- ALBERT (1872-
). A Canadian artist and poet. He was
born in Montreal and after completing his early
education, studied art, history, literature, and
theology. As an artist he produced a large
number of historical portraits; but his poetical
work is more important and has won distin-
guished recognition. He contributed frequently
to Les Soirees du CMteau de Ratncftcty. He
was also one of the founders of Ecole Litttoaire
of Montreal, an organization whoso membership
represents the new school of French-Canadian
poetry. Ferland afterward became its prroi-
dent. In 1893 he was elected a corresponding
member of the French Academy of Literature and
Biography. He published Melodies pottiqucs
(1803), and Femmes r$v6es, with preface by
L. H. Frechette (1899). Consult Roy, "French-
Canadian Literature," in Canada and its Prov-
inces, vol. vi (22 vols., Toronto, 1913-14).

PEBTVTATSTACKBC. fer-man'a or fer-ma'nA
(named from the Irish clan Fir-3tfonach, men of
Monach)* An inland county in the southwest of
the Province of Ulster, Ireland (Map: Ireland,
D 3). Area about 715 square miles. The most

PEBMAT

473

FERMENTATION

important town in the county is Knniskillen
(q.v.). There are pottery works at Belleek.
The population, chieily engaged in agriculture,
shows a gradual decline since 1841, when it was
156,481. In 1851 it was 116,047; 1891, 74,170;
1901, 65,430; 1911, 61,836.

FEB-MAT, far'mA', PIERRE DE (1601-65). A
French mathematician, born at Beaumont-do-
Lomagne, near Montauban. He was one of the
most versatile mathematicians of his time and
was unsurpassed as a contributor to tho theory
of numbers. Format was educated privately,
was of a retiring disposition, and published little
during his lifetime. At one time he turned his
attention to law and in 1631 became counselor
for the Parliament of Toulouse. The first edition
of his works, gathered from his papers, annota-
tions, and personal letters, was published in
two volumes under the title Opera Mathcmatica
(1670-70). Copies of this edition have become
quite rare. The first volume contains tho Arith-
metic of DiophaniuR annotated, and the second,
monographs on maxima and minima tangents,
and centres of gravity, and copies of his corre-
spondence with Huygens, Pascal, Descartes, and
others. His chief contributions to the theory of
numbers are found in his commentaries on Dio-
plwnliis. Among them are such well-known
propositions as follow: If a is prime to />, p
being a prime number, then OP—I— I is divisible
by /), or, expressed in the notation of congruences
(q.v.), a*—1—! = 0 (mod. p). A prime, greater
than 2 can be uniquely expressed as the di (Ter-
ence of two squares. The expression p* + qy,
where p IH prime to fl, is not divisible by a
prime of the form 4n — 1. If p, </, r, arc integers
such that pa + <f = r1, then pq cannot be a
square. The equation #* + 2 = ,?/* has a nniquo
solution, and the equation *& + 4 = tys has two
solutions. The equation #* + #n = ffnhas no
integral root if n is integral and greater than
2. This proposition 1ms never lx»cn proved, and
a large prize is at the disposal of tho University
of Gottimjen for the iirwt proof that th« mathe-
matical world will accept a» valid. Tn the case,
of particular curves Fermat obtained the maxi-
mum and 'minimum values of their functions;
ulso the Riibtangimts of the ellipse, cycloid, con-
choid, and quadratrfc. The, methods employed
so resembled those afterward developed through
the differential calculus that some mathema-
ticians, especially Laplace and I^agrango, htivo
suggested Fermat as tho inventor of tho calculus.
The rise of the theory of probability (see Pnon-
AIUUTV) nmy bo dated practically from the
correspondence of Vermat and Vascal (1054).
Ker mut's answers to tho problem H suggested by
i'nscal reveal his firm ffrawp on the fundamental
principles of probabilities. For further Informa-
tion concerning the life and work of Format,
roiiKiilt: Librl, Juwrnal dw #<u*<mte, pp. f>tt9-
flfll (I8;W) \ Uraspinne, /VeVte tics wurrctt matM-
watiques do Format (Paris, 1853) ; Hoofer, in
the A'ouw/fc Bitwraphfo Uttiwratillfi, xvii, 438-
4fil; Henry, "tteeherchcH HW lea manuscrits do
2'ierre do Format/1 in the fttMwmpatini JKullctin^
vols. xii and xiii: Paul Tannery, "Hur la date
d<w principal's de>/wve,rtes do Fermat,*' in tlw»
Rttllrtin jWb<»tw, 2<l series, vol. vii (1883);
fciL<w manuserita de Format," in tho Anna lea
dtf la FwuW, dc* Mtrca <1<* Rordcaiw. The
CKuvrc* of FVrniat \vero republifthcd by Tannery
and Henry under the auspices of tli<v Minister of
Public Instruction (Paris, 1H91-04),

JTBBMATA* fer-nill'tA (It,, Btoppcd). In
VOL. Mll

music, the name given to a pause or resting
point, generally marked by the sign /*. The
notes over which this sign is placed are pro-
longed beyond their true length.

PEB'MENTA^ION (from Lat. fermentare,
to foment, from fennentum, yeast, from fcrvcre,
to boil). Fermentation as applied to certain
lower forms of plants is the counterpart of res-
piration in the higher plants and various lower
forms. The two processes are alike in that both
are dissimilative; both arc exothermic and re-
lease energy that is of physiological use in the
organism, and so far as the mechanics of tho
processes have been worked out, both are carried
on by the action of organic catalyzers, or en-
zymes (q.v.). Fermentation is generally dis-
tinguished from respiration by the facts that the
oxidations or decompositions are less complete,
involving, of course, a less copious release, of
energy, and that the particular organisms are
more limited in the substances available for de-
composition. These destructions hold only in
part, for while in respiration (q.v.) the carbon
compounds are commonly oxidized to C0a and
iraO, sometimes the oxidations stop with organic
acids or oven ethyl alcohol as end products;
many succulents in darkness oxidize tho sugar
mainly to malic, isomalie, or oxalic acid; Asper-
gillus fflabcr oxidizes a large part of the sugar
to oxalic acid so long as the substratum is
neutral or only slightly acid ; and many flowering
plants under limited oxygen supply produce
organic acids as end products, while in total
absence of oxygen they carry on alcoholic fer-
mentation. On the other hand, many organisms
that arc considered as carrying on fermentations
may di»»imilato a great variety of materials, or
even under proper conditions carry on "normal"
respiration. This is especially true <)f yeasts.
Tho marked similarity and lack of definite points
of distinction between fermentation and respira-
tion havo led somo authors to treat both proc-
esses under roBpi ration.

Besides furnishing energy to tho organism,
fermentations apparently often have significance
in producing materials in the substratum that
kill competing organisms of other spocies. .45-
'pcryillus doos this by excreting oxalic acid, yeast
by producing ethyl alcohol, and Oitromyeea by
forming citric acid. In the iirat case the or-
ganism ceancs tho excretion before the acid
reaches a concentration injurious to itself. Tn
tho other two there, is uaid to be no such regu-
latory formation, at least in cultural conditions.

Fermentations arc often named from the prin-
cipal products, e.g., alcoholic, lactic, butyric,
noetic, etc.. On the other hand, there are cases
where they aro named from the substance for*
mentod, as is the case with cellulose formeuta
lion. The greatest variety of substances are
fermented! proteins, cellulose, pectins, sugars,
alcohols, acids, paraffins, and a variety of in-
organic materials such as ammonia, hydrogen
sulphide, hydrogen, and carbon monoxide. Tn
fact, any reduced substance, tliat results from
various physiological processes seems to be avail-
able to one organism or another as a source of
energy through oxidation or splitting. The end
products of one fermentation or another arc no
less numerous: alcohols, acids* methane, hydro-
gen, hydrogen sulphide, carbon monoxide* atnino
acids, ammonia, etc. Some of the most active
fermentations are produced by the simpler organ-
isms, the bacteria {q.v*) and th« lowor forms
of fungi (q.v*) , especially the yeasta and raucor»,

FERMENTATION -

The fermenting power of those organisms is so
conspicuous that they were formerly called kf or-
ganized ferments" to distinguish them from
enzymes. But in these forms, as in higher plants,
the processes are probably carried on by en-
zymes. Some of the ferment organisms are
adapted to live wholly without oxygen for res-
piration, securing the necessary energy by fer-
menting the medium in which thty live; such,
e.g., are the butyric ferments (Jiac'illus aniylo-
bacter). Others 'are able to utilize free oxygen
during periods of sluggish fermentation or to do
without it temporarily or for a considerable
period by setting up active fermentation; such
are the yeasts.

Fermentations may be grouped as (1) split-
ting; (2) oxidative; (3) compound.

(1) Splitting fermentations are most com-
mon; they consist in the separation of the fer-
mentable substance into two or -more products.
Tho best known of these is the alcoholic fer-
mentation of sugar, produced chiefly by yeasts

(SacchcLroinyoeii) and mucorw. In this process,
which is employed commercially on a largo scalo
in tho manufacture of beer, wine, and spirits,
and in the making of bread, most of tho sugar

(95 per cent) is split up into alcohol and carbon
dioxide thus: C^A = 2C,H8OH + 2CO2. Tho
other 5 per cent is used as building material,
normally respired or fermented otherwise. It
l^s been recently shown that this action is clue
to zymase, an enzyme formed by the yeast, in
which several others had previously been found.
Only sugars, the number of carbon atoms in
whose -molecules is 3 or a multiple of 3. can be
fermented in this way. Of the hexoses d glu-
cose, d mannose, d galactose, and d fructose aro
fermentable. Oane sugar, a diwiccharide, is firnt
broken up by invortase into glucose and fructose,
which are then fermented. Different yeasts at-
tack the sugars differently: some ferment mal-
tose and not saccharose; some ferment fructose
better than glucose, others act on it l<>ss readily.
Alcoholic fermentation is stopped by the accumu-
lation of alcohol in the fluid beyo'iid 10-10 per
cent in the different yeasts. Lactic-acid fer-
mentation is well known from causing the "sour-
ing" of milk and fruit juices. Lactic-acid bac-
teria (especially the Bacterium aoitli-lartin)
are the agents. 'They attack the glucose dircclly,
and the saccharose, and lactose after "in version,"
converting the former into glucoae and fructose
and the latter into glucose and ga lactose. About
83 per cent of tho sugar is converted into lactic
acid; the rest is transformed into various by-
products. The presence of 8 per rent, or even
less, of froe acid stops the fermentation. Butyric
fermentation is responsible for tho aroma of
butter. The. products (among which are butyric
acid) arc numerous and diverse; tho process is
complex and varied in its details. The fermen-
tation of cellulose is of great cosmic significance
in avoiding the too great accumulation of carbon
in a form unusable by most organisms. One
cellulose fermenting organism produces acetic
and butyric acid 111 abundance, other organic
acids in traces, also carbon monoxide and hydro-
gen. A second sort produces similar products
with methane instead of hydrogen. Both these
forms are anaerobic. Other organisms also take
part in this important process. Pectic mate-
rials, another important constituent of cell
walls, is also fermented by various organisms.
(2) Oxidative fermentations cause the forma-
tion of new compounds by oxidation of the old.

174 BERMOY

The moat impoitaut eahe is piesonted by the
transformation of ordinary alcohol into vinegar.
In making malt vinegar dilute alcohol is allowed
to trickle slowly over beech shavings slimy with
the acetic organisms J&artrrnini aceli. By the
time the liquid reaches the bottom of the cask,
the alcohol has become converted into acetic acid.
The oxidation takes place according to the fol-
lowing chemical equation:

rHaCH,OH + O2 = CH3COOH + H20.
Some of the acetic-acid organisms can attack
a great variety of substances. In absence of
alcohol the acetic acid may be oxidized to carbon
dioxide and watei. The various fatty acids are
oxidized to their corresponding alcohols. Sugar,
mannit, and other substances can be normally
respired. It is probably correct to place in this
group the nitrite and nitrate organisms of the
soil which oxidize ammonia first to nitrites and
then to nitrates, and the sulphur bacteria which
oxidize hydrogen sulphide of putrid streams to
sulphuric acid. The action of these organisms is
of great importance in the nitrogen and sul-
phur cycles.

(3) "Compound fermentations are combina-
tions of splitting and oxidative fermentations.
They include mainly putrefactions, the chemical
• changes of which are little known. The products
1 are numerous and often ill-smelling. See K>'-
ZYMES; DIGESTION, ORGANS OF; RESPIRATION*,
OBGAXS OF; VrNiBQAB; ALCOHOL; BEER; BBKW-
JXG; DISTILLED LIQUORS.

FERMENTED AND DISTILLED LIQ-
UORS. See DISTILLED LIQUORS; LIQUORS, FER-
MENTED AND DISTILLED.

EERMO, fSr'mo. A city in the Province of
Ascoli Piceno, Italy, 1020 feet alx>ve sea level,
4 miles from the Adriatic, of which it has a
splendid viow, and 37 mi let* south of Ancuna
(ATap: Italy, D 8). Its small harbor is known
an Porto san (Jeorgio. It is the Heat of an arch-
bishop, and its cathedral rests on the founda-
tions of a famous temple of Juno; at the main
gate are the ruins of the immense ancient wall ;
and in the city hall, part of which dates from
tho fourteenth century, are Roman antiquities
and inscriptions. Fermo him a lyceum, a gym-
nasium, an industrial and a convict school, a
theatre, and a public library, is lighted by elee-,
tricity, and ships large quantities of grain, silk*
and wool. Breeding silkworms is an important
industry. Its name comes from that of the
ancient Firmum Piconum, whose ruins are in
tho vicinity. Pop. (commune.), 1J>01, 20,542;
3011,22,570.

FERVOR, ARABELLA. The daughter of
James Formor of Tutiraore. tho theft of whom*
curl by Lord Petre inspired Pope's "Kape of tint
Lock." She died in 1788,

ffERMOR, f&r'mor, WrtiJAM, GOITNT (1704-
71). A Russian soldier, born at Pskov, in the
government of that name. He was comnusaioned
lieutenant general in 1746 and in 1758 WHH
placed in command of tho Russian army in tho
war against Frederick the Great, when he took
Konigsberg and all of eastern Pms«ia. <>n Au-
gust 26 of that year, however, he was defefttwt
by Frederick at Zorndorf, and in 1760 he relin-
quished the command to General Soltikov, Sub-
sequently, under Catharine IT, ho was for a time
Governor of Smolensk.

PERMOY, fSr-raoi'. A town in the eawt of
County Cork, Ireland, on both banks of the
Blackwater, 19 miles northeast of Cork (Map:
Ireland, C 7). The hills to the south of tlie

475

town reach an altitude of 138S feet in Knocking*
keagh. Fennoy is an important garrison town
with barrack accommodation for 3000 troops. It
is the seat of an extensive Roman Catliolic es-
tablishment, comprising a cathedral, episcopal
palace, two convents, and a college (St. Col-
man's). Agricultural products and grist mills
constitute the principal industries. Fermoy
dates from the foundation of a Cistercian abbey
in the twelfth century; its modern importance
is due to the enterprise of Sir John Anderson,
who built the barracks, platted the town, and
established a mail-coach service throughout
Munster at the beginning of the nineteenth cen-
tury. Pop., 1901, 10,518; 1911, 11,226.

FERN" (AS. fearn, OHG. farn, Ger. Farn;
probably connected with Skt. pwrna, feather, leaf,
and with Russ. paporotl, Ir. raith, fern). A
plant of the order Filicales, one of the great
living groups of Pteridophytes. The group con-
tains about 4000 of the 4500 species belonging to
the Pteridophytes and therefore is usually con-
sidered to be the representative group. Al-
though known in considerable numbers in the
temperate regions, its chief display is in the
tropics, where ferns form a striking* and charac-
teristic feature of the vegetation. In habit ferns
vary from those with delicate and filmy mosslike
loaves to treelike forms, rising to a 'height of
35 to 45 feet and crowned by a rosotte of leaves
15 to 20 feet long. The various species of ferns
are prevailingly terrestrial plants, but some of
them are aquatic, even floating; while there are
numerous forms, especially in the tropics, which
are epiphytic, i.e., they perch upon other plants.
The Filicales differ from the other groups of
Pteridophytes chiefly in having a few large
leaves which do both foliage work and spore,
bearing. The alternation of generations (q.v.)
is very distinct, the sexual plant (gametophyto)
being represented by the prothallium, and the
sexiest! plant (sporophyte.) by the leafy plant.
The prothaltium is like a small liverwort, with
a doraiventral body, and numerous rhizoids ex-
tending from itfl undersurface.. It is so thin
that all of the cells contain chlorophyll, and it is
usually short-lived. The antheridia (male
organs) and archegonia (female organs) are
usually developed on the tmdemirface of the
prothallium and differ from those of the mouses
in that they are sunken in the tissue of the pro-
thallium and open on the surface, inore or less
of the neck of the, arcliegonium projecting. The
eggs are not different frotn those formed within
the arcliegonia of mosses, but tho sperms arc
very different. The fern sperm is a long spirally
coiled body, blunt behind, and tapering to a
long beak in front, which heart* mwieroUK re-
trorso cilia.

The sexless, leafy plant consists in the main of
a subterranean dorsiventral stem, which gives
out secondary roots from beneath and sends up
characteristic aerial leaves which have long been
called "fronds." Tho leaves arc recognized not
merely by their ordinary habit of branching, but
better by their venation, which is forking or di-
chotomoutf (q.v.), and by their vernation, which
is coiled or circinate. The sport vessels (spo-
rangia) are home for the most part on the
undermirface of the foliage leaves, usually closely
associated with the veins, and organised into
groups of definite form known as "sori." The
sorua may be round or elongated and is usually
covered by a delicate flap known as the "mdu-
aium" (q.v.), which arises from the epidermic

Occasionally the sori are extended along the
undersurface of the margins of the leaf, as in the
maidenhair fern and common brake, in which
case they are protected by the inrolled margin.
While in most cases the leaves doing foliage work
also produce sporangia, there are some forms
in which the two kinds of work are separated,
certain leaves doing only foliage work and others
producing spores, the latter being called sporo-
phylls, as in the ostrich fern (Struthiopteris) ,
the climbing fern (Lygodwm), the royal fern
(Osinunda), etc. An ordinary fern sporangium
(spore vessel) consists of a slender stalk bearing
a spore case. This case has a delicate wall
formed of a single layer of cells, and extending
vertically almost around it from the stalk, like
a meridian about a globe, is a row of peculiar
cells with thick walls, forming the heavy ring
called the "annulus." The annulus is like a bent
spring, and when the delicate portion of the
case wall yields tho spring straightens violently,
the case wall is torn, and in the rebound the
spores are discharged with considerable force.

The true ferns are often divided into two great
groups on the basis of the origin of their spo-
rangia. In one case the sporangium is purely an
external structure, being derived from a single
epidermal cell, and such ferns are said to be
"loptoHporangiate." In other ferns the sporan-
gium involves the deeper structures as well and
is really an internally developed organ; such
ferns are "eusporangiate." The eusporangiate
ferns arc the more primitive forms and probably
were the prevailing kind during the Carbonifer-
ous period. The living families are Marattiacece
( "ringless ferns" ) and Ophioglossaceas ("adder's-
tongues" and moonworts"). Tho leptosporangi-
ate ferns are the modern and abundant forms.
There are two great divisions of Filicales, viz.,
the. "true ferns" (Filicineae) and the "water
ferns" (Hydropteridineaj). Among the Filicineae
six great families aro ordinarily recognized, as
follows: Osmundacea?, containing the royal
ferns; Gleieheniaceas, which are tropical forms :
Schizfleacc*, which include the climbing ferns an
well as various other peculiar genera; Hynieno-
phyllacece, which contain the ferns with the
most delicate bodies, often called the "filmy
ferns"; Cyatheacooe, which include among other
forms the tree ferns ; and, finally, Polypodiaceae,
the greatest and most highly organized family,
to which almost all of the true ferns of the
temperate region belong.

The water ferns (Hydropteridineaa) contain
hut few forms and grow either in water or
marshy places. They are of particular interest
from the morphological standpoint, because they
are heterosporous (q.v.). There are two distinct
families. Marsiliacece, represented by tho com-'
mon Marsilfa, contains semi&quatic specie* with
slender steins, which send down numerous roots
into a mucky soil and give rise to comparatively
large leaves, each of which has a long erect
petiole and a blade of four wedge-shaped leaflets
like a four-leaved clover. From near the base of
tho petiole another leaf branch arises in which
the blade is modified as a spore-bearing structure,
-which incloses the spore cases and becomes hard
and nutlike. The other family is the Salviniacese
represented by SaMnia, whose species are float-
ing forms,

Fossil Ferns, Our knowledge of Paleozoic
forns has become transformed during the last
10 years. Formerly it was thought that ferns
were the dominant vascular group of the Oar-

PEBN

476

FERNANDEZ

boniferous, constituting at least half of the
vascular flora. It has now been discovered
that many of these supposed ferns are the leaves
of the most primitive gymnosperm group (see
GYMNOSPEBMS), which had foliage resembling
the fronds of ferns so closely that the two groups
cannot be distinguished by their leaves. Since
there is no assurance that fcrnlike remains are
ferns, it is difficult to determine the fern flora
of the Paleozoic. There are numerous frond
genera, sporangium genera, and stem genera
which suggest ferns, but many of them doubt-
less belong to the fernlike gymnospornis. In
general, two assemblages of undoubted ferns are
recognized as existing during the Paleozoic. The
most ancient assemblage is known as the Primo-
filiccs, a name of convenience to include a plexus
of herbaceous forms having stems of simple
structure, and also many characters suggesting
the origin of the modern families. The only well-
defined group of Primofilices, all of whose im-
portant structures are known, is called Botryop-
teridese, whose principal genera are Zygoptcris
and Botryopteris. The other assemblage of
Paleozoic ferns does not occur below the Coal
Measures, and is called for convenience the
Palseo-Marattiacero. These were arborescent
forms with stems of complex structure, and the
best-known genus is Psaronius, which was evi-
dently a conspicuous tree fern of the later
Paleozoic. During the Mesozoic nearly all of the
modern fern families began to appear, so that
the fern flora is recognized easily.

Consult: Hooker and Baker, Synopsis Filicwn
(London, 1874) ; Baton, The Ferns of 'North
America (Boston, 1880) ; Solms-Laubach, Fossil
Botany (Oxford, 1891); Campbell, Mosses and
Ferns (2d cd., London, 1905) ; Scott, Studies in
Fossil Botany (ib., 1909); Coulter, Barnes, and
Cowlos, Text-Book of Botany (New York, 1910) ;
Campbell, The Eusporangiatce (Washington,
1911). See Plate of PTERIDOPHYTES.

FEB.N, FANNY. The pseudonym of Mrs. Sara
Payson Willis Parton.

FERN", MAJLE. A popular name given to the
fern Aspidiuin filix-mas. The male fern has a
stout, more or less erect, chaffy, perennial root-
stock, from which arise numerous annual, bright-
green fronds, forming tufts 1 to 4 feet high. 1 he
stipe and midrib of the fronds are beset with
brownish chaffy scales. The frond is oblong
lanceolate, acute at apex and narrow below; the
pinnae are lanceolate, somewhat scattered to-
wards the base of the stalk, and often confluent
above; the fruiting1 bodies, or sori, are borne
near the midrib of the ultimate segments of the
fronds. Male fern is a native of Europe, Asia,
northern Africa, and North America, where it is
found in rocky woods from Labrador to Alaska
and southward into the United States. It is also
found in the Andes of South America. The part
of the plant which is of commercial importance
is the rootstock, which should be gathered be-
tween August and October, when its active con-
stituents are most abundant. It is slightly tonic
and astringent, but its chief use is as an an-
thelmintic, especially against tapeworms, for
which it is considered a specific. This property
of the male fern has long been known and is
mentioned in the writings of Dioscoridos, Thea-
phrastus, Galon, Pliny, and others. The prin-
cipal constituents of the rootstock are a green-
ish oil, the color being due to chlorophyll, a
volatile oil, resin, and fllicie acid, the latter'being
considered the active principle.

FERN, SWEET. See SWEET FERN.

FERNALD, fgr'nald, CHARLES HENRY (1838-
1921). An American zoologist, born at Mount
Desert, Me., and educated at Maine Wesleyan
Seminary. During the Civil War he served as
an ensign in the United States navy. He was
principal of Litchfield Academy in 1865 and of
Houlton Academy in 1860-71. After serving
as professor at the Maine State College for 15
years he was professor and director of the
Graduate School at Massachusetts Agricultural
College from 1886 to 1910. He also became
entomologist to the State Board of Agriculture.
Besides scientific periodical articles, he is author
of Tortrioidce of North America (1882) ; The
Butterflies of Maine (1884) ; Sphingida of New
England (1886); The Crambidce of North
America (1896); The Pterophorida of North
America (1898); The Brown-Tail Moth (1903);
The Genei-a of the Tortricidce and their Types
(1908).

FEBJSTALD, CHESTER BAILEY (1869- ).
An American playwright and author of stories.
He was born in Boston, but in 1889 settled in
California, where he was assistant draftsman in
the United States navy for four years. In 1893-
94 he was Washington correspondent of the
San Francisco Chronicle. He traveled exten-
sively in the United States, Alaska, China,
Japan, and European countries, especially in
England, where be became a resident in 1907.
His plays include: The Cat and the Cherub; Thv
Moonlight Blossom; The Ghetto; The Married
Woman (1913). He is also author of The Orig-
inal Papers (1892); Thfi Oat and the Cherub
and Other Stories (1896); Chinatown Stories
(1899) ; Under the JacJcstaff (1903) ; John Ken-
dry's Idea (1907).

FERNANDEZ, 8p. pron. far-niln'dilth, JUAN
(153C-C.1602). A Spanish navigator. For 40
3* ears Ferndndez was the leading pilot on the
southern Pacific coast. He made numerous
voyages between the Spanish headquarters at
Panama and the Peruvian and Chilean settle-
ments. Tt is reported that lie also made a voy-
age westward and visited the unknown lands of
Now Zealand or Australia, but this is extremely
improbable. As the prevailing southern winds
and shore currents made the voyage down the
eoast extremely slow, he was accustomed to sail
well out to sea, with the result that he made the
voyage in one-third the time taken by the vessels
which hugged the shore from cape, to cape. His
rivals declaring that he. was aided by the powers
of evil, he acquired the nickname of the *fc Wiz-
ard," and was tried by the Inquisition for sor-
cery. On one of these voyages, probably in 1502,
he hit upon the desert island which has since
borne his name. He took possession of it, made
a settlement there of (JO Indians, and tried to
establish a fishing station. He soon failed and
returned to the mainland, leaving on the island
a feiy goats, whose descendants have been its
principal inhabitants ever since. A friend took
pity on the old and poverty-stricken sailor and
gave him a plot of land at Quillota, in the Chilean
mountains, where he settled down, after marry-
ing, about 1590 or 1692. He left one won, from
whom descended a large family of sailors. Con-
sult Benjamfn Vicuffa-Mackenna, Juan J^rncfcn-
dcz: historia vcrdadera do la isla de Robin*6n
Crusoe (Santiago do Chile, 1883), and A. J)al-
rymple, An Historical Collection of the Several
Voyages and Discoveries in the South
Ocean (London, 1769-71}.

FERNS

1 CLIMBING OR HARTfORO TCnN • LVQOOiUM PAIMATUM M CURLY CRAftS - SCHliAA PUSILLA

2 COMMON POLVfOnY •• POLVP00IUM VUtfjARK 5 WALKING - PERN - CAM f*T03rtRUfl l»HI/OPHYl UUS>
<l MAlOf.N HAfH nPi.PRNWOnr A5PUCNIUW TMICMOMANfcS 6 CHRISTMAS. -

DE CASTRO

477

TyrATmrp

DE CASTRO, fer-nan'dsth da

d, MANUEL (1825-95). A Spanish geolo-
gist. He was born in Madrid and, after graduat-
ing at the School of Mines there, traveled in
various countries to study their railroad systems.
The system of railroad signals suggested by him
in his La elcctricidad y los caininos de hierro
(1857) has been generally adopted. He was en-
gaged in government mining and geological work
from 1859 to 1869, when ho became professor at
the Madrid School of Mines. He was appointed
director of the commission on the geological map
of Spain in 187«3.

FERNANDEZ DE C6RDOBA, kOr'do-ba,
DIEGO, MAKQULS OF GUADALCAZ\B and COUNT
OF POSADAS (fl. end of sixteenth and first half
of seventeenth century). A Spanish administra-
tor, Viceroy of Mexico and Peru. He was born,
probably, at Cordoba and was a descendant of
Gonzalo de C6rdoba, "the Great Captain." He
was Viceroy of Mexico from Oct. 18, 1612, until
March 14, 1621. In 1616 he suppressed a serious
revolt of the Tcpchuan tribe of Indians, who had
murdered several Jesuit missionaries living
among them. While in Mexico he founded the
cities of Lerma (1613), COrdoba (1618), and
Guadalenzar (1020), and during his viceroyally
the aqueduct from Chapultcpec to Mexico by
way of Sim Cowne was completed. Transferred
to Peru, Fernandez governed that province as
Viceroy, from July, 1022, to January, 1020, dur-
ing which time ho repelled the corsairs who rav-
aged the coast. In 1623 the Dutch under Jacob
the Hermit, with a squadron equipped with 1700
men and 300 cannon, blockaded Oallno for six
months and attempted to take Lima. During his
administration of the province Peru prospered
and enjoyed a considerable degree of internal
peace and quiet. Fernandez return od to Spain
in 1029.

ITERNAiNDEZ DE C6BDOBA, FRANCISCO
<<!.1475-152(i). A Kpanitth soldier and explorer.
1I« accompanied Pe-drariaa to Camilla del Oro,
Panama, in 1514 and in 1524 was went by that
commander to take possession of Nicaragua,
ignoring the rights of the discoverer, Gil (Son-
zrtles! Dflvila. After exploring the country and
founding several important nettlements, no en-
deavowl to sever his allegiance to Pedrarias and
to establish a government of his own. On learn-
ing of the treachery of his lieutenant, Pedrarias
conducted an army into Nicaragua and after
defeating CVtrdoba ordered his execution,

FERNANDEZ DE CfiBDOBA Y VA£-
CARCEL, FERNANDO (1800-83). A Spanish
commander and statesman, who began military
service in the royal guard shortly before the
deuth of Ferdinand VIL His first field service
\v«« under his brother Luis, the hero of Mendi-
gorrfa. Jn 1841 ho was implicated with Concha
in the conspiracy against Esparte.ro; in 1847
he was Minister of War, and afterward was in-
spector general of infantry, and captain general
of Catalonia. Tie was captain general of Cuba
in 1850. In 1853 he was made general in chief
of cavalry. He attempted to support TsaMla in
the outbreak of 1834, but when tho revolution bo-
came successful he fled to France. He returned
a few years later, and in 1804 NarvAez made him
Minister of War. In 1808 he took part in the
Prim revolution against Isabella. In 1870 be
was again appointed captain general of Cuba,
and in 1871 no was made. Minister of State ad
interim at Madrid by King Amadous, On the

proclamation of the Republic he was named
Minister of War. He published a simple and
interesting account of his first military experi-
ences in "Mis meraorias Intimas" (first in the
Ilustracidn Espafiola y Americana and later in
an edition dc luxe } .

FEBtfAtfDEZ DE ENCISO, gn-the'sS, MAR-
TfN (C.1470-C.1528). A Spanish lawyer and
geographer. He went to America in 1500, set up
as a lawyer in the island of Santo Domingo, and
by 1500 had accumulated a fortune, which in
that year he invested in the enterprise of Ojeda
for the colonization of Tierra Firmc. Ojeda hav-
ing sailed in 1509, lie followed in 1510. lie
found that Ojeda, besot by hostile Indians and
failing of ammunition and supplies, had already
returned in search of him. With the survivors
of Ojeda's colony he founded Daricn, He was
shortly after deposed by Balboa, went to Spain,
and in 1514 accompanied aw altruac.il mayor the
expedition of Pedrarias, tho newly appointed
Governor of Darien. He published Ruma de
geofli'offa (1510), the first account in Spanish
of the discoveries in the New World, and in
general more accurate than other early works
of the sort.

DE LA CTJEVA, 111 kwii'va,
FRANGIHCO, DUKK or ALBUQITERQITK (c.1610-?).
A Spanish administrator. Tie was Viceroy of
Mexico from H5r>;} to 1060 and a« such is said to
have, encouraged science and art and built up tho
city of Mexico, but to have been excessively
fond of display. The great cathedral of Mexico
was completed' and dedicated during liis adminis-
tration. In September, 1000, ho was appointed
Viceroy of Sicily.

ffERtfAtfDEZ DE LA CTTEVA HENRf-
QTTEZ, an-rffkAth, FRXNcnwo, DUKK OF Aum-
QUKBQUB. A Spanish administrator of the eight-
eenth century, a grandnou of Francisco Fer-
nandez de la Cueva. Ho was Viceroy of Mexico
from Nov. 27, 1702, to Jan. 15, 1711. His term
as Viceroy, like that of his grandfather, was
marked by no great event, but was remarkable
rather for tho vnat sums of money he squandered
in order to maintain hip splendid court, which
fjir HurpaHBcd that of his predoccflftorH and rivaled
in pomp the jnont brilliant; courts of "Europe.
It muftt be acknowledged, however, that he was
a really able rulor, and well fitted to represent
his sovereign in handling the delicate. a!Tair«
that arose during the war of tho Span tali Suc-
cession. Thft town of Albuquerque, N. M.t
founded at thin time, was named in IUH honor.

FERNANDEZ DB PAXE3STCIA, dft pillan'-
thyii, Dusao (e.1520-81). A Spanish soldier and
author. He was born at Palcnwa, Spain, and
in 1545 went to Pent, where lie served in the
Civil War of 1563-54. Appointed historiop.
rapher by tho Viceroy TTurtudo de Mendowi in
155(5, he wrote his celebrated work Prtmcra y
wgunda partti dc l<i Mntorla ffd /Vni (Seville,
1571 ), which \va« an account of the ftpaniards Jn
Peru from 1544 to 1564. It is generally con-
sidered an authoritative work and is the be»t
contemporary account of tho conquest of Peru,
although Rome critic* have accuaed the axithor of
ptrtiality. For a notice of the book, consult
W. IT. Proscott's History of tlir Conqutst of
Peru (new cd,, London, 1002),

tfEBNANDEZ MADRID, ma-tlrCi/, .losft
(1780-1829). A South American physician,
statesman, and poet. Tfo was Iwrn at ( •arta^ena^
Now Granada (Colombia), and wua educated ftt

FERNAXTDINA

478

FEBNKOBtf

Bogota. He took an active part in the revolt
against Spanish rule and, upon the success of the
movement, became in 1810 Procurator General.
He was a representative in the Convention at
Cartagena and upon the establishment of the
Republic of New Granada was chosen deputy for
Cartagena to its first general Congress. On
March 14, 1816, he became President of New
Granada, but was captured by the Spaniards and
sent to Havana, Cuba, where for nine years he
practiced as a physician and also achieved con-
siderable distinction as an agronomist and
author. Upon his return to New Granada in
1825, he was appointed by Simon Bolivar Minis-
ter to England. In June, 1820, he founded El
Argos, a scientific, literary, and political peri-
odical. His other works include two tragedies,
Atala (1822) and Guatimosin (1827), a valuable
treatise on yellow fever, a book of poems, and
various papers on medical, agricultural, and
scientific subjects. His fugitive poems and the
volume entitled LOB Rosas are considered his
best works. The second and complete edition
of his poems was published in London shortly
before his death.

FEBNANTOTA, fer'nan-de'na. An early
name of Cuba, given in honor of Ferdinand of
Castile.

PEBNANDUTA, fer'nin-dg'na. A city, port
of entry, and the county seat of Nassau Co.,
Fla., on Amelia Island, 37 miles by rail north-
northeast of Jacksonville on the Seaboard Air
Line Railroad (Map: Florida, El). It has a
good harbor on Amelia River which separates
the island from the mainland. The city's export
trade in 1912 amounted to $6,529,000, the prin-
cipal articles of shipment being bluefish, phos-
phates, turpentine, lumber, naval stores, cotton,
etc. Fernandina is also a popular winter resort
and contains a public library, county courthouse,
and a Catholic convent. Among points of in-
terest in the vicinity are Amelia Beach, reached
by a fine shell road, and Cumberland Island.
The latter was the home of Gen. Nathanael Greene
and is the burial-place of "Light Horso Harry"
Lee. Settled by {Spaniards in 1632, Fernandina
was laid out in 1850 and incorporated in 3859.
The present government is administered under a
charter, last revised in 1899, which provides for
a mayor, elected biennially, and a city council.
The water works and electric-light and ice
plants are owned and operated by tbe munici-
pality. Pop., 1900, 3245; 1910, 3482.

FERtfAlTOO DE ffOBONHA, fSr-nan'd6
da nfi-rS'nya. A lonely island in the South At-
lantic, situated in lat. 3° 50' S. and long. 32° 25'
W., about 200 miles oast-northeast of Cape St.
Roquo, on the coast of Brazil, to which it belongs
(Map: South America, F 3). It is about 8 miles
in length. The surface is nigged, rising in places
to an altitude of about 1000 feet. The island,
of volcanic origin, is well wooded, and the soil
is productive, but lack of sufficient rainfall pre-
vents the growth of luxuriant vegetation. It
serves as a penal settlement for the State of
Pernambuco. Pop., 2000, mostly convicts, who
cultivate corn, cotton, manioc and other fruits.
FERNANDO PO, Sp. pron. fer-niln'da p5'. A
volcanic island in the Bight of Biafra, in lat.
3° 12' N. and long. 8° 45' E., about 20 miles
off the west coast of Africa (Map: Africa, E 4).
It is about 44 miles in length and 20 miles in
breadth, with a total area of about 770 square
miles. It has a very mountainous surface, ris-
ing to an altitude of over 0300 foot ai the high-

est point. Forests of mahogany, oak, and ebony
cover the slopes, and dense thickets of cotton,
sugar cane, and indigo furnish shelter for the
varied African tropical fauna. The soil is fer-
tile and well watered, but the climate is exces-
sively hot and unlicalthful, the temperature
varying but little throughout the year, the aver-
age for the coolest month being 74° F. and for
the warmest 82° F. The chief products are ba-
nanas, rice, yams, corn, palm oil, cocoa, coffee,
sugar, tobacco, and vanilla. The trade is in-
significant. Pop., 1900, 20,741; 1910 about
25,000 (mostly Bubis and Portos). The island
takes its name from the Portuguese navigator
Fernando, or Fernao do Po, who discovered it
in the latter part of the fifteenth century. Pre-
vious to the Spanish-American War it was used
as a keep for Cuban political prisoners; since
then Spain, deprived of her East and West In-
dian possessions, has begun much development
work. In 1778 it was occupied by Spain. In
3827 the English, with the consent of Spain,
founded the colony of Clarencetown. Being
abandoned by the English in 1844, the island
was again taken over by Spain a few years
later. Chief town, Port Clarence (Santa Isa-
bel).

FERNET, or FEBlTEY-VOIiTAIEE, far'na'
vol'tftK. A town in the Department of Ain,
France, 5 miles northwest of Geneva (Map:
France, S., L 2). It is noted as the residence,
from 1758 to 1778, of Voltaire. A bronze statue
of the philosopher stands in the courtyard of the
town hall. The chnteau which he built has been
converted into a museum of his personal relics
and is visited annually by a large number of
tourists. Pop. (commune), 1901, 1269; 101 L
1172.

PEB1TEY, THE PATRIABCH OF. Voltaire, so
called from his place of retirement near Geneva.

FEBN1E. A town in Kootenay District,
British Columbia, Canada, situated near the Elk
River, and on the Crow's Nest branch of the
Canadian Pacific, the Great Northern, and the
Morrisscy, Fernie, and Michel railways (Map:
British Columbia, F 5), about 300 mil** east
(direct) of Vancouver and about 700 milt* by
railway. It has fine public buildings, including
the customhouse, post office, public and hi#h
schools, courthouse, skating and curling rinks,
and two hospitals. It is the custom** port of
entry, judicial centre, and provincial police
headquarters for East Kootenay; also the out*
fitting point for hunters in the East Kootenay
game preserve. Big game is abundant in the
vicinity. The manufacturing establishments in-
clude saw (mills, railway-car shops, a foundry,
breweries, brick works, and machine shops. The
Crow's Nest Pass Coal Company employs 2000
men, with an annual outpiit of 1,500,000 tons.
The town supplies electric light and power,
tfcar by is a 200-acre natural park with race
track. Fernie is the seat of a United States
consulate. Pop., 1011, 3140; 1014 (local eat.),
with tributary population. 7000.

FEBN ISLES. See FAKXE Istiss.

FEBNKORN, fe'rn'korn, ANTON DOHINIK
(1813-7SJ. A German sculptor, born at Er-
furt, in the Province of Saxony, Prussia. He
was a pupil of Stiglmayer and Von Schwanthaler
at Munich and in 1840 established himself at
Vienna, where, he executed his first important
work, the heroic equestrian statne "St. George
and the Dragon" (courtyard of the Kontenuovo
Palace). In 1858 he completed for the cathe-

PEB3STOW

479

dral of Speyer six of the eight freestone statues
of the German emperors there buried. He was
appointed director of the Imperial bronze
foundry at Vienna and in that capacity did some
of his best work (including the colossal eques-
trian statues of the Archduke Karl and of Prince
Eugene, 1860 and 1804, in the J*ur#platz,
Vienna) . Other important \vorks are the monu-
ments to Jellaclc in Agram and Joseph Uessel
in Vienna. He was skillful in his designs, which
aro bold and striking, but he lacked nobility
of conception and frequently inclined rather to
the graphic than the truly plastic.

FEB/NOW, BEBNIIABD EDUAKD ( \ 851-1923 ) .
An American forester, lie was born at Fnowra-
claw, Posen, Prussia, and was educated at the
Academy of Forestry at Mihiden and tit the,
University of KiinigBbcrg. Tie came to the United
States in' 187C and thereafter was chief of the
Division of Forestry in the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture (1880-98), director and
dean of the New York State College of Forestry,
Cornell University (1893-1007), profewsor of
forestry in the State College of Pennsylvania
for ti year, and after 1J)07 dean of the faculty of
forestry in the University of Toronto. For some
time ho was editor of the Forester. Hw publica-
tions include: The \Vkite Pine (1899); Report
upon Forestry Investigations of the United States
Department of Affricultwe, 7877- fW (1800) ; AV-
onomias of Forestry (li)02); Jftotory of For-
estry (1007); The darr of Tr*G8 (1011). The
annual reports and bulletins of the Division of
Forestry of the United States Department of
Agriculture were edited by him from 18SG to

FERN OWL. See NIGHTJAR.

PER OLOCGHSTE (Vr., from f&r> Lat. fcrrum,
iron + olifjiste, from Gk.( IXfyeoros, oligitttoQj
least, from fatjos, oligos, small ; so called as con-
taining less iron than its related magnetic oxide) .
A term Bometimen applied to thoHis Htccl-gray va-
rietieB of hematite that have a metallic luntre,
efljxicially the ores from TClba, TCuHwa, and ftwe-
don, which are H!HO called jtjMru/ffj* iron ore.

FERO'NTA. An ancient Ctalitiu goddcHH, wor-
Hhipecl in Latium and eentrul Italy, especially at
Ternu'ina (Horace, Natim, 1, T>, 24), and by
Mount Horucte; at the hitter place there WHM
a famous lucus Vwonur, und a great fair WUH
hold there on the feamt dayw of the goddctw
(1-iivy, i, 30). Her worship \va.s ultimately in-
troduced into Rome, and a temple WUH built to
her in tlw Campus Martuui; her worship, how-
ever, never attained great prominence at Home.
Her temple ut Ternu'ina wan ttpoeially devoted
to the manumission of slaves. Commit Fowler,
Rowan Festivals (London, 1800), and Wissowa,
Rvliaiu* und Kultus dvr IWmcr (2d od., Munich,
1912).

7EBOZEPORE, fe'r&z-pOr'* or FZROZPITB,
fP'rOz-pfloK (TfhuL, Oity of Firm;, so called from
its founder, Kiroe Shah ITI, who reigned in Delhi
from 1351 to 1388). The capital of a district of
the name name in the Punjab, British India,
3 xnUt'B from the southeast bank of the Hutlej
(Mapt India, B 2), At one time a large and
important town. UK its ma««ivtf fortification**
and extensive ruins indicate, it had mink until
its population WOB only about 2500 when it canm
into the possession of the ICnglwh in 1SIW5.
Traders were Induced to entitle in the town, a
large cotton proBB wan erected, and the place has
regained much of it» former importance. Tt haw
wide fttretto and colonnaded btuart, and line

residences on the outskirts. It has a large grain,
market. The city contains a monumental church
in memory of soldiers who fell ia conflicts with
the Sikhs, and it is tho seat of the largest
arsenal in India, and an important cantonment.
l>op., 1901, 50,437; 1911, 40,341.

!FER1lACTrTE, or PEB'RACrTTS (It. Per-
ran). A personage appearing in many mediaeval
romances and in particular in Valentine and
Orson. He is a giant of either Spanish, Portu-
guese, or Saracen extraction, of great strength,
and invulnerable until he meets Orlando. In his
castle is a great head of brass, which answers
nil his questions.

PEBBABTD, fa'raN', JOSEPH (1827-1903). A
French jurist. He was born at Limoges and
from 1871 to 1874 vvjis prefect successively
of Haute Savoie, Aisne, and Calvados. In
1888 lie was appointed corresponding member
of the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences.
II in principal works are: De la, propriety com-
tnumlt* en France et de sa wifte on valeur
(1830); Lcs institutions administratiucs en
ft d rfitranycr (1870) ; La rtforme
<>n Frnncc et en Italic (1881) ; Les
librw, Jfui oruanisatiun ?t lour tduc&tion
vH la Icflinlation voinparfe (1884); /»'0r-
ganiitatwn niuuiHpale fie Paris (1887).

I'EBBAND, MABIE Louis (1753-1808). A
l'*reneh Huldier, born ut Bertuncon. He saw his
ih'HL active aervit*o under Count Rochambeau in
AmericA and WIIH at Yorktown. Tie fought in
the, first campaign* of the French revolutionary
wars and became a brigadier general. His
friendship for Lafayette led to hit* imprisonment
during the Terror. In 1801, as second in com-
mand, lie accompanied General Leelerc's expedi-
tion to Ranto Domingo. Fcrrand was placed in
command of the troops in the eastern part of
the inland and was micccHttful in his campaign;
but the army under Leclcrc, in the western part
of the iHland, after being almost wiped out of
oxintence, by yellow fever, had surrendered to
tho innurgontw, und Forruud, with only 1800
troojm, confronted 5i5,00() men tinder Dctwa-
linen, the. rebel li^ider. Ho held out bravely for
two yearn, until reinforced by Admiral MinsiesHy
in 1805. AB Governor-General, he kept the
inland in comparative peace for several years.
Later in 1808 then* \vaa a general uprising, with
\vliitih Fcsrrand, denertod by the Spanish colonists,
\vaH unable to cope. He was attacked and de-
feated by a superior force under Ramirez, a
creole louder, and killed himself on the battle-
licld.

FEB/BAB, KU:IIOLAH (1502-10:17). An Kng-
lish tlteologinn. He \virn born in lx>ndon, tho
HOII of a \vealthy tuerchant, and was educated at
Cambridge, From 1018 to 3023, after extensive
travelw on tho Continent, he gave up all his timo
to the Virginia Company. On the revocation of
St» clmrtw in 1088. Fernir turnwl hia uttention
to ])olitic,al liffr nncY in 1024 was elected to Par-
liament. Afterward he hcmght a neglected manor
house and c&tate at Little (lidding, in Hunting-
donshire,, when1 he \van joined by the faxnilieH of
his brother and brother-in-law. 'lie xvan ordained
a deacon ami hcctimt' the religion* head of the
community, although he never took pricst'tt
order*. With the increasing howtlHty to every-
thins partaking of Catholicijan, and the growth
of niritimfam. Little OSddlng want made th«
hhject of bitter attacks, a pamphlet publiKh(»d
concerning it in 1041 l>eing entitled The A r mint*
fan Kunn*ry. At Littlo Oidding Ft-rrar liv**d

FEBBABA

480

FEERABA-PLOBENCE

quietly, devoting himself to theological studies
and preparing a harmony of the Gospels, of the
Mosaic Law, and a history of the Israelites.
These works were printed and bound by members
of the community. Consult Peckard, Life of Mr.
Nicholas Ferrar (Cambridge, 1790), of which
there have been reprints and revisions; also
The Story Book of Little (ttdding (1899), a vol-
ume of his religious dialogues.

FEBRARA, fer-ra'ra. A city of Emilia,
northern Italy, capital of the Province of Fer-
rara and an archiepiscopal see, about 4 miles
south of the main channel of the Po and 30 miles
north-northeast of Bologna (Map: Italy, C 2).
It is situated in fertile, marshy, unhcalthful
territory, the threshold of the city hall being
3 feet lower than the level of the Po. The
broad streets, the ancient walls, towers, and
bastions, and the crumbling palaces attest the
mediaeval glory of Ferrara, when it was the
seat of the house of Este (q.v.). It is reputed
to have had, in the sixteenth century, 100,000
inhabitants. In the ancient square castle, in
the centre of the town, now occupied by the local
authorities and the telegraph office, are frescoes
by Dosso Dossi (? 1474-1 o42), and dungeons, in
one of which the faithless Parisina Malatesta
( consult Byron's poem "Parisina" ) was confined
by her husband before being beheaded, May 21,
1426. The cathedral of San Giorgio has a strik-
ing fagade, dating from the eleventh, twelfth,
and thirteenth centuries, but the interior was
modernized by Mazzarelli in 1712. Artiwts whose
work is represented here arc Baroncclli, Loxn-
bardi, Tura, Bastianino, Garofalo, Panetti, Gia-
como da Siena. The campanile is massive and
handsome* Other interesting churches arc San
Francesco, dating from 1494, with frescoes by
Garofalo and monuments of the house of Este;
Santa Maria in Vado, which was altered in 1405
in the early Renaissance style and has frescoes
by Bononc; San Benedetto, built 1490-1553, with
paintings by Scarsellino; and San Cristoforo.

Other interesting buildings are the episcopal
seminary, formerly the Palazzo Trotti, with fres-
coes by Garofalo; the Palazzo Schifanoja, begun
by Alberto d'Este in 1391, completed by Borso in
1469, with celebrated fifteenth-century frescoes,
now an asylum for deaf mutes; the incomplete
Palazzo Costabili, with frescoes by Ercole
Grandi; the sixteenth-century Palazzo do' Dia-
manti, containing the municipal picture gallery,
most of the works in which belong to the school
of Ferrara, at the head of which ranks Dosso
Dossi; the Hospital of Santa Anna, where Tasso
was confined (1579-86); the tiny house of
Ariosto, now the property of the city, bearing
a Latin couplet composed by himself ; the house
of the poet Guarini, which still belongs to his
family. In the Piazza Ariostea is a statue of
Ariosto (1833) by Vidoni, and between the castle
and the cathedral is a monument by Galctti to
Savonarola (q.v.), born here in 1452.

The university, which is not a state institu-
tion, was founded in 1264 and, after various
vicissitudes, reopened in 1815. It has botanical
gardens, a physical laboratory, faculties in modi- .
cine, mathematics and natural science, and juris-
prudence, a rich collection of ancient coins and
inscriptions, and a library with 100,000 volumes,
over 2000 manuscripts (among them several
from the hand of Ariosto himself), 3200 auto-
graphs, and numerous etchings, etc. The monu-
ment of Ariosto is in the library. Ferrara. also
has a theological seminary, a gymnasium, etc.,

an Ariosto Society, four theatres, numerous
charitable institutions, a chamber of commerce,
a telephone system, and public gardens. The
city markets wheat, rice, hemp, wine, silk, cattle,
salt, and fruit, and has silk, hemp, and soap
factories and flour mills.

The origin of the city is very uncertain. We
hear of it first about the middle of the eighth
century as belonging to Bavenna. Then it passed
into the hands of the Count of Modena and
finally won its independence from the latter. At
the end of the tenth century the popes, basing
their authority on grants from Pepin and Char-
lemagne, bestowed it as a fief on the margraves
of Tuscany. In 1208, after a period of inde-
pendence, it came under the rule of the Este
(q.v.), who persuaded Paul II, in 1471, to raise
it to a duchy. In 1598, on the extinction of the
main branch of the house of Este, Ferrara was
united by force to the Papal States l>y Clement
VIIT. In 1797 it was united to the Cisalpine
Republic and afterward to Napoleon's kingdom
of Italy. It was restored to the Pope in 1814
and in 1859 became part of the dominions of
Victor Emmanuel. The population of Ferrara
is about 35,000; in 1901, the population of the
commune was 87,648, and, in 1911, 9,1,210. Con-
sult: Frizzi, Memorie per la storin di Ferrara
(5 vols., Ferrara, 1857 et seq.) ; Noyes, Story of
Ferrara (London, 1904 ); Agnelli, Ferrara e
Pomposa (Bergamo, 1902} ; Gardner, Dukes and
Poets of Fcrrara (London, 1904).

EERRAJ&A, FRANCESCO (1810-1900). An
Italian political economist and stateaman, horn at
Palermo. In 1834 he was appointed director of
the Bureau of Statistics for Sicily. He was pro-
fessor of political economy successively at Turin
and at Pisa and in 18G4 "became director of the
Bureau of Bates and Taxes. He entered the
Chamber of Deputies in 1865, was Miniator of
Finance under Ratazzi (from May to July,
1867), and in the following year was appointed
director of the Royal School of Commerce at
Venice. In 1881 he became. Senator. He wrote
a work on Importama delT fconntnia politwa
(1849) and edited the first two series of the
mUioteca dell' eopnomista (27 vols,, 1850-08).
His statistical writings appeared in a volume of
the Annali di Statistica (Rome, 1890).

FEBRARA-FLOBENCE, OorNCiL OK. Tho
Council of Basel, convened in 1431 by Pope Mar-
tin V, having fallen into a 8crze« w disputes
with Martin's successor, Eugenius IV, the lat-
ter in 1437 issued a bull tnuwf errinjr tho *tea-
sions to Ferrara. He was obeyed only by Car-
dinal Julian, the president, ami four biahnpn;
the council itself continued in session at Bawl.
(See BASEL, COUNCIL OF.) To the five delegates,
however, who met at Ferrara, Jan. 5, 1438,
others fresh from their homes were added, so
that at the second session 72 bishops were pres-
ent, over whom the Pope presided* The Kmperor
of Constantinople, John I*alirolo#un, was also
present and brought with him patriarch*, bifth*
ops, and other ecclesiastics, amounting in all to
700 persons. His object in coming was to effect
the reunion of the Greek and Latin church** in
the hope that he could thus secure the aid of the
West against the Turks, who were then prising
hard upon the Empire. The, Pope al«o desired
this union as a personal triumph over his ad-
versaries in the Council of Basel, and h<* hoped
that he would be accepted as a leader of the
crusade against the Turks. The points of differ-
ence between the Greek and Latin churches were

SCHOOL

(1) upon the doctrinal point whether thfe Holy
Spirit proceeded, as the Greeks maintained,
only from the Father, or, as the Latins held,
from the Son also (see FILIOQUE) ; (2) whether
the bread used in the Lord's Supper should be
leavened, as the Greeks held, or unleavened, as
the Latins did; (3) whether the Pope should be
accepted as the head of Christendom, overriding
the authority of the Greek patriarchs; (4)
whether the Greek doctrine of a middle state
after death without the remedial pain of fire,
or the Roman doctrine of purgatory in which
punishment by fire as an expiatory penalty and
satisfaction for repented sin, was to bo main-
tained. These and some minor points were dis-
cussed. Tn January, 1430, in consequence of the
outbreak of the plague in Fcrrara, the sessions
of the council were continued in Florence, and
there an agreement between the representatives
was arrived at; VIE., the supremacy of the Pope
was acknowledged, the Spirit said to proceed
from the Father through the Son, and the Latin
views in general prevailed. But the union cele-
brated on July 6, 1439, was short-lived. The
eouncil was continued by the Latins in "Romo
till 1445, and temporary union made with othor
Oriental churches. Consult: ITofele, History of
the Councils (Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1871);
<?<>™ki, History of the Council of Florence
(I^ng. trnno.T London, 1801); Croighton, His-
tori/ of the Papon/, vol. ii (London, 1882).

EER'RARESE' SCHOOL OF PArNTTIWa-.
One of the chief schools of northern Italy, usu-
ally grouped with the early school of Bologna
as the school of Ferrara-JSologna. It owed its
origin, in the middle of the fourteenth century,
to followers of Squiirciono (q.v.) of Padua awl
\vns ulHo influenced by the work of the Floren-
tine. Piero delln Franciwa (q.v.) at Ferrara.
From the former it derived its archirological and
naturalistic tendencies, from the latter itw knowl-
edge* of perspective. It was also characterised by
good drawing, modeling, and careful execution,
but wa« deficient in color. Tho school of Fer-
rara grew up under the patronage of the hoiwo
of Ento. Its chief repronontativos were Conimo,
Turn, Lorenzo (\wta, Dowo Dowrf, and Garofalo
(qq.v.). The BologneHO school originated about
1470, when a number of Ferrarese artiatH, chief
among whom was Lorenzo Oowta, went to Bo-
logna. Franeesco Francia, the, head of the. wohool,
learned painting from C-oflta; he and Timotco
Viti (q.v.) were HH chief maalern. Cotmult:
fturuftaldi, Vito do" pittori Fmmmi (Korrara,
1844); Lnderchi, Pitt lira /'Vmwww (ib., 1850):
Crowe and Oavalcawllo, History of Paintinff in
Worth Italy, ed. BoreniUH (London, 1012); Mo-
relli, Italian Painters, vol. ii (ib,, 1900) ; Beren-
Bcm, iVorf/i Kalian Painters of the Renaissance
(Now York, 1907).

FERBABI, ffcr-rll'rA, BtSNEwmof 1597-1(181).
An Italian poet and composer, sometimes called
Delia Tiorba. lie waft born at lleggto and wna
educfttal at Home. Tho opera Andromeda, for
which he wrote tho text, and which was act to
nrnaSe by Manelli da Tivoli and performed at
Ferrari'n expnwo at the Toatro Ban Cawtfano
at VVnu-e (UI87)» waa tlio first opera to be pro-
diieed publicly, all previous compositions of this
kind having lx*on performed privately.

3TEBBABI, ItoTORiB ( 1849 - ) . An Italian
sculptor. Ifa wad born in Rome and wtudied at
the Aceadtmria di Han Luca, in which h<* waa
later appointed a professor, He came to be
recognized as cue of the moat eminent Roman

Ii PERBARI

sculptors of his day. His work is accurate and
sensitive in modeling, minute and naturalistic
in detail, and forceful and truthful in expression,
but is often marred by excessive emotionalism.
Among his best-known productions are a statue
of Ovid in Eumania; the widely admired figure
of Giordano Bruno in the Campo di Fiore, Rome;
the equestrian statue of Victor Emmanuel on the
Riva at Venice; the majestic ideal figure of
Ancient Latium for the frieze of the National
Monument to Victor Emmanuel, Rome; the grace-
ful bronze lyre on Shelley's grave in Rome. He
became vice president of the Superior Council of
Fino Arts and a commander of the Crown of
Italy.

FERRARI, GAUDENZIO (c.1484-1546). A
Lombard painter of the "Renaissance. He was
born at Valduggia in Piedmont. Little is known
of his life, which was paased mostly at Vercelli,
Varallo, and Milan, whore he took up his resi-
dence in 1536 and died on Jan. 31, 1546. It
was formerly supposed that his first teacher
was Girolamo Giovonono at Vercolli; but this
view was overthrown by Morclli. He is now
thought to have studied under Seotto at Milan,
and lie was certainly influenced by Bramantino
and Luini. Whatever he adopted from these
masters he thoroughly assimilated, adding to it
an energetic naturalism of life own. In his
earlier period he painted in tho manner of the
Lombard school, but towards the end of his life
he adopted the exaggerated forms then in vogues
and his works show tho growing influence of
C.'orrcggio. They always display intense dra-
imitic action, although the composition is often
overcrowded. Fn his frescoes the color is bright,
sometimes even gaudy, but harmonious. He
excels especially in heads and drupwies. His
works are of unequal merit, the later being gen-
erally inferior, but he is in many respects the
most powerful master of the Milan school*

Among Ferrari's earlier works arc a triptych
representing a "Holy Family with Saints"
(1511 ), for the church of Hunta Maria at Arono,
and an tiltarpicco for the church of Cunobbio und
for Sail (laudeimo at Novara (1514-15). A
number of hi« most important works are, at
Varallo, where he lived for a long time. In
1813 he had finished in the church of Ranta
Maria dello Grnsrie 20 frescoes of the "Life of
Christ" — a wonderfully dramatic series in well-
arranged, though sometimes crowded, groups.
In the chapel of Santa Margherita, in the same
church, ho painted two freacoes of the "Life of
Christ" (finished in 1515), and for San <3au-
denasio a fine altarplc.ee,, the "Marriage* of St.
Oalharine"-—pe,rhapH the, lh*st of his earlier work.
Ho frescoed the walls of three of the "stations"
or chapels of the Barred Mountain of Varallo
and also modeled a number of terracotta groups
in tho other chapels of which ilui "Holy tfswnily"
and tho "Adoration of the Magi11 arc the only
ones that survive. Of those paintings, his great
but much damaged "Crucifixion,1' in the thirty-
eighth chapel, is tho masterpiece. Ita groups,
in their symmetrical arrangement and tho digni- ,
fled heads and harmonious colors, challenge com-
parison with Raphael himsdf. Ln 1*530-34 Fer-
rari decorated two chapels of the church of San
Oriatoforo, Voreelli, with frescoes of tho "Life
of the Virgin1* and tho "Life of 8t. Mary Mag-
dalen/' and in 1535 the cupola of the church of
Raranno with a cirdti of "Ringing Angela** —
erne* of the fluent existing specimens of such
work. In 1642 ho painted hi* freaoo, "Scourging

FERRET i

1891 had been banished a few months for Social-
ism, and for several years he made a great suc-
cess as a publicist. In 1898 he lectured on mili-
tarism in Milan. His main work was a history
of Rome, To this work, Qrandezsa e decadenza
di Roma (1902-08; in English, Greatness and
Decline of Rome, 1907-09), he brought the train-
ing of a psychologist with some knowledge of
economics. The work is more ambitious than
scholarly and is singularly bold in its criticism
of the Latin and Greek historians. In 1906 he
lectured at the College de France; in 1907 trav-
eled in South America; and in 1908 visited the
United States, lectured at the Lowell Institute
and elsewhere, and published Characters and
Events of Roman History. He also wrote Fra i
due mondi (1913; English version, Between Two
Worlds) and Ancient Rome and Modern Amer-
ica: A Comparative Study of Morals and Man-
ners (1914). For a critique, especially of his
far-fetched modernism, consult Besnier, ''L'OEuvre
de M. Guglielmo Ferrero," in Revue Uistorique,
vol. xcv, pp. 54-74 (1907).

PEE/RET (Fr. furet, It. furetto, from ML.
furetus, dim. furo, ferret, from Lat, /ur, thief;
apparently connected by popular etymology with
Lat. /era, wild beast). 1. An animal of the
weasel family (Mustelidte), so nearly allied to
the polecat (Putorius foetidus) that many re-
gard it as a mere domesticated albinotic vari-
ety. Others regard it as a distinct species, which
they call Putorius furo. It is of rather smaller
size, the head and l)ody being about 14 inches
long, the tail 5% inches, the muzzle somewhat
longer and more pointed, the head rather nar-
rower; the color is very different, being yellow-
ish, with more or less of white in some parts,
due to two kinds of hair — the longer partly
white, the shorter yellow. The eyes are pink.
It is, however, much more susceptible to cold
than the polecat and requires careful protection
from it in climates where the polecat is a hardy
native. It was imported into Europe from Af-
rica and was used in Rome as a mouser. Atten-
tion to warmth and cleanliness is essential to
the health of ferrets. They are capable only of
partial domestication, acquiring a kind of fa-
miliarity with man, and submitting with per-
fect quietness to his handling, but apparently
never forming any very decided attachment; and
they never cease to be dangerous if not carefully
watched, especially where infants are within
their reach. If allowed any measure of freedom,
they are ready to attack poultry and kill far
more than they can devour, merely sucking the
blood. They generally breed twice a year, each
brood consisting of six or nine. The female
sometimes devours her young, in which case an-
other brood ia speedily produced. Consult:
Everitt, Ferrets: Their Management (London,
1897) ; Johnston, British Mammals (ib., 1903) ;
Afillais, Mammals of Great Britain and Ireland
(ib., 1904-06). See Plate of FUR-BEABING
ANIMALS.

2. In the Western United States, a weasel of
the plains, the black-footed ferret (Putorius ni-
gripes), which lives in the prairie-dog "towns,"
feeding on those animals. It is pale brown, with
the feet, tip of tail, and a bar across the faoe
black. It is about 2 feet long.

FERRETING. The ferret is bred and trained
in captivity. Rabbits have the same instinctive
apprehension of coming danger from the presence
of the ferret that birds in general have of the
sky-flying hawk, and hunters take advantage

^84 FERRIC OXIDE

of this characteristic. They breed the ferret and
place it — sometimes free, sometimes on a string,
and sometimes muzzled — in the burrows or un-
derground runs in a rabbit warren, from which
its presence causes the rabbits to scurry off into
the open fields. The young ferrets are taught
by being entered in the first instance with their
mother. Ferrets arc equally efficacious in start-
ing rats from their underground homes or from
the bottom of grain stacks, where they do great
damage. The use of ferrets in hunting is pro-
hibited in many of the United States and is dis-
countenanced by most conservative sportsmen,
except where rabbits have become so plentiful as
to be pests.

PER'REX AiNTD POR'REX. See GoRBODtrc.
FERRI, feVrS, Crso (1034-89). An Italian
painter, born in Rome. He was the pupil of
Pietro da Cortona and so imitative of that mas-
ter that it is difficult to distinguish their pic-
tures. Ferri is usually the inferior in color,
vigor, and grat'e of design. After the death of
Pietro he completed the lattor's unfinished
works, notably the frescoes in the Pitti Palace,
Florence. Ferri's principal works are the fres-
coes of biblical subjects in Santa Maria Alag-
giore at Bergamo, a line "St. Ambrose" in
8aut' Ambrotfio della Mussina, Rome, and the
frescoes in the cupola of Sant' Agnese, Rome,
which were completed after his death and par-
tially marred by Corbellini. Among his easel
pictures are: "Dido and JEnoas" (Dresden Gal-
lery) ; "Madonna" (Munich) ; "The Triumph of
Bacchus'1 (Hampton Court) ; "Christ Appearing
to Mary Magdalen" (Vienna) ; u Alexander Read-
ing Homer"; his own portrait; and "Christ on
the Cross11 (Ufflzi Gallery, Florence). He i»
also known by skillful miniature drawings for
religious works of the time. His most im-
portant pupil was Qabiani.

EERRI, ENRICO (1850- ). An Italian
criminologist, born at Ran Benedetto-Po, Man-
tua. He studied at Bologna, Pisa, and Paris,
lectured at various Italian universities, and later
practiced law at Rome. In 1886 ho became a
Socialist member of the Chamber of Deputies.
His publications include: tioriologic criwinftlle
(1893; published in Eng. trans, as Criminal
Sociology, New York, 1800, in the "Criminology
Series") ; La scuola positiva di diritto criminate
(1883; Eng. trans, by E. Untonnunn, The Posi-
tive School of Criminology, 1006) ; Difcse, prnali
e studi di ffiurisprudcnza (1898); Dvliquenti
ncll' arte (1001).

PERRI. LUIOI (1826-95), An Italian phi-
losopher, born at Bologna. He was educated
in France and taught in several of the French
colleges before he settled in his native country.
After occupying the chair of philosophy and
history at the Institute of Florence (28t&), he
was called to the same position at the Uni-
versity of Rome (1871). While there he became,
corresponding -member of the, Institute of France
and editor of Rivista italiana di filosofia. His
works include: II genio d'AristotcJe (I860); II
senso commune nclla filosofia (1872) ; La pttico-
logia di Pietro Pompanasai (1877). In French
he wrote: Essai sur VJiistoire de la philosophic
en Italie au XlXeme aivole (1809) and La psy-
chologic de 1J association depuis Hoboes jusqu'b
nos jours (1883). He represented in philosophy
a spiritualism akin to Cousin's, whose pupil
he was.

PERRIC OXIDE, or SESQUIOXIDB OF IBON.

See IBONJ HEMATITE,

FBBBICYA3STIDE OP POTASSIUM 485

FERRIS

FER'RICY'ANTDE OF POTAS'SHTM. See
HYDEOPERBTCYANIC ACID.

FEB/BIER, SIB DAVID (1843- ). A
Scottish neurologist. He was born in Aberdeen,
Scotland, studied at Aberdeen and Edinburgh in
Scotland and at Heidelberg in Germany, and for
many years after 1889 was professor of neuro-
pathology in King's College, London. He also
became consulting physician to King's College
Hospital and to the National Hospital for Para-
lyzed and Epileptic. In 19 ]1 he was knightod.
His researches on the functions and the diseases
of the brain have formed contributions of the
highest importance to the science of medicine.
He published: The Functions of the ttrain
(ISTtt: new ed., 1880); The Croonian Lectures
on Ccrebial Localisation^ (1878, 1800). Ho was
also a founder and an editor of Brain: A Journal
of Vcurolofty.

FERRIES., ffcr'ya', GABBIBL (1847-1014).
A French painter, born at Nimes, He studied
under Pila, Lecoq de Boisbaudran, and Hebort,
and won the Prix dc Ttomc in 1872. Tn 1878
his "St. Agnes" (now in the Rouen Museum)
obtained a first-class medal at the Paris Exposi-
tion, and in 1889 his "Mothers Cursing War1'
(Amiens Museum) received the same honor,
lie was awarded the medal of honor in the Salon
in 1003. His drawing is excellent and his han-
dling free, vigorous, and sincere. His portraits,
of which that of General Andrd in the Luxem-
bourg is a good example, arc strong and realistic.
His other works include: "Spring"; a portrait
of Haronetw Akermanu (Munich Pinnkothek) ;
"Sorrow" (Luxembourg Museum, Paris) ; and
"The Dead Christ" (Ntmog Muwuni). Ho
painted decorations in the Hotel do Ville, the.
Sorbonue, and the. Falata d'Ornay, PariH, and
became a member of the Jn»titute, an oflieer of
the Legion of Honor, and a professor at tho
Kcole dew Beaux- Arts.

FEK'BZER, JAMBS FfifiifflRicK ( 1 808-0 *).
A S(M)t<iwb metaphyHician, born in Kdinburgh.
He graduated at Oxford in 18JH, was elected to
the chair of civil htatory in the (Tuivcrttity of
Edinburgh in 1842 ami in 1845 to that of moral
philosophy and political economy in the Uni-
versity of St. Andrew**, where lie remained until
his death. According to Kerrier's "theory of
knowing awl being," which wart elaborated under
the influence of Kant and Ins BiicmiHora, tho
ego enters a» an essential constituent into every
conception that the mind ia capable of forming.
The connection between the conceiving conscious
rnintl and conceivable being is intimate and in-
dissoluble. To be knowablo, objwt must coexist
with uNft/Vvf, and it is fallacious to speak even
of our ijintH'tinau of "matter per M"; for while,
we may be ignorant of what could possibly bo
known.* we cannot be ignorant of what IB abso-
lutely unknowable — what is neither an entity
nor a nonentity— the material world &// itself*
FVrrierV works include the Institutes of A/flta-
phifsic (1854) and Lectures on (heck Philosophy
and Other rinlfwophical Item aim of J. P. &erriert
published poftthumously (1800),

PBBBIBB, far'yft',' PAUL (184.1* K A
French dramati«t. He was born at Montpellter
and became an ollic.cr of the Legion of Honor.
His plnvH include: La rr.oancke d'lria (180B) ;
Ches VaitQtwt and Left inrendw* du Mawoulwd
(1875); />* MinpetHtations (1870); Lett mova-
quefatrw <w nouvrttt (1880); Baoolin (1884);
Tabor in (1885) ; It in greatest succor, JotfphtoQ
vendws par sea saws (1880), with music by

Victor Roger; Le fetiche (1890); Cal&ndcs
(1894); Le carillon (1800): La lello-mrre
(1808); and the opora libretti, La Maroca'me
(1879), Le chevalier d'Harmcntal (1896), and
La fiflc tie Tatwnn, with Sardou (1001).

FER/BIER, SUSAN EDMONSTONBJ (1782-
1S54). A Scottish novelist. She was born in
Edinburgh. Her first work, Uarrwgc, appeared
in 1818, and this was followed by The Inherit-
ance. (1824) and Destiny (1831). The merit of
these tales, which arc 'characterized by genial
wit, a quick sense of the ludicrous, and consider-
able ability in the delineation of national peculi-
arities, is sufficiently proved by the fact that
they have held their ground, notwithstanding the
enormous number of novels which have llowed
from the press sinco their publication. Like her
friend, Sir Walter Scott, she owes a debt to
Maria Edgcworth, who in Castle /tec&rai* (Lon-
don, 1800) showed how to make provincial man-
ners and life the material of fiction. Her novels
were edited by Johnson (London, 1893). Con-
sult her Ulcmoirs and Correspondence, edited by
Doyle (London, 1898).

FEBBlfiRES, fftr'ryflr'. A village in the J>c-
partment of Seine-et-Marne, France, 17 miles
southeast of Paris (Map: Franco, S., IF
4). It has an interesting thirteenth-century
church, but is chiefly famous for the splendid
chateau (built 1800) in modern Renaissance,
which was the headquarters of King William of
Priwma from Sept. 19 to Oct. 5, 1870, mid in
which Jules Favre unsuccessfully attempted to
negotiate' an armistice with Prince Birtmarck.
The chateau is the property of Baron Alfonso
Uothmhild. Pop. (commune), 1901, (Ml; 1911,
815.

EEKOEtlS, ALBERT WARRRN (1850- ). An
American psychiatrist, born in Brooklyn, N. Y.
He graduated from New York University in
1S78 and from the College of Physicians and
Surgeons (Columbia University) Sn 1H82, \va«
an interne for two years, and at various times
was aKKiHtftnt resident phynician in Keveral pri-
vate HanitnriuniH for inwano or nervous patients.
In 1S!)2 he took up the practice of oiiedicine in
New York City, flowing also an HHHiHtanl in mod-
ieine at the University and at Bellevxie UoHpital
Medical College and as aMHiHtant in neurology at
tho College of Physicians and Surgeons. lie was
a connulUng physician to the Italian llowpital,
New York, and to tho lUnghamton State, 11 OH-
pital; for a tinio was senior resident physician
at the Olon Springs, Watkina, N. Y-; and in
10K1 became medical expert to the State K<»Aervu-
turn fommiHsionm at Saratoga Springs. At
various tinier bo wan on the Btatfs of the
Auwriran Mediflo-tiurgiottl Bulletin, tli« Afodhal
Critic, and the State Hospital a tiulletin; ho.
alrto contributed to tho NKW JNTKBNATIO.VAT.
YKAR JlooK an<t tn the NKW INTKRNATION^L KN-
<'Y<iU>t».«i>iA. In 11)07-11 ho wa« president of the
New York Ktato Commission in Liinacy.

FEBOUS, ISAAC (1708-1873). An American
clergyman. He was born in New York City an I
graduated at Columbia CoUcg? in 1810, He
served aa bombardier at the Battery, New York
City* during the War of 1812, under hta father,
Capt John Ferris, Aftar teaching Latin at HIP
Albany Academy, ho atudlcd thooiogy under the
Rev. I)r. John Mitchell Ma«on and at the He-
formed Dutch Church fc&mln&ry, New Urun«-
wick) N. J-, where he graduate! in 1820. He
wan Huccesaively pastor at N«w Brunnwick,
NT, J, (1821-34); Albany, N, Y- ( 1824-30} j

FEBE-IS

486

FEBRUCCI

and in the Market Street Dutch Reformed
Church, New York City, the fashionable church
of the old Seventh Ward (1830-53). He was
president of the New York Sunday-School
Union from 1857 to 1873, organizer and presi-
dent of the Board of Foreign Missions of the
Dutch Reformed 'Church, founder and president
of Rutgers Female Institute, and third chan-
cellor of the University of the City of New York,
serving from 1852 to 1870, and by his admi-
rable management relieving the institution from
the debt which had encumbered it since its
foundation. His publications include Memorial
Discourse; or, Fifty Years3 Ministry in the Re-
formed Church of America (1871).

PKRBIS, JOHN MASON (1825-1911). An
American clergyman, born at Albany, N. Y. In
1843 he graduated from New York University
(A.M., 1846), and he also studied at the New
Brun&wick Theological Seminary for three years.
Ordained to the Dutch Reformed ministry in
1849, he thereafter held pastorates at Tarry-
town, N. Y. (1851-54), Chicago (1854-62), and
Grand Rapids, Mich. (1862-65). In 1864r-65
he was a professor in the Western Theological
Seminary (Holland, Mich.), and from 1865 to
1883 he was secretary and in 1886 treasurer
of the Board of Foreign Missions of the Dutch
Reformed Church. From 1881 to 1006 he was
editor of the Christian Intelligencer.

FERRIS, WOODBBIDGE NATHAN (1853- ).
An American educator and public official. He
was born at Spencer, N. Y., and was educated in
the Oswego (N. Y.) Normal and Training School
and the medical department of the University of
Michigan. He served as principal of a business
college and academy at Freeporfc, 111. (1875-76)
and of a similar institution at Dixon, 111. (1878-
79), as professor in Rock River University,
Dixon (1876-77), and as superintendent of
schools at Pittsfield, 111. (1879-84). Removing
to Big Rapids, Mich., he founded (1884), and
was thereafter president of, the Ferris Institute.
He became president of the Big Rapids Savings
Bank. After once (1904) failing of election as
Governor on the Democratic ticket, he was
elected (1912), and again 1914. In this office he
aroused considerable criticism by his manage-
ment of the strike situation in the Michigan
copper mines.

FEB/RO (Sp. Hierro). The most westerly
and smallest of tho Canary Islands (q.v.), hav-
ing an area of about 105 square miles (Map:
World, Eastern Hemisphere, G- 19). It is of
volcanic origin, rising to an altitude of 4640
feet. Pop., 1910, 7667. It lacks running water
and springs and is not fertile but produces some
grain and wine. Ferrp has boon regarded as
the most westerly point of the Old World.
Geographers at one time reckoned longitude
from the meridian of the island, and this custom
prevailed with German cartographers until re-
cently. The meridian of Ferro is 17° 40' W.
of Greenwich. Chief place, Valverde.

PEBBOL, far-r5l' (Lat. AreZo&rica), EL. A
seaport in the Province of Corufia, Spain, situ-
ated on a narrow arm of the Bay of Betanzos,
12 miles northeast of Corona (Map: Spain,
F 5). Originally a fishing town, it was selected
for its natural advantages as a seaport by
Charles III, who erected here for the Spanish navy
what was at one time the finest naval arsenal
in the world. The arsenal, with dockyards and
shops, covers an area of about 24 acros and is
still one of the largest shipbuilding centres in

Spain. A naval school is maintained in connec-
tion with it. Entrance to the harbor of El
Ferrol is gained only through a very narrow
strait, which is defended by the castles of San
Felipe and Palma. The town, strongly fortified
also on the land side, consists of three distinct
sections, of which Ferrol Nuevo is most notable.
Here are many of the finest buildings of the
city, and the streets are wide and regular. El
Ferrol has several squares and pleasant alamo-
das or promenades. The Plaza de Armas is the
site of a fine memorial fountain to Churruca, a
celebrated naval officer. The city has manufac-
tures of sailcloth, leather, spirits, chocolate,
linen, and hardware, and carries on an important
trade. The fisheries also constitute an extensive
industry. Pop., 1900, 26,257; 1010, 26,270. El
Ferrol appears first in history in the early years
of the thirteenth century, but it did not attain
any particular importance until its development
in the eighteenth century as a naval station.
An unsuccessful attack on the port was made in
1800 by the English. It was captured by the
French in 1809 and in 1823.

FERRON, fa'rGN', Tti£orniLE ADRIEX ( 1830-
94). A French general, born at Pre-Saint-
Evroult, JSure-et-Loire. Ho studied at the Ecole
Polytechnique, entered the engineers in 18o2,
and rose to be colonel in 1878 and a general of
division in 1886. He distinguished himself in
the Crimea, was a professor of military science
in the Ecole d' Application at Mote, became con-
nected with the Ministry of War in 1880, and
held the portfolio of War in 1887 (May 30-
November 20). His publications comprise: Con-
sidfrations sur 1e systtme dcfensif de la Prance
(1873) ; Considerations siir h systfime dtfensif
de Paris (1875) ; Instructions sommaircs sur fa
combat (1883); Quelqwes indications pour \e
combat (1892).

FEE/BOTYPE (from Lat. ferruvn, iron -f
Gk. TVITOS, typos, type), or TINTYPE. A photo-
graphic print made on a plate of enameled iron
previously coated with black varnish, and im-
mersed first in collodion and then in a sensitive
silver solution. After a few seconds' exposure
the operator proceeds at once to develop, fix,
and wash the plate, on which the pictures though
really nothing but an insufficiently exposed or
poorly developed negative, appears like an ordi-
nary photograph, owing to the dark color of tho
background. Consult Entabrooke, Ferrotype, and
flow to Make It (Cincinnati, Ohio, 1872). ftw

PHOTOGRAPHY.

FEBRTTCCI, fer-rofi'ch*, ANDREA (1405-1520 },
A Florentine uculptor, born at Fiesole. lie was
a impil of Francesco di Simone Ferrucd and
Miehele Maini at Florence. He has much of the
pure, devotional charm of Mino, Rostfellino, and
Desidcrio, although his later works, especially
the "St. Andrew" (Florence Cathedral), show
tho influence of Michelangelo. From 1512 to
1518 he \va« wuperintendent of the work* of the
cathedral for which lie executed an original and
lifelike bust of Marnilio Ficino and a Btatue of
St. Andrew. Hi* masterpiece Is the marble
baptismal font in the cathedral of Pistoia, carved
in relief with scenes from the life of Christ and
John the Baptist. The composition is of great
beauty, and the architectonic structure excel-
lent, although the figural part is subordinated
to the ornamental, as in all his creations. Other
works are a marble reredos of exquisite detail,
with an "Annunciation" in two medallion*, in
the cathedral of Fiesole; a "Holy Family," in

the Bargello, Florence; the tomb of the Sail-
ceti, in San Martino, Bologna; and the decora-
tion of the aisle of San Martino for Ferdinand
I of Naples. The tomb of Antonio Strozzi, in
Santa Maria Novella, Florence, which was begun
by Ferrucci, was completed by his pupil Casini
and Tommaso Boscoli.

FEE/BY (from AS. ferian, to carry, Goth.
farjan, to row, causative of AS., Goth., OHG.
faran, Ger. fahren; connected with Gk. irepciv,
pcran, Skt. par, to cross). A passage by boat,
generally across a comparatively narrow water-
way not readily provided with a bridge. Com-
mon rowboats are generally used for ferrying
foot passengers, but when horses and carriages
or motor vehicles have to be taken across, a
flat-bottomed barge may be used, propelled by
oars or carrying sails; or drawn by a rope,
either by manual labor or the force of the cur-
rent, as noted below. Such boats are sufficient
for light traffic, but where the traffic is heavy,
or the crossing broad, power-propelled ferry-
boats are used.

Flying Bridge is the name sometimes given
to a kind of ferryboat which is moved across a
river by the action of the combined forces of the,
stream and the resistance of a long rope or chain
made fast to a fixed buoy in the middle of the
river. The boat thus attached is made to take
an oblique position by means of the rudder; the
Htivtim then, acting against the side, tends to
move it in a direction at right angles to its
length, while the rope exerts a force in the direc-
tion towards the buoy. The course of the boat
and the action of the two forces tiro analogous
to the path of a rising kilo and to the forces
of which this path irt the resultant. The holder
of the kite corresponds to the buoy, the wind to
the tidal stream, and the tail to 'the rudder.

Steam Ferryboats, until recently, were* pro-
pelled by a paddle, wheel at each side, driven by
a walking-beam engine. There was but one deck,
placed a few feet above the water. This is still
a common type, but the larger boats built since
1800, particularly those for service at New York
City and at San I'Yanciseo, usually are driven
by menus of Hcrow propellers and have two decks.
Thin siflordH spacious cabins on tho lower docks,
makes a commodious and well-lighted saloon
with an outer promenade possible on the second
deck, inoroasoR the speed and mobility of the
boats, and lessons the troubles caused by ice.
The fln»t of these double-screw ferryboats at New
York was tho /*f?r</cw, running between New
York and Hobokon. It was put in two in 1880.
A later boat of tho same general type and, on
account of the long ferry,, a particularly largo
one, was the Jicrkctey, built for tho South-
ern Pacific Railway Company, to run between
San Francisco and Oakland, Cal., and put in
service in 1808. Other notable forry steamers
have been built for service in San Francisco
Bny, while of large and modern construction
aro the municipal forry steamers of the city of
Now York running between Manhattan and
Statcn Inland. The use of tubes or tunnels, Huch
UK tho Hudson and Manhattan and "Pennsylvania
tube between New York and Now Jersey, 1ms
aerved to cut down the importance of forrum for
pawwngftrfl, especially in connection with railway
terminal*; but the increased use of motor vehi-
cles has in many places given them a new
importance.

With the increase of electric infearurban rail-
ways and tho extended use of motor vehicle*, a

new form of ferryboat has been developed, viz.,
one where internal-combustion motors have been
fitted to a shallow-draft vessel so that a river
of considerable width, where conditions do not
permit the construction of a bridge, may be
crossed, Various tvpes of such craft have been
developed on the Ohio River and elsewhere in
the United States.

Perry Houses are provided at each end of
important ferries. Thoy contain ticket offices
;ind waiting rooms and often a great variety
and number of accessories, like news and flower
stands and restaurants. To accommodate the
landing places to the rise and fall of the tides,
or other variations in tho water level, bridges
are provided, with the shore end made fast and
the water end free to rise and fall with tho
water. The boats run into slips, formed of
fenders, or piles covered with planking.

Car-Transfer Boats are used to convey trains
of cars across streams or other bodies of water
where bridges or tunnels are impracticable or tho
distance too groat. Tn many instances, as in the
case of the vast numbers of freight cars trans-
ferred at Now York City, tho trains are broken
up into Bhort sections and run upon flatboats,
which, when loaded, are towed by tugboats. In
this manner tho wharves and waters adjoining
New York, Ilobokon, and Jersey City are made
to serve tho same purpose as hundreds of
acres of switching yards, while at tho samo time
the cars are being transferred from one railway
io another or to various loading piers. Instead
of more ilathoatft, moved by tugH, some transfer
boats are self-contained. Such a vessel, tho
.l/ar///fwrf, for many yearn was employed in Now
York harbor to transfer this Boston-Washington
expresses from Harlem River to Jersey City.
This service was abandoned in 1012. Probably
tho longest water-transfer route of thin sort is
that across Lake Michigan, from Frankfort,
Mich., to Kewaunoe, Wis., u distance of 03 miles.
It was put in operation in 1802 by the Toledo,
Aim Arbor, and Northern Michigan Railway
Company. Each boat carries 24 cars, placed on
four parallel tracks, and SK driven l>y throe
screw propellers, Tho boats are designed lo
broak their way through ico, and tint usual con-
struction is with a solid bow with access for the
cars at the rear to the tracks laid on the main
deck. Jn 1011 a voBsel 303 foot in length, with
ti capacity of 30 42-foot cara, was put. in service
by tho Ann Arbor Kailroatl Company be-twoon
Frankfort, Mich., and Manitowoe, Wis. Special
UridgoH are UHod to transfor tho ctirft from tho
hind to the boats. From Grand Haven to Mil-
waukee there is a car ferry whore a large VCHHO!,
350 foot in length, having a capacity of 30
loaded freight cars, i« employed. A ferry service
is maintained between Kochcster, N. Y., and
Colmrg, Ontario, a distance of 50 miles, the
steamer Ontario bHng able to transport 30 50-
ton coal cars. Tn 1914 a second atcamar of 500
tons, 317 foot in length and 56-foot beam, wan
ordered, able to accommodate 28 freight cars
ami MO pa8tt<m#ars. One. of the largwt and
mont modoro of American cur ferryboat**, tho
Cfontra Ooata, 433 foot, 4 inches in length, (10
foot, 0 inches in beam, and with a depth amid-
ships of 10 feet, 0 inctboH, waH launched and put
into »*rvicto in 1014* Thin ferryboat wa» built
for awvicc on Bnn Francirtco Bay to handle the
freight and passenger cara of the Southern Pa-
cific Hallway. It carried four tracks, Hpawl HO
aft to grivo a clearance of 3 fevt, 6 inches bet wen

488

cars of normal width, and had a capacity of 36
freight cars and two locomotives, or two loco-
motives and 24 passenger cars. See PUBLIC
UTILITIES, REGULATION OF.

A car ferry across Lake Baikal, a distance of
28 miles, on the line of the Trans-Siberian Rail-
way, was opened in 1900 and was interesting on
account of the vessel's having to serve as an ice
breaker in addition to being a transport. The
boat, which had an over-all length of 290 feet,
was fitted with three propellers, one in the bow
and two astern. It was able to break through
ice 39 inches thick. In Europe the ferry be-
tween Sassnitz and the Isle of Rtigen, on the
north coast of Germany, and Trelleborg, on the
south end of Sweden, a distance of 65 miles, em-
ploys twin-screw steamers that carry complete
trains. These vessels, 370 feet in length, with a
speed of 16% knots, are very seaworthy, being
built with solid bows for heavy weather, and at
the landings are backed into position, the cars
being switched on board through doors in the
rear. The cars are jacked up and made fast by
chains so that they cannot roll in rough weather.
A ferry of this type is planned to transfer cars
from the island of Key West, Florida, to Ha-
vana, Cuba, a railway having been already con-
structed to connect Key West with the mainland.

In law the right to maintain a ferry is a
franchise, created by a grant from the sover-
eign power of the state, and is a property
right of the class known as incorporeal here-
ditaments. The owner of this franchise has,
as an incident thereto, the right not only to
pass over the water, but to use the highway
on either side for the conduct of his busi-
ness. Indeed, a ferry is the continuation of the
highway from one side of the water over which
it passes to the other, although subject to the
public right of navigation in such water. Any
one who unlawfully invades the valid ferry fran-
chise of another is liable at common law in dam-
ages to the latter and may be enjoined by the
Court of Chancery from further interference.
Such violation may amount to a crime at com-
mon law or under modern statutes. Correlative
to these legal rights of the ferry owner are cer-
tain well-defined legal duties. Having received
a public franchise, he is bound to serve the
public faithfully and impartially. He must
have suitable boats, docks, and accommodations;
he must employ proper servants and agents, and
his -tolls must be reasonable. If he fails in the
performance of any of these duties, he may
be liable to a private action for damages, to a
criminal prosecution, or to the forfeiture of his
franchise. His liability for the safety of pas-
sengers and of freight is that of a common
carrier (q.v.). See FBANCHISE; and consult:
Glen, Law Relating to Highway*, Bridges, and
Tramways (2d ed., London, 1897); Pratt, Law
of Tlighwaya, Main Roads, and Bridges (16th
ed., ib., 1911) ,• Washburn, Treatise on the Ameri-
can Laws of Real Property (6th ed., Boston,
1902).

FEBRY, fS're/, JULES FBAWQIOIS CAMILLE
(1832-93). A French statesman and journalist.
He was born at Saint>Di<5, in the Department of
Vosges, April 5, 1832. Admitted to the bar in
Paris in 1851, he became connected with the
Oasfette des Tribunam, joining the group of
young lawyers who opposed the Empire. He was
among the famous 13 condemned to imprison-
ment in 1864, In 1885 he became a writer on
the Temps, where his brilliant political articles

attracted much attention. In 1869 he was elected
to the Corps Legislatif taking his seat among
the members of the Left. He demanded the dis-
solution of the Corps Legislatif and was a power-
ful opponent of Ollivier. He voted against the
declaration of war with Prussia. After the fall
of Sedan he and the other Paris deputies were
proclaimed members of the Government of the
National Defense, Sept. 4, 1870. Ferry was
secretary of this body and as prefect of the
Seine administered Paris during the siege in
alliance with Thiers. He was elected one of the
representatives of the Department of the Vosges,
and resigned his place in the government in 1871.
In 1872 he was appointed Minister to Greece by
Thiers, but resigned the position the following
year. On the fall of Thiers, he returned to Paris
and, entering the National Assembly, conducted
an energetic struggle against the monarchical ele-
ments that threatened to submerge the infant
Republic. He contributed to the fall of M. de
Broglie in 1874 and in his brilliant speeches fore-
shadowed the anticlerical policy for which he
is best known. In 1877 he opposed MacMahon's
monarchical plans and contributed to a Republi-
can triumph in the elections of 1870. He initiated
the policy of republicanizing the personnel of the
administrative and judicial departments. When
Grevy became President of the Republic in 1870r
Ferry was appointed Minister of Public Instruc-
tion and initiated his policy of breaking the
control over popular education which the Church
had obtained since 1850. In March, 1879, he
secured the passage of the famous Ferry
laws which suppressed the right claimed by
the congregations of appointing teach ere to
the public schools without degrees, for the
exclusion of the clergy from university coun-
cils, and the abolition of their right to confer
degrees. It was Article 7 of this law about
which the battle raged; it deprived every congre-
gation that did not obtain the authorization of
the state— 4he Jesuits in particular — of the right
of imparting instruction. The year following
ho became President of the Council and Prime
Minister, but on Nov. 14, 1881, resigned on ac-
count of the attacks made on his policy in regard
to Tunis. By the Law of June 16, 1881, the
Hchools of the Republic were organized, and the
following year education was made free, secular,
and obligatory. A system of normal schools was
GHtablfcliod and, in the face of the opposition of
the Church, a scheme for the education of the
women of the middle classes. In 1882 he was
Minister of Public Instruction under Freyciwt,
and in the following year became Prime Minister
again. Fn all of these positions he manifested
bitter hostility to the Jesuits and was largely
instrumental in Rucnring their banishment from
France. In 1885 the unsatisfactory result <»f
thei war in Tonkin, which culminated in th<» de-
feat of the French at Langsun, on tin* Chine**
frontier, led to Ferry's final resignation, March
30. His colonial policy, winch had more eco-
nomic exploitation as its aim with Bitunarckiau
tactics as a moans, was the cause of MB political
failure. In spite of his loss of political power
he was still an influential member of th<» Cham-
ber of Deputies, and in December, 1887, wan a
candidate for the presidency, but was defeated*
A few days after the election he was wounded
by a pistol shot fired by a fanatic named Auber-
tin in the lobby of the Chamber of Deputies. In
1889 he failed to bo reflected to the Chamber,
but in January, 1891, was chosen senator. He

FEBBY

489

FERTILIZATION

came unscathed through the Panama scandal and
was made President of the Senate, Feb. 24, 1893.
He died shortly after, March 17, 1893. Consult:
Sylvin, CtWbritda contemporaines (Paris, 1883) ;
King, French Political Leaders (New York,
1882); Rambauil, Jules Ferry (Paris, 1903);
Ferry, Discours cl opinions (ib., 1893-98) ; Han-
otaux, Histoire de la France conlc-mporaine (4
vols., Bug. trans., 1903); G. Weill, Histoire du,
parti republicain en France (Paris, 1900) ; A.
Dobidoua, I Stiff lute catholique et I'elat de JS70-
1906 (2 vols., ib., 1006).

FEE/BY, ORRIS SANDFOBD (1823-75). An
American legislator, lie was born at Bethel,
Conn., and graduated at Yale in 1844. He was a
probate judge from 1849 to 1850, and a member
of the State Senate from 1S55 to 1857, as a mem-
ber of the American party. He was elected a
member of the Thirty-sixth Congress as a Repub-
lican in 18I59 and formed one of the celebrated
Committee of Thirty-Three, organized to consider
the condition and relation of the seceded States.
In July, 1801, he recruited and became colonel
of the Fifth Connecticut Volunteer Infantry, and
he waa commissioned a brigadier general of vol-
unteers by President Lincoln March 17, 18(52, in
which capacity ho served to the close of the war.
In 18(i(i lie, was elected to the United States Son-
ale as a Republican, but hiB independence, and
his opposition to the Civil Rights Bill in particu-
lar, threw him out of line with his party, and ho
was reflected in 1872 by a combination of Liberal
Republicans and Democrat**, defeating General
Hawley, tin* regular Republican candidate. Ho
continued to act with the* Republicans, however,
and supported tho Grant administration, taking
a leading part in framing the, legislative acts
that provided for carrying out the President's
policy.

TEBBY, f C'rP', PAUL ( 1 59 1-1 009 ). A French
clergyman, who waw born at Motz and spent his
entire life there. He. waa the author of a num-
ber of unimportant works. A curtain intercut
attaches to a correspondence he had with BoHsuot
(10(J(J-07) upon tho reunion of the Prolcwtant
and Catholic churches. His tfafttefefomd flvnfoal
dc la reformation <lc la religion (1054) pro-
voked a refutation from BoHsuet. Ife. in said
to have received a pension from Richelieu for
agitating thin question.

3PEBRY, THOMAS WHITE (1827-00). An
American Republican politician, born in Maeki-
nae, Mich. Ho wan a member of the State
Legislature for Homo time, and from 1805 to
1871 was a member of the House of Representa-
tives. I To then served in the, XTnited States
Senate for two terms, acting for much of tho
time as 'Prc.side.nt pro tempore, and, on the death
of Henry Wilson, was President of the Senate,
in IS7«->7.

FEB/UYLAITD. An olcl-timo port of entry,
capital of Vcrryland IMrttrict, Newfoundland, 34
milcH Mouth of St. John's (Map: Newfoundland,
II 5). It has a fino harbor and lighthouse. As
Avalon, it \va* founded in 1024 by Sir George
Calvert, afterward Lord Baltimore, and here in
1638 Sir David Kirkc held the court of a count
palatine with powera over the whole island.
Ruins of the ancient fort exist. Its development
wa« anwtod by trouble** with the French. Pop.,
1001. 5K5.

FBBSEN", fftr'aen, FBBDBTK Asm VON (1719-

94)* A Swedish soldier and statesman, born at

Stockholm and de.ffconded from the Scottish

McPherfloiiR. Ho served in tho French army

VOL. viji

from 1740 to 1748 and was promoted to the
rank of major general. As a lieutenant general
of Sweden lie served in the Seven Years' War
and conquered tlie islands of Usedoni and Wollin.
In 1770 lie became fiuld marshal. Thereafter he
was an important factor in the politics of
Sweden, especially as a leader of the "Hats,"
until, as the centre of the opposition of the
nobles to Gustavus I ft, he was apprehended in
the Riksdag of 1789 and compelled to retire
from politics. He was a member of the Swedish
Academy founded in 1708. His Jlistoriska
Skrifter (Stockholm, 1807-72), largely auto-
biographical, arc interesting, but not always
unbiased.

FERSEN1, HANS AXEL, COUNT (1755-1810).
A marshal of Sweden and the won of the pre-
ceding. TFc studied at the Turin military acad-
emy, and, after nerving in the Swedish army,
became colonel of the regiment called Royal
Su&lois at the court of Louifi XVI, where he
was a conspicuous figure in the social life and
a favorite of the Queen. From 1780 to 1788 he
served with Rochambeau in America. Out of
devotion for Marie Antoinette, he accompanied
the royal family in their flight to Varennes and
labored for their welfare after their capture,
even to the extent of risking his own safety in
returning to Paris to plan their escape from
prison. Heturning to Sweden in 1703, he was
made marwhal, chancellor of the University of
Upwala, and was went as plenipotentiary to the
Congress of Tlastadt. When the Crown Prince
of Sweden died suddenly in June., 1HIO, the
people, who hated Fersen, accused him of having
poisoned tho Prince- and, seizing him in the town
hall, to which he had been take.n, murdered him
(rhino 20, 1810), His complete innocence was
subsequently established. Consult: Klinekow-
strom, L$ cnmtc cf« Fcrscn c.t la conr do France
(Paris, 1877); Oraudat, Vn ami do la> rcine
(ib., 1S02) ; Fach, (Jrcfrc Hans A$el von Fersen
(Stockholm, 1800).

FEK/TILIZA'TION (from Lat. for tills, fer-
tile, from ftirrc, to bear, Gk. <ptpewt phmcin, Skt.
bhar, <!oth. fcfffww, OIKS., AH. Iwran, Eng, hear).
In planttt, tho fusion of two sexual cells, or
gametes (q.v,). ThiH proeeww, sometimes called
"fecundation," is exhibited in the life histories
of most plants. Gametes are present in all
plants, excepting tho lower formn. The posni-
bio derivation of gamete has been suggeHted
by tho life htatoriofl of certain alga*, as Ulothrw,
in which there i« an evident relationship between
gumotett and tho ordinary asexual swimming
Hporoa, It i« probable that gametes have in
general been derived from asexual Bporea, and
it is not flurprining that they oociurionaUy gor-
tmnate, an asejcual nporos. In tho Himplest canes
of fertilisation tho garaotoH are. similar, so that
there in no apparent distinction of Hex. In this
case the process is often called "conjugation,"
and plantH which exhibit it aro known aa "isog-
amoufl" plunt«. Almowt all plants, howcsvor,
aro "heterogamoua"; i.e», tho pairing gamatca
have become HO different that a distinction of
sex is plainly ovident. In heU^rogamons plants
the male gamcto is known as the "sperm, and
the fotnale gamete a« tluk "egg/' and fertilization
in its restricted awne, in tho fusion of apena
and egg. Along with tho differentiation of
gametes has occurred the differentiation of sex
organs (gametangin), those developing sperms
being called "fttitheridia," those developing eggs
being called "ottgonia," or "atfctegonia,'' Tb&

FERTILIZATION"

490

FERTILIZATION

result of fertilization is the formation of a
spore which is in all plants technically the
"oospore," or fertilized egg. To distinguish the
result of conjugation from that of ordinary fer-

FEETIliIZATION.

1, sex organs of Vauchena; 2, conjugation of two ciliated
gametes ; 3, a large egg surrounded by numerous sperms;
4, antheridial tube entering egg of Cystopus; 5, sperms
entering archegomum of a liverwort.

tilization, tlie name 'Vygospore" is commonly
substituted for "oosporc." Among seed plants
a single free egg is developed within the embryo
sac, and within the pollen grain certain colls
are developed which are called "male cells,"
and which are sperms in function.

One of the chief features in connection with
the process of fertilization is the method by
which the pairing gametes are brought together.
In conjugation the two gametes have similar
powers, and in the majority of cases are motile
bodies, usually swimming by means of cilia.

DOUBLE FERTILIZATION IN LILT.

a, fusion of sperm and egg; 6, fusion of apenn with two
polar nuclei.

In some cases in the lower forms the gametes
are brought together by the development of a
tube which bridges the space between tho sex
organs. In heterogamous plants the apcnu ia

always the active gamete and finds its way to
the egg, which remains quiescent. Among the
higher alga?, mosses, and ferns the sperm is,
as a rule, a free-swimming ciliated cell, and is
attracted to the oo'gonium, or archegonium, by
various chemical substances which are secreted
in connection with the female sex organ. One
of the distinguishing marks of the seed plants,
however, is that the sperm ceases to be a motile
body and is ordinarily transferred from the
pollen grain in which it is produced to the egg
by means of a tube called the "pollen tube."
This tube in gynmospernis (pines, etc.) pene-
trates the tissues of the ovule lying above the
embryo sac, and in the angio-sperms (flowering
plants) it passes through the style, enters the
ovary, and finds its way to the ovule. It ia
an interesting fact that in the Cycadales (q.v.)
and Ginkgoales (q.v.) ciliated sperms have been
discovered, which indicates that the old free-
swimming habit of the sperm had not been en-
tirely abandoned with the introduction of pol-
len tubes. In fact, all of the ancient gymno-
sperms are known now to have had swimming
sperms.

While the passage of the sperm to the egg
may be included under fertilization, the real
act of fertilization consists in the fusion of the
two naked cells. Just what happens in this
fusion may be illustrated by the process of fer-
tilization 'in the seed plants. Each gamete is
a naked cell consisting of a nucleus about which
there is organized cytoplasm. In the sperm the
nucleus is very prominent and the cytoplasm
relatively scanty. In the egg the nucleus is also
prominent, but the cytoplasm is abundant and
contains a rich supply of food reserve. In the
seed plants it has been observed that the pollen
tube approaches the egg and discharges a male
coll into the cytoplasm. The nucleus of the male
cell then Blips out of its cytoplasm as out of
a sheath and moves through the cytoplasm of
the egg towards its nucleus. The male cyto-
plasm has thus boon left behind in the egg cyto-
plasm, arid it is not clear that the fusion of the
two holds any important relation to the act
of fertilization. Tn any event, the most evident
fact in fertilization is the approach of the male
nucleus to the female nucleus, and the fusion
of the two. Just what this fusion involves, and
how complete it is, is not clear. The nuclei
are exceedingly complex structures, and just
how far the corresponding structures of the
two nuclei fuse in this process is very uncer-
tain. Jn certain seed plants, as in gymnosperoiH,
it has been observed that the iwo Beta of chro-
moHomew, which are thus brought together by tfoft
fusion of tho two nuclei, do not fuse for ponu*
time and in some cases for several cell genera-
tions. It ia evident, therefore, that the futtion
does not necessarily involve a- fusion of the
chromosomes of tlm nuclei* which are regarded
aw probably the eHsential structures. The whole*
subject remains Homcwhat vague us to detail**,
but the general fact that fertilization involve
the fusion of two cells, and that in thin ftwion
the two cytoplasms and the two nuclei take
part, IB well made out. Tho significance of the
male cytoplasm, whether it simply acts as a
carrier of the nucleus or in an essential feature
in the fusion, and the details of nuclear fusion,
whether it i« a complete pairing of all of the
structures which belong to the nuclei or not*
are questions which investigation has not yet

FERTILIZATION OP FLOWERS

491

FESCUE

settled. See CELL; GAMETES; and articles on
the various groups of plants mentioned above.

FERTILIZATION OF FLOWERS BY IN-
SECTS. See CROSS-FERTILIZATION; FLOWEBS
AND INSECTS; POLLINATION.

FERTILIZERS. In agriculture, a generic
term for substances added to soil to increase the
growth of crops. In its more restricted sense
it embraces only such materials as have passed
through some process of manufacture and are
known as commercial fertilizers. These include
many inorganic materials), such as potassium
sulphate and chloride, ammonium sulphate, so-
dium nitrate, phosphatic rock in various pre-
pared forms, and also many organic substances,
such as ground bone, fish, tankage, ground-oil
cakes, etc. For more detailed treatment, see
MANURES AND MANURING.

FERTTMBRAS, SIR. The hero of an English
translation of Fiernlras. See FIERABRAS.

FESCENNIA, or FESCENNIAN. See FES-
CENNINE VKRBES.

FES'CENNINE VEBfSES (Lat' Fesccwnvni
I versus], or Fcsccnnina). A branch of the in-
digenous poetry of ancient Italy. They wero
dialogues in rude extempore verses, generally in
Saturnian measure, in which the participants
rallied and ridiculed one another. They formed
a favorite amusement of the country people on
festive occasions, especially at the conclusion
of harvest and at wcddingH or at triumphs.
As was to be expected, they often degenerated
into licentiousness, that at last required the curb
of the law. The Fescennine venues are UHually
considered to have been of Etruscan origin and
to have derived their name from the TOtrurian
town Kescennium (Fesoennia). The name may,
however, be connected rather with fascinum,
fascination, enchantment, or the evil eye, against
which the chanting of verses may have origi-
nally been intended JIB a protection. The Fe«-
eennino verses, in sophisticated form, were long
written, as, c.g., by Catullus, Ixi, 120 ff. (Con-
sult Kllfft'8 notes there.) Such Foaccnnincs, too,
were written by Claudianua (q.v.)- Consult
Hehonz, (losGhiGhte dw rtimiachm Littcratur,
vol. i, 8 0 (M cd., Munich, 1J)07), and Knapp,
American Journal of Philology xxxiii, 14(5-148
(New York, 1012), Sea SATIRE.

VEEK3H, fftft, Joflwn (1703-1830). Cardinal
Archbishop of Lyons and maternal uncle of Na-
poleon I, born at Ajaccio, Corsica. Fie was
destined from the first for the church and re-
ceived a careful education in the seminary at
Aix, becoming a priest shortly before 1780.
During the Involution, however, Fcmeh nerved
UH commissary of war undor hi» illustrious
nephew, In Italy, tip to 1700. On the, inaugu-
ration of tha Consulate Fosch rcHUimtd Ms cleri-
cal habit, and \va» instrumental in bringing
about the Concordat of 1801 with Phw VTl. AH
a retail t of his activity, ho was made* Archbishop
of Lyons the vear following and in 1803 re-
ceived th" Cardinal's hat. fn 1804 he success-
fully negotiated the matter of tho consecration
of the ttmperor by thu Popo at Paris and as-
sisted at the coronation in Notre Dame* As
a reward for the success of this difficult negotia-
tion, he, waH made Orand Almoner of Franca,
was granted the. grand cordon of the Legion of
Honor, and appointed member of the Senate.
In 1806 Fcsch was appointed, by fcalberg, Princo
Primate of the Confederation of the Rhine, as
his coadjutor and Huccossor. In 1800 he de-
clined the archbishopric of Paris, and soon

showed himself an opponent of Napoleon's policy
with regard to the papacy. Finally, in 1810,
at the French ecclesiastical council at Paris
he stood out in open opposition to the Emperor.
Sent in disfavor to his diocese, Fesch attempted
to communicate with Pius "VII, but his letter
was discovered, and he fell into open disgrace.
In 1814 Fesch retired to Lyons, but reappeared
during the Hundred Days, returned to his dio-
cese, and was made a member of the House of
Peers by Napoleon! Banished by the Bourbons,
he retired to Rome in 1815 and passed the rest
of his life in luxurious retirement, leaving his
diocese to be administered by a vicar. He died
in Rome, May 13, 1830. Consult his "Corre-
spondnncc," iii Du Casse, ffistoirc dcs ntgociar
tions diplomatiques (Paris, 1855) ; Lyonnet, Lo
cardinal Fesch (Lyons, 1841) ; Ricard, LG cardi-
nal Fesch (Paris/ 1803) ; Welschinges, Le pope
ct Vcmpcreur (ib., 1005).

FES'CTJE (corrupt, of fcstii, OFr. festu, Lat.
fcstuca^ straw, stalk), Fesiuca. A genus of
grasses, very nearly allied to brome grass ((j.v.)-
The species are numerous and are very widely
diffused over the world, both in the Northern
and Southern hemispheres. Among them are
many of the most valuable pasture and fodder
grasses. Tall or meadow fescue (Ftstuca ela-
tior) , a species from 2 to 4 feet tall, common in
moist mcadowR and pastures of rich soil in Great
Britain and throughout Kurope, in northern
Asia, and in Homo parts of North America, is
perhaps excelled by no meadow or pasture grass
whatever. Ft is suitable both for meadows and
for permanent pasture. Fcstuca pratGnsitt, by
many botanists regarded as a variety of meadow
fescue, iu an excellent grass for rich moist mead-
ows. FTard feRCUo (Fcstuca- duriuscula, some-
times classed as a variety of Fnstuca ovina)t
known by various other synonymous names, a
grns» from 1% to 2 fe.et tall, with a somewhat
contracted panicle, mostly on one side, is well
adapted for lawns and sheep pastures, particu-
larly on dry or sandy soils. Several varieties
are known to seedsmen and farmers. Creeping
fosftucs or red fescue (Fwtuca rubra), is dis-
tinguished chiefly by its extensively creeping
root, which particularly adapts it to sandy pas-
tures and to places liable to occasional inun-
dations. It has many rceogniztfd varieties.
Sheep's fescue (ftoftwa ovine,) is a smaller
grass than any of these, not generally exceeding
a foot in height and often much less, abundant
in mountainous pastures and especially suitable
for fluch situation*, in which it often forms a
principal part of the food of sheep for many
months of the year. It is common in all tho
mountainous parts of Kuropo and in tho Hima-
layas and is also a native, of North America.
Rpedos vory similar to this, if not mcr« varie-
ties of it, abound iu thfl Southern Heinittphore.
Its habit of growth is much tufted. Of species
which have* been introduced into cultivation in
tho United States and Great Britain, Fertuoa
7i<ttrrophyU(ti referred by some authors to van-
oufl other specific names, denervea notice.. Tt is
a tall: species with narrow root leaves and broad
leaves on the culm. Tt is a native of France
and other parts of tha continent of Kurope and
is pretty eKtensively cultivated in some coun-
tries, particularly tlio Netherlands. A number
of spctties abound in the western United States,
whare they aro important constituents in the
range pastures All those species are peren-
nial. Some small annual species occasionally

PESS

form a considerable part of the pasture in dry,
sandy soils, but are never sown by the farmer.
A Peruvian species, Festuca quadridentata,
called "pigouil" in its native country and there
used for thatch, is said to be poisonous to cattle.

EESS (OF. fesse, Fr. faisse, fasce, fesse, from
Lat. fascia, bundle). In heraldry (q.v.j, one
of the charges known as ordinaries. See Plate
of HERAUDBY. »

FES'SEITOEN, REGINALD AUBREY (1886-
). An American electrician, born at Mil-
ton, Quebec Province, Canada. From 1887 to
1890 he was head chemist of the laboratory of
Thomas A. Edison, the inventor; from 1800 to
1892 an electrician with the Westinghouse Com-
pany of Newark, N. J., and in 1892-93 profes-
sor of physics and electrical engineering in Pur-
due University (Lafayette, Ind.). In 1893-
1900 he was professor of electrical engineering1
in the Western University of Pennsylvania
(Allegheny, Pa.). From 1900 to Aug. 31, 1902,
he was a special agent of the United States
Weather Bureau, in charge of investigations
in wireless telegraphy as an aid to the collec-
tion of daily weather reports.

EES'SENDEN", THOMAS GREEN (1771-1837).
An American writer. He was born at Walpole,
N. H,, and graduated at Dartmouth in 1796.
He was for some time in London engaged in an
enterprise which ruined him financially, and
while there advertised the metallic tractors of
Benjamin D. Perkins (q.v.) in a grotesque poem
entitled Terrible Tractoration (1803), a satire
upon the medical profession which opposed the
use of the instruments. In 1822 he started in
Boston the New England Farmer, with which
he was connected until his death. For two
years he was editor of the Weekly Inspector in
New York City. Among his further works are:
Pills, Poetical, Political, and Philosophical,
Prescribed for the Purpose of Purging the Pub-
lic of Piddling Philosophers, Penny Poetasters,
of Paltry Politicians, and Petty Partisans, by
Peter Pepperbox, Poet and Physician (1809);
Democracy Unveiled (1806) ; The Complete
Farmer and Rural Economist (1834; 4th ed.,
1839) ; The American Kitchen Gardener (1856).
Consult Hawthorne, Fanshawc, and Other Pieces
(Boston, 1876).

FESSENDEN", WILLIAM PITT (1806-69).
An American statesman. He was born in Bos-
cawen, N. H., graduated at Bowdoin College in
1823, and began the practice of law in 1827.
He settled in Portland, Me., was elected to the
State Legislature in 1832, and became known
as an able debater. From 1840 to 1843 he
served in the national House of Representatives
as a Whig. At the end of this term he devoted
himself to the practice of law, winning national
repute in his profession and as an antislavery
Whig orator and campaign speaker. In 1848
he was a strong supporter of Webster for the
presidency. In 1854, while a member of the
Maine Legislature, he was elected United States
Senator by the combined votes of the Whig and
antislavery Democratic members. A fortnight
after taking his seat in the Senate, he delivered
a stirring speech in opposition to the Kansas-
Nebraska Bill, thereby leaping at once into
prominence as one of the ablest speakers on the
antislavery side. In 1859 he was reSlected to
the Senate for a second term as a Republican
and was at once made chairman of the impor-
tant committee on finance, in which position
during the next five years he ably seconded

492

FESSLER

President Lincoln and Secretary Chase in their
attempts to solve the puzzling financial ques-
tions arising from the war. Upon the resigna-
tion of Secretary Chase in 1864, President Lin-
coln and his counselors turned to Senator Fes-
senden as the man best fitted to take the vacant
portfolio of the Treasury. Fessenden hesitated
at first, but after it became evident that there
was need of his services and that both President
and nation looked to him in the emergency, he
accepted. The period was one of the blackest
in the financial history of the country. Gold
was at 280, the currency of the nation was in-
fiated, the paper dollar was worth only 34 cents,
and the government had just found it necessary
to withdraw from the market a loan which it
had been unable to float. The first act of the
new Secretary in tins crisis was the issuance of
the famous "seven-thirty" bonds — bonds bearing
interest at the rate of 7.30 per cent and issued
in denominations as small as $.50. His idea was
that, if appeals were made to the patriotism of
the people, and the loan offered in such sums
that people of moderate means could inveat, it
would succeed, and his judgment proved correct.
He also withheld the further issue of greenbacks
for the time being, thus inducing the State banks
to adopt the national system. Gold having
fallen to 199 and the necessities of the occasion
having been met, Secretary Fessenden resigned
his portfolio in March, 1865, in order to take
his seat in the Senate, 'to which he had been
chosen for a third term. In the years imme-
diately following the war ho took a loading part
in the debates and was chairman of the joint
committee on reconstruction. His action in
voting for the acquittal of President Johnson
on bis impeachment trial brought upon him the
harshest criticism of his political career. He
faced bravely the storm of reproaeh which it
called forth, and although for the moment his
political associates looked upon him as almost
a traitor, his sincerity and honesty of purposes
wore so apparent, and his continued devotion
to the principles of the "Republican party **o
absolute, that he very soon won again hi« old
position as a party leader. Contmlt Francis
Fessenden, Life and Public Rcrvicc of W< P.
Fensendmi (2 vols., Boston, 1907).

FESSLEB, foVler, TQNAZ AITRBLHT« (1756-
1830). A well-kno^n Hungarian historian and
ecclesiastic. He was born at Czurendorf and
educated at Presshurg and Tlaab. He was suc-
cessively a Capuchin monk in Vienna, profesfior
of hermeneutics at Lemberg, a Protestant and
Freemason at Berlin, a lecturer on philosophy
at St. Petersburg, a government official at Sara-
tov, and, lastly, general superintendent of the
Lutheran Community of Pt. Petersburg. !Ua
departure from Austria was due to persecution
at the hands of the ehurcb for having denounced
the monks to Joseph IT. He wrote several his-
torical noveU (Mare Aurtf, Matthia* Corvinu*>
Attila) now well-nigh forgotten; a historical
work, Die Qrschi elite for Unparn und dfrcn
Landfta$$en (10 vols., Leipzig, 181o-2r>); and a
curious autobiographical sketch, RilcJcblicko
auf mwne Siebzigjtihriae Pilffer&ckaft (Bntslau,
1824). He died at St, Petersburg, Dec. 15,
1830.

FESSOiEE, JOSEPH (1813-72). An Austrian
Roman Catholic theologian, born at LochfcT* i»
the Crownlaud of Vorarlberg, of a peasant
family. He studied at Innsbruck and the Semi-
nary of Brixen, was ordained priest in 1837,

FESTA

403

FESTIVALS

in 1841 was appointed instructor in Church his-
tory at Brixen and in 1843 in canon law also.
He was elected to the Frankfort Parliament in
1848, received appointment to the chair of Church
history at Vienna in 1852, and was transferred
to that of canon law in 1856. In 1861-62 he
was a member of the Congregation for the Orien-
tal Rites at Rome; he became in 1864 Bishop
of St. Polten and in 1869 general secretary of
the Vatican Council. His most important work
is his histitutioncs Patrologiw (1850-51; new
ed. by Jungmann, 1890-06). He also wrote a
GescMchte der Kirche Christi (4th ed., 1877),
and on the infallibility of the Pope, Die wahro
und die falsche Unfehllarkeit dcr Piipstc
(1871), a reply to Schulte's Das vaticaniscJie
Go'ncilium, in which Fessler holds, like New-
man, that papal infallibility is confined to cases
in which the pontiff exercises the prerogative.
Consult the biography by Erdinger (Brixen,
1874).

FES'TA, CONSTANZO (c.1490-1545). An Ital-
ian singer and composer, celebrated as the fore-
runner of Palestrina. He was born probably in
Rome, whore in 1517 he entered the pontifical
chapel as a singer and contrapuntist. He was
very soon appointed maestro in the Vatican and
retained his position until his death. Only a
few of his numerous masses, motets, madrigals,
and litanies have been printed. His Tc Dcwn,
published in Rome in 1896, is a composition of
remarkable beauty and is still sung at the Vat-
ican at Corpus Christi and on other solemn
occasions. Several of the works of Fosta are
preserved in the archives of the Vatican and in
the. collections published by Giardane and flcotto
(sixteenth century). Festa is generally re-
garded as the first great composer of tlio Roman
school.

FES'TE. Olivia's clown in Shakespeare's
Tirclfth Night. Ho joins in the plot against
Malvolio, and some of the author's best lyrics
are sung by lump

KHSTDNT DE PIEBBB, fSs'taN' de pyftr'.
See DON JUAN.

FESTLNT'IOQ1. A town and railway junction
in Merionethshire, Wales, 8^4 miles east-north-
east of Portmadoc (Map; Wales, 04), It is
situated amid picturesque mountain scenery and
is noted for its slate quarries, which give em-
ployment to most of its inhabitants. Pop., 1001,
11,400; 1011, 9680.

FESTIVAX PLAYS. See. MYHTEBTKS.

FESTIVALS (OH1., Fr. festival, from ML.
/wftoaftff, from !Lat. fcstivua, festive, from fez*
tww,, feast), or J?KAHTH. Days or Heaflons set
apart for public rejoicing and rest from ordi-
nary labor, at stated intervals, or occasionally
for religious purposes solely, or for the cele-
bration of some pcrtxm or event. Originally
all festivals were of a religious character, since
eating, drinking, and other pleasures connected
with them could not be indulged without shar-
ing these enjoyments with the divinities. The
earliest of all festivals seem to have boon con-
nected, with the cult of the. dead. At great ban-
quets communion was held with the departed
spirits, and offerings were made to thorn. As
clans grew and became scattered, such common
meals could only be arranged occasionally.
When the great luminaries began to attract
worship and the ancestral spirits were in some
way connected with them, taeso banquets we*e
held annually or monthly. While purely ani-
mistic festivals arc still observed in different

parts of the world, when food and drink ate
offered to the dead at their burial places, in the
vast majority of instances the primitive sig-
nificance has been obscured or wholly oblit-
erated by a superinduce*! reference to natural
phenomena or historic events. Wandering tribes
are greatly attracted by the changing phases
of the moon, and the festivals characteristic of
the nomadic state are chiefly lunar. When
men settle down to agricultural life, they be-
come dependent on sunshine and rain; winter
and summer, seedtime and harvest, equinoxes
and solstices, become the occasions for festivi-
ties. With the development of a more complex
social organization and the rise of groat em-
pires, the interest in national self-preservation
becomes acute, and the feasts assume a political
character as celebrations of deliverance and vic-
tory. Veneration of the great religious leaders
who have deeply impressed a people's life, leads
to the setting apart of certain days in their
honor. But whatever new significance is added
to an earlier festival, something of its old char-
acter is likely to adhere to it. The god who
sleeps during the winter and is awakened from
his slumber at the vernal equinox has much
in common with the ancestral spirit to whom
new vitality is given by a libation of blood,
and it is natural that the celebration of those
mighty beings whose* changing fortunes and all
too human experienced were seen portrayed in
the ceaseless play of nature's forces, should bor-
row a feature from the banquets in honor of
the departed dead. Fellowship with and like-
ness to the, spirits associated with the elements
of nature arc sought in more exaeting cultic
performances. In solemn mimicry and self-in-
ilicted pains the* acts and sufferings of the deity
arc imitated. Sympathy with the solar divinity
as well as with his mother and his spouse in
the loss of generative power and the recovery
of reproductive, strength is expressed by the
worshiper in self-imposed impotence and steril-
ity or tinrestrained sexual abandonment.- Songs,
shouts, dances, and processions, simple seenic
representations, and ultimately the drama are
the results of such symbolic actions. When Ins-
tone personalities and events begin to be cele-
brated, the, character of the gods is apt to be
transferred to the heroea, and the divine experi-
ences blend with the human. This is especially
the case with the great religious leaders, whose
apotheosis is most natural.

The festivals celebrated by tlio ancient Toltccs
and Aztecs of Mexico, and the Incaa of Peru,
while retaining features of ancestor worship,
were for the moat part of a solar and lunar
character. The Mexicans had their chief feasts
in May, June, and' December. The Peruvians,
besides the new moonw, alao celebrated the sum-
mer and winter solstices and the equinoxes.
The Chinese have a very elaborate system of
festivals, Of these the most important is the
one celebrated iu honor of the dead at the win-
ter solstice*. Even the BuddhintB of China have
their feasts commemorating the birth of Gau-
tama Buddha, his departure from homo, and
his entrance into Nirvana. The Karens have
an annual feast in honor of the departed, while
the Nagas of Assam make their offering* to
the dead each moon. Tn ftiam the 8th and 15th
of every month are considered «acred. From the
Yajur-veda period to the present day numerous
fcaata have Wn olmerwl in Iwdia* The Hali
at tto vernal equinox and the Desahara in the

FESTIVALS

494

FESTIVALS

autumn are mentioned as early as Aitareya
Brahmana. In honor of Vishnu, Siva, and
Indra, the Ganges, and the goddess Kali, fes-
tivals are still held. The ancient Persians had
four solar feasts, at the solstices and the equi-
noxes, an annual funeral feast in February, a
celebration of the five intercalary days, and
several festivals to which a historic significance
was given, as celebrations of victories like that
of Iran over Turan and of Fcridun over Zahak.
The Fravardigan, or New Year's Feast, had dis-
tinctly animistic features. With the Mithra cult
its great feast on the 25th of December passed
to Asia Minor and the West. The Asianic peo-
ples seem to have had their festivals at the
equinoxes. Thus, the Phrygians celebrated the
sleep and the awakening of the sun god in the
fall and the spring. The intense worship of
the mother goddess in Asia Minor no doubt in-
fluenced profoundly the festivals of the Ionian
Greeks.

In Greece each demos had its peculiar cal-
endar. But the ^op-n}, or new-moon feast
(Odyssey, xx, 156), was probably kept very
generally in earlier times. A harvest festival,
and an ancestral feast in honor of Erechtheus
also go back to a high antiquity (Iliad, ix, 533:
ii, 550). The Athenian calendar which is best
known contains one or more festivals each
month. In January the Lencea, or wine-press
feast, in honor of Dionysus was celebrated (sec
BACCHUS) ; in February, the Anthesteria of
Dionysus, the Diasia of Zeus, and the lesser
Eleusinia (see KLFUBINIAX MYSTERIES); in
March, the Pandia of Zeus, the Elaphebolia of
Artemis, and the greater Dionysia; in April,
the Munychia of Artemis and the Delphinia of
Apollo; in May, the Thargelia of Apollo and
the Plynteria and Caltynteria of Athene; in
June, the Di^polia of Zeus and the Stirophoria
of Athene; in July, the Oronia of Cronus and
the PanatJienwa (q.v.) of Athene; in August,
the Metageitnia .of Apollo; in September, the
BoSdrowvia, of Apollo, the Nemeseiu, and the
greater Eleusinia; in October, the Pyancpsia
of Apollo, the Oschophoria of Dionysus, the
Athen&a of Athene, the Thesmophoria of Deme-
ter, and the Apaturia; in November, the 3/ai-
makteria of Zeus; and in December, the lessor
Dicnysia. The Nemeseia was an ancestor feast;
historic associations clustered about other fes-
tivals, while still others wore nature feasts.
Great significance was acquired by the national
feasts, of which the games and 'dramatic per-
formances became the leading attractions. Sett
ISTHMUS; NEMBSA; OLYMPIA; OLYMPIAD; OLYM-
PIC GAMES; PYTHIAN GAMES.

As in Greece, so in Italy, the festivals were
in earlier times comparatively few in number.
Among them w.ere distinctly animistic feastR,
such as the Lemuralia, and the Feraha. The
Roman receptivity to foreign religious customs
subsequently led to a great increase and a con-
stant fluctuation in their number. At the be-
ginning of the Christian era the most impor-
tant were the following: In January, New Year's
Day, the Agonalia and the Oafmentaliaj in
February, the Faunalia, the Lupercalia, the
Quirwtalia, the Peralia, the Terminally the
Pugalia, and the TSquiria; in March, the Matro-
nalifl-, the Liberalia, and the Quinquatria; in
April, the Megaleaia, the Cerealia, the Palilia,
the Vinalia, the Robigalia, and the Floralia; in
May, the Lemuria and the Ludi Martiales; in
June, the feast of Semo JSanous, the Yestalia,

and the Matralia; in July, the ApoUinarfa and
Neptunalia,; in August, the Nemoralia, the Con-
sualia, the Vinalia Rustica, and the Yulcanalia;
in September, the Ludi Magni in honor of Ju-
piter, Juno, and Minerva; in October, the Medi-
trinalia, the Faunalia, and the Equiria; in
November, the Epulum Jovis; and in December,
the last Faunalia, the Opalia, the Saturnalia,
and the Larentalia. Under the emperors the
number of festivals increased to such an extent
that at one time there were more feast days than
days of work.

The Germanic nations had important festivals
at the winter solstice and the vernal equinox,
the Yuletide devoted to Frey, the Easter to the
goddess Ostara, and there are also traces of
neomenia. Evidence of original ancestor wor-
ship is found in connection with some Celtic and
Slavonic feasts.

In ancient Egypt each nome had originally
its own cycle of feasts, and the character of the
festivities was determined by the nature of the
divinity worshiped at its chief sanctuary.
Lunar feasts in lionor of the dead were appar-
ently celebrated everywhere, and even the solar
feasts were likely to be of an animistic charac-
ter. Since the fertility of the soil depended
wholly upon the inundations of the Nile, it is
natural that its rising should be celebrated
throughout the valley. Where worship of the
solar deities forms so large a part of the re-
ligious life as in Egypt> and in the epic of the
myths all other gods and departed spirits are
brought into relation with them, it is natural
that the life-producing energy of the sun should
be bodied forth in symbolic acts. Sexual ex-
cesses were therefore apt to characterize espe-
cially the celebration of the great goddesses
Neith, Nut> Hathor, and Isis. In later times,
however, a pantheistic philosophy and a mystic
mood seem to have given the Isis festivals a
more spiritual character.

In Babylonia each great sanctuary also de-
veloped its. own calendar. Extant inscriptions
do not give a full account of any system; but
it is evident that some of the greateKt frstivaK
such as the Zakmuk, or New Year's feaat at the
vernal equinox, and the Sacwa possibly at the
summer solstice, were kept throughout the land.
At the former the destinies of men were fixed
for the coming year. It seems to have been a
Marduk festival. A procession between the
neighboring shrines of Babylon and Boraippa
took place at this time, and the King **swzo<l
the hands of Bel," by which ceremony lu» was
formally installed as vicegerent of the god dur-
ing the year. According to Bcrowus and Strabo
the Saco&a had a Dionyaiac character, and among
the enjoyments it furnished was the crowning
of a condemned criminal as mock king. For
five days he had full license and then was dis-
robed, scourged, and impaled* The five dayn
are probablv the hwnnstu, or intercalary days.
At certain Ishtar feasts women sacrificed their
virginity or offered themselves for the benefit
of the goddess, according to Greek writers. A
special significance seems to have been attached
to the 7th, 14th, 10th, 21st, and 28th days of
the month, according to an ancient calendar.
The term shabtatwn is explained In a lexical
tablet as "day of the rest of the heart." It ia
therefore possible that the name of the Sabbath
is of Babylonian origin as a day when the heart
of the gods was pacified by sacrifice. But we
now know that shablatum in reality was the

FESTIVALS

495

FESTIVALS

designation of the 15th day of the mouth and
meant "full moon3" and it is altogether probable
that in earlier times sabbath meant "full moon1'
also in Israel. (Consult Jastrow, Hebrew
and Babylonian, Traditions, New York, 1914.)
Whether it was observed by the ancient Canaan-
ites and Phoenicians cannot be determined. ( See
SABJBATII.) The clearest testimony concerning
their festivals is found in the Hebrew records,
since it was from these Semitic peoples that the
invaders borrowed the agricultural festivals.
The license that prevailed at the Ashtaroth
and Adonis festivals is vouched for by many
witnesses.

While South Arabian inscriptions are begin-
ning to clear up the history of the peninsula
before Mohammed (see MINJEANS; SABJSANS),
we are still dependent upon Islamic writers for
our knowledge of the festivals that were kept
in that period. In spite of their misapprehen-
sions it is possible to discern the fact that the
great festivals of the Muslim calendar are adap-
tations of pagan feasts, and even the manner
of celebration is certainly a continuation of the
old traditions. The great feast of ancient Arabia
was in the spring, in the month called Uajab,
during which, on account of this festival, cas-
sation of hostilities between the tribes was or-
dained. This sacred season was originally fixed
at the beginning of the summor, but tho ig-
norance of astronomy in the earliest time, and
the insistence upon a lunar year, caused the
months to recede from year to year. At this
time tho firstlings were offered. Muharram WUH
the first winter month, and its beginning marked
tho Now Year with a festival at the autumnal
equinox. The first 10 days of the month are
considered sacred by the 'Shiitos and obae.rved
in commemoration of the martyrdom of Thwain.

(SeeMOHAMMKDAN SKOTH; llAHAN AND ritWAIN.)

The 10th of the month is generally observed
throughout this Muslim world. The birthday
of tho Prophet in tho third month is kept, and
tho 27th of tho seventh month in oommemo ra-
tion of his supposed miraculous accent to heaven.
Tlu» flrnt three days of Shawiial, the tenth month,
constitxito tho "minor festival." Tt follows im-
mediately upon the end of the fast of Ramadan
(the ninth month) and is a time of general re-
joicing after tho rigorn of this aoanon. (See
RAMADAN.) On thft 10th of Dhu'l TTtjjah (the
day of the ttacriflco at Meecu; flee HAJJ) begina
the "groat festival," lasting three or f >ur <layn.
Tho departtiro and return of the pilgrimage are
alno oecoHiona of ceremony and rejoicing. Many
other <lay» have a local olwcrvanco in honor of
some great man or event. The method of keep-
ing a Mohammedan holiday varies groatly. 1'xib-
lie procowHionH nro often a prominent feature.
Friday (el-Jumah) is frequently called the
Mohammedan Sunday. It is tho great day for
public gathering at the mosques but ban no
other point of resemblance to tho Christian holy
day.

Before their invasion of Palestine the Hebrew
tril>eH worn to have, had ono important annual
festival, the PaaROver (q.v,)* This /'wrrft, or
Imp fcniHt, HO ealled probably from the gambol-
ing of the young, WUH celebrated about the time
of tho vernal equinox, apparently by each IIOUHO-
hold offering the, firstling)* of its flocks and
herds. Tho recipients of these flaenfioea may
have been the household gods (Elohim), as oven
after tho settlement in Palestine, when the
people lived in houses and no longer in tenta,

they seem to have smeared the blood upon the
threshold and tho doorposts, where these guard-
ian spirits wore conceived to have their abode.
It is probable that the festival of the new moon
was also celebrated in this period; and the
Feast of Sheep-Shearing may be of equal an-
tiquity (1 Sam. xxr. 2; 2 Sam. xiii. 23). When
the different tribes had settled down to agricul-
ture, they naturally learned of their new neigh-
bors how to celebrate properly the harvest
feasts, until then unknown to them. The great
agricultural feasts were three in number. At
the Feast of Unleavened Bread (called II ay
ham-ma.z3otJi, from lia.g, a dance, a pilgrimage,
a festival, and tnazzolh, cakes) the first fruits
of the barley harvest were presented to the local
Baal or to Yahwe. Seven weeks later the Feast
of Weeks was obsorvcd (Hag slidbvfotli, or Hag
liaq-qaRir ; fthabit'oth, weeks; qasir, harvest),
when tho wheat crop had been gathered in. The
time between these two feasts was u single fes-
tive season. In the autumn the Feast of Taber-
nacles came (Hag lutfhnukh'Otli, or Hafj asiph;
sukkolb, booths, tents; asiph, gathering, har-
vest), "the ingathering at the year's end." This
was on the occasion of the vintage and the
olive gathering. Its name was derived from the
custom of living in groves and gardens in huts
made of boughs. These booths were the scene
of much merriment. Sacred dances were an im-
portant feature. At Sliiloh the young maidens
performed choral dances in the vineyards (Jiulg.
xxi. 10 et seq.). "Rli'fl suspicion of Hannah
shows how freely the wine was used even by
women on these occasions (1 Sam. i. 14). The
denunciations of the preoxilic prophets reveal
the essentially Dionysiac and licentious charac-
ter of these festivals at the great fihrincfl. To
such un extent were drunken orgicw and sexual
indulgences chaructcri&tic features of these
feasts, that men like Amos and IToaoa, Isaiah
and Jeremiah, declared the Kaorificial fiystem
and the temple cult contrary to the will of
Yahwe, Concerning Rome early festivals our
information is very Hcunly, Thus, tho Jephthah
festival in Oilond. at which a virgin apparently
was sacrificed, may have been either in honor
of a virgin goddess, or more probably of the
divinity who opeiw tho womb, in order to in-
sure the fertility of tlu* tribe (Judg: xi. 40).
The centralization of the cult in Jerusalem and
the attempted abolition of all wanotuarioH out-
wide of the capital in the reign of Josiah (637-
608 li.o.) Imd a tendency at once to enhance tho
importance of the great f enthrals and to check
tho moral abuses associated with tho rural
feasts. But tho destruction of Jerusalem and
tho end of tho independent statehood of Judah
naturally caused \i revival of the local cults.
That even somo of the features most vehemently
denounced by tho prophets »till continued in
tho fifth and fourth centurion B.C. IB evident
from Taa. Ivi-lxvL Having no temples, the <«lloa
naturally put tho more emphaais upon tho keep-
ing of the Habbath, which was possible, oven in a
foroign land. This had now ceased to bo con-
nected with the phases of tho moon and foU
on every seventh day. Tt is significant that the
hiHifttcnw upon reform h\ the olwervanee of the
Sabbath was first made in Jerusalem by men
born in Persia, auch an Nchomiah and Ezra,
All festivals are in tlii« period given a his-
toric wJgiriftcanco. Tho rcdcfcinntlcal legislation
did not rooogni&Q them an nature toasta, but
a» ottlebrationH of Tarael'ft deliverance from

496

FESTIVALS

Egypt. New feasts appeared in the Rosh Jiash-
shanah, or New Year's Day, and the Yom Kip-
pur, or the Day of Atonement, on the 1st and
10th of the seventh month respectively. In the
Maccabsean period the Dedication Feast was in-
troduced to celebrate the reconsecration of the
temple of Yahwe, on the 25th of Chislev, 165
B.C., after it had been for three years a sanc-
tuary to Zeus Olympius (1 Mace. iv. 59). It
is not likely to be an accident, however, that
this event was celebrated at the time of the
winter solstice. The recovery of the temple
about that time of the year rendered it possible
to dedicate to Yaliwe a festival widely cele-
brated by pagan neighbors and probably also
by emancipated Jews. Similarly the feast of
Nicanor on the 13th of Adar, in celebration of
the victory of Judas Mneeabacus at Beth-horon
in 161 B.C., was apparently an adaptation of an
earlier festival in honor of the dead (1 Mace.
vii. 40; 2 Mace. xv. 36). Subsequently the
Purim feast absorbed this Nicanor festival. The
former seems to have been originally an Ishtar
feast, celebrating the victory of this goddess
and Marduk over the Elamitish divinity, Huraba,
conceived as a demon representing the nebher
world. In the Hebrew story told to commend
the festival the names of the combatants in the
Babylonian myth have been thinly disguised as
Esther, Mordecai, and Hainan, while in tlio actual
celebration the ornamenting of tho graves is
most unimpeachable testimony to the worship
of the dead once connected "with it. As the
Greek translation, according to the colophon,
appears to have been made and brought to
Egypt to introduce the Purim feast for the
first time among the Jews living there in the
year 45 B.C., the Book of Esther and the insti-
tution of the festival among orthodox Jews
in Palestine cannot have been much older.
Whether the feast of the capture of the Akra
(1 Mace. xiii. 50-52), no longer celebrated in
the time of Josephus, likewise grew out of a
nature festival cannot be determined. Equally
unknown is the origin of the Feast of Wood-
Bringing (Josephus, Bel. Jud. ii, 17, 6) and of
the Feast of the Rejoicing of the Law.

The attitude of Jesus to the feasts of His
people seems to have resembled that of the
earlier prophets. Concerning one of them only,
the Sabbath, has His opinion boon recorded.
But His defense of His disciples when charged
with breaking the Sabbath clearly reveals His
position. "Man was not made for tho sake of
the Sabbath, but the Sabbath for the sake of
man; therefore man has also authority over
the Sabbath," is an Assertion utterly at vari-
»'n"<> with the prevailing estimate of the day.
Whether His last meal with His disciples was
the paschal meal cannot be determined with
certainty. These disciples no doubt continued
to keep the Jewish festivals. Only as Chris-
tianity began to make converts outside of Juda-
ism did the question of their observance become
an important one. In the Epistle to the Gala-
tians, Sabbaths, new moons, and other sacred
dnyfl nre regarded as shadows of the coming
n»nlity, and done a\vay with in Christ, and the
insistence upon Sabbath keeping is looked upon
as a sign of apostasy from the liberty of the
goRpel. In the profound philosophy* of tho
Fourth Gospel the festivals of tho Jews find
a symbolic interpretation. In Jewish-Christian
oirclos, however, the Sabbath continued to be
observed, as the Apostolical Constitutions and

the canons of the Council of Laodicea show. A
second-century gospel fragment in Coptic indi-
cates that even the Jewish Passover was kept
by Christians in Egypt. But gradually a num-
ber of Christian festivals came into vogue. It
is not known how early the first day of the
week began to be celebrated in honor of the
resurrection. There is no trace of such an ob-
servance in the New Testament. For neither
1 Cor. xvi. 2, where eaeh person is bidden to
lay by him, i.e., in his own house, as he is
prospered, on the first day of the week; nor
Acts xx. 7, where there is a breaking of bread
on the last day of Paul's stay in Troas, as prob-
ably on the preceding ones; nor Rev. i. 10,
where the Lord's Day may refer to the great judg-
ment day, can be quoted as showing that the
first day was distinguished from other days as
having a sacred character. What day Pliny re-
fers to in his letter to Trajan is uncertain. In
Barnabas xv. 9 some kind of celebration may be
implied in the words "therefore we rejoice in
the eighth day on which Jesus rose from the
dead and having shown himself ascended to
heaven." The first evidence of religious services
upon the first day, because on it "God made the
world and Jesus Christ rose from the dead,11 is
found in Justin Martyr's Apology, written in 150
AD. Whether the "venerable day of the sun"
was first associated with the resurrection through
the Mithra cult cannot yet be determined; but
Constantino's decree, by which it was made a
holiday for the Roman Empire, is couched in
Ifinguage that presupposes its general recogni-
tion as a sacred day. (See SABBATH; SUXDAY.)
Through the Quartodeeiman struggle a sepa-
rate Christian festival distinct from, the Pass-
over developed in the second century, even
though the Easter ritual preserved many fea-
tures of the Jewish festival. (See E ASTER.)
While Origen still speaks of Pentecost as the
T\hole season of seven weeks following ICaster,
the celebration of the outpouring of the Spirit
was in course of time placed at tho end of this
period. Clement of Alexandria is the first to
mention the festival of the Epiphany* Thnt of
the Nativity was later. Both Jews" and other
nations wore accustomed to celebrate the winter
solstice. Christmas may therefore go back cither
to the Dedication Feast, to the Roman Satur-
nalia, or to the great winter festival of the
Mithra cult. Subsequently it united with the
Germanic Yule. The feast of the Ascension is
not older than the fourth century. The groat
number of pagans entering the church at that
time, and the "new character of Christianity as
a state religion, caused many combinations of
old festivals with the new ones. In the begin-
ning of the sixth century attendance at church
was made obligatory at Easter, Christmas,
Epiphany, Ascension, Pentecost, Nativity, and
St. John, and later Annunciation, Purification,
Assumption of tho Virgin, Circumcision, Mi-
chael, and All Paints were* added. Soon after,
the ecclesiastical year was arranged in three
cycles: Advent, Kaster, and Pentecost. The proc-
ess of assimilating pagan festivals still con-
tinued. According to the direction of Gregory
the Great, f easts as well as temples were to
be appropriated. Thus, the Yule of the Ger-
manic peoples and the Holiada of the Slavs were
merged into Christmas, the feast in honor of the
goddess Ostara united with the Passover, the
Slavonic Kupulo feast blended with the mid-
summer festival in honor of St. John the Bap-

FESTIVALS

497

FESTUS

tist, and the Celtic carnival and Brandon feasts
continued under the Christian regime. The
Greek church multiplied festivals in honor of
the saints even faster than the Roman church.
It instituted the special day for the celebration
of all the saints of the old law. The Coptic
church adopted seven great festivals: Christ-
mas, Epiphany, Annunciation, Palm Sunday,
Easter, Ascension, Pentocost. Towards the end
of the Middle Ages earnest protests were made
by leaders in the church as well as by dissent-
ers against the increase of fetital days, both for
economic and religious reasons. The partial
or complete cessation of work took a dispropor-
tionate amount of time from every form of la-
bor, and in spite of religious observances and
prohibition of certain amusements, the leisure
and gayety of these days naturally had a tend-
ency to load to excesses of different kinds.

The modern tendency in the Roman Catholic
church has accordingly been to reduce the num-
ber of holidays of obligation, ie., those on which
servile work is prohibited; not counting Sun-
days, there are only six in the year in the
United States. On the. other hand, there 1ms
been a great increase in the total number of
festivals, with the development of certain de-
votions and the gradual enlargement of the cal-
endar. They are divided ritually into doubles,
semidoublcs,' and simples, the, first being those
in which the antiphons at lauds and vcRpera
are doubled, and including doubles of the first
and second class, greater and leaser doubles*.
Doubles of the first class arc frequently accom-
panied by octaves, i.e., the seven days after
the. feast arc kept with corresponding ritual
observances.

The only feast dny retained by all the
churches of the Reformation was ftun'day (q.v.).
The Church of Entflund made fewer chtingew in
the calendar than any other, retaining in addi-
tion to Easter, ('hrisimas, AncenHion, and Whit-
ftunday, Trinity Sunday, the Cireumcituon, the
Epiphany, the Purification and Annunciation
of tho Blessed Virgin, the Nativity of St. John
tho Baptist, All Saints, St. Michael, and All An-
ge,I«, feast 8 of all tho Apontlos and KvangelwtH.
Lutheran churches retained the feasts of the
Now Year, Kpiphany, Annunciation, Palm Sun-
day, Kttrtter, Ascension, Fantecoat, St. John tho
Baptist, and OhrwlmaR. At Easter, PontecoHt,
and ChritttmnH two dayn arc kept. Presby-
terians and other reformed bodies recognised no
holy dny, except Sunday, which is regarded a&
the Christian Sabbath, Tho Westminster As-
flembly of 104/5 declared ttoit there is no war-
rant in tho Word of God for any other festival.

At tho time of tho French Revolution an at-
tempt wa» made to reform the calendar by sub-
stituting a 10-day week for that of seven days,
and the celebration of other events, purBonali-
ties, and virtues for those emphasised by tho
church. But it had no permanent success. The
rtt'paration of church and state in the United
State*, and the principle of religious liberty
widely recognized in Europe, during tho last
century have raised many new quoHtions con-
cerning the sacred days. Where civil society
can no longer take cognizance of the conceived
sanctity of any day, but only guarantee that no
oitoen shall be disturbed at any time in his re-
ligious exercises, new grounds must be found
for legislation affecting holiday*. While abso-
lute cessation from labor cannot be enjoined
without infringing upon tho liberties of the in-

1835) ;
tJnnua

dividual, the duty of society to protect its
weaker members has been invoked to justify
legislative measures securing to all the privi-
lege of periodic rest. Tn some countries the
public libraries, museums, art galleries, and
theatres are open on holidays; in others, the la-
bor necessarily involved is urged as the reason
for prohibiting all educational and artistic ex-
hibits. It is held by many sociologists that, as
only a regularly recurring period of rest and
recreation seems to be required, all legitimate
needs may be met, without interruption of the
world's work, its educational opportunities, and
its artistic enjoyments, by an alternation of
working forces.

BIBLIOGBAPHY. Spencer, Principles of tfo-
ciology (3d ed., London, 1885); Frazer, The
Golden Bough (3d ed., ib., 1011-14} ; Doolittle,
NoM Life of the. Oliiwse (New York, 1866);
Schonmann, Oriechische Alter thiimer (Berlin,
1807); Rohde, Psyche (4th ed., Ttibingen,
1907); Gardner, Gretft Athletic Fnatirala (Lon-
don, 1010) ; Mommsen, /feortotogio (Leipzig,
18(14) ; Masporo, Histoirc anciwinc dcs peiiptes
da Vorient (Paris, 1805-00) ; Breasted, Ancient
Jf coords of fig apt (Chicago, 1006-07) ; Jastrow,
Die Religion Babylonicns und Assi/ricns (Gics-
sen, 1002-12) ; id., Hebrew and Babylonian
Tradition ft (New York, 1914) ; Snouck-Hur-
gronje, Hcl mcfrA'aawffr'//? feast (Leyden, 1800) ;
7>iV* tillrrcn judiHchcn Pcste (Berlin,
WclllmuHpn, Reste arabisohcn Heiden-
(ib., 1807); id., Prolegomena stur Ge-
/wwte (ib., 1800) ; NotNick, Hclraiftche
Archfiologio (Freiburg, 1804); Bcnzinger, He-
bntiw/ic <\ rrfitwloffh (3d ed., Tiibingen, 1907);
HohertHon Sniiih, The Old Testament in the
Jciniah (Vntrch (New York, 1881); Green, The
Hebrew Praxis (ib., 1885) ; Lietxmann, Die drvi
altMtt'n Martyrofaffirn (Leipzig, 1004) ; Kell-
ner, Hwirtufai/h (Bonn, 1006) ; Dwthesne, Ori-
glnr* <lu rifHr ctorilimno (4th ed., Paris, 1000) ;
artiolert on "PeHtivnlR and Pasts," in HafltingH,
KntyvfotHrflfa of ItHigfan and flthics, vol. v
(New York, 1012), See OAI,KNDA»; FART.

EESTOOTSP ( Pr, frston, ML. fcsto, festal gar-
land, from fcshtm, feast). In architecture, a
sculptured wreath ov garland of flowers, leaves,
or fruit, bound with fillets or ribbons, frequently1
nned aa an ornament in lloman and Renais-
sance. bxuldingfl. It owes its origin to the prac-
tice of decorating the altars and tho victims of
fcHtal sacrifices with such garlands and rib-
Iwrnn and was first used in permanent sculp-
tured form on tho altars, suspended from the
lucrnnw (q.v.)» antl was later applied to the
decoration of temples. The fewtpon occurs
along with bulln' heads on the fricse of the
temple of Venta at Tivoli. The ftmtoons are
often represented, both in Roman and Renais-
sance art, as bornu by infant figures, as on the
tomb of Tlaria del Carotto by Oiacopo della
Quercia (q.v.), instead of animal*' heads.

PESTXT'CA. 8ee FKSOUK.

tfESiytJS. A city in JofTorson Co., Mo., 30
miles southeast of fti Louis, on tho Mississippi
Hiver, the Kriwo Linen and the Mississippi
Biver and Bonno Torre Tiailroad (Map: Mis-
gouri, F 3). Its indufltries arc influenced by
the largft deposits of silica sand in the neighbor-
hood, which is of an unusually pure variety*
There are manufactories of plate glass and
glass bottles. The electric-light plant in owned
by the municipality. Pop., 1000, 1256$ 1910.
2550,

FESTUS

498

FETI

PESTTTS. A dramatic poem by Philip James
Bailey (1839).

FESTUS, POBCTUS. Procurator of Judea from
58 to 62 A.D., though as regards these dates,
especially that of the appointment, there is
considerable discussion. (See NEW TESTAMENT
CIIBONOLOGY. ) Festua succeeded Felix (q.v.)
and was in turn succeeded by Albums. His
term of office was not marked by any events
of note beyond ( 1 ) the settling by the Emperor
against the Jews of the dispute between the
Jewish and Syrian inhabitants of Coesarca re-
garding their "civic privileges — a dispute which
had come over from the time of Felix, of whose
removal from office, in fact, it had been the
cause (see FELIX) ; and (2) the controversy be-
tween Agrippa II and the priests in Jerusalem
regarding the wall erected at the temple to
break the view of the new wing of Agrippa's
palace — a controversy in which Festus took the
side of Agrippa, but which was appealed to Koine
by the priests, Festus dying before the decision
was kno\vn. In both these events, but especially
in the former, Jewish hostility to Rome waa
greatly inflamed, and feelings were aroused
which" played an important part in the closely
following Jewish War of 66 A.D.

It was before Festus that Paul, who had been
left a prisoner by Felix, had his final hearing.
On this occasion Festus, for the sake of pleawing
the Jews, sought to induce Paul to go to Jeru-
salem for trial, in opposition to which sugges-
tion the Apostle appealed to the Emperor. This
appeal resulted in Paul's deportation to Home
in the autumn of 58 A.D. (Acts xxv-xxvi). See
PAUL.

FESTUS, SEXTUS POMPEIUS. A Latin lexi-

Zapher of the latter part of the second or
I century of our era, and one of the most
important ancient authorities we have on the
Xatin language. He made an epitome of the
great work of Verrius Flaccus, De Vcrbomm
Significatu. This compilation, which was ar-
ranged alphabetically in 20 books, was still
further abridged in the ond of the eighth cen-
tury by Paul, son of Warnefried, commonly
called Paulus Diaconus (q.v.). The great work
of Flaccus has unfortunately entirely perished,
and of the abridgment made bv Featus only a
single manuscript, and that in a deplorably 'im-
perfect condition, has survived. It came from
Illyria and fell into the hands of Pomponius
Lsetus, a distinguished scholar of the fifteenth
century. It ultimately passed into the library
Of Cardinal Farnese at Parma and is now pre-
served at Naples. The work, in spile of all its
imperfections, is a storehouse of knowledge on
points of mythology, grammar, and antiquities.
All previous editions of Festus were of little
value compared with that of Mfiller (Leipzig,
1834; 2d ed., 1880), but this is now superseded
by the later edition of Thewrewk do Ponor
(Budapest, 1889), unfortunately never com-
pleted, and that of Lindsay (Leipzig, 1013).
Consult Lindsay's Pr&fatio, and Teuffel, Qe-
sohiohte der rdmischen Literatw, § 261, 5 (Ctlx
ed., ib., 1910).

FBT, really SnENSHiJsr, APANAST AFANASK-
vion (1820-92). A Kussian lyric poet. He
waa born in the Government of Orel. Of noble
parentage, he entered first the faculty of law
and later that of philology in the Moscow Uni-
versity, completing the latter course in 1844.
The following year he joined the army and
in the Susso-Turkish War of 1 8*53-56.

Owing to difficulties with the family papers, he
assumed his mother's name, Fet, under which he
was known until 1874, when officially allowed to
resume his real name, Shenshin. His first vol-
ume of poems, the Lyric Pantheon (1840),
though well received at the time, was not very
successful. Another collection of his verse
which appeared 10 years later, however, met with
considerable success. In 1860 he bought a
country estate and became an agriculturist.
Then for nearly two decades he only occasion-
ally contributed articles on agriculture under
the title From the Country. In 1877 he settled
in the Government of Kursk and published a
series of masterly translations of the Roman
poets (Horace, Vergil, Catullus, Ovid, Tibullus,
Propertius, Juvenal), translating also into Rus-
sian Goethe's Faust and Schopenhauer's Tlw
World as Will and Idea. In 1883 a third col-
lection of his poems was published under the
title of Fires of 1lie Xight. His My Reminis-
cences (2 vols., 1800) and The Early Years of
my Life (a posthumous work) supply an
abundance of biographical data.

FfiTE RATIONALE, fat nu'syo'nal'. The
national holiday of France. Since 1880 the
government has" set apart July 14, the anni-
versary of the fall of the Bastille, as a day of
national rejoicing. Military parades are held
everywhere, public banquets and receptions,
while every patriotic Frenchman decorates his
house with the tricolor of the Republic. In
1892 a second fete nationals wa« officially de-
creed, the 22d of September, upon which day a
republican form of government was established.

FETEBITA. fet-er-e'te. A variety of non-
Ba cellar in e sorghum of the durra group, native to
the Sudan. Its somewhat juicy stems arc rather
slender and vary from 4 to 7 feet in height.
Under favorable conditions the plant readily
produces suckers and branches which arc later
in maturing than the initial stems, thus caus-
ing unevenness in ripening. In habit of
growth fetorita differs from milo and white
durra mainly in having erect heads and pro-
ducing somewhat larger seeds. It ripens fully
as early as dwarf milo and two to three weeks
earlier than standard blackhull kaftr and also
compares favorably with these and other «or-
ghums in drought resistance. The. culture re-
quirements are the same as for the grain sor-
ghums generally. It is planted in rows 40 to
44 inches apart and from two to throe wet*k«
later than corn, to insure rapid sprouting of
the seed, which requires a warm soil. The crop
prefers a good, firm seed bed and may be plantwl
with a lister or an ordinary corn planter.
It ia cultivated like corn and is also best har-
vested with the corn harvester and placed in
shocks in the usual manner. When crown for
grain and forage it is harvested just before the
grain hardens, but when grown for the grain
alone it should stand until the oarliest heads
are fully ripe. Tim heads nr« mowed from the
stems and thrashed with an ordinary grain sep-
arator suitably adjusted. The forage is equal
in value to that of milo, but not quite equal to
that of ktifir and the sweet sorghum. More
than 50 buahels of grain have been produced per
acre. Feterita was introduced into the United
States by the United States Department of Ag-
riculture in 1906,

tfETI, ffi'tt, DOKBNICO (called MANWAKO*
from the fact that his chief works were oat<*-
outed tit Mantua) (1580-1624). An Italian

FETIALES

painter, born in Rome. He was a pupil of Lo-
renzo Cardi, called Cigoli. Ferdinand Gonzaga,
Duke of Mantua , appointed him court painter.
He painted a number of frescoes and works in
oil in the cathedral there and then went to
Venice, where he died, the victim of his intem-
perance. Feti inclined to the naturalism of
Caravaggio, and in Mantua imitated Giulio Ro-
mano. Ho hud considerable ability; but his
pictures, though in many cases powerful in col-
oring, possess little style, being often ill-man-
aged as to light and shade, and the vulgarity of
his nature prevented his religious works from
being of a high class. Iliw paintings are well
distributed through the galleries of Europe;
Dresden lias 11 of them, including '" David with
the Head of Goliath31; Vienna 10, among them,
"The Flight into Egypt"; and the Louvre 4,
including ''Melancholy," one of his best efforts.

EETIALES, fe'shl-S/lez (Lat., speakers, from
fari, Gk. Qavai, phanai, to speak) . Roman priests
who acted, in international affairs as heralds
in the announcement of war to a foreign state,
and who presided over the solemnities attend-
ing the return of peace. Their duties were dis-
charged with much ceremony. They were an-
ciently citizens of high birth, were chosen for
life, and were called pa-tren patrati. Consult
Livy, i, 24 ; i, 32 ; and also Frank, "The Import
of the Fetial Institution," in Classical Philology,
vii, 335-342 (Chicago, 1912); Lubker, AV«/-
Icxikon <Ic& klattsischen Altertums (8th eel.,
Leipzig, 1014).

FETID WOOD WITCH. See FUNGI, EDIBLE

AND POTSOJSWS.

FiJTIS, fft'teV, FRANCOIS JOSEPH (1784-
1871). A Belgian composer and writer on imi*
aic. He wa« the, son of an organist and played
the organ in his native, town (Monn) when only
10 years of age. He received his musical edu-
cation in "Paris and then traveled in Germany
and Italy, studying the works of the great mas-
ters. Fn 1800 he returned to Parity married a
wealthy woman, and was enabled to devote his
time to Btudying the hintory of music. In 1813
financial misfortunes compelled him to accept
the* position of organist and instructor in Douai.
Tn 1821 he beeamo profensor in the, Conserva-
tory of Paris and published three yea,™ later
hi« Traitti du eontrcpoint at fa Id fugue. In
1837 he founded the KCMIG Musical c.t a journal
devoted to musical criticism. In 1833 he WAR
appointed director of the. Royal Conservatory of
Brussels, which post he. held until hi« death.
TTo wrote much sacred and instrumental music
and Heven operas* His principal worku are:
Biographic uniiwarfle deft nwswiaiut Qt ftifrffo-
graph fa gfnfiralQ <fa la muAiqutt (8 vols., 2d ed.,
18WW15) : ffistoire gtntrafa do Id musiquG (5
vote., 1800-75), reaching down to tlio fifteenth
century only; Traitt cwnplet fa la thtioriQ ct fa
la pratique dp Vhwrmonie (llth fcd., 1875).
Consult Alvin, Notice <wr F, J. Pttis (BruwsclH,
1874).

FE'TISHISMC (from fetish, Fr, ftitiohe, from
Portug. /e»ff?o, artificial, from Lat. facticbts,
made by art, from fawra, to makfc; thfc term
wa« originally applied by Portuguese pioneers
in weHtern Africa to artifacts adored by the
natives and supposed by them to posH&ss magi-
cal potency). A form of belief and fiducial
practice in which supernatural attributes arc
imputed to material objects, especially objects
of artificial character; the practice includes
aorwy, thaumatutjry, or magic, with varioun *t-

499

7ETJ

tendant ceremonies and minor observances. The
fetish is usually a figure modeled or carved from
clay, stone, wood, or other material in imita-
tion of some deified animal or other object;
frequently it consists of fur, feathers, liair,
bone, or tooth of a tutelary animal; sometimes
it is the animal itself, or some tree, rock, river,
or place associated with the tutelary in the
mind of the devotee; and in certain cases the
belief is so definitely crystallized about the ob-
ject itself that the customary connection with
the tutelary eludes detection—when the belief
may be said to grade into idolatry. First* noted
by Portuguese travelers in Africa, it is now
recognised that fetishism is by no means con-
fined to western Africa, but prevails among the
primitive peoples of nil lands; also that the be-
lief does not represent a fairly definite stage
in the development of fiducial notions and prac-
tices preceding, say, a totemic stage. Tylor
limited fetishism to the, doctrine of potencies
(or spirits) attached to, or conveying influence
throng)}, material objecta, in contradistinction
from animism, which he defined as the doctrine
of spirits in general, and also indicated tho
way in which fetishism grades into idolatry.
PTowever, according to recent data, West Afri-
can fetiHlu*8 need not be connected with spirits,
except in so far as they arc* employed to coun-
teract the activities of malevolent beings. Any
natural object or artifact becomes a fetish when
invested with supernatural power by appropri-
ate incantations, rites, and a coating of magi-
cal HiiImtauccH. FetiHheH therefore may assume
various forms, and tho occasional restriction of
the term to elfigieH of human beings or animals
is unwarranted by the facts. Significant ves-
tiges of the early belief persisted among the
ancient Creeks, who reverenced trees and sacred
places; the Romans, who cast clods of native
earth on tho site, of tho sacred city; the Druids
of England, who adorod oak and mistletoe; tho
early (Jcrnwns and (Vlts with faith in fairies,
and many other peoples. Pee MAN, SOIBNOIC op;
SoruroLony.

Commit: ft. TL Nassau, Fptitfmm in West
Africa (New York, 1004); R. K. Dennett, At
the Rack of tlw Mark Man's Miwl (ib., 3006) :
AWf# anatj/tit/itcs *w/' Ics Mllcctimut du Mmfa
<lu (Jon go, BrtiMHelrt, (La, Keligion), pp. 145-
310; Pechuel-Loosche, Din Loanflo-Katpeflitinn,
Dritte Alvtelliing, Zweite Hlilftc, pp. 347-478
(Stuttgart, 1007): F. B. Jovonn, fntroduetion
1o thft fttml}/ of ffottipamffiw Religion (New
York, 1008) ; R. TT. Milligan, The JFettoh Folk
of UV«t Africa, (ib., 1012),

FETOLOOK, or FETTKRXiOOK. Tn heraldry,
a form of padlock. Kdwtml TV of England
adopted this as a charge after the battle of
Mortimer's Cross in 1471.

tfEtr, ffl (from OF. /ew, ficu, fieti, fltf> foe,
from ML. fewlum* property Md in fee}* Tn
the law of Scotland, a right to the UNO and
employment of landw, houses, or other heritable
objects, in perpptuiiy, in consideration of an
annual payment in grain or money, called feu
duty, and certain other contingent burdens
called <Mi8imliti(»s of superiority. Though "feu"

like "feud" and «!*•" in Kngllah law,
formerly unod to express any kind of tenure
by which the relation of lord and vassal was
constituted, in its narrower meaning which we
have hure, Indicated, and which U that in which
it ift now almont excluwively used, it w&» op-
po«cd> on tho one hand, to thb«« i»jtiur«« in

FETJCHTERSLEBEN

500

.FEUDALISM!

which, the return consisted of military or other
personal service and, on the other, to those in
which the return was illusory, the only object
of which was to preserve the relation of supe-
rior and vassal. A feu, in short, was a perpet-
ual lease — a feu farm, as it was often called
— by which the tenant became bound to pay a
substantial consideration, and his rights under
which he might forfeit, as the penalty of non-
payment. In the present day the disposal of
land in feu is practically a sale for a stipulated
annual payment, equivalent to chief rent. It
is in this light, accordingly, that feus are gen-
erally regarded in Scotland; and though feus
resemble English freeholds, in substance, their
forms agree mostly with copyhold tenure. See
Paterson, Compendium of English and Scotch
Laio (2d ed., Edinburgh, 1865).

tfEtrCHTEBSLEBEN, foiK'ters-la'ben,
ERNST, BABON VON- (1806-40). An Austrian
physician, philosopher, and poet, born in
Vienna. He studied in the university of that
city, became lecturer in medicine there in 1844,
and was made Undersecretary in the Ministry
of Public Instruction in 1848, but resigned in
the same year. His Lehrbuch der ar&tlichcn
Seelenkunde (J845) was translated into Eng-
lish, and others of his attractively written
medicophilosophical works enjoyed a high rep-
utation. He is, however, best known by his
Zur Diatetik der Seele (1838), which is still
widely read. His nonmedical works, with a biog-
raphy (7 vols.), ed. by Friedrich Hebbel, wore
published in 1851-53. Some of his lyric and
didactic verses appear in most anthologies.
His best-known poem, Es ist lestimmt in Gottcs
Rat, set to music by Mendelssohn-Bartholdy,
has become a Volkslied.

EEUD (AS. fcehp, enmity, from fah, hostile,
OHO. frtieda, (Vr. Fehde, hatred, Olr. 6lob, en-
emy, Lith. pip fas, bad, OPruns. popat'fcfi, he de-
ceives). A war waged by one family or small
tribe on another, to avenge the death or injury
of one of its members. It prevailed extensively
among the nations of northern Europe, and it
was only by gradual steps that the practice was
first restricted and then abolished. The laws
of the Emperor Rudolph I recognized the right
of private war. At last partial associations
were formed, the members of which bound
themselves mutually to settle their differences
by courts of arbitration and compensation
without going to war. The practice, however,
continued in many parts of the world and has
survived to the present day in the feuds of the
Kentucky and Tennessee mountains in Amer-
ica and in the Corsican vendetta. See FEUDAL-
ISM.

FEUD (IN LAW). See PEE.

FEUD/AX AlfCHITEC'TTTBE. A term ap-
plied to architecture during the feudal age, i.e.,
from about the tenth century to the fifteenth.
(See GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE; ROMANESQUE
ART.) It is generally used in reference to the
military architecture of that period, which will
be found treated in the article CASTLE.

FETJD'AI/ISM (Fr. tfodalisme, Sp., Portug.,
It. feudalismo, from ML. feudum, Eng. feud,
from OHG. fihu, AS. feob, cattle, Lat. pecu, Skt.
pa£w, cattle). The name used for a group of
customs, embracing the political and economic
sides of life, which gave to society its character-
istic shape during the greater part of the Middle
Agos. The rise of the institutions which we call
feudal became* noticeable shortly after the Ger-

manic invasions, and they attained their highest
development from the ninth to the thirteenth
century. With the beginning of the fourteenth
century certain nonfeudal institutions appeared,
and gradually a more modern type of society
began to take form. These changes, slow at
first, became more rapid and fundamental until
eventually the feudal system, as such, was quite
overthrown, though certain customs lingered far
down into modern times and in some few re-
spects still exercise considerable influence in
various countries. Feudalism, therefore, must
be studied in its origin, its period of highest
development, and its decline; and in the exam-
ination of the chief features of the system atten-
tion must be paid to the way in which it affected
(1) personal relationship, (2) landholding, and
(3) the distribution of political power.

The Origins of Feudalism. 1. Personal
Relationship. — Amid the disorders and inse-
curity of the early mediaeval period it became
very usual for men of low rank and little
strength to "commend" themselves to men of
higher position and greater power. This "com-
mendation" might be to the King, in which case
an additional and closer bond was created than
that between ruler and subject; or it might be
to a noble or a church corporation, or even
merely from one freeman to another. Com-
mendation tended to become a formal procedure
accompanied by an oath of fealty and service
from the inferior to the superior. The relation-
ship thus established was known as that between
vassal and suzerain, or man and lord, and the
ceremony as "homage and fealty."

2. Landholding Relationships. — Landed estates
were frequently granted by kings, or other pos-
sessors of extensive landed property, to persons
who should hold these estates for their own
use, but should, in acknowledgment of having
received them, perform certain services, or make
certain payments, to the grantor. In early times
such grants do not seem to have been considered
as hereditary, but they tended to become BO.
Rulers obtained lands to be thus disposed of by
conquest and confiscation; men of lower rank re-
ceived such extensive royal grants that they
were in a position to make similar grants on a
smaller scale to others. During the same period
many holders of land in full ownership gave it
to powerful persons or bodies, especially to the
Church, taking it back for possession during
their own lifetime or during the lives of a cer-
tain number of heirs. Such a grant was called
a "precarium" and was often held in practically
hereditary tenure by the original donor and his
successors, although the ultimate title to it was
vested in a third person or corporation. In
these ways there came to be but little land that
was actually owned by the person who occupied
it, and but little that was directly claimed by
the person who received payments from it. Land
had come to be "'held'1 by one man from another,
and land "tenure" had taken the place of land
"ownership." A piece of land held in thia way
was called at first a "benefice," later a "fief," a
"fee," or a "feud"; the procedure by which it
was granted was known as "enfeoffment," and
the relation between the person holding it and
the person from whom it was held as that be-
tween landlord and tenant. See FEE; FEOFF-

KENT.

Next, it is to bo noted that the personal bond
of homage and fealty and the relation of land*
lord and tenant tended to run together. Men

FEUDALISM

501

FEUDALISM

usually commended themselves to the lord from
whom they held their land; a person receiving a
fief from the King was both his tenant and his
vassal; and when a landholder enfeoffed a tenant
he usually received an oath of homage and fealty
from him. The conception of vassalage and ten-
ancy became inseparably bound up together.
Sometimes, it is true, a fief consisted of sonic-
thing else than land. It might be an office or
even a regular income, hold on condition of
fealty, homage, and feudal service; but after the
tenth century, in most western countries of
Europe, the possession of any considerable hold-
ing of land without the accompaniment of per-
sonal homage and fealty to some lord was almost
unknown.

3. Poioers of Government. — Large monarchies,
andcr the conditions existing in the early Middlo
Ages, could only bo governed by placing their
different sections or provinces under governors
or viceroys. In the Empire of the Franks these
were known as counts; in England, as ealdors-
men; later, earls. When the King was a strong
man, and his government well organized and
orderly, the governors were appointed officials
with limited powers and a temporary, or at most
a life, tenure of office. During the disorders of
the ninth and tenth centuries, however, the pro-
vincial rulers obtained extensive* local powers.
They exercised such functions of government as
taxation, the raising of military forces, the ad-
ministration of justice, and the coinage of
money. Moreover, their positions came to be
looked upon and treated as hereditary. In many
cases their power was strengthened by the fact
that the district over which the count ruled had
been occupied earlier by an independent raco or
tribe and hud been brought into the monarchy
only by conquest or annexation. The* surviving
race feeling, therefore1, now attached itself to
the local ruler. In addition tho semi-independ-
ent political powers of thcHO rulers over whole
districts were closely combined with the per-
sonal and landholding ruktioiwMpH already de-
scribed. Men naturally commended themselves
to the ncarc-Ht powerful lord and performed the
services due for their land to him. JKcelosianti-
cal bodies, bishoprics, and abbeys, which were
the holclcrH of such a large proportion of the
land, and whose entateft were, considered an being
held feudally, were naturally dependent upon
the good will of the local ruler to defend them
from the attack** of others and to refrain from
agtfreHBion upon them himself. Thene rulerH also
had landu in their possession which they granted
out a« fiefs to be hold from thwmnelveH by per-
sons who were thus alike their subjects, their
tenants, and their vassals. Thu», in the easo of
theso great lords of whole districts, political
powers, the. rights of a feudal landlord, and
perwmal lordship were inseparably combined.
It IB this clofto union of the powers included
under the modern conception of government
with a system of landholdmg and with personal
relations of fealty that forms the fundamental
character of feudalism and lies at thft bane of
the legal institutions of the Middlo Ages. In
the great lordships, at first, a fief involved not
only the poHBCBttion of land and of personal
claims and duties, hut of most of the important
rights of government over the persons dwelling
on the land.

In the course of time the same conditions came
to prevail in a partial degree In smaller lord-
ships too. When the King gave away land, fa

frequently granted to the new holder all kinds
of claims which he possessed over the people
dwelling on the land. In the ninth and tenth
centuries, e.g., the King in many cases, espe-
cially in land granted to the Church, promised
that royal officials should not intrude, in the
future, upon the land for purposes of taxation,
administration of justice, or military levy. This
left it open to the landholder to exercise those
rights upon his tenants, who thus became prac-
tically his subjects as well. Such royal grants
were^ known as "grants of immunity," or "im-
munities." In England similar grants were
made in late Anglo-Saxon times, reciting the
privileges of "sac and soc," "toll and team," and
other franchises now imperfectly understood.
Sometimes only partial rights of government
\\ere given in the immunities, as where the
King granted all pecuniary profits from court
jurisdictions over a certain diwtrict, but did not
give any other powers. Ultimately, as feudal
conditions became so nearly universal, it was
considered that landholding- in itself involved
the possession of certain political rights over
the tenants of the land, the extent of these rights
being dependent on the cimtcmia or circum-
HtnnccH of each particular <*ase; and in this
manner, in the lower as well aa in the higher
grades of holding of landed estates, there was
the same union of proprietorship of the land,
lordships over vassals, and rights of sovereignty
over inhabitants. In the creation of this com-
plex mass of personal and territorial relations,
there was much that was a matter of voluntary
choice, but still more that was the result of the
exercise of compulsion. The- early Middle Ages
were a period of violence and * disorder, and
feudalism was rather a resultant from the con-
llict of different forces than any planned or
logical scheme. Nevertheless a certain equilib-
rium was reached, if it was only the recogni-
tion of tl»e common interest of oppressor and
oppresHcd, of the powerful and the weak; in
spite* of a thousand variations, from country to
country, from estate to estate, .from person to
person, there waw a certain amount of uni-
formity. It is this degree of consistency which
lias suggested and partially justified the use of
the term "feudal system/' and, taking it in
this wnstt, it is possible to give an approximate
description of tint* general body of feudal customs.

The Feudal System. About the thirteenth
century a number of treatises or codifications of
feudal law and customs were drawn up, aueh
UH that of Beaumanoir and other similar Con-
tumwrs in France, tho ffaohscnspiegvl and
NfihiwbeiMpicgol in Germany, and the bibri Fen-
<Jorum in Italy. The appearance of these feudal
codcH, as well as other facts mining from a
direct study of institutions, seem* to point to
tho thirteenth century as tho culminating period
of feudalism, though the course of its develop-
ment was very different in different countries.
From the point of view of lanrtholding, feudalism
was most complete in England, owing doubtless
to the occurrence, just in the constructive period
of ftmdal institutions, of the Norman Conquest
with its accompanying confiscation* and rcgrants.
Independent political powers were developed
most completely in Germany or Italy, but, on
the wholes feudalism may bo said to have had its
most symmetrical development in France, and it
in there studied most satisfactorily as a com-
plete system.

The base: of the whole structure was the fiet

FEUDALISM:

502

FEUDALISM

A fief was a body of land; it might be made up
of a large stretch of contiguous territory or of
many separate tracts, or it might be a single
estate, or even possibly a comparatively small
number of acres in a certain manor or township,
which a tenant held from his lord on condition
of certain "feudal" services. When the fief was
first granted, or when it was obtained by in-
heritance, or when a new lord succeeded to the
suzerainty, a ceremonial "investiture" took place
according to the traditional forms of the cere-
mony of fealty and homage. The tenant kneeled
before the lord, placed his clasped hands between
the hands of his lord, and in this attitude swore
to be his man and to preserve fidelity to him in
all things. The lord accepted the fealty and
homage by kissing the tenant and inferentially
promising him his protection and patronage, and
by conveying to him, frequently by some sym-
bolic action, the fief of which the vassal now be-
came possessor.

The services owed by the tenant were of the
following general classes: Military service was
the duty of serving his lord in war with a
certain number of men for a certain time; ac-
cording to a widespread custom, once a year and
for 40 days. So general was this duty that
feudal tenure is frequently called military ten-
ure. Court service was the twofold duty of com-
ing when summoned to be a member of a body to
decide in cases concerning one of liis "peers" or
fellow vassals of the same lord, and of submit-
ting himself to the jurisdiction of such a court
or of his lord. ''Wardship" is the term applied
to the right of the lord to assume the guardian-
ship of the minor heir of a deceased tenant and
the income from the estate during the minority,
with the requirement, however, that the proper
support and education of the heir be provided
for from the estate. "Marriage" similarly was
the right of the lord to control the choice of a
husband for the heiress or the widow of a
tenant and frequently of a wife for the heir.
These last two forms of service reduced them-
selves practically to tho imposition of a money
fee proportionate to the value of the estate con-
cerned. Military service also was frequently
transformed into a money payment. There were
other direct money payments, although usually
at quite uncertain intervals. Of these, "relief"
was a money fee due from an heir on the acqui-
sition of his property. It was very commonly
estimated at a sum equal to the value of one year's
income of the estate. "Aids" were payments of
an amount settled by custom under certain con-
tingencies; the three most generally recognized
were: (1) to defray the expenses of knighting
the lord's eldest son; (2) of the marriage of his
daughter; (3) of his ransom in case he were
captured in war. These were not usually ex-
acted by any feudal lord except the King, and by
him only from his direct tenants or tenants in
chief; but these in such a case might call upon
their tenants to reimburse them for what they
had paid to the King. Finally, "escheat" and
"forfeiture" wore the conditions in which the fief
could be taken back by the lord — the former in
the case where there was no heir, the latter in
the case where the tenant had failed in the per-
formance of his feudal obligations. "Subinfeu-
dafcion" is a term used to describe the grant of
a portion of a tenant's holding to another per-
son, to hold from him on terms similar to those
on which the first tenant holds from his lord.
Generally speaking, all the land of a country

was held from the King by a comparatively
small number of direct tenants, known as ten-
ants in capite, or in chief. Many of these had
very large fiefs, consisting of a vast number of
estates. They granted some portions of their
holdings, as lesser fiefs, to others, and these a
still further portion to others below them, and
so on till there were frequently six, eight, or
more mesne or "mean" lords between the actual
tenant of a certain estate and the King from
whom it was ultimately held. All tenants below
those in capite wore known as "subtenants."

Feudal Society. The people were divided, ac-
cording to contemporary writers, into three
classes: those who did the fighting, the nobles;
those who did the praying, the clergy; and
those who did the work. The nobles were
necessarily warriors. In order to be able to
devote themselves to fighting, they were obliged
to have an income sufficient for their support,
and for equipping themselves and their followers
when they went to battle. They were the
holders of the estate, which will be described be-
low when the workers are treated of. The rank
of a noble depended upon the extent of his pos-
sessions. The rulers of provinces who could lead
immense bands to war were designated as dukes,
marquises, or counts. Below these were barons
and knights, who held varying amounts of
property which enabled some to lead large troops
of followers to battle; others were under the
necessity of serving in the following of some
more wealthy noble, usually the one from whom
they held their fief. Lowest of all were the
squires, or attendants upon the knights, who at
first had no land, but later acquired largo es-
tates. They formed the great mass of the
nobility in the thirteenth century. The home of
the noble was his castle. There he lived as a
petty monarch, exercising authority ovor his
vassals and tenants. When he was not engaged
in war, he devoted himself to the management
of his fief or to hunting. The management in-
volved more than merely looking after the prop-
erty; for the lord had the executive, judicial,
and administrative powers all in his own hand**.
He had to hold courts, administer justice, and
police his fief. Hunting was not merely a pas-
time, but one. of the chief means of supplying
food for the table.

The noble's wife (chatelaine) had charge of
the household and superintended the work of
the maids, who did the spinning and weaving.
She had to know something of medicine and
nursing, as the care of the wounded and sick
devolved upon her. In her husband's absence she
was obliged frequently to take his place in de-
fending the castle or administering the fief. In
her leisure moments she might embroider tapes-
tries or play chess; such are the occupations
generally depicted in the chansons; but in reality
the lady usually was busy with her household
duties or in making clothes. The bunch of keys
which she. wore at her girdle was the fitting
emblem of her duties. The education of the
daughter of a noble was devoted wholly to
giving her a knowledge of the duties which she
would be expected to perform. (The education
of the son has been discussed under CKXVAX&Y.)
With the acquisition of wealth, after the twelfth
century, games, minstrelsy, and tournaments
became common. Prodigality was the prevailing
characteristic of the age and soon iinpoverifthed
most of -the nobles. Even in this age, which ia
glorified by the poets, luxury and lack of oom-

FEUDALISM

503

FEUDALISM

fort \\vnl hand in Imml. Vt tin- gorgeous festi-
vals in the I'antlos iminv tilings which we now
consider necessaries were* wholly lacking.

The member A of the clergy wore originally
either nobles or peasants. Their duty was to
pray, and to can* for the moral welfare of the
society. -Aw R rule, they were somewhat better
educated than the other members of the commu-
nity. The binhopa and the abbots were great
landholders and had the same responsibilities na
the lay nobles, from whose1 life their own often
differed but little. At the other extreme of the
clerical body were the village priests, who had
sprung from the people and shared the lot of
the latter.

Those who did the work were the peasants.
They were obliged to support not merely them-
Helves, but also the nobles, by whom they were
generally dewpisod as inferiors. They lived iwu-
ally in villages, about which stretched the lands
which they cultivated. Rome of the peasants
were freemen; others, serfs. In fact, there were
many gradations in social rank according to the
amount of freedom which each class possessed.
Ilore we can notice only the two general classes.
The freemen held land from the lord of the lief
which could not legally be taken from them.
For tliis they paid u fixed rent which could not
be increased by the lord. The serfs also had
holdings of lands which could not be taken from
them : but as payment for their lands they owed
personal services and a part of their crops to
the lord of the lief. He, or his representatives
lived in a castle or fortified ho\iso a little apart
from the village. Near the castle was a tract
of land which the lord kept in his own posses-
sion, to be worked by the peasants for his profit.
The remainder of the land was divided into long,
narrow strips held by the peasants, no peasant,
however, being allowed to hold a number of
adjacent strips. The cultivation of the land waft
carried on in common by tho holders of neighbor-
ing strips. The villagers were bound closely,
together by their common work and mutual
responsibility, for each village WUH collectively
responsible for the order within its limits. Heo
MANOR.

Some of the villages grew into towns by the
erection of fortresses or because of their favor-
able location for trade*. The towns were% like1*
the villages, the property of some lord or lordH.
But the townspeople we™ usually engaged in
manufacturing or trade and thus ohtninod
wealth. Consequently they wen* able to form
effective associations (see GUILDS), which bought
or usurped the rights which the lordH postured
to collect payments from them. Many obtained
charters of liberties and became almost self-
governing e'emmmnJtiOB. Individual merchants
acquired wealth and viod with the nobles hi
luxury and ostentation. The members of the
"third estates" RH the townspeople came to bo
called, secured representation in the national
agttemblu'8 and gradually emerged from their
despised condition to become the real backbone
of the nations.

Military Organizations. The element of
personal relationship, which in the main char-
acteristic of the feudal system, affected to a
marked degree the organization even of the
mediaeval army. The lighting force under feudal
conditions wad marked by four main character-
istioB: (1) itH members were a military claw;
(2) they fought as cavalry; (3) they wet*
grouped in small irregular units; and (4) tbey

fought almost without strategy or tactics. The
iirst of these characteristics arose from the fact
that all military service was provided as a
return made by a vassal for the grant of land.
When land was granted by kings and great
nobles to vassals on condition of military ser-
vice, the capacity to furnish this service when
demanded was requisite, and therefore men with
military training and equipment were a neces-
sity. Military service was also doubtless a
source of pleasure and a matter of pride% since
the fighting class was also the landholding and
the ruling class. (2) The fact that a feudal
army was a mounted body arose from the nature
of the times in which feudalism arose. In the
ninth and tenth centuries Northmen, Magyars,
and Saracens were in the various parts of
Europe making rapid forays into the old settled
regions, and to meet them successfully it was
necessary to have a force that could move as
rapidly as they. Therefore the counts and kings
who were engaged in defending their territory
against these invaders substituted mounted
troops for the foot soldiers employed formerly in
the civil wars or in the invasioiiH of the Roman
Hmpire. There wore some foot troops usually
included in a feudal array, but their employ-
ment in fighting was quite subordinate. An
important exception to this, however, was the
case e>f England, where the archers from a ve>ry
early time constituted a valuable part of the
fie»ld fore»es and repeatedly showed thcnwlves
superior to the* chivalry of France. (3) The
third characteristic, the lack of a hierarchy of
letulerri, and of a se^riet) of divisions and sub-
divisions of the partn of an army, arose from
the way in which it was recruited. "Each count,
harem, or gentleman brought with him a smaller
or larger group of knights and continued to act
as the loader of his group during the lighting.
The only regularity wan in CUHCW where the
leaser knights and enquires were brought to ar»
engagement in BcjuadH under the* leadership ot
royal ofllcialti. But in most countries these
we*re only a small part of the whole body of
fighting men. Any nuch arrangement as the
modern division** of brigades, regiments, and
companion was entirely unknown and inappli-
cable to the prevalent style of lighting. (4)
With thin organization, or lack of organisation,
the*r« could be no syHtem of tactics, There WUH
usually HOMO cruder grouping of the whole body
of troop* into two e>r three "battles," under
different leartora; hut an a matter of fact the
lighting men usually began the onset an noon
UH they came in Bight of the enemy, and the
engagement rapidly became* a mere melee, or
fle*rie»« of flcparato encounter**. Kino personal
valor and great personal skill and strength wort*
often elinplayed in »ucb contain; but the army
as a whole was very ineffective. Similarly
rttrute'gy or planning for a largei cnmnaign usu-
ally constated simply in pas«ing into the enemy's
country and, while rather languidly socking an
engagement, burning and plundering- the prop-
erty of the one*my'a Hubj«o,ta, The groat feudal
weapons wore the lance and the battle-axe, with
»0rae Ufla of the aword, (Roc BATTME-Am)
There wan a development of body protection from
the mora coat of mail and huadptacc* to full plate
armor. Re* Aiuton; BRB&MTVKJMNL; OICAJCK
Mxit; Hwuf»T; Niaum
8uoh feudal armies were characteristic of the
, twelfth, and tfairtomih amtarlt*, Th*
mad*.* lew change in warfare tlwudt

FEUDALISM

504

PEtT DE JOES

might have been anticipated, the Western armies
remaining much the same in organization. By
the fourteenth century, however, some new ele-
ments were grafted on this system. Hired bands
of mercenaries were largely employed (see BBA-
BANgoNS; CONDOTTIERI), and those were some-
what better organized and handled. Certain
new troops were used, or old forms brought into
a new prominence. The Swiss pikemen and hal-
berdiers, fighting in a solid phalanx, frequently
overwhelmed a more purely feudal army of ar-
mored cavalry, especially when the fighting was
in a mountainous country. The English bow-
men, armed with the rapidly discharged and
effective longbow, were used in connection with
heavy-armed cavalry and men at arms. Their
rapid and deadly flight of arrows threw into
confusion any stationary body of feudal troops
opposed to them and put this body at the mercy
of the knights whom the archers were support-
ing. If the opposing cavalry force was charg-
ing, the arrows retarded their advance so much
as io make its onset ineffective. The effort to
meet these new conditions or to utilize them to
the best advantage, along with the other in-
fluences of the time, gradually led to a diversifi-
cation of tactics and eventually to the organiza-
tion of the modern type of armies. The in-
vention of gunpowder and its gradual intro-
duction in warfare was rather an element in the
development of modern military systems than
a source of any sudden change.

The Decay of Feudalism. Feudalism was
in its very nature anarchic. The possession of
military power was an incitement to its use in
the settlement of private feuds; the imperfect
subjection of vassals only slightly less powerful
than their lords led to frequent resistance on
their part; the absence of a strong central
government, resulting from the possession of
sovereign rights by the nobles, diminished the
salutary power of enforcing order from above.
The feudal castle, fortified and guarded, held in,
the name of the ruler, but frequently used as a
base of operations to despoil and tyrannize over
the surrounding country, and to wage petty
warfare with other feudal nobles, was as char-
acteristic an element of feudalism as wore the
legal and economic features which have been
described above. During the latter purt of the
Middle Ages, from the. thirteenth century on-
ward, other institutions were being developed
which did not fit into the feudal system. Town
life, trade, and commerce, a well-to-do free mid-
dle class, and strong centralized monarchies
grew up in the various western countries, so
that feudalism became restricted to a lesii and
less extensive proportion of human interests.
Even in those fields in which feudalism had
been dominant, in landholding, personal rela-
tions, and the. powers of government, funda-
mental changes wore taking place. Land came
to be generally held on condition of mere pecu-
niary payments and became a subject of pur-
chase, sale, and bequest. Contractual relations,
and those of subject and sovereign, took the
place of the personal bond of earlier times.
Military powers, the right of taxation, the right
of coinage, even the right of court jurisdiction,
were withdrawn by the national governments
from the feudal barons. During the thirteenth
century in England, the fourteenth in France,
*nd the fifteenth in Germany, the kings were
able to put an end to private warfare and to
rodnoe feudal jurisdiction to a definite inferi-

ority to that of the King. Notwithstanding
the decay of feudalism in these respects, how-
ever, class distinctions based upon it, certain
privileges of taxation, and peculiarities of land-
holding continued to exist until in France they
were swept away by the Revolution, in 1789,
v^iile in Germany and England traces of their
influence may still be found.

Bibliography. The older works are of little
use now. The following general works are es-
pecially valuable in themselves, and also con-
tain many references to monographs treating
different phases of feudalism: Luchaire, Man-
uel dea institutions frangaises (Paris, 1802);
Esmein, Cours elSmcntaire d'Jiistoirc du droit
frangais (ib., 1901); Seignobos, Feudal Regime,
trans, by Dow (New York, 1908); Secretan,
Essai sur la jcodalite (2 vols., Lausanne,
1S58); Flach, OHgines dc ranoicnnc Prance
(3 vols., Paris, 1800-1904); Viollet, Jlistoire
des institutions politiques (2 vols., ib., 1890-
9S); Abdy, Feudalism: Jttt 7?ise, /*> ogress, and
Consequences (London, 1890) ; Stubbs, Consti-
tutional History of England, vol. i, 6th ed.,
ib., 1897); Pollock and Mwitland, History of
English Law (2 vols., Cambridge, 189;")); Gau-
tier, La- chevalerie (Paris, 1895; Eng. trans.,
London, 1891) ; Schultz, Das liofische Lclcn sur
Zeit der Minnesinger (2 vols., Leipzig, 1879-
00) ; Prutz, Age of Feudalism and Thcwracy
(Philadelphia, 1905; vol. ix of History of all
Nations) ; Munro, Seigniorial Si/stem in flanada
(New York, 1907); Feudal Aids, vol. v (Lon-
don, 1909) ; Round, Feudal England- (ib., 1909) ;
Peterson, Ubcr den KunniirJdschcn A del im If.
Jahrltiindert (Berlin, 191J).

PETTDAX SYSTEM. See FEUDALISM.

PETTDAL TEITTJBE. The system by which
land was generally held in western Europe dur-
ing the Middle Ages. It allowed one man to
hold the title, while the i«u belonged to worne
one else. The former vras^lnown UH tlw lord
or suzerain, while the latter was the vassal and
owed service for the land. If the vuwal was
a noble, his service was generally of a military
nature, while if he was a villein, his service
was usually in the form of work on his lord's
estate. The noble's land was known as a fief
(see FEE), and there was nothing to prevent him
from holding of several lords, but the one to
whom he owed service primarily wua known as
liege lord. In some parts of Europe the feudal
system had made little or no headway. Here
property was held in fee simple, which was
known as allodial tenure, and the separata es-
tate was the allodium. See VBUDALIHM.

FEU DE JOIE, fg de zhwii (Fr., fire of joy).
A form of musketry fire reserved for the cele-
bration of some joyful event, as, e.g.t the ob-
servance of the King of England's birthday in
the British army. The troops are formed in
line, in two ranks, at open order. On the com-
mand present, rifles are brought to that posi-
tion, with the muzssles pointing upward, care
being taken to secure a uniform angle of ele-
vation. On the command fire, the right-hand
man of the front rank discharges his rifle, fol-
lowed at scarcely perceptible intervals by the
men on his left successively. When the extreme
left of the front rank is reached, the left-hand
man of the rear rank immediately follows, the
fire being similarly continued until the extreme
right is attained, when the round is completed*
Three rounds, as a rule, are fired on such oc-
casions. The random or independent discharge

JS'ETTERBACH

505

PEtTEBBACH

of fii'oaritis in the air, common to Indians and
other uncivilized bodies of warriors, might bo
termed a feu do joie.

PEUEBrBACH, foi'er-hiia, ANSELM VON ( 1829-
80). A German historical painter. He was
boru at Speyer, Sept. 12, 1820, the son of the
arttlueologist Anst-lm Keucrbach (1798-1851).
His artistic proclivities having been early awak-
ened in the course of his education at Freiburg
(1830-46), he went to Dusacldorf in 1840,
where he ntudi<?d under Schadow and Rothel,
and later to Munich, to work under Rahl. la
order to perfect himself in color, he proceeded
to Antwerp in 1850 and thence to Paris. Un-
der tho guidance of Couture he acquired that
minute finish of form and broad coloristic treat-
ment which are characteristic of his works.
The first of these was "Haiiz at the Inn"
(18f>2). Leaving Paris in 1853, he painted at
Karlsruhe the "Death of Pietro Arctino"
(ltSf>4) mid in 1853 went to Italy, with a sti-
pend from the government; working llrst in
Venice, where he made a masterly copy of Ti-
tian's "Assumption," and painted a ''ColoKtuil
Figure of Poetry" (1850), now in the Karlsruhe
Gallery. From 1850 to 1872 ho. was in Rome,
where, absorbed in the enthusiastic study of
the great Italian masters, he developed his in-
dividual style. The first fruit of this tend-
ency was his "Dante with tho Noble Ladies of
Kavonna" (1858), which is distinguished by
golden glow and depth of color. In Rome Feucr-
bach found a munificent patron in Baron von
Sc'liuck, who acquired a number of 1m ounviiBOrt
for his famous collection in Munich, foremont
among thorn the improwwivo "Pietfl" (1HU3), be-
sides "PranceHca da Rimini and Paolo" (1804),
"Aricwto with tho Lad'n* at Forrarn," "Unite
at the Fountain" (1800), "L,siura and Votrarch
at Avignon," "Idyl from Tivoli." From h'm HO-
journ in Rome also dates the charming "Ma-
donna. Surrounded by Angela Making Munio."
(1800t DntHden, Gallery). More and more, ho
confined hi« choice of nubjectH to the antique
world, Htriving to give oxproHtmm to IUH idoal —
the cult of beauty — in HoviouB and lofty thcmcft.
He understood, better than any othor modern
artist, thus nohli* find uimnla dignity of antique
art; but he lacked the joyommoHfl of the an-
tique Hpirit. A tinge of ascetic1 mm pervaded hifl
works, mingling an intensely personal note with
their grave majcHty. In Rome hi* glowing
color became eoolor and bin efforts were con-
centrated upon psychic expression* Thus orig-
inated "The Banquet of Plato" (1807, in Karls-
ruhe CSallery), in a second conception of which,
on a larger scale (1873, National Gallery, Ber-
lin), he roaches tho greatest heights of classi-
cal inspiration; "Meaea Preparing for Flight"
(1H70, New IMmikathak at Munich); "The
Judgment of Paritt" (1870, Hamburg Gallery),
one of his most forceful compositions; *Tpni-
genia in Tauris" (1871); and tho "Battle of
the Anmxoiitt" (1873, Nuremberg Gallery). In
1873 Feuorbaeh was appointed professor at the
Vienna Academy, but, embittered by lack of ap-
preciation, he resigned in 1877 and retired to
Venice, where he* died Jan. 4, 1880. His lout
works were tlw exquisite though unfinished
"Concert of Venetian Girls1' (1878, National
Gallery, Bwrlin), and the "Fall of the Titans"
(1875), Vienna Gallery). Koucrbttch'n subtle
personality is revealed to us in hi« autobio-
graphical work, Kin Vormdchtni* von Anadm
ffeuerbaoh (Vienna, 5th ad., 1002). Consult
VOL. VI It-— 33

Pecht, in Zeitschrift filr Wdcnde Eunst, viii
(Leipzig, 1873) and the monographs on Feuer-
bach by Allgeycr (Stuttgart, 1904), Heyek
(Bielefeld, 1005), and Ulmde-Bornays (Stutt-
gart, 1013).

FETTERBACH, LUDWIG ANDREAS (1804-72).
A German philosopher, fourth son of Paul
Johann Anselm Feuerbach. He was barn at
Landshut. After studying theology for two
years at Heidelberg under Paulus and Daub,
in 1824 he was attracted to Berlin for the pur-
pose of hearing Plcgcl, and soon afterward he
abandoned theology to devote himself entirely
to philosophy. In 1828 he became private Locont
in tho University of Erlangen, hut in a few
years quitted the academical life on account of
the offense he had given by the publication of
an anonymous book attacking the belief in im-
mortality (ticdankcn ilbcr Tod und Unsterblich-
I'dt, 1830). He now gave up his whole time to
litorary labor, residing at Ansbach and then at
Bruckberg near Bayreuth till 1860, when lie
settled near Nuremberg. During the noxt few
ywira ho published three works on portions of
the history of philosophy, treating the period
from Bacon to Spinoza, and tho. theorion of
Leibnitz and of Uaylc. But those hititorical
works only paved the way to a critical investi-
gation into the nature of roligion and its re-
lation to philoHOphy. Tho most celebrated re-
sult of thin is hi« work on tho nature of Chrin-
tianity (Das Wcttcn ties Ghrwtcn turns, 1841),
which was translated into JKnglinh by George
Kliot undor tho title The flasrwc of Chrifttian-
it}/, ThiB was followed in I84f) by flan Wcttcn
dcr Religion. Starting from the Hegelian doc-
trine that tho abrtoluto eoinos to consciouHnc^ftfl
in Immunity, Kouovlmch donios to God any ox-
istonce oxcopt as an idoalizod object of human
consciousness. Tho c<m«option of God is thus
merely the projection by man of his own idoal
into th« objw-tivo world. All authority above,
man IH regarded as a deluHion proceeding from
mjin liinmolf, and the highest good is explained
«H that which i«, on tho whole, most pleasur-
able. Yet oven thiw highest good ia further ex-
plained an coTiaisting in rcwrnblanco to that
idoal humanity which man crotitt^H for himwlf
tind worships as God. In a later work lie Bays
that man in only what he. o*itH (/)<r Monah, i*t
vra/f or fat). Tn the hint yoar» of hiH life he
devoted himaolf to ethical' etudioB, which he
purwuod in a hedonistic spirit (See HftnoNrsM.)
Although tho impulHO towards plenmire is for
him tho basis of all morality, the pleasure of
othern umwt bo considered as of equal impor-
taneo with ono*w own ploasuro. (See UTTMTAKI-
ANIHM-,) Fmierbaeh was a man of high ideata
in apita of hia philosophical materialism. Ho
made numerous friends both at homo and abroad,
and his writings were vory popular. Tho works
of Fouerbach woro collected and publinhc^ in 10
VO!H, (Uipzig, 1846-66). A later edition has
boon published, /Winmtfir/ut Wcrkt (10 vol«*,
fltuttgart, 1005-0(1). For his life, consult:
Crtln (Uipziff, 1874); Boycr (ibM 1873);
Starcko (Btuttgart, 1885); Jodl, Ludivig Feu-
crb&ch (ib., 1004), For his phUosophioal ays*
inn, oonHUlt Kng(d«, Lutiwig Fwwbwh und dtr
A u* gang dcr klamxch-dvutHchvn PKiloaopU*

(ib., 1888), and Bolint Liutirig Feucrbach und
soinc KcttgcnQsam (ibM 1891).
FBtTEKBAOH, PAUL JonAJ^N ANBIHUC V*K

(1776-18S8). A dietinguiahed Gorman jurist,
born near Jena, NOT* 14, 1775. Brought up at

FETTERKBOTE

506

PETTILLANTS

Frankfort-on-tlie-Main, where his father was an
advocate, and educated in the gymnasium there,
he went in 1792 to Jena, where he studied law
and philosophy. In 179S he appeared as a crim-
inal jurist in a work entitled Philosopliisoli-
turistische UnterstcoJiung ub&r das Verlrechen
rh'8 Uochverrats, and in the following year he
began to deliver lectures in the University of
Jena. In his lectures and published writings
he introduced into criminal jurisprudence a
new method of treatment, which was system-
atized in his compendium of German penal law
(Lehrluch des gemeinen in Deutschland gelten-
den peiliohen Privatreohts, Giesson, 1801; 14th
ed. by Mittermaicr, 1874) . This celebrated work
placed Feuerbach at the head of the school of
jurists who maintain that the decision of the
ludge in every case ought to be determined solely
by a literal application of the penal law, never
by his own discretion, and who on that ac-
count obtained the name of "rigorists." In
1801 Feuerbach was appointed full professor in
Jena, but in 1802 accepted a call to Kiel. In
1804 he removed to the University of Land-
shut; but the next year, having received a com-
mission to prepare a penal code for Bavaria, he
\s-as transferred to Munich, and in 1808 he was
appointed Privy Councilor. The new penal code
\vkich he planned for Bavaria (Strafgesetzbuch
fitr das Komgreich Baiern, Miinchen, 1813) re-
ceived the royal approval and was taken as a
basis for the emendation of the criminal law of
several other countries. During this period also
he published his "Remarkable Cases in Crimi-
nal Law" (Merlcioiirdige EriminalrecbtafiiUe,
2 vols., Giessen, 1808-11), which first led the
way to a deeper psychological treatment of
criminal cases. In 1812 he published a work on
trial by jury, to which a second volume, on the
judicial procedure of France, was added in
1825. In 1814 he became second president of
the Court of Appeals 'in Bamberg, and in 1817
first president of the Court of Appeals at Ans-
pach. In 1832 he published a work on Kaupar
Hauser, whose mysterious fate had strongly
attracted his interest. He had just edited a
collection of his miscellaneous writings, when
lie died at Frankfort-on-the-Main, Slay 25,
1833. An interesting life of Feuerbach was
ivritten by his son Ludwig, Lelxtn und Wirken
A.nselm von Fcuerbachs (2 vols.9 Leipzig, 1852).
EETJEBKB.6TE, foi'Sr-kr5'te (Ger., fire toad) .
A common and curious frog (Boinlinator ig-
ncus) of Europe, called "fire-bellied" because
of the vivid Jflame color, marbled with black,
of its undcrparts. The abdominal surface is
smooth, but the upper surface, which is olive
green, is extremely warty and toacllike. Two
varieties (or perhaps species) are recognized,
the orange-bellied of the lowland marshes and
the yellow-bellied of mountainous regions. It
extends eastward into temperate Asia, but in
not known in Great Britain. Jt is essentially
aquatic. The female utters a high-pitched cry
and is exceedingly shy; the tadpoles grow to an
unusually large si/.c, especially in respect to
their tail fin. Those frogs arc interesting as
representatives of the peculiar family Diacoglos-
sidsR (q.v.) and also for the remarkable way
in which, when they think themselves in dan-
ger, they assume an erect, stiffened attitude
intended to display the bright "warning colors7'
of their bellies. "This is correlated with the
fact that their skins yield »w exceedingly poi-
sonoua secretion, so that no known bird or

mammal eats them. Consult Gadow, AmpJiibia
and Jteptiles (London, 1001)

PETTEBSWOT, foi'ers-not' (Ger.. The Lack of
Fire). An opera by Richard Strauss (q.v.),
first produced at Dresden, Nov. 21, 1901.

EETTILLANTS, fe'ydN'. The. name applied
to (1) a religious congregation, springing out
of the Cistercian Order and taking its name
from the mother house of Feuillant, Lat., Fu-
lium, near Toulouse. ltd founder was Jean de
la BarriSre, who was abbot of this monastery
from 1562. Protestantism made inroads upon
his community and the ancient discipline was
relaxed. Finally, after courageous efforts at
enforcement of "the rule, he was deserted by
nearly all his monks and himself accused as
an innovator before the General Chapter at
Cftcaux. He defended himself so successfully
that a number of the old monies put themselves
under his guidance, and he instituted a severer
mode of life than had of late been customary
in Cistercian houses. They came to Paris in
1587, protected against the Huguenots by a
troop of cuirassiers, to take possession of the
convent founded for them by Henry III. Tho
reform was confirmed as a separate con^roga-
tion by Sixtus V in 1580. In 1030 Urban VlIT
divided them into two branches — the Italian,
known as Reformed Lernardines, and the
French, who still kept the, name of Fouilbmts,
etich under a general of its own. At the Ue.vo-
lution they possessed 24 abbeys in Vranct1.
Cardinal Bona and other famous theologian*
have belonged to this order. Barriere also
founded a community of women, and Cardinal
Kustico did the same at Homo, placing his
under the direction of the Feuillant fathers.
Anno of Austria founded a house for them in
Paris in 1C62.

2. A faction in the assembly of the clergy
in Paris (1755), which discussed the execution
of the constitution Uniycnitits. At this time
Cardinal de la Rochefoucauld, Archbishop of
BourgcH, \\«!fei appointed Minister of Public
Worship (dc Id Fcuillc, hence the name) and
took the lead of a sort of ministerial pnrly,
Gallicnn and half Janscnist in tone, which
formed a small majority of the assembly. See
GALLTCAN CHURCH.

3. A political club in Paris during the early
years of the French Revolution, urijrniully
known as the Society of the Friends of th«
Conwtitution, or the Club of 17S1). Tt wet in
the ancient convent of the Jacobins and com-
prised a majority of the members of the Con-
stituent Aflsembly. With the progress of radi-
cal ideas the. friends of monarchy in the noch'ty
grew discontented, and in July, 1701* m«»re than
300 deputies, amontf them Itarerc, Lttiijuinaitt,
Sieves, Lafayette, and the Lameths, weeded,
taking up tlieir home in the convent of the
Feuillaiits in Rue Honorc". (See above.) Thorn*
who remained came to b« known spoeinVully us
Jacobins (q.v.]. The Feuillttntw lo*t rapidly in
numbers and influence'; as a group of woll-fetl
men who believed in a constitutional monar-
chy, they were hated alike- by Jacobin A and
Royalists. In tho Legislative* Afwembly they
numbered only 162 out of u total of 745, unll
from connervative they became, in the course
of time, reactionary. The Jacobins n*i>eat*Hlly
impeached them before tho As«embly; in De-
cember, 1701, they were compelled to itbatidon
their meeting plcico in the Feuillants, and in
Aujnwt, 1 71)2, the papers of the club were seta:**!

FETTELLET

507

FEVER

and their members listed as suspects. It died
peacefully.

FETTILLET, fg'yft', OCTAVE (1821-90). A
popular French novelist and mediocre dramatist,
born at Saint- Lo, Rormandy, a favorite of the
court and society of the Second Empire. Ho
began his literary life as a collaborator of the
elder Dumas, but 'presently deserted the romantic
group and set up as a purveyor of novels and
plays that should seem proper for general read-
ing. His early dramas, puch as Le rowan d'un
jmnc> JIOMWC paiirrc (dramatized from his novel
of the same name, in 1858), are fundamentally
unhealthy growths of hothouse sentiment. His
dramatic works (The&lre cowplct) were collected
in « vols. (1892-03). No novelist has painted BO
well the high-strung, neuropathic society woman,
and in this he contributed an essential element
to the growth of realism in fiction, although as
a writer he stood midway between the romantic
and the realistic schools. On the fall of the
Empire he grew more sternly realistic in hi*
treatment of the hard, Hellish cynicism of the
French upper class. It is curious to contrast
in this regard Monsieur de Caworn of 18G7 with
Julia dc Tr&vntr of 1872, and thin again with
the llistoirc d'unc parisienne (1881) and Lcs
amours dc. Philippe (1887). Consult L. Dorics,
Oft are Pnrillet (Sn hit-La, 1002).

FETTILLETOtf, fe'yc-tflN' (BY., leaflet). A
nil me given iirst to the literary portion of a
French journal, usually occupying the lower
third of the first page,' ''below the line" as it
is technically called. The idea originated with
the elder liertin, editor of Lu Journal dcs D6-
hits (1800 -11). The apace was origiimlly oc-
cupied, as it is often still, by criticiwmfl, essays,
untl tales; but in the early thirties, first per-
haps by Kugene Sue, Hie feuillcton began to be
used for continued noriiil stories, often of por-
tentous length. AH each day demanded its
copy, hasty production beeamo the rule, unity
of construction WUH sacrificed to the imlepcnd-
enl interest of each fragment, the attention of
the, reader was directed to details, and the
whole Buffered from tlus accentuation of itfi
parts. This will suvount for the literary de-
fects in such still popular novels as Pumas'fl
A/onto Crixto (Pari,:, 1845); Sue's Lo jitif er-
rant (ib., 184/5); i'nd Lea mj/ttt6res dr. /Virte
(ib., 1HM). The greatest purveyors of feuille-
ton were tin1 older Dumas, Sue, Soulio\ Mou-
vestre, Karr, Bernard, Paul de Kock, and Janin,
Their most popular successors have been I 'on mm
du Terrail, xavier de, Mout£pin, and tluhw Mary.

EfiVAL, fA'vfll', PAUL HBNKI OOBRNTIK (1817-
87). A prolific French novelist, best remembered
for his sensational Mytite're* dp howl res (11 vols.,
1844), which rivaled for a time* Sue's Afyntdrflft
tfa I'arit* and was dramatixod and several times
translated. Among other 'novels dramatized
with HuecoRH the, more, noteworthy are Lo filtt
du ft table (1847), and Le bown, with Snrdou
UH5K), There are translations of other nov-
els with the titles The Lowr of 7><r,m (1846),
Me r>iiXrov« Motto (1808), The Woman of My*-
tertt (18«4), and Thrice Dead (1860). Con-
sult Oh. Buet, JfMitf/ofM et Onm4«8 (Paris,
18Hr>).— His mm, I*AtTr, FrtvAL (1800- ),
followed hifet footsteps very creditably with
A'oKwW^ (1800) and CTtanf/'pfr (1806) ttR well
as with ttcveral »uccikn«ful plays.

BI3S/VEB (AS. /ff/r, OH<i ficoar, Ger. Weber,
from Tjtit. frhrix. fever, from fcwre*, to bt» hot).
A ritw In the body temperature attending most

acute and some chronic disease y. The temper-
ature is estimated according to the state of the
internal parts rather than the external. The
term "fever" is also applied to certain diseases
in which high temperature is a prominent symp-
tom, as typhoid fever, scarlet fever, yellow
fever. Fever is a constant accompaniment of
these diseases, as well as of pneumonia, which
was formerly called lung fever. In most such
diseases there is first a feeling of weakness,
apathy, loss of appetite, and a chill, with pains
in the body and limbs, and rapid pulse, consti-
tuting the period of invasion. Succeeding this
comes the period of domination, during which
the pulse remains rapid, the surface becomes
ilurthed and hot, the temperature rises still
higher; thirst, headache, restlessness, and rapid
breathing exist; the skin ia very dry, and the
urine is scanty. During the decline of the fever
the temperature falls, perspiration breaks out,
the rate, of respiration diminishes, pains cease,
and the patient falls asleep. All fever is de-
pendent upon a morbid process which is due
partly to chemical changes which occur in the
cells jinci partly to irritation of the nervous
system by toxins produced by the disease.
There are no "self-originating" or "spontaneous"
or ''idiopathic" fevers. Fevers are named ac-
cording to prominent feature*!, supposed or real
causes, or localities in which they are com-
monly found. Thus, we have scarlet and yel-
low fevers, malarial fever, ship (or ja.il) fever,
Alalla fever, spotted fever, dengue (or dandy)
fever, etc. If a fever i» protracted for several
days during which the temperature remains
above the normal (O8.(i° F.), the type is called
etmthiuwl; 'if the temperature drop's to bo nor-
mal and rises again, after intermissions of
a few hours, u day, or two days, the fever is
called infrnnittPHl ; if the temperature falls to a
point above the normal and ascends again, os-
cillating in this wiiy for several days, the fe.ver
is styled remittent. A certain fever decreases
ufltr several days till the temperature rea«*ln*w
*lhe normal, and then after nn interval of a few
days it returns. This is styled rctapttinfi fcvor*
An intermittent (malarial) fever in which the
intermission is one day, or two days, or throe
days, is respectively termed a quotidian, ter-
tian, or quartan type. A rise of temperature
due to fatigue, teething, or to vaccination, or a
local heat due to an infected sore or a boil, in
not called a fever, though probably with a larger
knowledge of the pathological conditions of
tissue during fever the na mo might be applied
even to th"so easca.

In treating canes of fever it ifl customary to
record at certain intervals each day the degm*
of temperature, reached by the clinical ther-
mometer* placed In the mouth or rectum of the
patient. This record of temperature itt plotted
OTI a special chart, with lines connecting tho
point.* reached by the temperature, and the ro-
tmlting diagram is called the "fever curve,*'
For convenience* sake, the rate, of pulse and of
respiration, morning and evening, ia reoorctal
on the chart as well aa the defecation and uri-
nation in certain capes. Vor ardent fuver, sou
URAT STKOKIS; for autumnal fever, «oe TYPHOID
VKVKB; for phip fever, jail fever, or camp fe.v«r,
net) TYPHUS KKVKK: for spotted fever, wsc Mw.v-
INGITIH (paragraph tVworoftpina? Meningitis] ;
for bilious fever (an improper term), »oe JWU-
LARIA and TYPHOID FKVJSJI, Many other febrile
disorders are d<*soribod under their own names.

REVBB BLISTEBS

506

FEVER BLISTERS. See HEBPKS.
3TEVEB, BTJSH ( so called as being sometimes
used for intermittent fevers), Lindera cestivalis,
or, as formerly known, Benzoin odoriferum. A
shrub common in the northern United States,
remarkable for its graceful form and beautiful
leaves. It is from 4 to 15 feet high and grows
best in moist and shady places. The bark is
aromatic and tonic, and a decoction is used as
a stimulant in fevers. The berries, which are
bright scarlet in autumn, have occasionally been
used as a substitute for allspice, and sometimes
the shrub is called spicebush and wild allspice.
FE'VERFEW (AS. feferfuge, f rom Lat. fcbri-
fugia, century plant, from fvlris, fever + fu~
yure, to put to flight, from fugere, to flee) , Clvrys-
*anthemum parthenium. A perennial plant be-
longing to the Composite, found in waste places
and near hedges in America and many parts
of Europe. It is botanically allied to chamo-
mile and still more nearly to wild chamomile
(Matrioaria chamomilla) and much resembles
these plants in its properties, but differs in ap-
pearance, the segments of its leaves being flat
and comparatively broad, and its flowers smaller.
Its habit of growth is erect, its stem much
branched and about 1 to 2 feet high. It has
a strong, somewhat aromatic smell. It was
once a popular remedy in ague and from time
immemorial has been used as an emmenagogue.
It is employed in infusion and is stimulant and
tonic. A double variety is not uncommon in
gardens. A related genus is the mayweed or dog
fennel (Anthemis cotula), with leaves more re-
sembling those of chamomile, but almost scent-
less, and large flowers, with white rays and
yellow disk, very common in grain fields and
waste places in America and throughout Europe.
A form without the white rays is not uncommon.
FEVER TREE. See PINCKNEYA.
FEVER WORT (fever -}- wort, root, AS.
wyrtt OHG. wurz, Gcr. 'Wurs; connected with
Lat. radix, root), HORSE GENTIAN, or WILD
COFFEE, Triosteum perfoliatum. A perennial
plant of the family Caprifoliacese. It has an
erect, round, hairy," fistular stem, from 1 to 4
feet high, opposite ovate-lanceolate entire leaves,
and axillary whorls of brownish-purple flowers.
It is a native of North America, occurring in
rich woods from Canada to Alabama and west
to Iowa. Its dried and roasted berries have
been occasionally used as a substitute for cof-
fee; but it is chiefly valued for its medicinal
properties, its root acting as an emetic and mild
cathartic. It is sometimes called Tinker's root,
being named after Dr. Tinker, who first brought
it into notice.

FETOKES, ffiks, JESSE WALTEB (1850- ).
An American ethnologist, born at Newton, Mass.
He graduated at Harvard in 1875, took his
degree of PhJ). thcro in 1877, and pursued the
study of sottlogy at Leipzig (1878-80). He was
an assistant at the Museum of Comparative
Zoology, Harvard, from 1881 to 1880, and
secretary of the Boston Society of Natural
History from 1889 to 1891, and edited the
Journal of Ethnology and Archaeology from 1890
to 1894. He directed the Smithsonian archae-
ological expedition to Arizona, and in 1895
became an ethnologist in the Bureau of Ameri-
can Ethnology. Ho was in charge of the exca-
vation and repairs of t'asa Grande, Ariz., and
of Spruce Tree House, Clitf Palace, Colo. (1908-
09). His writings comprise pamphlets on ma-
rine zoology and American archaeology and eth-

nology, including a report on uie ceremonies of
the Moqui Indians.

FEYDEATJ, fiVdfi', ERNEST AIMK (1821-73).
A French sensational novelist, a mediocre dram-
atist, and an antiquarian scholar of some dis-
tinction, born in Paris. In 1858 he sprang into
notoriety with Fanny, a daringly realistic study
of the psychology of jealousy, to be associated
with Constant's Adolphe. He wrote also an un-
finished Histoire des usages funebres et des
sepultures des peuples anciens (1857-61) ; Le
secret du lonhcvr (1864; tranw., 1867) ; sketches
of Algerian life; UAUemagnc en JS7Z (1872),
a clever but bitter view of Germany; uncl a
splendid life of TJi6ophi1e Gauthier. Consult
Barbey d'Aurevilly, Lea (Euvres ct les Jiommcs
au XI Xe sificle (6 vols., Puris, 1892-99 ) .—His
son, GEOBGES FEYDEAU (1862- ), became
known as a brilliant writer of monologues and
witty one-act plays.

PEYEN'-PERRIN', fe-yaN'-pe-riiN', FRANCOIS
NICOLAS AUGTJSTIN (1826-88). A French genre
painter, born at Nancy (Meurthe). He studied
under Yvon and Cog-met at the Ecole des Boaux-
Arts. A very versatile artist, he chose his sub-
jects from everyday life, such as "A Lesson in
Anatomy" (1804, Tours Museum), from history,
as "The Finding of the Body of Charles the
Bold," and from literature, especially Dante.
He also painted studies of the nude, but his
series of Breton pictures &l.o\v him at his boat.
He has rendered the atmosphere of the sea
with fine effect; but his figures, espeeiullv his
women, are too pretty and elegant for luird-
working peasants. Among the most popular of
these studies are "Return of the Oyster Fishers"
(1874; Luxembourg) ; "The Winnower" (1807);
"Return from Fishing at Low Tide." He re-
ceived medals at the salons of 1863 and 1874
and the Legion of Honor in 1881.

PEYJ60 Y MONTENEGRO, fu'iMio'a 6
mon'liVnf/gro, BENITO JER^XIMO (Iii7tf-1704).
A Spanish monk, critic, and Kcholar, lx>rn at
Casdemiro, a small hainlet in the District of
Santa Marfa de Melias, near Orentw. Ho entered
the Benedictine Order and lived all his life at
one of the monasteries of the order at Oyiedo,
where lie died. He studied not only religion,
but mathematics, philosophy, and medicine, and
was almost the first to appreciate how far Spain
was behind other European countries in these
matters. FeyjoVs works included the Tcatro
crftivo universal para dcsengana <Zf? crrorcs co-
munes (1726-39), which appeared in eight
volumes. The Tcatro crttico has been compared
to Addison's Spectator, but it is of a. weightier
quality. Feyj6o wrote about the position of
women ; the manners of the clergr ; the scientific
discoveries of Galileo, Bacon, Pascal* and New-
ton; popular fallacies concerning cometa and
eclipses; and othar matters. In 1730 ho cw&Rttd
to publish the Teatro critico. Tn 1742 ho began
Oarta-ft cruditas y curiosas (174*2-60), which
continued the leavening process begun by the
other. His complete works were published in
Madrid (1780). Despite his obvious faultB of
Htyle and a general lack of genius, and although
he made no great discovery, it would be dim-
cult to exaggerate the importance of his in-
fluence in awakening Spain to a realization of
her situation and arousing her to interest in
educational matters.

PEZ. One of the capitals and the chief city
of Morocco, situated about 100 miles south of
the Strait of Gibraltar in a valley surrounded

FEZ

509

XTALA

by high hills (Map: Africa, 1) 1). The city
lies on both banks of the Wad Fas, a tributary
of the Wad Sebu, which divides it into the two
parts of Fez el-Bali, the old town, and Fez el-
Jedid. It is a very ill-built town, with narrow,
filthy streets, with no sanitary arrangements,
which, together with a humid climate and an
inadequate water supply, make it unhealthful.
The streets are, however, occasionally washed
by closing the ordinary exits of the conduits
and opening lids which permit the river water
to flow into the streets and carry off the accu-
mulated refuse. In its flourishing days Fez
had about 00,000 dwelling houses and 800
mosques. Of the latter only about 100 are left.
Of these the most important are Muloy-Edris,
containing the tomb of Edris II (the reputed
founder of Fez), and Jama-Karubin, to which
is attached one of the highest educational in-
stitutions of the Mohammedan world, and which
contains a largo library of Arabian works on
theology. Fez has also a number of minor
schools and is still regarded as an important
educational centre. The industries are conHidor-
able, the products including leather, rugs, shawls
of silk, and the red "fes" caps. It was for-
merly the chiof place of manufacture of the
red fez cap, the color of which was produced
from a dyo made from the juice of a berry
grown in that vicinity, but the same shade is
now produced elsewhere. In point of commerce
Fez is the moat important city of northwestern
Africa. Tt is the distributing centre for Euro-
pean products from Marseilles and London,
while its caravans travel as far as Timbuktu.
The population of Fox, formerly about 400,000,
is now estimated at 100,000, consisting chiefly
of Moors, and with some, Arabs, Be.rbers, and
about 10,000 Jews. The. foundation of Fez is
usually believed to havo tak«n plaeo at tho end
of tho eighth century (70S) and is attribute/I
to Edris IT. The city was hold in high venera-
tion by the Mohammedans and attracted nu-
merous pilgrims. In the thirteenth century it
became tho capital of an independent state,
when it prospered greatly. In tho middle of
the sixteenth century it passed to Morocco, and
since then it has gradually declined.

1TEZ. A red brimloss felt or wool cap, fitting
closely to the head, ornamented with a long
tassel, worn in Turkey, Persia, Greee.u, Albania,
Egypt, and on th« shores of tho Levant gen-
erally, and designating a Turkish subject, even
if not a Mussulman. This cap has long been
the Turkish national headdress. The name was
derived from the town of FGJS in Morocco, where
such caps wort) first made. Tn Afriea it is
called also tarMtih.

iPEZZART, f&MSttn'. A political division of tho
Italian Province of Tripoli (q,v.) in north
Africa. Prior to the annexation of Tripoli by
Italy in 1012 it was a lieutenant governorship
of the, Turkish Vilnyet of Tripoli (Map: Africa,
F &). It m an extensive group of oases occupy-
ing the southern portion of the vilayet, with a
total area of about lf>6,000 square miles. The
greater portion of tho surface consists of bills
of black quartz sandstone, among which the
most prominent are the Jebel-es-Roda, or Black
Mountains, running from east to west for a
distance of about 170 miles and not exceeding
3000 feet in altitude. Tho northwestern part
of the country Is an elevated waterless plateau
known as Hammada-el-Homra, while the south-
ern portion i* a desert. Tho rivets are insig-

nificant, and vegetation is found mainly along
tbe wadies, or dried-up river courses, where also
are located the chief centres of population. The
chief of these wadies are the Shati, lying be-
tween lat. 27° and 28° N., and the Sherki, sit-
uated south of the Shati, the centre of the most
fertile section of Fezzan. The climate is hot
and dry in the summer and cold in the winter.
Not more than a tenth of the area is cultivable.
In the neighborhood of the villages, which are
situated mainly in the wadies, wheat, barley,
etc., are grown partly with the aid of artificial
irrigation. The date is the principal article
of food. Large numbers of camels and horses
are raised. The population is estimated at a
little over 70,000. The inhabitants arc a mixed
race, of a brown color, generally well formed,
and in many respects resembling the negro. The
original inhabitants belonged to the Berber
family, but since the invasion of the country
by the Arabs the traces of this native north
African element Lave gradually disappeared.
The chief elements in the population are Tua-
regs, Arabs, Moors, and negroes. The language
spoken ia a corrupt mixture of Berber and Ara-
bic. The capital is Murzuk (q.v.). Fezzan is
the Pliazania of the ancients, and was conquered
m 10 B.C. by the Romans under the proconsul
L. Cornelius Bnlbun. Christianity was intro-
duced at the end of tho sixth century, but with
the conquest of the territory by the Arabs at
the end of the seventh century Mohammedanism
took its place. The territory was governed by
its own princes under the suzerainty of the
Arabs and subsequently became, a tributary
state of Tripoli. With the extinction of its
dynasty of rulers, Fezzan became, after a period
of internal uprisings and usurpations, a depend-
ency of Tripoli. On the annexation of Tripoli
by Italy in 1912 Fesszan was considered a part
of that territory, and portions of its area
%ver« occupied by the Italian army in 1913
without serious opposition on tho part of the
inhabitants.

FIACRE, fya'kr', or FIACHBACH, SAINT
(?-c,070). A monk of France in the seventh
century. Tic was born of noble parents in Ire-
land, lie became an anchorite and then left
liis native country with somo companions for
France. They we.ro kindly received by Faro,
Bishop of Meaux, who gave him a residence in
tho forest of Breuil, in Brie, the region south
of Moaux, where Fiacre built a cell and gave
aHylum to such strangers as fell in his way.
Many stories were told of Ids miracle, find after
liis death his shrine had the reputation of work-
ing miracles, and pilgrimages to it began. His
festival day is August 30. St. Fiacre IH the
patron saint of gardeners, Tho proprietor of
the Hotel de Paint-Fiacre, in the Hue Saint-
Mnrtiw, Paris, opened the first livery stable in
Paris in 1640. A statue of the saint stood over
tho door, and this circumstance gave the name
fiacre to a public carriage in France.

FIALA, fMla, ANTHONY (18(59- ). An
American Arctic explorer, bom in Jersey City,
N. J.t and educated at Cooper Union and the Na-
tional Academy of Design, New York City. Tn
early life he was engaged in various employ-
ments— as lithographic designer, chemist, car-
toonist, head of tbe art and engraving depart-
ment of the Brooklyn Daily Bagte (1804-99),
and correspondent for that paper while serving
as a trooper in the Spanish- American War* In
<1901-02 nc accompanied the Baldwin -ZiegUr

FIALI3ST

510

JTIBRE

polar expedition as photographer; in 1903-05 he
was in command of the expedition sent out by
Ziegler from Tromso in July, 1903. The party
reached 82° 4' N., and surveyed the Franz
Joseph Archipelago, but lost their ship, America,
in Toplitz Bay and failed to reach the pole.
A relief party sent out under William S. Champ
found Fiala and his men at Cape Dillon in July,
1905, and brought them home. In 1914 FiaLi
accompanied Theodore Roosevelt on his expedi-
tion into hitherto unexplored parts of Brazil.
He wrote Troop "0" in Service (1899) and
Fighting the Polar Ice (1906).

FIALIW, J. a. V. See PERSIONY, Due DE.

FXAMMETTA, fyam-met'ta. The name given
by Boccaccio to h'ifl ladylove, believed to be
Maria, daughter of Robert, King of Naples.

FIAMMIITGO, PIETRO. See VERSCHAFFELT.

JFIAS'CO (a flask or bottle). A term bor-
rowed from the Italian theatre, signifying a
failure to please on the part of an actor or
singer. The word has been extended to cover
any ignominious failure or disappointment. Its
application, however, is not quite clear.

FI'AT (Lat., let it be) . In English legal pro-
cedure, an indorsement of a judge, master, or
registrar upon an application for an order or
rule, which serves in lieu of a formal order. The
purposes for which it may be employed are
strictly limited, and ib is chargeable with a
smaller fee than an order which is drawn up
in due form. The term is alwo applied to the
formal leave of the Attorney-General to take
certain proceedings, indorsed upon an applica-
tion. It is best known in connection with bank-
ruptcy proceedings, the order of the court di-
recting that a commission in bankruptcy issue
having long boon known as a "fiat in bank-
ruptcy.'* Its use in this sense has, however, been
abolished by statute.

ET'AT MtOTEY. Inconvertible paper money,
not even containing a promise to pay, but is-
sued by the state with the bare assertion of its
identity with true money, although no provi-
sion is made for its exchange for specie. Fiat
money was issued by the American Colonies to
a considerable extent, and the history of its
rapid depreciation and final woHhlessness is
well known. When a government is forced to
this measure, tho state of its finances is vir-
tually bankruptcy. The name "fiat money" was
first given to irredeemable paper currency dur-
ing the Greenback agitation in the United
States after the Civil War, from the- claim of
the Greenback party that the fiat of the govern-
ment could give value to a circulating medium.

JFIBICH, fe'ttK, EDENKO (1850-1900). A
Bohemian composer. He was born at VSeborle,
near Czdslau, Dec* 21, 1850. His musical talent
showed itself very early, so that even before his
fourteenth year, and before having taken up
music as a serious study, he wrote a symphony.
From 1865 to 1867 he studied at the conserva-
tory in Leipzig under Moscheles, Richter, and
Jadassolm, and also came strongly under the
influence of Schumann's music. After a year
in Paris he went to Mannheim in 1869 and
studied a year with Vincent Lachner. Return-
ing to Bis native country, he established him-
self as a teacher at Wilna, until in 1876 ho be-
came conductor at the National Theatre in
Prague, which post he resigned in 1878 to ac-
cept the position of chorus master of the Rus-
sian church in the same city. In 1881 he also

gave up this place in order to devote his entire
time to composition. He died in Prague, Oct.
10, 1900. Among the Czech composers Fibich
occupies a foremost place, being surpassed only
by Smctana and Dvorak. The number of hid
works reaches 700, many in large forms.
Among the more important are the operas
Bnkortn (1874), Blanlk (1881), Die 8raut von
Messina (1884), the melodramatic trilogy Hip-
podamia (1891), The Tempest (1S95), Sdrka
(1898), Dcr Fall Arconas (1900); four sym-
phonies in G minor, F, Eb, and E minor, the
symphonic poems Othello, Toman and the
Nymph, Vcsna, Zuboj, Slaroj and Ludek, Viyi-
lice; several overtures and choral works with
orchestra; chamber music; about 400 pieces for
piano, and a largo number of songs. Consult
C. L. TJiclifcer, Zdcnko Filich (Prague, ISM).

FIEIGEH, fybl-ger, JOITAX^TSS HENRIK TAU-
BEB (1821-97). A Danish divine and poet, burn
at Nykjobing on the island of Fnlster. Ilia
poetic works include: Johannes den Dobcr* a
biblical drama (1857) ; Kors og KjfrrltglicfJ, a
tragedy of domestic life (1858); Xoglc tiagii,
stories in verse (1865) ; Den eviyc 8trid< a
tragedy (1878), quite popular; Grant* rode mi,
a narrative in 16 cantos (1882); and a collec-
tion of poems (1884); His autobiography ap-
peared in 1898.

FIBONACCI, fe'bo-nil'chS, LEONARDO, called
LEONARDO PISANO. One of the greatest mathe-
maticians of tho Middle Ages. He flourished
at the opening of the thirteenth century, but
little is known of his personal life. He early
acquired a love for mathematics and science
and perfected his knowledge on his journeys i >
the Barbary coast, Egypt, Syria, Grew, and
Sicily. Following are 'his chief works: Lifter
Abaci, composed in 1202, of which only a second
edition is extant; Practica (leomctritr; Liber
Quadratorum; Flo?, treating of the cubio equa-
tion; a letter to Theodoras, philosopher to tho
Emperor, relating to indeterminate analysis ami
to geometry. • Fibonacci's name attach on to a
certain series, important in the theory of num-
bers, viz., 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13 . . . , in winch
Wtt+2 — Wn-n + un. This herieta has many in-
teresting properties; e.g., (1) the sum of the
first n + 1 terms, */„, «„ wa, . . . IA* inoreftwd
by 1, equals wn+s; (2) the square of any term
is one unit less than the product of tho two ad-
jacent to it. The works of Fibonacci were pub-
lished by Prince Boncompagni (2 vola., Home,
1857-62). Consult: Lucas, ftechcrehcft sur plu-
sicurs ouvragGft do Leonard dc, Pise, et $ur di-
rcrtws questions cTanthmpuiite Mtitfrtoure (ib.,
1877)5 Bonaini, Memoria ww-ra a'ttrroffa di
Leonardo Fibonacci (Pisa, 1838) and Iwriston*
oollocata ncll* archivio <li state in Pisa a onorc
di Leonardo Fibonacci (ib., 1867) ; Milaneni,
Doc.itmcnli incdito e wonoseiuto wtorno a //.
Fibonacci (Borne, 1807); Bonennipagni, Intorno
cd alcunc opcro di Leonardo Fibonacci (ib..
1854).

FFBRE (Lat. fibra, filament). A term of
very common use as applied to objects of a,
stringy or threadlike character, whether of the
animal, vegetable, or mineral kingdom. Min-
erals arc often described as of a fibrous struc-
ture or appearance, in which there 5f», however,
no possibility of detaching the apparent fibres
from the general mass, or in which they are
inflexible, and brittle if detached; but a* more
perfect example of mineral fibre is found in
amiantus, a variety of asbestos. For the seien-

FIBRE 5

tific use of the term "fibre" with regard to the
animal kingdom, see the article MUSCLE AND
MUSCULAU TISSUE; for its scientific use with
regard to the vegetable kingdom, see VEGETABLE
TISSUE; WOOD. In its more popular but per-
fectly accurate use it includes the hair or wool
of qiiadrupcds, the silken threads of the cocoons
of silkworms and other insects, the fibres of
the leaves and of the inner bark of plants, and
the elongated cells or hairs connected with the
seotlfl of plants, the ordinary materials of cord-
ago, and of textile fabrics.

Of mineral substances, amiantus alone has
boon used for textile fabrics, and that only to a
very limited extent. Animal and vegetable fibres
have, from the earliest ages, supplied man with
cordage and with cloth. I Low the invention took
place can only be matter of conjecture. It is
noted as an interesting fact that the most valu-
able Commercial fibres of to-day wore the promi-
nent fibres of ancient times. Cotton, flax, hemp,
as well as the common animal fibres, as hair,
wool, and silk, were known, and used in past
ages.

The animal fibres used for textile purposes are
chiefly of tho two classes already mentioned,
(1) tho wool or hair of quadrupeds and (2)
the silk of the cocoons of insects. To thoso may
be added (tt) the hyssus of mollusks, but this
cluss contains only* the byssus of the pinna
(q.v.) of the Mediterranean, an article of an-
cient and high reputation, but more of curkwily
than of use, Tho skino and intestines of animals,
although sometimes twisted or plaited for vari-
ous uses, can scarcely be reckoned among the
fibrous materials afforded by the animal king-
dom. For information regarding the fibres
obtained from (ho cocoons of insects, see RILK;
ftu.KvroitM. It is to the first class that the,
greater number of different kinds of animal
fibrcB used for textile, purposes belong; and this
wool of tho sheep far exceeds all the rest in
importance. ^ But the wool or hair of other
quadrupeds iR also to Homo extent used, as that
of tho goat, tho. alpaca, tho camel, the musk
ox, and tho, yak, all of which are, like, the flheop,
ruminants. The hair of comparatively few ani-
mals is Huflieiontly long for textile purposes or
can he procured in Huflicicnt abundance to nmkc
it of economic importance. The warmth of
clothing dcpcmlfl much on tho fineness of the
hair, and on other characters in which wool
particularly excels. See HHMEP; Wool,; OOAT;
ANGORA; ALPACA; OAMK&; MURK Ox; YAK.

The useful vegetable fibres arc far more nu-
merous and various than arc the animal. They
are obtained from plants of natural orders very
different from each other. They arc obtained
also from different parts of plants. Wood cells
are found in the bark, and are longer, finer, and
tougher than those found in tho wood. They
form ihe principal part of the, fibrous bark or
hast layer of colls. Thoso give toughness and
flexibility to the structure, and tho extracted
bundles 'of colltt form the Alunumtoua product
known IIM llax, hemp, and juto, derived from
dicotyledonous plants. In monocotyledons tho
fibrous cells aro built up with others into a
composite, structure known as flbrovaBCular
hundlea. Such fibre occurs in the palms and in
the. fleshy-leaved tigavoK, the bundloR being
found, not as in bark, but throughout tho atom
or leaf forming the supporting structure. Thoae
ftlamonta, whon mparatcd from tho soft cell
mass by which they are surrounded, way bo

known as structural fibre, of which the fibre
of sisal hemp is an example. The simple cells
produced on tho surfaces of the seeds of en-
dogens, such as cotton and coconut, constitute
a fibrous material, to which the nanio "surface
fibre" has been gi\Tt>n. For illustrations, see
Plate of FIBEB PLANTS under article HEMP.

The tibre bundles, therefore, whether occurring
as bast fibre or structural fibre, or whether in
the form of simple cells, as surface fibre, may
be regarded as the apinning units — aggregations
of bundles puri/ied and cleansed of all extra-
neous matter and simply twisted together. The
mass of cellular structures separating the fibres
is removed in the process of cleaning. The
fibres of the loaves of ondogeus, being parallel
to each other, are easily obtained of sulfieiont
length for economical purposes; while the retic-
ulated fibres of loaves of exogcns, even if long
enough, which is comparatively seldom the
case, cannot bo separated for use. Tho best
fibres of exogons, however, aro often of suffi-
cient length and cattily separated. The separa-
tion is generally accomplished by steeping in
water or by frequent dampening with water so
as to cause! a partial rotting of tho other parts
of tho bast and of tho bark which covers it.
Since tho fibres of ondogons are in general dis-
colored and injured by this damp process to a
much greater degree than are thoso of exogens,
mere mechanical moans aro usually preferred
for their separation, such as beating, passing
between rollers, and Bc.raping. Tho fibres of
many loaves are separated by scraping alone.
The 'fibres of seeds, as cotton, exist in nature at-
tached to the seed, like the wool or hair of ani-
mals, and require merely to bo collected and
cleaned.

A method of separating animal and vegetable
fibres in woven materials is based upon the fact
that alkalies destroy the former, and have little
effect upon tho latter. The alkali used is gen-
erally caustic potash of 5 per cent strength. If
a wool-cotton or a silk-cotton mixture is boiled
in tli is solution for about IfJ minutes, the wool
or silk ift destroyed and the. cotton is little
afl'octod. The tost may bo- made quaiititutive.
Tho most accurate results are obtained by re-
moving dressing or finishing substances from the
material before applying the test.

Thore. aro two natural groups of fibres — the
commercial species and tho vaftt group of tho
so-called native fibres. Among the uncivilixod
races many spocioB of fibre plants which civi-
lised man cannot nflorcl to employ commercially
have become most useful for utensils, cords,
and clothing. While 30 or 40 species of plants
supply tho world's demand for commercial fibres,
hundreds of (throw plants could readily be
enumerated. 'ITio lint of commercial flbren may
be increased from time, to time,. Of those now
important thoro arc six haHt fibres, as follow**:
Klasc (Idmm itsitatimmum) ; China grafts
(Rtrhmwla ntoca) ; hemp (dannabfa artffra) ;
juto ( Gorohorutt capBuUrift and Ctornhonitt oli-
toriun) ; fiuim homp (Ctrotafarfa hinim) ; and
Cuba bast (//iMs^M tttioe/wO* There ara two
Burface flbroa: Cotton (Gottttypium spp.) and
raffia (Itaphia pwtunwlafa). The li«t of
structural #bro,s numhorfl Ifi, representing
agavos, palms, and pfran«e« at* follows: Ctordagd
fibre*-*- Kisal ucmp (Aftwe rigida, var.) ; Ma-
nila hemp (Muua tcutfili*) ; Mauritius flax (Fw-
oraw gigontw)*) Mow Zealand flax (/*Atonn/«w
Brush fibre*— > frampioo or intlc (A yaw

FIBRIN 5

heretacantha) ; Bahia piassaba (Atlalea funi-
fera) ; Para piassaba (Leopoldinia piassaba} ;
Mexican whisk, or broom root (Epicampes ma-
croura); cabbage palmetto (Sabal palmetto).
Upholstervng and matting fibres — Crin vegetal
(phamccrops humilis) ; Spanish moss (Tilland-
sia usneoides) ; saw palmetto (8erenoa serru-
lata) ; coconut fibre (Cocos nucifera). Paper
manufacture — Esparto grass (Stipa tenacis-
sima), a substitute for bath sponges; and vege-
table sponge (Luff a ccgyptica).

The sources of supply of these fibres are as
follows: Flax is produced chiefly in Belgium,
Russia, Austria-Hungary, Holland, Italy,
Great Britain and Ireland, the United States,
and Canada; China grass, or ramie, comes from
China; hemp is obtained from Russia, United
States, France, Belgium, Germany, Austria-
Hungary, Italy, and the Netherlands; jute from
India and Cuba; bast from the West Indies;
cotton is chiefly produced in the United States,
Egypt, and Peru; raffia comes from Africa; sisal
hemp is produced in Yucatan, Cuba, and tho
Bahamas; Manila hemp is a product of the
Philippine Islands; Mauritius, or aloe, fibre
comes from Africa; New Zealand flax from the
country indicated by its name; Tampico, or
istle, is a Mexican product; Bahfa or Para
piassabas, or "bass" fibres, are collected from
Brazilian palms, other species of bass from Afri-
can palms; broom root is a Mexican product;
the two palmetto fibres are produced from
species of Florida palms; crin vegetal is derived
from an allied palm, growing in Algeria; vege-
table hair from Spanish moss is prepared in
South Carolina and the Gulf States; coconut
fibre comes from the East Indies; esparto grass
is produced in Algeria, Spain, and Portugal;
vegetable sponge largely in Japan. Other
fibrous substances appear in tho form of straw
plait from .Italy, Japan, and China chiefly.
The Eastern floor mattings and basketry are
made from various fibres.

The highest use for which fibre may be em-
ployed is in the manufacture of cloth or woven
fabric. Tho next higher uses are in the manu-
facture of threads, twines, cords, and ropes
known as cordage. A third use is in the man-
ufacture of brushes and brooms, for which a
different class of fibre than either the fabric
or cordage fibres is employed. Fourth, fibres
are used in the manufacture of many plaited
or coarsely woven articles employed in domes-
tic economy, some of which are of commer-
cial importance, while the greater number are
"native" productions. A fifth form of utility
is the employment of fibres or fibrous substances
in mass as filling material, for stuffing pillows,
cushions, mattresses, furniture, etc., or as pack-
ing substances. A sixth and exceedingly impor-
tant use is in the manufacture of paper. For
further information, consult: Watt, Dictionary
of Economic Produ-cts of India (Calcutta,
1889); Morris, Commercial Fibres (London,
1895); "Vegetable Fibres," Ken Royal Oar-
dens (ib., 1898) ; Dodge, "Useful Fibre Plants
of the World," United States Department of
Agriculture, Fibre Investigations, Report No.
J-Y (Washington, 1897) ; Georgiovics, Chemical
Technology of Textile Fibres (New York, 1902) ;
Matthews, Textile Fibres (3d ed.,' ib., 1013);
Mitchell and Prideaux, Fibres Used in' Textiles
and Allied Industries (ib., 1911). See FLAX;
JUTE; KAMIE.

(from Lat. fibrat fibre). A proteid

12 FICHE11

substance somewhat similar to myosin and
globulin (see GLOBULINS), from which it may
be readily distinguished by its insolubility in
dilute acids and alkalies as well as in dilute
solutions of common salt. By the action of pep-
sin or of trypsin fibrin is converted into cer-
tain forms of globulin. Fibrin may^ be obtained
from blood by beating or stirring with a bundle
of twigs, to which the fibrin adheres in strings.
The impure substance thus obtained is rinsed
with water and may be boiled with alcohol and
ether, to remove fatty matters. The properties
of fibrin depend to some extent on the man-
ner in which this method of preparation is car-
ried out, and Denis succeeded in obtaining three
distinctly different forms of fibrin. Fibrin has
the peculiar property of decomposing peroxide of
hydrogen without itself undergoing any chemi-
cal change.

VIBRIN'OG-EN. See GLOBULINS.

riOBEOLITE. A variety of sillimanite, noted
for its fibrous structure. The name was for-
merly used to denote the entire species.

PIBBCXTVTA. See TUMOE.

FI'BBOSABCOICA. See TUMOB.

n'BBOVAS'CTJLAB BUNDLE (fibro-, from
Lat. fibra > fibre + vascular , from Lat. vascuhim,
little vessel, dim. of vas, vessel). A strand of
conducting tissue in ferns and seed plants, which
arc therefore culled vascular plunta. The bundle
usually comprises both wood (xylem) and bast
(phloem) in various relations to each other.
The term "fibrovascular" was given because
there are usually some fibres associated with
the vessels; but now the bundles are called
simply vascular bundles, because the fibres re-
ferred to are of different origin and are not
characteristic. See MORPHOLOGY OF PLANTS;
FIRRE.

IFIBtJXA. See LEG.

FIBULA. Tho name given by the Romans to
the brooch. See FIBULA PILTJXESTINA.

PIBTTLA PBJSE'ITESTFNA {Lat., Prunes-
tine brooch). A gold brooch found in 1886 at
Promcstc. It boars a retrograde inscription in
Old Italic characters, which is the oldest ex-
tant specimen of Latin, dating probably from
the sixth century B.C., and which is important
as showing fh for /, s for later r betwwn vow-
els, the reduplicated perfect, the use of the
dative singular ending -oj and the early uso
of the accusative ending -d. The inscription
roads: MANTOS KED FIIBFHAKED XUMASIOI,
which is equivalent to classical Latin Maniu*
me fecit Numasio or Wwnario (Manius made me
for Numasius or Numarius). Consult Corpus
Inscriptionum Latinarum, xiv, 4123 (Borlin,
3887), and Egbert, La-tin Inscriptions (Now
York, 1806).

MICHEL, fe'shel', Etrcn&NE (1826*95). A
French genre painter, born in Paris. He was a
pupil of Paul Dolaroche and at first painted his-
torical subjects, such us "Harvey Demonstrat-
ing the Circulation of tho Blood to Charles I"
(1850). He subsequently adopted the minia-
ture stylo of Mciflsonicr with its great care in
finish and archaeological exactness, combining
with it a kind of delicate humor. Among his
numerous works are: "The Arrival at the Inn"
(1863); "The End of Dinner" (1872); 'The
Council of War" (1890); "The Breakfast"
(Lille MuHCiun) ; "Amateurs Visiting a Painter"
(Grenoble); "The Chess Players/r and ''The
Encyclopaedists" ( 4msterdam ) .
B-ICHET, fe'sha', GUJLLAUMBL A French

ETCHTE

$13

jBTOHTE

scholar of .the fifteenth century. In 1467 he
was elected rector of the University of Paris,
and he installed in the Sorbonne the first print-
ing press ever set up in France, with the aid
of three printers who camo from Mainz to as-
sist him in this work. The first book printed
was Lcttics dc (jaspaitno (1470). Some of
Fichet's own books followed, such as Ficheti
Quii'lelmi Artium et Theologies Doctoris, Rhe-
toricontm, L'lhri 111 ( 1470) , and Wcheti (tuillehni
EpistolcB (1471). Consult Phillipe, Guillaume
Fwhet, sa vie ct scs ceiivros: Introduction de
rhnprimcric & I*aris (Annecy, 1892).

ITCHTE, fiK'tc, THMANUEL HERMANN VON
(1797-1879). A German philosopher, son of
Johunn Gottlieb Fichte. He early devoted him-
self to philosophical studies, being attracted by
the later views of his father, which he consid-
ered essentially theistic. He also attended the
lectures of Hegel, but felt averse to what he
doomed to be his pantheistic tendencies. Occu-
pied at flrnt as a teacher, Fichto was appointed
professor of philosophy in Bonn in 1830, and
from 1842 to 1807 held a chair in the Uni-
versity of Txibingcn. The most important of
his many works are: Bcitragc sur Gharak-
tcrititik tier naicrn Philosophic (1829; 2d cd.,
1841); System der Ethik (1850-53); Anthro-
pologie ( 1850 ) ; DIG thoistischc Weltunsicht und
ihro BrrpchtiffMtiff (1873). The groat aim of
his speculations was to find a philosophic basis
for the personality of God, and for his theory
on this subject ho proposed the term "concrete
theism." The regeneration of Christianity, ac-
cording to him, would consist in its becoming
the vital and organizing power in the Ktato, in-
stead of being occupied solely, as hereto fora,
with tho salvation oE individuals. Consult
Soberer, Dig (fattvalchra vonl. IT. Fichte (Wion,
1897), and a centennial article by Eucken in
1897 in tho journal Fichte had founded in 1887,
Zcitaclvrift fiir Philosophic.

MCHTE, .ToirANN GOTTLIEB ( 1702-1814 ) . An
illustrious German philosopher. He was born,
the son of a ribbon weaver, at Eammenau, in
Upper Lusatia, May 10, 1762. Aa a lad of prom-
ise, he attracted the attention of a neighboring
nobleman, Baron von Miltitz, who assisted him
in his early education. In 1780 he entered the
University of Jena, where, at* subsequently at
Leipzig, he studied theology and philosophy,
supporting himself by tutoring. During the
years 1784 to 1788 lie acted an tutor in various
fiaxon families. From 1788 to 1790 he taught
in private families at Zurich, where he became
acquainted with Pcatalozzi. Ho then returned
to Leipzig and in ]791 obtained a tutomhSp at
Warsaw, in tho house of a Polish nobleman.
The situation, however, proved disagreeable,,
and the philosopher next proceeded to KOnigs-
berg, where he had an interview with Kant,
of whom he had become an ardent disciple. He
submitted MH Vcrsuoh einor Kritik otter Often-
bariing (A Tentative Critique of all Revelation)
to that philosopher, who praised it highly and
advised him to publish it. Tho following year
it appeared anonymously and was credited to
Kant> who then made known its authorship.
This Incident established Fichte's fame as a
philosopher, Tn 1793 he married Johanna
Maria Uahn, a niwi of Lavater, and the fol-
lowing year he was appointed to the chair of
philosophy at Jena, whore ho began to ex-
pound with extraordinary zeal his system of
''transcendental idealism.' In 1795 he pub-

lished Ueber den Bcgriff dcr Wia&cnschaftslehre
( Concerning the Idea of the Theory of Science ) ,
and followed it almost immediately with Grunfc
lage und Umriss der gesammten, Wisscnschafts-
Ichrc (Foundation and Outline of the En-
tire Theory of Science), in which he clearly
broke away from Kant, whose speculations did
not seem to him sufficiently thorough. In 1790
he published Orundlage des Katurrcchts (Foun-
dation of Natural Law) ; in 1798, System dcr
tiittcnlehre (System of Ethics), and in the
same year an article in a philosophical journal,
which coat him dear. It was entitled uUebor
den Grund unsers Glaubons an cine pnttliflio
Wcltrcgierung" (The Basis of Our Belief in a
Divine Government of the World). For views
therein expressed ho was charged with atheism,
inasmuch as he had characterized Cod as the moral
order of the world. In vain did he deny the
atheistic nature of this doctrine; the odium
theologicum was too strong for him, and he was
compelled to relinquish his chair. The feeling
against him had extended far beyond the (ilrand
])uchy of Saxc Weimar. Indeed, Prussia was
the only German state that had not joined in
demanding his resignation from Jena. Accord-
ingly Fiehte went in 1700 to Berlin, where he
delivered lectures to audiences composed of men
of distinction, and where he made friends of
su«h men as Schlegel, Schleiermacher, and Ticck.
Jn 1805 ho was appointed to a professorship in
Krlangen. The approach of the French army
drove him in 1806 to Konigsbcrg, and in 1807-08
he delivered his famous "Addresses to the Ger-
man Nation" (ftedon an die deutsoho Nation)
in Berlin, Thcwo addrcssm were full of the. moat
exalted enthusiasm. The Prussian King appre-
ciated tho zeal of tho eloquent metaphysician,
imd on tho restoration of peace appointed him
to a proFcRsowhip in the newly founded Uni-
versity of Berlin. Tn 1810 the university wiirt
opened with a hoat of brilliant naimia— -Kichto,
Friedrich August Wolf, Wilholm von Hum-
boldt, l)e Wotte, Selileicrmaehor, and Hnvigny.
By the votes of hia colleagues Fichto was unan-
imously olwtocl rector. In 1813 the War of
Liberation broke out, and the hospital* of the
PniBttian capital wore aoon crowded with pa-
tient«. Flchtp'ft wife was one of the fimt to
oflVr her services an a nurHP. For fivo monthrt
tihft tended tho nick with all tho patient tondcr-
IIOSB and devotion of her naturo. At la«t whft
was flcisKKl with typhoid fever, and after a fear-
ful struggle, she recovered; but her husband
cauffht tho infection, and dit»d Jan. 27, 1814.

Tho fundamental notion of the idealism not
forth in JTiehte's writings, at loa«t in tho oar-
Itar of them, in tho solo roaHty of tho conwtiourt
self or ego, which gives rise by its activity to
tho not-self or non-ogo, inaniiwdi a« nelf-kiiowl-
odgo i« pos«iblo only in contrast with knowl-
edge of a non-(kgo. Tho Bigtiifictmco of this
view in the history of philosophy <tan be under-
stood only by comparing it with Kant'a (<|.v),
from which it wat* (levelled. Kant had taught
that experience aroHo from tlu* concurrent tic-
tion of sensation and thcmght, sensation being
tho product of things in thamaolves ae they af-
fect tho mind, while thought ia tho gpontancouH
activity of tho conscious self. Thius expwiomw
for Kant is (hialistic, This dualism ifi what
Fichte Bought to overcome, and ho sot about
it by denying that the senso element in expe-
rience is tmceablo to the action of objects in-
dependent of the percipient subject. The mnj-

FICHTE

514

ego is the creation of the ego. This creation
is not accomplished at the instigation of some
external stimulus. It is an original, uncaused,
free activity of the self. The first result of this
activity is sensation. The act of giving rise
spontaneously to sensation is an unconscious
act; its effect is the first object of conscious-
ness. Because the act is unconscious, its result
seems to be obtruded upon consciousness from
without, a well-known characteristic of sensa-
tion. Why does the -self create a sense object?
In order to give free play to its activity. It
sets up an object as a limit only to transcend
this limit. This is done in the successive
stages of knowledge, beginning with perception
and ending with the categorical imperative,
which is the termination of the process, because
at this point the self is conscious of itself (not
of some apparently alien obtrusion), as giving
to itself all its determinations. The ego, in so
so far as it is determined by knowledge, is the
intelligent ego, and, as such, the subject of theo-
retical science; the ego, on the other hand, as
determining the non-ego, is the subject of prac-
tical science. To recapitulate, Fichto makes
that which, from the standpoint of ordinary
consciousness, wo call the world, merely a prod-
uct of the ego; it exists only through the ego,
for tho ego, and in the ego. The ego, however,
is not held by Fichte to be the phenomenal self
— i.e., the limited temporal self which each per-
son takes himself to be. On the contrary, the
creative ego is a universal self common to all
finite selves. Abstraction must be made from
the finitude of our individual selves, for fini-
tude is itself a self-impORed limit to be tran-
scended. The universal self thus reached is God.
A popular exposition of his philosophy is given
in his Amceisung aum seligen Lelen. It is set
forth in a strictly scientific manner in the lec-
tures published in the jStachgctasaenv \Verkc,
edited by I. H. FHite (3 vols., Bonn, 1831-35),
in which his Speculative Logik and his revised
theory of law and morals are particularly de-
serving of attention. Although Jfiolite never,
strictly speaking, formed a school, and although
his system has been adopted only by a few,
such as J. B. Schad, Mehmel, Cramer, Schmidt,
and Michaelis, his influence upon the subsequent
development of German philosophy has been
very important, especially through the influence
he exerted upon Hegel (q.v.). But of recent
years there is a tendency among many ideal-
ists to go back to Fichtc, discarding Hegel's
dialectic. Of this tendency Mlinsterberg (q.v.)
is the best-known representative in America.
Fichte's collected works were published by his
son, I. H. Fichto (1845-46). His popular works
have been translated into English. Their titles
are: The Destination of Man; The Vocation of
the Scholar; The Way to tlie Blessed Life; The
Characteristics of the Present Age; Outlines of
the Doct'i-wc of Knowledge. A. K. Kroeger trans-
lated: The Science of Knowledge (1880); The
Science of Right* (1860; 2d od., 1880); The
Science of Ethics as Based on the Science of
Knowledge (1897). Some of the shorter works
have appeared in translations from time to time
in the Journal of Speculative Philosophy. Con-
sult: Kuno Fischer, Oeschichte der neuern Phi-
losophic, vol. v (Heidelberg, 1897 et seq.) ; id,,
Fichto' s Lebcnt Wcrlce md Lehre (ib., 1900) ;
Adamson, Fichte (London, 1881) ; Everett, Fich-
ttfs Science of Knowledge: A Critical Katposi-
tion (Chicago, 1884) j Carrit-re, Fiohttftt Geistcs-

cntwickching M. s. ir. (Mimchen, 1894) ; Schnei-
der, Johann Gottlieb Fichte als ttoci&lpolitiker
(Halle, 1894) ; Lindau, Fwhto und der neuere
Socialismus (Berlin, 1900); Weber, Fichte3 s So-
cialismus und sein Verlmltnis zur marxsehcn
Dolctrin (Tubingen, 1900); Leon, La philoso-
phie de Fichte (Paris, 1902) ; Gutman, Fichte's
tiozialpadagogik (Bern, 1907); and the leading
histories of philosophy, such as Erdmann's,
Uebervveg-Heinze's, Windelband's, and Falcken-
berg's.

PICHTELGEBIRGE, flK'tel-ge-b§r'ge (Ger.,
Fir Mountains). A mountain range of Ger-
many, situated in Upper Franconia, Bavaria
(Map: Germany, D 3). It occupies a central
position between the northwest-southeast ranges
of fie Thuringer Wald, Franken Wald, and Boh-
nier Wald, and the ranges of the Franconiun
Jura, Iflstcrgebirge, and Erzgebirge, which have
a northeast-southwest trend. The Fichtelge-
birgo is the eroded remnant of an old plateau,
which at present has an extreme elevation of
about 3400 feet and occupies an area of 380
square miles. Schneeberg, the highest peak, is
about 3450 feet above sea level, while Ochsen-
kopf, Nusshardt, and Farnleitc are more than
3000 feet. The main chain is bordered on the
north and south by the small groups of the
Waldstein and the Weissenstein. Geologically
the Fichtelgebirge consists of granites, gneisses,
and schists of Archccan and Paleozoic age. Rich
deposits of copper, lead, and iron ores were the
bases of an important metallurgical industry at
one time, but they are now practically exhausted.
In the more elevated portions the climate is
raw and moist and suited only to the culti-
vation of the hardier grains and to pasturage,
but in the lower parts there are delightful water-
ing places, as Alexandersbad. Cut stone, lum-
ber, and cotton and woolen manufacture* are
the principal products. The range forms the
watershed between the Eger, the Alain, and tht^
Naab, and is thus drained by the great river
systems of the Kibe, .Rhine, and Danube.

FICTNTO, fo-cho'nu, MARHILIO (1133-09). An
Italian philosopher of tho Renaissance, lie was
born in Florence, the son of the principal physi-
cian of Cosmo de' Medici, und to the liberality
of this Prince he owed the clasriienl culture
which inspired his future career. After «ome
years of enthusiastic study he appeared as a
public teacher of Platonic philosophy and was
chosen by Cosmo to preside over his newly
founded Platonic Academy. He translated into
Latin Plato's own works ami thorn* of the !NV(>-
platoniwts Plotinus, Tainbliehuia* and Proelua,
with commentaries. His must important orig-
inal work was hia Thcoloyia Platonica </r Ani*
tnonim Immortalitatc, in which ho gavo a HVH-
teniatic presentation of his belief «. His whole
life was devoted to the study and teaching
of the Platonic philosophy, which he belitwcl to
be, while not perfectly ChriHtian, yet the near-
est to the Christian " principles, and therefore
calculated to win back to Christianity minds
which had been led astray by a false philosophy.
His collected works, including his translations
of Plato and Plotinus, were first published at
Basel (2 vols., 1561-76), and his biography by
Corsius at Pisa (1771). Consult BymondtC Re-
naissance in Italy: The Revival of Learning
(New York, 1888).

FICX, ADOLF EUGBIN (1829-1901). A Ger-
man physiologist. He was born at Cassel and
was educated at Marburg and Berlin. Ho was

515

FICTION

LAW

lecturer and professor at Zurich from 1852 to
1868 and from 1808 to 1809 professor at Wiirz-
burg. Ilia publications include Die medisinische
Phjlfiik (-'Id ed, 1S85) and Kompcndium der
Physiologie (4th ed., 1891).

PICK, AUGUST (1833- ). An eminent
Gorman philologist. He \ras born at Petors-
hagcn, Westphalia, and studied under Benfey
at Gottingen from 1852 to 1857, and then taught
in the gymnasium there until hia appointment
in 1876 to an extraordinary profesHorwhip of
comparative philology in the university. In
1887 he became professor at Breslau. Ilia
greatest work is the? rcrglciokcndcs Wbrterlucli
dcr indoyvrmanischcn Nprarhen, voLs., i, ii (4th
id., 1 890-94). Other works are: Die gricclu-
Pcrsoncntiuweti (2d ed., 1894) ; Die
Nprachcinhcit der Indogcnnuncti fiu-
(1875) ; Die homcrisclie, llias, in dor
in npriiiighehrn tipravliform 'icicdorhrrgratcllt
(1880); Ocsammcltc Mckriftcn (4 vols., l90Ji-
00) ; Vorgrict'hischo Orlsnamcn> (Gottingen,
100r>) ; Uallidcii und Danubicr in (Jricchvnlund;
wcitcrc Forxrhungen zu doi rortiricehischcn
Ortxmuiicn (ib., 1009); DIG ISnlstchung dcr
Odysiscc and die Versa bzalilung in dm gricch-
iwhnb £pni (ib., 1910). His pupils and friends
issued u volume entitled Ttipas in honor of his
seventieth birthday (ib., 190;i).

FICK'ES, ADOLF (18KJ-80). An Austrian
statistician, born at Olmlitz. He wan educated
at Vienna nml in 1873 wart appointed president
of tho Central Bureau of Statistics, of which he
had pre\iouhly been Hecretary (18f>IJ-(M) and
director ( lfcUM-7;} ) . Ho also rendered im-
portant HcrvioeH as referee for realschulea und
gymnasia in the. Ministry of Education, ilia
principal works are: Die ftrro/Avnwr/ dcr <V<tfrr-
t, Monarchic (1S(IO); Die Kvwdhcnnuj
(IH(M); rtilkt'mtihnHir dcr Mcr-
tftirittt'fwft Alomirchio (1809); f//r-
c, OrgtiHiMtitw nnd Ntatitttik dctt Vxtcr-
Ihiltsrrit htmnwnft (1871). He was
nlH<> the founder of tho NtottotiwJw MmwU-
tH'hrift (1875), now published by the Imperial
Bureau of Statistic^ Vienna*

PICKER, JIII.MTH (1S20-1902). A German
jnriwt, born at Padorborn and educated at Bonn,
Alttnster, and Herlin. In !Sf>i2 he became ]>ro-
f<*Hor of history «nd jwrwprud«in<'<1 >it Inns-
bruck, lie, becanio a member of the Vienna
ACM demy of Sciences in l8(Ki and retired in 1879.
His most important work is entitled F
Kiir lirii'/ut- und. K<vlitng< which It*.
(IS(JM 74). He wrote also: RainaM row
IMtMt'tniltr nnd Knb i whof ron Kiiln (1850);
Yom Itcwhtiflirtttfwntftndc (1801); ItnlrSgc ffiir

PICOBONI (f<vk<-wro'nA) OISO?, TIFK.
moHt celebrated of the ancient oisttv (jewel or
toilet caskets) found in Italy. It was dincov-
ercd n<k»r l^lc-ntrina («c<» PXMCNKHTK) in 17M.
It came, into the poHflertHion of the Italian «nti-
qtmrian Fieoroni and WUH by him prenente<l to
the Museo Kirclieriuno at Home. The ca«kct
in of cylindrical form, about 18 Inchon high «nd
12 to *14 inche.s in diametor, and bcar« r<»pr<>-
»t»nttitio«« of Hcencrt from tl»<» fitory of tho Ar-
pfonuutH— the arrival of the Argonauts in
Bithynuu and the conquest of Amycua by Pol-
lux in a forcing nntteh. These rflf>roHontutI<m«
arc of tho flne«t (Jrwk \vorkinan«h!pt Th« fl^-
nre»* are deeply hutfwd. There are alwo two
inficrJptionfi, which date from tho third century
B.C., which give the name* of tho owner and

of the artist. Consult Baedeker, Central Itatu
and. Home (15th Kng. ed., Leipzig, 1900).

FICQTTELMONT, ft'lcel'mOx', KABL LUD\MO,
COUNT (1777-18o7). An Austrian statesman
and general, son of a Frenchman in the Aus-
trian army. lie was born at Dicuze, Lorraine,
and entered the military service of Austria in
1703. He participated in all the campaigns
against France, rpae to the rank of major gen-
eral, and was Ambassador Extraordinary to
Sweden (1814), Tuscany and Lucca (1820), IS a-
ples (1821), and Paissia (1820), where he was
an extremely inliucntiul agent of Metternich.
In 1830 he 'was recalled to Vienna to assume
the duties of the Foreign Office during tho ab-
S'.'iice of Prince III ct tern ich. After the revo-
lution of Mimjh, 184S, he was a#ain in charge
of the Dcpai'tmeut of Foreign Affairs, and had
be-'ouie premier ]»ro teni, when popular feeling
u^ahiHt liliu compelled him to resign (May 3),
partly because he liad a kinsman, Count Baillet
YOU La tour, in tho War Ministry. The follow-
ing tire his principal works: Aufkldrunyc.n tibcr
die. Zeit roui M Mars Intt sum '/ Mai, /«i« (i2d
cd., 1850) and Die rcligiSnc ticito dcr orient a»
liwhcn Fratit* (2<1 cd., 1S5-1).

FICTION1. Hoe KNGLIWIJ LiTEBATURK; NOVEL;

KOMANf'K.

FICTI03ST OF LAW (Lat. fic1io7 a faHhion-
ing, u feigning, from fuiycrc, to fashion, to
feign). A legtil aHKumption that a(»nething
in true1 which is known not to be true or
which may be ftilne. The term "legal fiction"
is used by vSir Henry Maine in a wider sense
than that given to it in the Komun law or liy
nmuL Knglish-speaking hiwyerw. lie employa it
*l(o Hignify an anHimiption wliieh conceals, or af-
fectH to conceal, the fact that a rule of law
h:js undergone alteration, it« letter remaining
unchanged, itn operation In'ing Hioclified." In
tliis Heiirto it included every modification of ex-
5. '-ting rulert of law hy jndiciiil tleciHion. It in
1»> t!»irt proccHH of ('hanging legal mien by the
fiction that judges are Himply dcchiring tlu^
liu*', when, in fact, they arc changing it in order
to make it conform to the- new Htandunls of
morality or to the enlarging needH of society,
that Knglinh common law OWCH ild elautic ami
progrcHHivi* character.

Kxrtniples of legal fiction, using the term m
itB narrower HCUHO, arc found In the* old forum
of pleading. In the action for the Mnrcrawrt
(r|.v.) of goods th(H plainliiTH declaration al-
leged tlmt h<* hiul lout iluk goo<ls in (juention
nml that the. defendant had found them. Tins
allegation was generally untrue, but the, de-
fendant W«H not permitted to deny it, the
form of action employed, known an the action of
frimr ( Kr. /WHWT, to find), being based on
the aKrtunmtum that the defendant \van un-
lawfully ch't'uning eliatteln of the plnmtiir
which ho» had found. By a Iktion of pleading
the. courtH of King1* Bench mid lOxehequer canu?
to nli ire in the jurindieMon of the Common
Plwifl. Originally (as IUIH bet»n ]>ointed out un-
der (1ouiti' and Kxt^HKt^M'Mt, ConiT OP) the
King's Bench \va« a criminal court exchiHJvely,
and its jurisdiction ovvr civil actions wa« ob-
tained by permitting tho plaintiff to«llogofalnely
that the d(*fendnnc \v»n in the <*u»t(Kiy of the
Klng'H mnrshal for a breach of the JMMUW. Uav-
intf brought the defendnnt l>cf<ir« tlw ctwrt <m
tlii» ftetltloiw charge, the plaintiff WAH nll<»wed
to proceed againut him f<»r the civil wrong of
which he had actually bwn guilty, even though

KOTOOU

516

HDEL1Q

this had involved no breach of the peace or
other criminal wrong, the defendant not be-
ing permitted to dispute the allegations which
gave the court jurisdiction. In a similar man-
ner the Exchequer extended its jurisdiction
over civil actions by permitting a plaintiff to
allege that he was a debtor of the King and
was prevented from paying his debt by the de-
fendant's wrongful act or default. ''And these
fictions of law," Blackstone observes, "though
at first they may startle the student, he will
find them upon further consideration to be
highly beneficial and useful, especially as this
maxim is invariably observed, that no fiction
shall extend to work an injury, its proper oper-
ation being to prevent a mischief or remedy an
inconvenience that might result from the gen-
eral rule of law." Consult Maine, Ancient
Law (London, 1887), and the authorities re-
ferred to under CONSTITUTIONAL LAW; CUSTOM;

JUBISPEUDENOE.

riOTOOB, ffls/tOr, JAN. See VICTOBS, JAN.
ITX/ITS. A genus of plants of the family
Moraceas, comprising about 600 mostly tropical
species, very diverse in habits of growth and in
products useful to man. Ficus elastica is the
rubber plant of greenhouse and conservatory.
See BANYAN; FIG; LAO; RUBBER,
FICTTS CAMPUS. See FECAMP.
FI>CTrS BTTMTN'A'LIS. The sacred fig tree
which protected Romulus and Remus when they
•were abandoned on the banks of the Tiber. It
stood near the Lupercal, at the base of the Pal-
atine Hill (see LUPERCALIA), and, according to
the tradition, was miraculously conveyed by
the augur, Attus Kavius, to the Comitium.
Beneath it stood the famous bronze statue of
the wolf. The tree is said by Tacitus to have
shovfn no signs of decay until 841 years after
it had sheltered ihe twins. Consult Platner,
The Topography ond Monuments of Ancient
Rome (2d ed., New York, 1011).
FIDDLE. See VIOLTN.
FIDDLER BEETLE. See FUNGUS BEETLE.
FIDDLER CRAB. A small crab of the ge-
nus Uca (or Gelasimus), enormously abundant
on muddy shores along the eastern coast of the
United States south of Cape Cod. "The males
have one claw very largely developed; the other
chela is small. The former is likened to a
fiddle, the latter to a bow; and this, together
with the waving motion of the large claw, gives
them their popular name. . . . The female has
claws of small and equal size." The largest,
commonest, and most inland-ranging species is
Uca minacD. easily distinguished by having a
patch of red at the joints of the legs. Another,
extending its range around the Gulf of Mexico
and throughout the West Indies, is Uca pugnaoo.
A third species (Uca pugilator) is more marine,
inhabiting sandbars and beaches. All are gre-
garious, congregating in the salt marshes in
countless numbers and making burrows in the
mud, just above the line of high tide. Those
holes are from % inch to 2 inches in diameter.
The crabs occupy them as refuges, and Uca
mina® forms of pellets of mud an arclied pent-
house over its hole, in which it sits and watches
what goes on. All the species wander about a
good deal, and when alanned scuttle sidewise
with comical speed into the first burrow they
come to. They are vegetarians, feeding on mi-
nute algae, etc., which they scrape up and put
into the mouth with the smaller claws. The bur-
rowing of this crab often does serious injury to

embankments, particularly the levees near the
mouth of the Mississippi. Consult Verrill, 7n-
vertebrates of Vineyard Sound (Washington,
1874), reprinted in Goode, Fi&licry Industries,
Section I (Washington, 1884), and Arnold, The
Sea Beaoh at Ebb-Tide (New York, 1901). See
CRAB, and Plate of CEABS.
FIDDLER FISH. See GUITAR FISH.

FIDEICOMMISSTTM:, fi'ds - 1 - k6m - mis'sum

(Lat., committed to faith, bequest). At Roman
law the fideicommissum was a trust bequest.
During the republican period a valid bequest
could be made only in the form of a legacy in a
regular testament. It was, however, not un-
usual for a person, acting in contemplation of
death, but not wishing to leave a testament,
or not wishing to substitute a new testament
for one already made, to charge the person who
was to take the inheritance, whether by law or
by testament, with the duty of paying a sum of
money, or giving some particular thing or things,
to a third person; or to charge the person who
was to receive a legacy with the duty of trans-
mitting the legacy or some portion of it or of
its value to a third person. Such directions
might be given in writing (codicilli) or orally,
before witnesses or without witnesses ; but in no
case, before the time of Augustus, was the duty
imposed by such a charge anything more than
a moral duty. Augustus made all such be-
quests, however informal, recoverable by action
and instituted a special court for trust-bequest
cases. During the early Imperial period it be-
came usual to impose upon an heir, by such a
trust bequest, the duty of handing over to a
third person the entire estate or some fractional
part of it (so-called "universal" trust bequest) ;
and it was enacted by the Senate that in such
cases the third person should be compelled to
accept, in proportion to the share of the estate
which he was to receive, the position and obliga-
tions of an heir or universal successor. The
effect of this whole development was that testa-
tion was practically freed from all formalities.
In the late Empire a reaction occurred in favor
of greater formality; and in the Justinian law
a codicil with five witnesses was required for
the establishment of trust bequests. Justinian,
indeed, enacted that an oral charge imposed
upon the heir should be actionable, but excluded
all evidence except that of the claimant and the
heir, and provided that the heir should be freed
upon taking oath that he had received no such
charge. Fidcicommissa were introduced and
developed to accomplish ends that could not be
accomplished at the Roman law by testament.
By a trust of this sort it was possible, e.g,» to
leave the ownership of an entire estate or of a
particular piece of property to one person for a
definite term or for life, or subject to a condi-
tion subsequent, and then to another person
(substitutio fideicommissaria) . Arrangements
of this character are permitted, with limita-
tions, in the Spanish civil code (sees. 781-786)
and in the French civil code (sees. 1048-74).
In the Gorman Imperial Code the same result is
reached through what is termed postinhcritance
(nacherbschaft) . In German law fideicommis*
has become the technical term for an estate
permanently entailed. Consult the authorities
referred to in the article CIVIL LAW.

FIDEI DEFEN'SOR. See DEFENDEB OP THE
FAITH.

FIDEUO, fe-dalyd. An opera by Beethoven
(q.v.), first produced in Vienna, Nov. 20,

FIDELITY INSURANCE

517

FIELD

1805; in the United States, Sept. 28, 1839 (New
York).

FIDELITY INSURANCE. See INSURANCE.

FIDE'Nffi. An old and important city of
Latium, situated on a hill (now Castel Giubileo)
on the south bank of the Tiber, about 5 miles
north of Rome, on the Via Salaria; it was sup-
posed to have been founded by the Etruscans.
It is said that no other city played so im-
portant a part in the history of early Rome as
did this city. As early as the days of Romulus
ill will, with frequent strife, existed between the
two cities and continued, with short intervals
of peace, until 406 B.C., when the Fidenates wore
forced to surrender. In 438 B.C. they revolted
again, killing the Roman ambassador, and they
were not subjugated until 426 B.C., when thoir
city was taken, and they were sold into slavery.
During the Republic and the Empire it was
only a small country village, of some importance
as a post station, but remarkable chiefly for a
terrible calamity which occurred during the
reign of Tiberius, when about 50,000 persons
were killed by the fall of an amphitheatre dur-
ing a gladiatorial contest. (Consult Tacitus,
Annalrs, iv, 62, etc.) No ruins of Fidonse exiwt
beyond a few rock-cut tomlm (pro- Roman) and
drainn. Consult: Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries
of Ktrurin, vol. i (2d od., London, 1883) ;
Afihby, Papers of thr ftritifth FleJiool at Jtotnr,
vol. iii (ib., 1006); Niason, Italische Landcs-
7i'MHf/f», vol. ii (Berlin, 1002).

FIDTT'CIARY (Lat. fiduciaries, relating to a
trust, from fitlitcia, trust, from fidtTC, to trust).
A legal term designating a person in whom
peculiar trust and confidence are reposed by an-
other, or the relation which subsists between
such perttoiiB, or a liability incurred by one of
these persons towards the other. The most im-
portant examples of fiduciary relations are thono
of parent and child, of guardian and ward, of
lawyer and client, of physician and patient,
of trustee and cestui quo trust, of principal and
agent, of principal and surety, and of partner*.
When the, relationship doen exist, the rule ob-
tains that the fiduciary — tho person in whom a,
special confidence and trust is roposod — is bound
to act towards the other party to the relation
with the utmost good faith. Jf ho receives a
gift from the other, or enters into a contract
with him, and its validity is challenged, tho
burden of proof is tipon him to show that he
took no advantage of hi ft influence or knowledges
but, on the contrary, that the other acted with
perfect freedom a« well aa with full knowledge
of all the facts relating to the transaction.
Indeed, in England a much stricter rule than
this is applied to gifts from clients to legal acl-
virterH made during the continuance of the re-
lationship: they may be «et uaide upon the ap-
plication of the client or hi« personal repre-
sentatives. Tn other words, the presumption of
undue influence in »ueh a case ifl ooncluwivo.
A trustee or an agent, charged with the sale of
property Iwlonging to hi» cestui que trust or his
principal, i« not allowed to beeomo tli« purchaser
or to make any «eeret profit out of tho sale.

The term "fiduciary capacity" in the United
States bankruptcy statutes has received a nar-
row construction. By these statutes debts con-
tracted "in any fiduciary capacity" arc excluded
from the operation of a discharge in bankruptcy.
It hiifl been ruled by the United States Bupremo
Court that the term in thin connection included
only debts contracted by technical trustees, i,e.,

trustees appointed by will or by deed or by
order of a court, and does not extend to debts
owing by agents or attorneys to their principals.
Consult: Bigelow, Elements of Equity, for the
Use of Students (Boston, 1870) ; Lowell, The
Law of Bankruptcy (ib., 189f>) ; and the
authorities referred to under such titles as
AGENT; ETC.

EIDTTS ACHATES, fl'diis a-ka'tez. See
ACHATES.

PIEDLEB, feMler, MAX (1859- ). A
Gorman orchestral conductor. Ho was born at
Zittau, where he received his first instruction
on the piano from his father, a music teacher.
From 1877 to 1880 he studied under Keinecke
and Jadassohn at the Leipzig Conservatory. Tn
1882 he became a teacher in the Conservatory
at Hamburg, and in 1003 director. At first he
appeared as a pianist, but soon organized or-
chestral concerts of his own, the success of
which led to his election as conductor of the
Hamburg Philharmonic Society in 1004. In
1 007 he appeared as "guest" conductor with the
New York Philharmonic Society, and from 1008
to 1011 lie was the regular conductor of the
Boston Symphony Orchestra. After his return
to Germany he resumed his post with the Ham-
burg Philharmonic Society, and appeared fre-
quently in Berlin and St. Petersburg. As a
eomposer, he made himself known through some
chamber music and $ symphony in D minor.

tflEF, fef. See FEE.

FIELD (AS., OITG. fold, Oer. FM, field; eon*
nectecl with AS. fo!dc< I eel. fold, soil, and ulti-
mately with Gk. n-Xartfs plat}/*, Lith. plat&s, Skt.
prthu, broad, and with OHO. jla£< Icel. flatr*
Kng. //«*). In heraldry (q.v.), the whole sur-
face- of the eseuteheon or shield on which tho
"charge" in displayed; sometimes also one of the
divisions thereof.

FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-02). An Ameri-
can financier, the projector and promoter of the
Hrnt Hiibmarine telegraph cable between Kurope.
and America, born at Stockbridge, Mass. H«
wa« the brother of David Dudley Field, the
eminent lawyer, and of Jxwtiee Stephen J, Field
of the United State* Supreme Court. At tlm
«ge of 15, abandoning the idea of a college edu-
cation, he removed to New York City. At the
end of three yean* he. removed to Stockbridge,
but two yeara later he again removed to New
York, Ho was at firnt in the employ of A. T.
Stewart and afterward junior partner in a linn
of paper merchants. A disastrous failure hav-
ing e-uHued, Field effected a temporary settle-
ment with the creditors and set up in an inde-
pendent business. Close application finally re-
warded his efforts; he took bin brother-in-law
into partnership, and on Jan. 1, 1853, at the agi*
of 3tt, retired from active participation in the
ImHinoHB, with a fortune of $250,000.

A meeting with Frederick N. GiBhornc (q.v.),
a Canadian electrical engineer, in 1854, deter-
mined tho channel into which Field's indomi-
table energy was to be turned. Gisborne was in
New York attempting to interest capitalists in
an undertaking to construct an overland tele-
graph lino across Newfoundland, connecting Cape
Hay and Cape Breton by fa**t steamships or
carrier pigeons* and perhaps eventually by a
aubmarine cable under the Gulf of Si Lawrence.
Field took Giwborne'tt pinna under advisement
and* in studying up the matter, became con*
vinced not only that the scheme waa practicable,
but that the time was opportune for organizing

FIELD

518

FIELD

a company to lay a transatlantic cable from
Newfoundland to Ireland. He was not the first
to entertain such an idea, but he was the first
to put it into operation. With this more ex-
tended purpose in view, Field set to work to
interest some of Ms friends, with the result
that in May, 1854, was organized the New
York, Newfoundland, and London Telegraph
Company, with Peter Cooper as its president.
In 1856 the United States government, at Field's
request, sent Lieutenant Berryraan in the Arctic,
to take deep-sea soundings along the route of
the proposed cable, with the result that the
existence of the telegraphic plateau was con-
firmed. A British expedition under Lieutenant
Dayman, sent also at Field's solicitation, further
confirmed this fact. In August, 1857, the first
attempt at laying the cable was made from
Valentia, on the Irish coast. It failed, but in
June, 1858, attempts were resumed. Time and
again a start was made, but always unsuccess-
fully, 200 miles being the greatest length laid.

In spite of these disheartening failures Mr.
Field did not despair, and in July another at-
tempt was made, this time with success. On
Aug. 16, 1858, the first message was transmitted
from Queen Victoria to President Buchanan.
But even while the success of the undertaking
was being celebrated the cable broke. Mr.
Field's firm had failed as a result of the panic
of 1857, and he was now compelled to go into
bankruptcy. Still he did' not lose heart, nor
give up his faith in the ultimate success of a
transatlantic cable. A contract was let to an
English construction company, a new cable was
constructed, weighing 300 pounds to the mile
instead of 107 pounds, the weight of the old
cable, and the Great Eastern, the largest steam-
ship afloat, was chartered to lay it. On July
23, 1865, the Great Easte> n, with Mr. Field on
board, started westward from the Irish coast,
near Valentia, but the cable broke within GOO
miles of the Newfoundland coast. On July 13,
1866, the Great Eastern started from Valentia
on her second*, and this time triumphant, voyage.
The Newfoundland coast was reached on July
27 without a mishap, and the land connection,
was successfully made. From this time on com-
munication with Europe by telegraphic cable
was undisturbed. The succeeding years wore
spent by Mr. Field in railroad development.
He was one of the original projectors of the
elevated railroad system in New York City, re-
signing its presidency and that of the Wabash,
St. Louis, and Pacific Railway in 1880, on retiring
from active participation in business. Business
reverses troubled his last years. Consult: Isa-
bella Field Judson (his daughter), Cyrus W.
t'ield: His Life and Wortc (New York, 1896) ;
also H. M. Field, Story of the Atlantic Tele-
graph (ib., 1878; 1903) ; Keid, The Telegraph in
America (ib., 1878) ; Bright and Bright, Life of
Sir Charles Tilston Bright (London, 1898);
Russell, The Atlantic Telegraph (ib., 1868).

FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (1781-1867). An
American Congregational clergyman and his-
torical writer. Ho was bom in East Quilford,
now Madison, Conn., graduated at Yale in 1802,
and held pastorates at Haddam, Conn., and
Stockbridge, Mass. He wrote A History of the
Town of Pitts field, in Berkshire County, Ma&BOr
chmctts (J844), and a Genealogy of tho Brawerd
Family (1857). His four remarkable sons
(David Dudley, Stephen Johnson, Cyrus West,
and Henry Martyn Field) are separately treated.

FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (1805-94). An emi-
nent Ameikan jurist and law reformer, son of
David Dudley Field (q.v.), a Congregational
clergyman. He was born at TELaddam, Conn.,
graduated at Williams College in 1825, studied
law first in Albany, N. Y., and afterward in
New York City, and was admitted to the bar in
1828. He commenced practice in New York and
speedily acquired a leading position at the bar.
This was due quite as ruuch to his extraordinary
energy and public spirit and to his zeal for law
reform as to his unusual learning and skill as a
lawyer. Though possessed of a large profes-
sional practice, he devoted all the time which
ho could spare from pressing engagements for
40 years to the reform of the' law. Tie began
the movement by writing articles in review* and
papers and pamphlets, showing the urgent nceo-*-
sity of a reform in methods of legal procedure.
Having been appointed in 1847 a commissioner
on practice and pleading by the Legislature of
New York, he devoted himself first to the prep-
aration of a code of civil procedure which was
promptly enacted into law. The desi.t^n of the
new system was to wipe out the distinction be-
tween'the forms of action and between legal and
equitable remedies, in order that all the rights
of the parties in relation to the subject of legis-
lation could be derided in one and the. t*ame-
forum and in a single action. This system lw*
been, adopted in most of the American Stales
and is the basis of the reformed procedure estab-
lished, in England by the Judicature Act of 1K7;J
(30 and 37 Viet, c. CO). The e*ume coming-Sim
framed a code of criminal procedure, which l'i.-<
also beon adopted in most of the Static, hi
1837 Mr. Field was placed at tlio heu<l of a m-w
commission to prepare, a pulilical code, a p«'iu:l
code, and a civil code, which \veiv iinihlii'd mul
reported in 187r>, but which, owing to tlui hilt- r
opposition of the bar of the State, an.l «•>»:»»'•
dally of Now York City, has never been ndnphsl
by tlio State of New York, though the civil unil
penal codes were paused by the vuo Houses,
almost unanimously, in 1870, and failed wily
for want of the Governor's signature to b-vomi*
the law of the State. They have hern of »ivat
Horvice, however, in the, legislation of ninny of
the States, especially in California and Dakota,
whore they were adopted with a few ultcrutiotm
that were necessary in order to udapt them to
local conditions.

Mr. Field's interest in reform was not con-
fined to the civil or municipal law, but em-
braced thp field of international relations. In
1860 the British Association for the Promotion
of Social Science held a meeting at MiinulitihtiT,
at which Mr. Field made a propo.sul for a
general revision and reform of tin* law of na-
tions, similar to that aimed nt in hia labors
for the reform of the civil and criminal law.
Acting on his proposal, he completed in 1873 a
work entitled Out Haw of un hifrmatiomf! f'Wr;
which he presented to the social science con^n^w
of that year, and which met with very favorable
criticism from eminent jurist** till over the world.
In 1873 he wa« oloct<l<l firat president of an
association for the reform and codi Heat urn of
the law of nations, fanned at Bruuwlg in that
year.

Mr. Field was a lifelong Democrat in hip
political conviction*, but belonged to the Fret-
Soil and antitfluvery wing of that party Iwforo
the Civil War ami during the war wau a stanch
supporter of the administration of Lincoln. The

FIELD

519

PIELD

only party office ever hold by him was that of
Congressman, which he occupied by appointment
for a short time in 1876 to fill a vacancy.
Though distinguished in many ways, his fame
rests chielly on his achievements as a law re-
former, in which field of high and disinterested
service he occupies a foremost place. Many of
his principal papers on law reform are included
in his Speeches, \rgwnents, and Miscellaneous
Papers (Now York, 1884-4)0).

FIELD, EUGENE (lSiiO-95). An American
poet and journalist, born in St. Louifl, Mo.
During several yours of his childhood he lived in
Massachusetts "and Vermont, and, though ho
completed his collegiate education in Missouri,
he showed in his work traces of New England
and Western elements which coexisted rather
than Mended in his nature. At 23 lie began
newspaper work, and 10 years afterward he bo-
came associated with the Chicago Daily AV»s,
with which he \\iw for 12 yearn identified
through his column "Sharps and Flats." Far
the, largest part of his literary production first
appeared hero. It is of varied manner and
quality, prose and verse, detached paragraphs
and continued narratives, by turns (junhit, gro-
tesque, delicate, Rabelaisian, farcical, and pa-
thetic. Ho Rec'ined to have equal sympathy with
the wild life of the prairie and with classic
culture, for irresponsible Uohemian life and
quiet domestic felicities, lie is probably most
widely known as a poet of childhood, but most
admired as a, humorist. His first publication,
The Dotrer Tribune r rimer (1882; reprinted in
1001 as The, Tribune Primer), is oiu» of the
cherished rarities of the book collector. .1 Little
Hunk <tf UV«f»r«. Versa (IflfiO) and ,1 Lit tie. lit Mia
of /'ro/i /«&/«• Titles (1880) are characteristic of
his best original literary achievement. Echoes
fwM the Nnhhw Farm ('iHOJJ), hi winch he, col-
laborated with li'm brother, U. M. Kield, shows
how fully ho had absorbed the spirit of Horace.
The l.orc .[fftiirft of <& ftiblioinanitte contains bin
most delicately humorous essays; With Trumpet
and Drum MHJI2) ami Poems of (fhildhooit
(HI04) well represent him as a child rctfa poet.
Several of his ]>oeius have, been Ret to music,
some of which may be found in Muiiieal, /'«n««
for /SV/tW, h'tHitttryttrttiffii and Home; music by
Cam H. Seymour (1000). Consult Thompson,
Knaene F'wttl: A Html if in Hcretljly and Con-
tnulirlioHH (^ vols., New York, 1001).

FIELD, KuKDKurorc (IHOl-fifi). An Knglinh
clergyman, born in London. He graduated at
Trinity College, Cambridge, in IHiJB, became*
fellow of Trinity (IHiM), and was rector of
ficcplmm, Norfolk, from 18-12 to 180,'!. liift
scholarship wan a rare eoinbination of Greek and
Semitic. Fie edited the Oreck text of HI. Chry«-
oritom'H HiMiiliM on- &aint Mutthc.w (IHtffl); Ht.
t'hryrfostomV IntvrpreMtion of the Pauline AT/?to-
llex (7 vols., in IWtliothe.ea PaArim* 1845-02) ;
tlte Septuagint version of lh« Old Testament
according to the. Alexandrian codex (subsc-
ouently wised and rearranged for the Foreign
Translation Committee of the Society for Pro-
niotmg Christian Knowledge) ; and Origeu's
Hesapta (2 vols., 1807-715). Fn 1870 ho became*
a member of the Old ToHtamctnt revision com-
pany. Consult the brief autobiography in his
preface to Origen,

FIELD, G»0!iaii! WILTON (1803- ). An
American htologint, born at North Bridgcwater,
M«RH, In 1887 be graduated from Brown Unl-
vcraity (A.MM 1800), where he was later a^

aociatc professor of cellular biology (1803-06),
having in the meantime studied also at Johns
Hopkins University (Ph.D., 1802), at the Naples
Zoological Station, and in Munich. Ho was
biologist of the Rhode Island Agricultural Ex-
periment Station from 1806 to 1001, instructor
in economic biology at Massachusetts Institute
of Technology (1002), and in 1003 became biolo-
gist, and in 1904 chairman, of the Massachu-
setts Commission on Fisheries and Game. Ho
became a director of the Massachusetts Audubon
Society and in 1011 was president of the
National Shellfish Association. His piiblica-
tionfl consist of reports and papers on original
biological investigations and also Lobsters and
the Lobster Problem (1010).

FIELD, UENBY MARTYN (1822-1007). An
American clergyman, editor, and author, born
at fttockbridge, Maan., a son of I lev. David
Dudley Field and brother of the jurist of that
name, as well a« of Justice Stephen J. Field
and (iyrus W. Field. He graduated at Williams'
(1838), studied theology, and from 1842 to
1847 was pastor of a church in St. Louifl. Then,
after three yearn of European travel, he became
pallor of a church in Went Springfield, MUHH.
(18f>]-,;5'l). After tliiu bo took up hia residence
in New York an editor and later, till 1800, as
sole proprietor of the Krnngclisti an inlluential
Presbyterian paper, vimling Europe frequently,
and making a tour of tlw world in 1877. Ilia
nuinernitri volumes are chielly stories* of travel.
Of these /'Vow* Ihv Lak(i$ of Killarncy to ffw
tiottlrn Horn (187(i), On, ihe Desert (1S83), and
Old NIMIH and Anr Npnito (188S) are typical.
]Ii»itlfo \vro1.e a life of his brother, David Dudley
Hi'ltl (IMS), and Hlortj of the Atlantic. Teh-
<j!<i[tli (1878; 1000).

PIBLD, Jonw (1782-1837). An English com-
porter, born in Dublin. (l«i wan tfiw immediate
precursor and ftrobnhh* model of Chopin nnd the
}tio<l<krn Hchool of pianoforte eotnpoHiiion. Field
came of nuMical slock, JJis father wan a violin-
ist, and his grandfather, of whom he took IIIH
itr-»t lesflniiH, an organist* SubHecpiently, when
t!ic» family removed to London, lie was'appren*
timl to CJlemenli, \vlio then had a pianoforte
business, and who, recognizing th<i youtirn ni-
inarkable p;ifts, taught him and employed him to
show off pianofortes to customers. With Cle-
inenti he went in 1802 on an extends! eonctTt
tour, visiting .Paris, (jermany, and KUHHIU, where
hifl pianoforte playing was greatly wlmired. On
a neeond visit to St. Petersburg in 1804 he
remained there, as a much admired teacher and
virtuoso. He did not return to Thornton until
18.12, appearing there most fluccesflfully in con-
cert. A subsequent tour in Italy proved a
failure. Under the effects of disappointment
and dissipation he broke down at Naplew, where,
nine numtha later, he watt taken out of the
hospital by a UtiHsian family with whom ho
returned to Moscow* But he nover ree.ovcnsd
Ms hwilth» and died in Moscow. Field'a works
that huv« tturvivocl anv his Nooturw*. They
wvr« the first auccessful eiTortfi at com^oHltlon
imroHtrained by classical form and offering the
composer freedom of poetic fancy. In their
name, their romantic, and subjective treatment,
an well as in their technical aspect, they clearly
indicate tho atarting point of Chopin and of
th(^ modern romantio wJiool, His works lnelud<»
7 ccmeertoH (Ko. 4 of which was tho. mo«t
popular), 4 Honaias, 2 alrn en rondeau, 4 ro-
mances* 18 nocturne's, and numerous otlicr pieces

FIELD s

of kindred type. An essay on Field by Liszt and
reminiscences of him in Spohr's autobiography
will be found interesting. Consult H. Dessauer,
John Field, sein Leben und seine Werke (Lan-
gensalza, 1912).

FIELD, JOSEPH M. (1810-56). An American
actor and dramatist. He was born in London,
came to America when very young, and for
several years traveled through the country writ-
ing plays and acting them without attaining
much reputation. In 1852 he assumed the man-
agement of a theatre in St. Louis, Mo., where
he was also later principal owner and an editor
of the Reveille, a daily newspaper. At the same
time he became widely known for his humorous
sketches signed "Straws" in the New Orleans
Picayune.

FIELD, KATE (c. 1840-96). An American
journalist, lecturer, and actress, of eccentric
talent. She was born in St. Louis, Mo., the
daughter of Joseph M. Field (q.v.), was edu-
cated in New England and in England, and pro-
longed her stay in Europe as correspondent of
various American newspapers, writing also for
magazines. On her return she gave lectures and
public readings and in 1874 appeared as Peg
Woffington at Booth's Theatre, New York. She
afterward abandoned the regular comedy for
dance, song, and recitation, but achieved no
striking success. In 1882-83 she headed a Co5p-
erative Dress Association in New York, which
achieved a conspicuous failure. In 1889 she
established Kate Field's Washington, a weekly
journal published in the capital. After 1868
she published numerous volumes of miscellaneous
contents, no longer noteworthy.

FIELD, MAGNETIC. See MAGNETISM j DYNA-

MO-EUBOTBTO MAOHINEBT.

FIELD, MABSHALL (1835-1906). An Ameri-
can merchant, born in Con way, Mass. In 1856-
60 he was- clerk in Chicago in a wholesale dry-
goods establishment, in which he was a junior
partner from 1860 to 1865. In 1865 he became
a member of the firm, of Field, Palmer, and
Leitcr, which, in 1881, became Marshall Field
and Company. Under his direction the firm
obtained the largest wholesale and retail dry-
goods business in the world, with headquarters
in Chicago and branches in France, Germany,
and England. He gave to the University of
Chicago land valued at $200,000, with a gift of
$1,000,000 founded in Chicago the Field Colum-
bian Museum as a permanent repository for
many exhibits of the World's Columbian Ex-
position of 1893, and bequeathed $8,000,-
000 for the endowment and maintenance of the
museum upon the expressed condition that
within six years after his death there should be
provided, without cost to it, a suitable site.

FIELD, MICHAEL. The pseudonym of two
English women collaborators, the Misses Kathe-
rine Bradley (d. 1914) and Edith Emma Cooper
(d. 1913), who wrote several poetic dramas and
many lyrics. Among the most popular of their
publications were: Oallirrhoe and Fair Rosa*
mond (1884); The Father's Tragedy (1885);
Canute the Great (1887); The Tragio Mary
(1890); Long Ago (1889); Bight and Song
(1802); Under the Bough (new ed., 1893);
Attila, my Attila! (1895) ; Anna Ruina (1899) ;
The Rape of Leaves (1901).

FIELD, EICTTABD (1561-1616). A Church of
England divine. Ho was born at Homel Hemp-
stead, Hertfordshire, Oct. 15, 1501, and grad-
uated B.A. at Oxford in 1581. After a brilliant

20 FIELD

university career as instructor and scholar, he
became in 1594 rector of Burghclere, Hampshire,
and there and at Windsor, where he was a
prebendary after 1604, he chiefly resided thence-
forth. In 1610 he was made dean of Gloucester.
He attended the famous Hampton Court Confer-
ence in 1603 and enjoyed the special favor of
King James. His fame rests upon his great
work, Of the CJwrch (London, 1606; modern ed.,
1853), one of "the grandest monuments of po-
lemical divinity in the language." His son pre-
pared a Life, which was edited by Le Neve in 1716.

FIELD, STEPHEN DUDLEY (1846-1913). An
American inventor, born at Stpckbridge, Mass.
Besides many minor patents, his inventions in-
clude a multiple-call distance-telegraph box
(1874), an electric elevator (1878), a, dynamo
quadruplex telegraph (1880), and a fast stock
ticker (1884). Field was the first to apply
dynamo machines to telegraphy (1879) and also
the first to use the quadruplex telegraph on an
ocean cable (1909).

FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-;99). A dis-
tinguished American judge, born in Haddam,
Conn., in 1816. He was the second son of the
Bev. David Dudley Field (q.v.). At the age
of 13 young Field made a voyage to the East
in company with a brother-in-law, who was
a missionary, and he spent three years in
Smyrna and Athens, Returning to this country,
he graduated at Williams College, in 1837, with
the highest honors. He then studied law in the
office of his brother in New York City and,
after his admission to the bar, became his
brother's partner and devoted himself energeti-
cally to the practice of law until 1848, when he
went abroad and passed a year in Europe. On
his return, in 1849, he joined the tide then
setting towards California and established him-
self there, at a place where now stands the city
of Marysville. He was elected the first alcalde
of the place, holding the office until the organiza-
tion of the judiciary under the constitution of
the State. Under Mexican law nn alcalde had
a very limited jurisdiction, but after the Ameri-
can occupation tho jurisdiction exercised bv him
in the anomalous condition of society in* Cali-
fornia at that time was practically unlimited.
In 1850 he was elected to the Legislature and
was placed on the Judiciary Committee. He
drew ujj a bill defining the powers of the courts
of justice and judicial officers of the State,
which was passed, and most of its provisions
are still retained in the California code. He
also secured the passage of a law giving effect
to the usages and regulations adopted by the
miners for the protection and working of the
mines. The principles embodied in this law were
adopted in other mining regions of the country,
and finally by act of Congress became the- min-
ing law of the United States territories. In 1857
he was elected Judge of the Supreme Court of
California, and in 1859 he succeeded David S.
Terry as Chief Justice. When Mr. Field came
to the bench, the titles to lands in the State
were unsettled, and it was largely through the
decisions in which he delivered the opinions of
the court that the law of real property in Cali-
fornia was placed on a permanent basis. In
1863 he was appointed by President Lincoln
an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of
the United States, a position which he held with
increasing distinction until his retirement by
reason of age in 1897. Hero he played a con-
spicuous and important rftle, expressing himself

FIELD ARTILLERY

521

FIELD ARTILLERY

with great force and freedom on all the great
constitutional questions which came before the
court for consideration during his long term of
service, and being intrusted by the court with
the duty of preparing many of its most impor-
tant opinions. His opinions in the celebrated
test-oath cases, in which the Supreme Court
declared the invalidity of the "ironclad oath"
imposed by act of Congress on all persons hold-
ing office under the government of the United
States, and his dissenting opinions in the legal-
tonder, slaughterhouse, and income-tax cases
wore distinct contributions to American consti-
tutional law and have become justly celebrated.
In 18(50 he was appointed professor of law in
the University of California; in 1873, as one of
a commission to examine and re-vise the codes of
the State, he prepared important amendments
which were adopted by the Legislature. He was
a member of the famous electoral commission of
]S77 which decided the presidency in favor of
Uutherford B. Hayes, and he voted with the
minority in favor of Samuel J. Tilden. As a
judge, Field was noted for his independence of
judgment and tho strength of his convictions,
*»s well as for the sanity and reasonableness of
his views. Me was a learned lawyer, but it was
the breadth of his information and tho range
of his experience as well as tho vigor of his
mind which contributed most to lite judicial
equipment. THs service? on the bench of the
Supreme Court, 34 years, the longest in the Ins-
lory of that tribunal, was also one of the mont
useful in its history.

PIELD ARTILLERY. The artillery which
accompanies an army in the Held. It may be
clntMided as follows: (1) I jig lit Field Artillery
(guns of about 3-inch calibre; howitzers, 3.8
to 4.7-inch) ; (2) //c<n>y Field Artillery (guns,
4.7-inch; howitzers, 0-inch) ; (3) ti pedal Pur-
pose Artillery: (a) Mountain or Pack Artil-
lery (calibre about 3-inch) ; (&) Horse Artil-
lery (calibre about 3-inch), Galibrai above*
0-inch, lined in siege operations, are cloHHifted as
f(ie(/fi Artillery guns, liowitxertt, <>r mortars. Tho
development of Held artillery and tho lield gun
will bo found in the historical sketch under AR-
TILLERY (q.v.), while under Iloittue ARTILLKRY,
HOWXTZBB, biaitT ARTILUHMY, MOUNTAIN ou PACK
ARTILLERY, and SIEGE ARTILLERY, these special
branches will bo considered. The prowont de-
scription is concerned with the modern field gun
which is, indeed, a development of but a few
years, but which played, a most important part
in the great European war of 1014.

The present quick-firing field gun, which per-
mits the gun layer to maintain -his position and
night on the target during the entire process of
loading and firing, in the natural consequence of
tho introduction of smokeless powder. With tho
old ordnance the target was obscured by the
smoke of discharge, and until this blew away
tho gun could not be re-laid. With the advent
of HmokelcsB powder, however, it was possible
to keep tho target in view, and some, mechanical
means by which the process of gun laying might
he made continuous become a matter of concern.
Tho solution wan found in the hydraulic buffer
or brake, and tho stored energy by which the
gun is returned to its firing position. This
system was first utilized by tho builder* of naval
ordnance* who introduced guns on this principle
as a moans of deforme against tho attack of small
craft. (Sec GtwB, NAVAL.) It Was not long,
however, before the possibilities of this weapon
VGJU VUI.— • 34

were recognized by army artillerists, for we find
General Wille, in Ms Field Qun of the Future
(Berlin, 1891), and General Langlois, in his
great work Field Artillery in Connection with
the Other Arms (Paris, 1892), advocating a gun
and principles which have since been largely
realized in the field gun as we now know it.

The first practical application of the princi-
ples laid down by these writers was made in the
new materiel of the French artillery, which made
its appearance in 1898. This matMel and the
methods prescribed for its use were so immeas-
urably ahead of anything else then in existence
that they may be said to have revolutionized the
subject of field artillery. All other nations
wore compelled to rearm with a somewhat simi-
lar equipment, and to copy, to a greater or leas
extent, the now tactics of the French. It was
not, however, without opposition, especially in
Germany and England, that these methods were
incorporated into the training of their armies,
and us late, as 1014 Germany prohibited the use
of the covered position in many situations where
it would have been employed unhesitatingly by
the*. French or American artillerist.

Description of Idght Field Chin. The mod-
ern light field gun, to which falls the bulk of
mobile artillery work, i» approximately 3 inches
calibre (3.3 inches in England) ; about 30 cal-
ibres long, i.e., 30 times the diameter of the
bore, and weighs, with its carriage (unlim-
bored), from 2000 to 2500 pounds; when lim-
bered (limber iillod with ammunition), the
weight varies from 3000 to 4500 pounds. The
latter figure. IH the weight of the British 18-
pounder, which firoH the heaviest projectile of
all modern light artillery guna. The gun proper
ordinarily consists of a steel tube, over which
is shrunk a jacket with tho necessary locking
hoop, and recoil lug« or clasps by which the
gun IH secured to the cradlo. The jacket usually
coutaiiiH the m'OHH for the breech block. This
may bo of the, wedge type, in whiwh the block
Hlide.H trannyersoly acroHH the brooch end of the
gun, or the interrupted or stepped screw system,
in which tho block swings about a hinge pin and
is locked to tho gun by means of screw threads
on both block and brooch recess which arc en-
gaged by the rotation of the block. Tho former
type ia imed by Krupp, while the latter ayHtom
has boon adopted by practically all other makers.

Material. Steel in now tho only metal used
in gun construction, Bronco was formerly much
in favor, but Auntria, tho lawt nation to employ
this subHtancG, decided in 1012 to change to
stool for all future manuloctxirofi.

Carriage* Tho carriage of the modern field
gun is made almost entirely of stool and eonwats
of the lower or traveling carriago (axle, trail,
and wheels), tho rocker, and tho cradle. The
rocker is simply a frame upon which the cradle in
supported, and by moans of which it is elevated
or moved in direction fto an to bring tho gun npon
the target The cradle* serves a« a bod for the
gun and as a housing for the recoil mechanism.

Recoil. Modern artillery differs from that of
former years in the important particular that
while tho gun recoils thfc traveling carriage re-
mains fixed, so that tho piece does not require
repointing after each shot, and tho cmnnamnv
need not stop aside, as was formerly required.
This is accomplish**! by introducing a hydraulic
buffer or brako, whieh absorbs tho energy of
recoil by means of the passage of tho liquid
through wnall ports or openings in the piston.

FIELD ARTILLERY

At the end of recoil the gun is returned to its
firing position by compressed air or by springs
which have been compressed during the recoil.
The former method, originally the secret of the
French artillery, has been used in the guns
manufactured by Schneider and Company for
the Spanish, Servian, and Bulgarian artillery,
and gave excellent service in both north Africa
and the Balkans. The spring column is used in
the product of Krupp, and in the American, Eng-
lish, German, and many other guns. The ob-
jection to this system is the tendency of the
springs to lose their resiliency, and, moreover,
they sometimes break. No trouble with the
compressed-air system is known, and it is gen-
erally more favorably regarded by artillerists.

Ammunition. The ammunition carried by
modern field artillery consists of shrapnel, shell,
and a composite projectile combining the prop-
erties of these two and variously described as
combined shrapnel, high-explosive shrapnel, and
universal shell. Great Britain, alone of the
first-class powers, so late as 1914 carried nothing
but common shrapnel with her light field guns,
but, judging from comments in British prints,
she, too, was likely to equip her field artillery
with either shell or combined shrapnel. See
AMMUNITION; SHRAPNEL; SHELL; PROJECTILES.

Propelling Charge. The propelling charge
for the light field gun consists of approximately
1% pounds of smokeless nitrocellulose powder.
See EXPLOSIVES.

Banging. Two general methods arc used to
determine the range to the hostile target. The
first, the one in which artillerists have placed
their greatest faith, consists of a process of
ranging, or, more properly speaking, adjusting,
since the length of fuse to explode the shrapnel
or shell, and, in the case of indirect aiming, the
deflection angles, must be determined as well as
the range to the target. Ill this system the
target is bracketed between two groups of bhots,
one of which is surely short of the target and
the other surely beyond. The bracket thus ob-
tained (usually 400 yards or meters) in re-
duced by halving until in most cases a 100-yard
bracket is obtained. In the case of percussion
fire the bracket is reduced to f50, or even 25
yards at the shorter ranges. During the rang-
ing series the deflection angle and corrector are
changed until the" group of shots is brought to
burst in air close to the ground and directly
in line with their proper part of the target, BO
that the latter will be hidden by or silhouetted
against the smoke produced by the bursting of
the shrapnel. Thus, according to the United
States regulations, a battery would open fire
against a hostile battery, using the indirect
method (sights directed on an auxiliary mark
or aiming point) with a deflection of say 2000
mils,* a deflection difference of — 10, corrector
25, and range 3000 yards. The shots of the
salvo are observed to burst on percussion some-
what to the right of the target, which is meas-
ured (either by a graduated ruler, field glass, or
telescope) and fouud to be (50 mils to the right.
The four shots arc also observed to biirsfc on a
front less than that of the target. The second

* Artillery angles are usually measured in mils (a contrac-
tion of mtili&nes, meaning thousandths). Thus, the chord
subtending an angle of I mil is approximately X7fon of the
radius, or range. In order to make thin ratio oxuot it would
be necessary to divide tho circle into 6283 division* (2 v x »)•
This number is not convenient for division, so 0400, which
obviates this objection and gives a ratio approximating loW
feas been arbitrarily adopted.

522

FIELD ARTILLERY

salvo would bo fired with an increase of 50 in
the deflection to bring the shots to the left, an
increase of say 3 in the deflection difference in
order to increase the width of the sheaf, and an
increase of 5 in the corrector so as to get the
burst into the air. Inasmuch as the first salvo
burst considerably to the right of the target, it
is not likely that the battery commander could
have observed whether the range was "short" or
"over," and he would probably repeat the range.
Assume three of this second salvo to have burst
in air and one on percussion, all short of and
well distributed over the front of the target; for
the next salvo the range would be increased 4.00
yards, the deflection, deflection difference, and
corrector remaining unchanged, Suppose this
to be over, and we htivo the 400-yard or long
bracket; the next salvo would be fired with a
range 200 yards less, which, if over, would
cause a further reduction of 100 yards, which
we will assume to be short, thus inclosing tho
target between 3100 and o200. Tho corrcvtor
would be raised enough to give a burst 3 mils
high (at which the maximum effect is obtained),
and fire for effect is started wUh sueh speed ami
under such methods as the tactical situation and
the ammunition supply surest.

For infantry in the open "a 200-yard bracket
would probably be the smallest that could h«
obtained, in which case fire for effect would be
delivered afc different ranges within this bracket.
For cavalry, a larger bracket, 400 or 500 > arils,
would be appropriate.

Registering the Terrain,. Another method,
countenanced largely by the French, consists of
firing a number of* shots with different ilctltr-
tioiiH and elevations, and, by noting and record-
ing where they strike, a battery is prepared to
turn loorto a sudden fire for effect without the
loss of time necessary for ranging. This is par-
ticularly appropriate in the ease of rapidly
moving targets which a:*o likely to disappear
from view before the process of 'ranging can he
completed.

Fire for Effect. Modern formations ami tend-
encies towards concealment* have given riw* to
the. rafale or squall system of artillery fins
made possible by tho rapid-fin* gun and smoke-
less powder, in which each gun fires one or more
rounda, as may bo indicated in tho commands.
The French also use what they term progressive
five, in. which each piece in thu battery iinw t\\o
rounds at eacli of four ranges, varying by 1(H>
motors, all of whic.h is executed at a single
command, and tho #2 shots are discharged in
less than ono minute. In progressive- lire
sweeping three shots are fired at each ranges
thus covering an area of approximately ItJO.OOO
square, meters with 48 shrapnel containing 1IUHO
balls, in less than J*£ minutes. Progressive
fire consumes great quantities of ammunition,
and the French regulations ha\e limited its use,
to the case of important llec.ting target. This
method, once taught in tho United States artil-
lery, has boon abandoned in the regulations of
1011.

Another method is to subject tho hostile target
to a continued rain of projectiles at a uniform
interval of discharge. This practice is not much
favored, for the reason that tho enemy HO<W
learns to time the shots and can awk ahelter
accordingly, as was actually done by the Japa-
nese during tho Hanchurian War.

These methods apply to shrapnel fire. As IUIH
been stated, the ammunition supply of field

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IELD ARTILLE
conducting «r» »(

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pi'.w

FIELD ARTILLERY

^?Wl?tSi3R;"-!^*r/'r.5 ••*- --^:;*4&>S > i •' " '• ;i " - 'Jv-'^j"; ":'V--

— ^rTO^'-;. ""-"••••"'•'••*.-^

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^Si^f i':^:^fe^'. '•••

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;'<-^- - ^

EUROPEAN FIELD GUNS

1. KRUPP HEAVY FIELD HOWITZER UNDER TEST IN SOFT GROUND. Note the system of increasing

the area of tread of tire on rear wheels.

2. KRUPP 7.5 CENTIMETER (295 INCH) 30-CALIBRE GUN IN TRAVELING POSITION.

3. THE SAME GUN IN FIRING POSITION. This is a general type in use in all armies.

FIELD ARTILLERY

523

FIELD ARTILLERY

artillery also includes explosive shell, and this
projectile is used to drive troops out of stone
buildings, from behind walls, from ^voods, and,
for what artillerists believe to be its principal
use, the destruction of hostile artillery materiel.
The percus&ion fuse is employed, and the bracket-
ing system is continued and narrowed until, long
and short ranges being eliminated, direct hits
may be expected. However, in this connection
due allowance must be made for the accumu-
lated error of gun, gunner, and ammunition, for,
even with a perfectly adjusted tiring, only
about one shot in six can be expected to hit an
exposed gun and caiftion 3000 yards a\vay.
These are peace figures. War conditions would
make the percent aj»o of hits considerably smaller.

Positions. The most revolutionary and far-
reaching development in tho uso of field artil-
lery, iirl reduced by tho Kronen in 18J)8, con-
sists in the employment of guns from con waled
or covered positions, usually behind a hill crest
or oven an inter veiling wood or a field of high
#nmi. As tho gun layers cannot wee the target,
tluy direct their wights on nn auxiliary aiming
point, making the necessary correction for tho
angle, between tho aiming point and tho target.
Telescopes with gonioniol.riii attachment*! form
part of the buttery equipment and are set up Jit
a point in the \ieinity of tho guns from which
the t argot can IKS noon. From that point the
battery commander, by moantf of tho numerical
data in his command*!, flhifta tho planes of /ire
of all the guns in his battery until they are
brought to boar on the desired part of the tar-
get. \Vhon time is pressing, those angles can
bo measured with a small ruler held at arm's
length or even with t-ho width of the hands and
fingers, which are duly calibrated. In order to
follow this system it is necessary that all guua
be provided with Homo kind of goniometer.
That most in use in tho panoramic wight, the
object glass of which iunw JM)0° about a vorti-
cal axis while the oyopioee remains stationary.
By this moons miy point in, the, InndHcape in
brought into view, and if tho anglo between the
selected aiming point and the target bo known,
it is a wimple matter to point tho guns at the
target by directing the High!* upon the Holcctcd
aiming point.

A coiiHidcraftlo 70110 in front of tho cover-
ing crest or mask lion beneath the path of the
projectile that eloars this mask. Kor thin reason
indirect lire IH impracticablo, for tho defense in
the latter siagoM of tho hostile advance, and
then tho guns must bo brought ut> to tho crest
mid fought according to tho old direct niothodn
in which tho gunnorn actually KO,O and aim at
their separate targets.

Although the accounts of tho Munclwrhm W«r
seem to have dearly catablinhod the fact that
exposed artillery HtuiuU Hfctlo or no oliawo.
against concealed guns, a principle cminlmtu'iilly
confirmed in tho accounts of tho Balkan War,
yet there IIUH boon considerable opposition to
the xwe of tho, concealed position. It is for-
biddou to the Ocrman infantry battcritw* Th«
Oermana wj'iu to prefer tho semicoverod posi-
tion, in which tho night, rained above tho gun
by moiuiH of an oxtonaion rod, can just wo ovor
tun emit. In order to make tho flush invtaibta,
tho fjuns niiMt be, Ihoutad \t foot below tho
covering crest, and this haa come, to be* tho
position most preferred by tt»o French, at l«a*t
in the early stages of tho action.

Manoeuvres, Tho manoeuvres of artillery

are confined to tho evolutions necessary to get
the guns into position. While marching on
the road the carnages follow in a single column,
and naturally move at tho gait of tho infantry
with which they march. Preparatory to the
occupation of a position the caissons, attached
to the gun sections, ordinarily move alongside
of their pieces, and the two carriages are nia-
riuouvred as n single element. During action the
caisson remains alongside of tho piece, and its
shields serve as a protection to tho cannoneers
engaged in the process of serving ammunition.
When moving to occupy position, its usual gait
is the trot of 8 or SI miles an hour. It is
only in emergencies that the gallop is now used.
Thus, when crossing a lire-swept area, the car-
riages would probably move singly at the great-
est fipeod to which the horhos could be urged.
In approaching their chosen positions batteries
utilixo folds in tho ground so as to conceal their
approach. Artillery ofliecrs and scouts precede
their battcricn, which are carefully conducted
to concealed positions by grides who have
previously gone over the ground.

Tactics. Inasmuch as artillery has no inde-
pendent rule, its sole raison dT-tro is to nflwiat the
infantry. This it does by its fire action, although
tho moral support and encouragement arising
from tho mere action of tho gunw i,s not to be
doHpiRcd. it is a w.'ll-acecptod principle of
modern tacticH that HUCCOHH is to bo obtained
only through offensive action. Even when tak-
ing up a, defensive position, tho question of
counter attack is kept in mind. Now, offensive
taetic-H imply an intention to advance and close
with the onomy, and, if wo except night attacks
and hu.Mh warfare, this can only be accomplished
ii Her liro nuporiority him boon gained. Both
infantry riiloH and the Hold gurm are -used to
obtain this superiority, which, when won, per-
mits a portion of tho infantry line to cease
firing and advance — two tnnkrt it cannot do at
the wimo instant. It is hero that the artillery

}>la,VH its part; for, by .subjecting tho hoHtilo
ine to a well-directed* Hhower of Hhrapucl, it
will keep down the enoiny'H riflo tiro and thereby
relieve mid <»MHint its own infantry. Hut tho
hostile artillery U!HO nnit»t bo reckoned with. If
loft to HM own devices, it \\ill Hiibjwt the, at-
lacking infantry to Huch a Itro an the hitter's
gunn nr<^ pouring into tho dofowlor'n linoH.

AHsumiug that the two artillorioH are both
atnplo an<l ermally HkillfuJ, there is no rolativo
gain to tho infantry of either Bide. For this
reason ho,stile artillery, especially whon tiring
upon friendly infantry, must be engaged and,
if portrtiblo, dostroyKl Thiw givos rise to tiu^
iirtillory divl, although in the modern i>racti<'o
of Hoparating^battalionR and buttorion, rather
than oHtubliHhing the guttn in one lino JIH WOH
the (tuntom during thu la«t century, thin will
likely take the form of a tmmbor of aeparattt
altliough tnon* or Iowa coordinated «rtill(»ry coin-
bats in which tho SUCCOHH may vary at ditfare-nt
jjiirtn of the line.

It i« no longer practicable for the infantry
to await thn outcome of thin artillery duel btv
font starting UK attack. Indeed, in muny COEICH,
CHpecially on tho part of tho dtfcnm?, the guns
will remain silent — will not di««loae themHftlvwi
—until the infantry advant'<«« in force. Nor
\\ill thor<k bo much mon» roawon for tho prema-
ture, opening of tlm attacker's gunn, for it IH
dotibtfui if, prior to tho advance, of the tittaok-
ing infantry, th« dof«»utlt»r'n troops will

FIELD ARTILLERY

5*4

FIELD

disclosed themselves sufficiently to justify the
expenditure of ammunition. All agree, how-
ever, that the point selected for the assault
must be subjected to the heaviest possible ar-
tillery fire while the infantry advances to the
attack.

It is now considered both normal and neces-
sary for the artillery to fire over the heads of
its own advancing infantry, continuing this fire
until the last possible moment. If stopped too
soon, the defender's infantry, freed from the

open to discussion, depending as it does much
upon accuracy of armament and skill in the
service of the gun. Both the French and Ger-
man regulations mention 300 meters from the
enemy as the probable limit. Bethell, an emi-
nent English author, thinks that this is far too
great, and that under favorable circumstances,
as where the trenches are on a rising slope, fire
can be kept up until the troops are within 50
yards. It must be borne in mind that the Brit-
ish gun, firing an 18-pound shrapnel, is re-

TABLE OF FIELD GUNS, 1913
(Col. H. A. Bethell, Modern Guns and Gunnery, Woolwich, corrected to 1913.)

U^Amerlca,

-4

Belgium, 1905.

t-i

0»

China, 1912.

4
w .

a ***
1

r
hoo

4
R«

3
15
252
36.6

1700
300
7.1
22.3
36.6
8.
16
4
50
4'8'
62
No.

O.P.
29.2

SJB.
5

2.Q5
13.2
295*
50*
Yes.
1665
254
6.5*
18
31.5
S.
]6*
3
48
4'3tf*
58
Yes.

T.G.
30

SJB.
4

301
1472
316+16
50 £35
Yes.
1640
275
7
20
37.5
8.
18
4
51.5
4' 3'
60
No.

P.
30

W.
4.5

2.95
14.3
295
42
Yes.
1640
266
0.67
20
34.5
3.
15
3K
51
4'3H'
58
NO.

P.
30

W.
5

295
12.1
235
42
Yes
1600
215
6.7
16.3
26.7
S.
17
3
44
4' 2*
58
No.

T.Q.
28

W.
4H

205
14.3
294
45
XT.
1640
266
7.52
20.25
34.5
S.
15
3
50
4' 4'
57
No.

31.4

S.B.
4

295
14.3
350
50
U.
1675
278
6.9
20.2
33.5
S.
17
3H
57
4'3tf'
55
Yes.

P.
30

2.95
14.3
295
45
H.E.
1640
266
6.5
18.5
30.5
S.
16
3H
51
4'3"
51
Yes.

P.
29

W.
3

2.95
14.85
295
41.3
No.
1640
277
6.42
205
36.6
S.
15
8if
54
4'3'
59
No.

T.G.
30

W.
6

3.3
18.48
375
41
No.
1590
324
9
24.75
40
S.
1G
3
48
4' 8'
62
Yes,

T.G.
29.4

S.B.
?

12.54
23G
41
No.
1658
239
6
10.5
32.75
3.
17
3
48
4' 8'
62
Yes.

T.G.
24.4

SJB.
?
P.
24
28
48
176
30.5
Nil.
6
12

2.95
15.96
292
38
Yes.
1739
334
9
22.4
37
A.
12
3
43
4*
60
Yes.

G.
36

E.S.
5
A.

24
72
312
3S.5
11.5
4
13

2.95
15.96
292
38
No.
1550
265
6.7
18.9
26.6
A.
16
3
52
4'8»
60
Yes.

G.
31

E.S.
3H»
A.
Nil.
12
?
?
27.5
Nil.
4
8*

Weijjbt of shrapnel, pounds . . .....

Whether tt E shell carried

Muzzle velocity, f.s

Muzzle energy, foot tons

Weight of guUi owt. , ....

Weight of gun and carriage, cwt ... .
Weight of gun and limber filled, cwt. .
Springs or compressed air

Maximum elevation, degrees

Traverse each way, degrees

Height ol wheels

Track of wheels. Inches

Line of sight, whether Independent. .
Sights— Gonlometric, Telescopic, Pan-
orama, or Ordinary .

Length of gun, calibres . . . ...

Breech action— wedge, swinging block,
or eccentric screw

Thickness of shield, millimeters

Round? ITI libber , ............... J

36
36
70
358
37
?
4
12

32
32
56
296
30.6
?
6
18

33
30
60
168
38.5
33
6
9

40
40
61
242
35.3
?
4
8

32
40
40
102
34
?
4
8

38
38
60
332
34
20
4
12

30
30
60
210
33.5
U.
4
8*

32
32
55
163
31
?
G
8

44
48
72
284
39.4
Nil.
4
8

24
28
48
170
3G.75
Nil.
C
12

ROW'S in wagon limber. .. T ....... t

Rounds In wagon body

Rounds per BIT" ..,,.. j .. . . L ±

Weight ol wagon, packed, cwt

Percentage of H.E. shell

Number of guns In battery

Ntjntfier of wagn^r? in battery ... . .

Mpl?er , , . . ,

State, Skoda
and
Ehrhardt.

State.
E. O. 6.

V&tf

The following abbreviations are used: —
Ammunition'-— "0" * Universal shell.
Doubtful figures are marked *. In the
NOTBS.— America:— 358 rounds per

i: — P. — Panorama. T. ••
guns the track is :
is 4 rounds on gun - -

"— to one province .

11.68 Ibs. only, M.'

_,,„- G. - aonlometrio. O. - Ordinary,
from centre to centre of each tire.

to. The wagons containing H JO. shell weigh

menace of shrapnel bullets which hag caused
them to hug the shelter of their trenches, or
at least has materially reduced the effectiveness
of their fire, will rise up and subject the on-
coming infantry to the most deadly fire en-
countered during their advance. For this rea-
son the Japanese infantry demanded that their
artillery continue to fire beyond the limit of
safety, preferring the smaller losses inflicted by
their own guns to the deadly rifle fire which
they knew would follow close upon the silence
of the artillery. . -

At just what point of the infantry advance
the artillery must cease its fire in order to avoid
hitting its own attacking infantry line, is still

markably accurate. According to the law of
probabilities and the error of the gun and fuse,
the German shrapnel, fired at a range of 2500
meters, may burst anywhere within a zone 210
yards wide. The United States gun, which occu-
pies an intermediate position for accuracy, for
the samo range, will burst all shrapnel within
a zone 153 yards wide, and 96 per cent of the
total number within 115 yards. Both these
figures should be increased to allow for the
excitement of battle.

The various targets and situations arising on
the battlefield give rise to a classification of
batteries, according to the duties immediately
required of them, into renter &a**«riw, those

525

1TIELD ABTELLEBY

designated to engage hostile artillery, and
infantry batteries (including accompanying bat-
teries), whose objective is the hostile infantry,
Another class, decoy batteries, should be men-
tioned. These purposely expose themselves with
a view to drawing fire, thereby learning the
location of hostile guns ; but no example of this
last class can be found in the accounts of
either the Manchurian or the Balkan war. This
classification, first used by the French, has
been dropped from their regulations, although

aiming point is measured from the aeroplane at
the moment it flies over the firing battery, and
the result is communicated or signaled to the
guns in some such way as by smoke flashes,
messages dropped near the battery, or maybe
by wireless telegraphy, in which latter method
experiments have been made. The guns arc
then laid with different ranges, varying by
400 or 200 yards, say, 3000-3200, and fired
at the instant the ae'roplane crosses their line
flying in the direction of the enemy, the flight

TABLE OP FIELD GUNS, 1913 (continued).
(Col. H. A.BetheU, Modern Guns and Gunnery, Woolwich, corrected to 1913.)

1H_>

t-t

"ScQ

3.03

2.05

2.95

295

2.95

295

2.96

2.95

1.3

13.2

14.3

14,3

14.3

13.64

14.3

143

14.3

14.45*

14.45

143

14.3

300

270

360

350

210

250

280

294

295

260

250

305

180

205

210

205

41.3

28.4

36.3

Yes.

eg.

Yes.

Yos.

No.

Yes.

Yen.

No.

Yes.

No.

Yes.

Yos.

1525

1640

1675

1700

1640

1930

1066 '

1640

1040

1640

1590

1640

242

245

278

288

255

207

267

373

278*

267

245

267

7.6tt

(

J.7

6.9

6.8

0.8*

6.5

0.5

6.67

7.37

7.85

6.9

6.6

6.07

6.7

6.48

6.77

105

1.3

19.5

19.75

20.6

19.7

20.8

19.75

21.25

20.75

19.75

20.4

19.15

19.75

21.1

35.5

5.5

34.7

33.45

33.25

36.3

35.5

34.8

38.5

32*

34.2

35.3

35.5

X7J4

IBM

10&

3}£

2>2

3J4

3*4

42.5

No.

es.

No.

Yes.

No,

Yes.

No.

Yes.

No.

YOR.

Yes.

Yos.

NO.

Yes.

T.O.

T.P.

T.G.

G.P.

T.G.

O.P.

T.O.

27.3

L.5

31.4

31.5

E.8.

E.S.

8.B.

S,B.

S.B.

8.B.

8.B,

3^*

4.25

4.75

12*

126

282

224

136

235

258

288

216,5

234

284

280

188

36.5

36.35

34.5*

36.5

40.5

37.4

' 34

32*

30.3

35.3

20.2

17.3

Nil.
4

Nil.

20.5

Nil.

6
0

Germany;— 120 rounds per gun, in addition to 103 rounds por gun with light ammunition column. Also 6 11.16. Bhejfe per

gun are carried In the battery store wagon.

Holland:— The 6-*un ftrtmlulHtrailve battery is fought aa two 3-«un batterleg. ta
Japan :—Tho figura given refer to too 1905 gun. This will bo superseded by the 1907 Ariaaka gun*
Norway:— The shield, weighs only 56 Ibs,, and In nan-loci on the wagon.
Russia :— -The ammunition Includes 45 rounds por gun In the store wagon limber,
Spain:— The proportion of ammunition to bo carried has been fixed at 64% shrapnel, 16% common, and 20% high explosive.

the. principle at ill exintfl with them, as it do«s
to a greater or lean extent with all other na-
tions. These designations still appear in the
drill regulation** of the United Status artillery.
The Conduct of JTire from Aeroplanes.
An important step in the development of ar-
tillery tactics has been the control of lire from
aSroplanea. Several nations have made impor-
tant developments along this line. In general,
the practice is to direct the fire of concealed bat-
teries against hostile artillery or other immobile
troops so located and sheltered that they cannot
be seen from the vicinity of the attacking guns,
In this case the angle at the firing battery be-
tween the hidden target and some prominent

in that direction being continued long enough
to note the point of hurst or ntrike. of the
proj(*ctile.fl. The results are signaled back as
both short, both over, or bracketing, the nee-
essary deflection and fuse connections being
noted also. The next salvo can be corrected
in the proper sense by an appropriate amount,
and the process continued until a bracketing
salvo is secured. This can be reduced to the
desired bracket (usually 100 for a battery in
action), and the guns can pass to ftre for effect
The methods are necessarily Blow and dependent
upon the weather and the perfectly coordinated
action of all concerned. Nevertheless, if bat-
teries in future lie quite concealed like beasts

2TIELD ARTILLEHY $26

\vaiting to spring unhindered upon advancing
infantry lines, some method must be devised by
which the attacking artillery can seek them out
and cripple them before they in their hidden
security play unmolested upon the advancing
infantry. That this view is gaming ground is
shown 'by the fact that German batteries in
their manoeuvres of 1913 took pains to conceal
themselves from aviators by screening and cov-
ering the guns and personnel with boughs, and
this was also the practice in the war of 1914.

A two-passenger machine is employed for the
work, for it is beyond the power of one man
both to pilot the machine and at the same time
also communicate to the guns the results of the
fire. It naturally follows that the observer
should be an artilleryman, and it would seem
that the battalion commander, because of his
knowledge of the many technical and tactical
considerations which will arise, as well as the
fact that he is the commander of the tactical
unit, the battalion, is the logical officer to be
intrusted with this duty. The possibilities are
great, and developments along these lines in the
great war were watched with interest by
artillerymen.

Several European manufacturers have pro-
duced a gun especially designed for the attack
of air craft. One type (Krupp) is a 15-pounder
with differential recoil find air recuperator
mounted on portable platforms or motor cars.
At 75° elevation it will send its projectile
approximately 20,000 feet into the air. The
use of the differential recoil so reduces the
strains set up that a motor car can be used
as the firing platform. Another and opposite
type consists of a rapid-firing 6-pounder mounted
on a swift motor car. This gun is designed
to follow the air craft and by the swiftness
of its movements and rapidity of its fire secure
effect. The success of this type has boon limited.
A third and probably the most practicable type,
at least the only one which has yet been in-
corporated into the armament of any nation,
is a field gun with split trail which permits
the breech to be depressed sufficiently to give
the elevation necessary to attack air craft. Tlio
Italian (Deport) gun is of this typo, and the
United States in 1914 was engaged in the manu-
facture and test of gun carriages based upon
this principle. This tvpe fills the role of an
ordinary field gun and in addition is suited for
the attack on air craft.

Draft. .Light field guns and howitzers are
now drawn by six horses, as the experience of
several centuries lias demonstrated that throe
pairs of horses hitched in tandem mark the
limit of economic artillery teaming. The width
of roads and trails over which artillery must
operate precludes hitching animals three abreast,
as is done in ' commercial teaming; the pulling
capacity of six horses determines the weight
and, a priori, the power of the gun. Further
experience has placed this capacity at 800
pounds per horse. So 4800 pounds must in-
clude the weight of the vehicle, implement, and
members of the gun detachment, This limit is
maintained in the case of the light guns and
howitzers, but is not practicable in the case of the
heavy guns and howitzers to which heavy horses
are assigned. Tliia latter type is not required
to move with the speed of the light guns.

It would seem at first glance that the weight
of ammunition carried in tho limbers might be
utilized in building a more powerful gun, but

FIELD ARTILLERY

this would place an excessive weight upon the
gun wheels, which would sink farther into the
ground and thereby greatly increase the work
of draft.

The horse most favored for this work is a
compactly built, muscular animal, about 15
hands, 3 inches high, weighing approximately
1200 pounds. He varies somewhat from the
type formerly preferred when dashing move-
ments were in vogue, and handy horses, neces-
sarily smaller and lighter than 'those described
above, met with the favor of the artilleryman.
Now, when the artillery seldom moves faster
than a trot, which it must be prepared to sus-
tain for several miles, the heavier, more power-
ful horse that is not compelled to strain him-
self is preferred.

The harness in the United States is what is
known as continuous draft; i.e., the traces are
attached so as to make one direct pull from the
lead horse to the singletree. The Germans and
many other nations make use 'of the splinter-bar
system, by which each pair is hitched to its own
doubletree or splinter bar. The advantage of
continuous draft is that it admits of quicker
movement and closer turning. Its correspond-
ing disadvantage is that it exerts a downward
tendency on the necks of the wheel hordes mak-
ing necessary considerable care on the part of
the drivers to avoid sores.

The wheels are made as large as considera-
tions of weight and stability in firing will allow,
this in order to reduce the work of draft. On
the continent of Europe the wheels are con-
siderably smaller tlum in England and the
United * States, where the diameter ha* been
fixed at 4' 8". The better roads of continental
Europe admit of this saving in material and
weight.

Organization and Command. ArHll»»ry is
now organised into batteries and battalions* and
in moist armies into raiments and brig'ides.
The bnaic unit of prtillery is the butters of
four or six gims, ordinarily commanded by a
captain and subdhided into platoons of \\\n
sections,, each containing one gun and OIK*
caisson (or two caissons) each. Jn KnjrIUh
writings platoons and sectionH art* termed sec-
tions and subsections respectively. With the e\-
eeptiim of England, Germany, Russia, Italy, nnil
Turkey, all nations have settled upon four <iuns
per battery, although the transition has not
yet been effected in Austria and Japan. The
Hussion battery consists of eight guns, com-
manded by u lieutenant colonel, hut it w often
tactically divided into two half ha it eric* of
four guns each. A battery in the Unitrd States
army at peace strength consists of 5 ofllcwH,
133 enlisted men, and 120 horses. The war
strength is 5 officers, 171 enlisted men, and 157
horses.

The reduction of the number of guns in the
battery (six was the universally accepted num-
ber before the advent of the hydraulic recoil
brake) is based upon the fact that four guns
can be handled and fought far more skillfully
than six. This is particularly true in locating
battery positions. The. rapidity of fire which
is characteristic of the modern weapon is such
as to make a heavy demand upon the ammuni-
tion supply. With the 4-gun battery the men
and horses and (wliat is also of considerable
importance) the road space required for the
two other guns are utilized in providing addi-
tional ammunition wagons. Thus, in the United

MELD BTTG

527

FIELD COOKIEX*

States service the (i guns and 0 caissons which
constituted the battery with the 3.2-iuch gun,
the immediate predecessor of the present weapon,
have given place to 4 guns and 12 caissons, pro-
viding an ammunition supply of 358 rounds per
gun, an increase of 127 rounds per gun.

Three batteries ordinarily constitute a bat-
talion (British brigade division, French group,
German Alteilung], under the command of a
major, although the British brigade division is
commanded by a lieutenant colonel. The regi-
ment is composed of from two to four battalions
and is commanded by a colonel. Two regiments
constitute a brigade, the usual complement of
a division in which there are from 12,000 to
16,000 infantry bayonets and which is the small-
est complete army unit. In the British and
Russian armies the artillery organization does
not extend beyond the brigade division (bat-
talion), and with the French it ends with the
regiment.

For a useful bibliography of field artillery,
including both modern works and historical
treatises, consult article ARTILLERY. See AHMY
ORGANIZATION; TACTICS, MILITARY; OBDNANCE;
r-ROJECTiLEN ; ETC.; also the paragraphs on
A nni/ in the articles on the various countries.

PIELD BUG. A pcntatomid. Sec STINK
Bra.

FIELD COOKI3STCK The method of prepar-
ing soldiers' rations in the field. Field kitchens
are of two general descriptions, ouch type in-
cluding the many varieties necessary to moot
biiocoBS fully the many contingencies of cam-
paign Hciricc. 1. Troops having good facility
of transport carry \yitli thorn apparatus moie
or lews elaborates with whieh, particuhirly in
the case of the United States army, moain can
lie prepared littlo, if any, inferior to those pre-
pared in permanent pouts. 2. Under cireiim-
Htances ICNH favorable recourse in had to various
forms of trench ovens and cooking. In mowt
urmioH thin forms a, distinct branch of instruc-
tion tind with the general advance of military
science and hygiene in receiving more than ever
before its proper share of attention. In the
United StatcH company eomnwmlerrt arc rc-
Hponniblc for the selection of cooks, the kiteh-

BKCT1ON.
FlQ. 1, PXIOU) COOKING TllBNCH,

United Htttttw Army.

em* being under the direct charge of specially
trained noncommissioned oulcers, The cookw and
n.e,o. in charge are usually graduates of the

SCHOOL FOR COOKW AND BAKKIW (q.V.). On

campaign troops are supplied by the quarter-
munfcr'B department with the Hold range, a
rectangular, boxliko adaptation of the Dutch

oven. There are two types: army field range,
No. 1, weight 204 pounds, is designed to cook
for 150 men; No. 2, weight 150 pounds, cooks
for Gf5 men. Either may be carried on pack
mules. Both arc made of sheet iron. They
are adapted for roasting, baking, frying, broil-

FlG. 2. 1'IltK TIIENCH FOR FIELD COOKING,

United States Army.

ing, or stewing, easy of transportation and ca-
pable of compact packing. Whore these are not
available, troops are trained in the construction
and use of the many improvised trench ovons
in general use throughout all civilized armies.
In the United States army cooking llroB are
prepared an follows: When fuel is plentiful,
a trench about 1 foot deep is dug to hold the
fire. fjreon polon or iron*, resting on uprights
of Hiiitable height, support the camp kettlew.
If fuel is scarce, the trench in made Homewhat
narrower than the diameter of the camp
kettleu; the latter then rent on the ground, and
the intervening spacer are covered with wtonoH
or clay, forming a sort of Hue. The draft may
bo incroiiHcd by widening the opening towards
the- wind and by building a chimney of «od or
Htonou at Iho leeward end. The troneli Hhould
have a alight fall from the chimney for drain-
age. Four Much trcuclicH radiating from a
common chimney afford good draft, whatever
the direction of' the wind. When lakerics or
pwtitblG ornitt aro not available, suitable- ovoiw
ure improvised. A nimple, expedient IH to lay
an empty barrel on its side in a doprotwion,
knock out one head, and plaster the barrel over
with nix to eight inches of clay, and then cover
with un equal thickncHB of earth. A flue of
clay i« constructed at the eloHCKl end of the1
barrel, which is then burned out, leaving an
oven of baked clay. Improvised incinwatftm.
for the disposal of garbage, am con at rue tod as
folloWH: A pit is dug about 5 foot long, 2>/a
wide, 0 incite* (loop at one end and 12 at the
other; tlu? excavated eartli in banked a round
the pit and the latter to then filled with HtmicH
on which the fire ia built. Liquid matter !H
evaporated on the hot Htono&; HO lid matter in
burned in the firo. A good type of the trench
cooker iw the broad-arrow form of trench iuwd
by the British army. Two, three, or more
trone.hoH are constructed, each joining a common
'chimney at different anglen, the moutlm of
which, spray-shaped, are about 1H inches in
depth, the tronch itself being graded from the
mouth to about 4 inches at the chimney. Karth
excavated from the trench in u&od in building
tho chimney and packing round the pan», which
arc placed bridgevvxse aerona tho trench, conftn-
ing tho neat and securing good draft* The
advantages of thin HyHtom are its independence
of transport, only a pick and ahovt*! being re-
quired for eoBHtrui'tiva purpowee; little or no
skill required on the part of the troops; and,

FIELD DOG*

528

FIELD DOG*

most important factor of all, a number of pans
simultaneously served by one ordinary fire. The
Army Service Corps of the British army kills
and prepares the fresh beef, and bakes the
bread used by the troops, regimental quarter-

FlG. 3. BROAD-ABBOW COOKING TBENCH,

British Army pattern.

masters receiving on requisition the rations
which are prepared for consumption by the
regimental cooks as above described.

The armies of continental Europe have meth-
ods similar to the United States, French troops
being additionally equipped for marching pur-
poses with a small coffee kettle, which, together
with a bundle of dried brushwood, is carried by
two men of each section or platoon. When
fatigued and halted for any length of time,
coffee is made by them for the men of their
section. In most of the great armies cooking
stoves and ovens, fireless cookers, and soup
caldrons, carried on carts or in wagons, are
operated while on the march, so that the hot
food is ready for the men upon their arrival
in camp. One of the best descriptive and com-
prehensive authorities on this subject is the
United States Manual for Army Cooks and
Bak&rs, published by the War Department (1910).

FIELD DOG. One of a distinct class of dogs
which aid men in the capture of game birds
afield; bird dogs. The group comprises pointers,
setters, retrievers, and the Chesapeake Bay dog;
also, incidentally, some spaniels (described
under SPANIEL). The function of these dogs is
to range the field in front of the hunter and
to determine by scenting the presence of the
birds sought. When a pointer has located a
bird or birds, he will indicate or "point" it by
stopping short with nose directed towards the
spot where the game is, and he will not stir
until the gunner comes up to him, when he will
on order, if it be necessary, go yet nearer to
the birds until they become so alarmed as to
rise from their cover and expose themselves to
the gun. If a setter is used, he will do the like,
but, instead of maintaining an erect position,
he will crouch or "set," as an indication of the
bird's presence. The retriever is mainly sent
into the cover after birds which have been shot
but have fallen at a distance and arc out of
sight. He scents them out, gently picks them
up, and brings them to his master.

The Setter. Three breeds of setters are recog-
nized: 1. The English, which is white speckled
dispersedly with larger or smaller portions of
black, each color standing out from the other
well defined and distinct. The English setters
are divisible- into two main strains, the Laver-
acks and the Llewellins. 2. The Gordon setter,
which is a rich, glossy plum black, with deep
sienna or dark mahogany-tan markings on lips,
cheek, throat, and on feet and legs. 3. The
Irish setter, which is uniformly colored a rich
golden chestnut. The English setter has an
authentic history as far back as 1555, when

Robert Dudley, Duke of Northumberland, is
recorded as using the setter when netting birds.
Ihe date of the origin of the Irish is more
doubtful, but Gervase Markham, writing his
Art of Fowling in 1021 and dealing with the
question of the setter's colors, does not mention
it. The Gordon was produced in the kennels of
the Duke of Gordon about the year 1820. The
setters are handsome dogs, weighing from 48 to
60 pounds (the bitches 8 to 10 pounds lig-hter),
with soft, silky hair on the body, fringing
longer on the belly and behind the legs, and
longer still (the "feather") on the under part
of the tail, which tapers down, however, to a
point. The hair may slightly wave, but never
curl. In form they are exceedingly artistic and
graceful and in temper obedient and gentle.
The head of the setter is peculiar to itself —
long and keen, with a good depth from the
bridge of the nose to the lower part of the lip.
The shoulders should not be so heavy as to
interfere with their full and free action, yet
the bones should be strong and the legs well
muscled. Catlike feet, well covered with hair,
are desirable. The tail, or "flag," is one of
the most striking features. It should be carried
straight out without the least inclination to
turn up over the back.

The Pointer. There are many varieties of
pointers — English, Spanish, Portuguese, Rus-
sian, French, and Dalmatian (see COACH DOG),
varying only, however, in size from the heavy,
huge Spaniard to the diminutive Frenchman.
The English and American dogs are the typical
pointers. Short-coated, rat-tailed, cat-footed,
without an atom of hairy padding on them,
strong-boned, tight-muscled, upright, bright,
great goers, and keen-scented, they are models
of all a field dog should be. Though not so
large now as he was in earlier days, the moderr
pointer is of good size, weighing generally fron
50 to 55 pounds. The points of a typical speci-
men of this breed should include a head mod-
erately large, wide rather than long, with a
high forehead and an intelligent eye; the nmx-
zle should be square in front; the neck long
and free from dewlap or ruff; the body should
have a strong loin, wide hips, and a chest well
let down; a tail strong at the root and growing
finer to within two inches of the tip, when it
decreases to a sharp point (an unfailing indi-
cation of true pointer blood). The shoulders
should be long, slanting, and powerful, the legs
strong, and the feet thick-aoled; muscular
haunches and thighs, well-bent stifles, and large,
strong hocks. In color pointers vary very
much. The most usual combinations are liver
and white, yellow and white, and black and
white. Thcro are some whole-colored black
ones, but a good admixture of white is pref-
erable, so that the dog may be easily distin-
guished when he is ranging in cover.

The Retriever. This dog is most useful when
tho birdw are aquatic or are such as haunt
sloughs, from which he will gather in the killed
or wounded with unerring nose. There are
mainly two kinds, the English and the Amer-
ican, or Chesapeake Bay, dog. The English va-
riety has beon generated mainly by crossing
two other breeds, such as the spaniel and New-
foundland, or the spaniel and poodle, one breed
tough-skinned and stiffly coated, and both docs
of remarkable powers of scenting. The r$st is
a matter of training. There are two distinct
strains of the English retriever, the curly-

FIELD BOG

529

FIELD GLASS

coated black and the flat or wavy-coated. The
latter has the appearance of a heavily made,
somewhat clumsy setter, with more bone and
substance than is required in a fast field dog.
The former has the body covered with short
curls, though the head is smooth. The curly
variety may be either black or liver-colored.
Each weighs from 55 to 68 pounds. As the
function of this dog is to carry dead game,
the jaws should be long and strong; and that
his scentirg powers may have full capacity the
nose should be wide, the nostrils open, and its
end moiat and cool.

The Chesapeake Bay dog is the American re-
triever pure and simple. The origin is prob-
lematic, but he derives his name, like the New-
foundland, from the home where he first be-
came famous. He is the finest retriever in the
world. No sea is too boisterous, no water too
cold, no bird too big, from a Canada goose to
a swan, and no wounded bird, be he diving duck
or crippled woodcock, can escape his nose and
swimming skill. lie is a large dog, weighing
65 pounds, with a thick, short, coarse, sodge-
grass-colored coat about 1% inches, in length,
and with a tendency to wave over the shoulders,
back, and loins, and underneath this a short
woolly fur covering the whole skin. His legs
are somewhat short, and he is provided with
well -webbed feet.

Griffon. Tho Germans have a field dog which
they consider superior to cither the pointer or
setter, inasmuch as ho is capable of taking tho
place of both those breeds. It is called "griffon"
and sometimes "bassett griffon." It is a very
robust dog, with a rough, hard coat that un-
doubtedly is a great protection to it in a dis-
trict where the undergrowth is thick and low;
stands rather higher than the setter,, and in
color is a grizzly liver. The griffon made its
first show appearance in America at the West-
minster Kennel Club's Show at New York in
1001. See DOG, and consult tho authorities
there mentioned; and Plato of HUNTING-!)OGS.

Dog Breaking. The field dog is a hunter by
nature, but before being required to exercise his
faculties to scent and locate game and yet re-
frain from catching it, he must be specially
trained. This training begins with yard
breaking, in which the puppy is taught to re-
main quiet in confinement and to become ac-
customed to collar and chain. His subsequent
field education will depend upon Inn breed.
Spaniels, pointers, setters, and retrievers all
have different functions to perform, viz., span-
iels are expected to flush their game; pointers
and setters not to do so, nor are they usually
expected to retrieve it, UH retrievers are cm-
ployed for that purpose. The most important
general principle is to establish the habits of
obedience and confidence, after which tho dog
is taught to keep at the hunter's heel until,
if he be a spaniel, pointer, or setter, he is went
forward. Then he must quarter or range over
his field only within certain limits of the gun-
ner, and on signal must not exceed this limit*
The next step is to inculcate the knowledge
that (except in tho case of a spaniel) when he
has located the birds he must not flush them.
To teach him to "down" is a comparatively
short process with tho average well-bred dog,
and keeping to heel is as easily learned. Moat
dogs will range when told; all they need is
a direction as to where they should begin, The
dog under training should be started always

against the wind, that he may catch the scent,
The lessons to be impressed on him are to stop
when signaled, to return, and to start again.
When a puppy first flushes a covey of birds, he
will usually proceed to chase them — a fault
which is corrected by taking him back to the
exact spot where lie should have stopped and
dropping him to hand; he will thus gradually
learn to drop to wing. If a perfectly seasoned
and steady dog is available when the puppy is
being taught to back, it will be found to expe-
dite the training greatly.

Field trials are competitions ovor definite
areas, before competent judges, who follow the
dogs and gunners over a game country and
award prizes according to the points of merit
established by each dog in the class for which
it is especially fitted by nature and training.
Those trials include other dogs. The fox hound
and the beagle as well arc tried out after their
respective quarries. Consult: Hutchinaon, Dog-
Breaking (London, 1865) ; H. H., The Scientific
Education of the Dog for the dun (ib., 1890) ;
Ficld-Doy Stud Book, vols. i-v (New York,
1901^-05); Hochwult, The Pointer and the Set-
ter in America (Cincinnati, 1911); Barton,
Sporting Dogs (New York, 1910); id., (fun
Dogs (London, 1913) ; Shaw, Encyclopedia of
the Kennel (New York, 1913).

FIELD ENGINEER SCHOOL, UNITED
STATES ARMY. See ENGINEERS, CORPS OF.

PIELIKFABE (from AS. feld, field + faran,
to go). A thrush (Turdus pilaris) of north-
ern Europe, visiting Great Britain and the
Mediterranean countries in winter and going in
summer to breed in Scandinavia. The general
color of the male is gray, the feathers tipped
with a brownish-black elongated spot; the
throat and breast reddish yellow, streaked and
spotted with black; the fore part of the back
and wings rich chestnut; the tail slightly forked
and nearly black; the undcrparts white. It
may generally be found in small flocks — in
fluids, if the weather is mild, feeding on worms,
snails, etc., or in severe weather, about hedges,
thickota, and woods, wherever haww and other
such fruitw or ocedg are abundant. It IB we-
tromely plentiful in Norway in summer, where
its nests are built in birches and firs, and,
contrary to the ordinary habits of thrushes, in
society, numerous nests being often found in
the namo tree. The fieldfare is easily tamed
and sings well in captivity, the song being melo-
dious but not brilliant.

FIELD GLASS. A small binocular telescope
constructed so as to have considerable magnify-
ing power and at the same time to be extremely
portable. It is a Galileo's telescope with a
largo achromatic object glass to secure a bril-
liantly lighted image, and an achromatic eye-
glass which is negative or concave. Tho mag-
nifying power of the field glass is ascertained
by dividing the focal length of the objective
by that of the eyepiece; consequently the mag-
nifying power of such a glass is limited by the
length of tubes which can he used. To obviate
long tubes Held glasses arc now constructed
where, by an arrangement of reflecting prisms
placed within tho tubew, the ray traverses to
and fro, and tho advantages of a long focal
length in small compass are obtained. Field
glass is a term also applied to tho lens inter-
posed between the object glass and oyoglasa
of a microscope, which, receiving thn diverging
rays from the former before they form an

FIELD GKCTN"

530

EIELDI3TG

causes them to converge and thus contracts the
dimensions of the image and increases its
brightness, so as to render it of such a size
and degree of distinctness that the whole of it
may be viewed by means of the eyeglass. See
MICBOSCOPE.

EIELB GTTET. See FIELD ABTILLERT; OBP-
XTAXCE.

FIELDING, ANTHONY VAN DTCK COPLEY,
kno\yn as COPLEY FIELDING (1787-1855). A
British water-color painter. He was born in
Yorkshire and studied under his father, a por-
trait painter, and later under John Varley. He
contributed very largely to the exhibitions of
the Society of Painters in Water Colors, of
which he was an influential member, and presi-
dent from 1831 until his death. He is espe-
cially noted for his effects of li^ht and mist and
found an ardent admirer in Buskin, who was
Ms pupil. His best work is his landscapes of
the Sussex Downs and storm scenes at sea, but
his early drawings of Scottish, Welsh, and
north English lake and mountain scenery were
also very popular. As a teacher, he was much
sought after. In later life his work declined,
but he was, nevertheless, one of the most distin-
guished of English water-cplorists. The South
Kensington Museum contains 18 water colors
and one oil painting by him.

"FIELDING, HENKY (1707-54). An English
novelist, not improperly called the father of the
modern novel. The son of Gen. Edmund Field-
ing, he was born at Sharpham Park, near Glas-
tonbury, in Somersetshire, April 22, 1707. He
belonged to the younger branch of the earls of
Denbigh, and his aristocratic spirit showed it-
self in many of the political controversies of
later life. Life at Eton was followed, thanks
to a youthful escapade, by two years' attendance
at the University of Leyden, where he studied
law. On returning to England it was neces-
sary for Fielding to win his way for himself,
as his father was richer in children than in
more material treasure. He determined on
play writing and for 10 years contributed gen-
erously to the stage, beginning with a few
comedies of the Congreve school. Some 25 plays
make up the total of this period, but none of
them were striking examples of dramatic art.
They did contain, however, sufficient political
satire to give rise to the Lord Chamberlain's
censorship of the drama. The interest of the
dialogue in parts, and the humor which one so
readily associates with Fielding, are not lack-
ing in them, while the plots of many show that
he had the story-teller's gift; but on account of
a desire to adapt his plays to the taste of the
times, and an inability to comprehend as well as
to rise to the heights of dramatic possibility,
his dramatic work is forgotten. Love in Sev-
eral Masques has an historical interest, as it
was the first to be produced (1728), and so in-
troduced Fielding to the public; while Don
Quixote in England is worth at least a mention,
as it suggests his liking for Cervantes. To
Cervantes Fielding looked back as afterward
Thackeray looked back to Fielding, and as we
read Don Quiaote, Joseph Andrews, and, say,
Henry Esmond, we note how the warm, genial,
honest blood runs truly and similarly through
the veins of these authors. All tbree have in-
sight into men's characters, and power to see
beneath the surface of life alike high and low;
all three have the saving grace of humor, the
sincere hatred of hypocrisy, the pleasant fac-

ulty of personal interpolation and friendly inter-
pretation of men and things. The two English-
men, indeed, lacked the genius for noble ideal-
ization which Cervantes possessed; but all
tbree were optimists in a world whose evil they
plainly discerned and described, and the win-
ningness of their work is not lessened by that
splendid power of satire which in Thackeray and
Fielding was directed against the affectations
and hypocrisy of their own times and society,
exposing the ridiculous in life, while in Cer-
vantes it dealt more nearly with what pessimists
look upon as the satire of the universe, the
seeming futility of ideal endeavor.

Fielding's reputation rests most firmly on four
novels: Joseph Andrews (1742) ; Jonathan Wild
(1743) ; Tom Jones (1740) ; and Amelia (1751}.
Joseph Andrews was planned to be a parody on
Richardson's Pamela, the sentimental, moralizing
novel in winch the poor heroine is rewarded for
her virtuous resistance to the nobleman, her
lover, by the offer of marriage, which Fielding
suggests may have been one of the motives of
her chastity. Joseph Andrews, the handsome,
pure-minded footman, was, as brother of Pa-
mela, to parallel his sister's virtuous conduct;
but before the story had progressed far the
author became so interested in the characters
he had set in motion that the parody purpose
was set aside, and the novel developed as an
original and independent work of fiction. Par-
son Adams, the stalwart, confiding, simple-
minded, and high-minded curate, is one of the
most engaging persons that eighteenth-century
literature has bequeathed to us, while the de-
scription of the inns find of the life of the
road, again remini&cent of Cervantes, are vivid
to the point of reality. The faculty of descrip-
tion was Fielding's, and if often we miss the in-
tense emotional treatment or the sympathetic
delineation of the spiritual element in man's
activity, it is still good to listen to the expo-
sition and to the comments of one whose com-
mon sense allowed no dimming of his percep-
tion, and whose manly nature and warm heart
would not permit poverty, the animosity of
enemies, or sickness to warp his judgment. His
writings are, therefore, graphic and illuminat-
ing, and though they are not loftily inspiring
because of their lack of certain finer sympathies,
a pervading healthiness of tone and a sense
that we are receiving a full and frank report
upon human nature as the author saw it, are a
sufficient apology for the broad speech that so
often rings unpleasantly in the sensitive mod-
ern ear. TEis own experience crops up unmistak-
ably in his books, and Tom Jones has well
been called "Fielding in his Youth," as Cap-
tain Booth is "the Fielding of later years."
The looseness of many of the scenes and the
coarseness of much of the language of his nov-
els are indicative, therefore, not alone of a lax
society, but also of a life in which there was a
good share of rioting and carousal. The final
words of praise to be said of Fielding's novels are
that they possess the unity of plot which differ-
entiates them from such structureless work as
that of Smollett, while the remarks and criti-
cisms embedded in them have much of the wis-
dom and the wit that one looks for and finds
in Montaigne. It is the lack of opportunity in
dramatic compositions for such personal run-
ning commentary and maxims that partially ex-
plains the comparative failure of Fielding as a
playwright.

FIELDING-

531

FIELD LAKE

Fielding married in 1737 It did not take
him long to use up his wife's fortune in extrava-
gant living as a country squire, and so in 1740
the law was taken np as a means of livelihood.
No success followed his legal studies, and the
author went back to his pen and paper. Jona-
than Wild (published in his Miscellanies, 3
vols.) appeared in 1743. It is a great book —
a powerful satire, as unreasonably neglected as
its literary descendant, Thackeray's Barry
Lyndon* Saintsbury makes bold to compare
it favorably with The Tale of a, Tul) and de-
clares that, in his opinion, its author "has
written no greater book" (introduction to Jon-
athan Wild, London, 1898). It was the year
of the publication of this novel (1743) that saw
also the establishment of the True Patriot, a
semipolitical journal edited by Fielding, suc-
ceeded by the Jacobite Journal. The services of
these journals 1745-48 to the Hanoverian cause
resulted in the author's appointment to the po-
sition of justice of the peace for Westminster, a
reward due to the good offices of Lord Lyttol-
ton, a lifelong friend. Until his death at Lis-
bon, in 1754, Fielding administered the duties
of his position honestly and zealously, as all
may learn who will take up his Journal of a
Voyage to Lisbon (published posthumously).
Nor is this hard to understand, for he had him-
self tasted the many flavors of the cup of life;
and such men are the best judges, unless they
have grown bitter with the bitterness that is
never wholly absent from the draft.

Though Fielding died comparatively early,
his career was varied and his achievements last-
ing. Playwright, country squire, editor, novel-
ist, man about town, stage manager, politi-
cal pamphleteer, magistrate — all these parts he
played, showing in them all the qualities which
make it easy to understand the censure that
has attended his life, but showing also those
characteristics which justify the affection that
all must feel for him whom Thackeray called
"the manly, the English, Harry Fielding."

Bibliography. The first collected edition of
Fielding was WorJcs (London, 1762) ; other edi-
tions are those edited respectively by Scott and
Roscoe (Edinburgh, 1840), by Browne (Lon-
don, 1871), by Gosso (New tork, 1898), and
by Saintsbury (New York and London, 1002).
Fielding's first biographer was Arthur Murray,
whose essay; on Fielding's life and genius was
introduced in the first collected edition. (See
above.) The best life is that of Austin Dobson
(London, 1883). Consult: Lawrence, Life and
Times of Fielding (ib., 1855); Leslie Stephen's
admirable essay on Fielding in Hours in a Li-
brary (ib., 1874-70) and his article on Fielding
in the Dictionary of National Biography, vol.
xviii; Linder, Henry1 Fielding's Dramatiache
Werke (Dresden, 1895). Full and excellent
critical introductions to each of Fielding's impor-
tant works will be found in &. E. Saintsbury's
edition of the WorJcs (10 vols., London, 1898).

FIELDING, SARA.H (1710-68). An English
novelist, sister of Henry Fielding (q.v.). She
wrote The Adventures of David Simple (1744),
which in order of time is the third English
novel of manners, and to which her brother con-
tributed a preface. In 1762 she translated Xeno-
phon's Memorabilia, and Apologia; and she
wrote also Tfa Governess (1740), Lives of Cleo-
patra and Ootavia (1757), and, with Miss Jane
Collier, The Cry: A Dramatic Fable (1754).

FIELDING, WnxiAM STEVENS (1848- ).

A Canadian statesman. He was born at Hali-
fax, Nova Scotia, and was educated at the pub-
lic schools of that city. In 1864 he became
a reporter on the Halifax Morning Chronicle
and later managing editor of that journal. He
was elected a Liberal member of the Nova
Scotia Legislative Assembly in 1882 and in the
same year declined the provincial premiership
offered to him by the Liberal Convention, but
later became a member of the ministry formed
by William Thomas Pipes. On the resignation
of the latter in 1884, Fielding became his suc-
cessor, retired from active journalistic work,
and filled the position of Provincial Premier
until 1896. In that year he was elected to the
House of Commons and was appointed Minister
of Finance in the Liberal administration of Sir
Wilfrid Laurier. His tenure of that office for
15 consecutive years was unprecedented in Can-
ada. In 1897 he introduced a measure which,
while not repealing the moderately protective
duties adopted by the Conservative party in
1879, imposed higher duties on luxuries and
lower on necessaries. Its most notable feature,
however, was tho preference whereby in 1900
certain kinds of British manufactured goods
were admitted at rates lowered by 33% per
cent. Fielding also secured the arrangement
of the tariff according to maximum and mini-
mum schedules, and the enactment of an "anti-
dumping" law preventing the entrance of for-
eign goods into the Canadian market at un-
fairly cheap prices. He was a delegate to the
Colonial Conference in London in 1902 and to
the Imperial Conference in that city in 1907.
In the latter year, in conjunction with the Brit-
ish Ambassador at Paris, he negotiated the
Franco-Canadian Commercial Treaty; in 1909
the Supplementary Treaty (with France) ; and
in 1909-10 commercial arrangements with the
United States, Germany, Italy, and Belgium.
As Acting Minister of "Railways, he had charge
in 1903 of the negotiations resulting in the
agreement to build the National Transconti-
nental Railway; he was appointed (1909) a
member of the Royal Commission on improved
trade between Canada and the British West
Indies and was a delegate (1910 and 1911) to
Washington in behalf of reciprocity with the
United States. He procured various bene-
ficial amendments to the banking and insurance
acts. In 1901 he established a branch of the
Royal Mint at Ottawa and in 1903 the penny-
bank system. He declined knighthood in 1902.
After the defeat of the Laurier administration
in 1911 he remained the chief financial author-
ity of the Liberal opposition.

FIELD KITCHEN. A military term denot-
ing the place in camp where soldiers' rations
are prepared. To what extent the kitchen will
be furnished will depend on the permanency of
the camp and the character of the undertaking
or campaign. In the field the individual mess
kit of a United States soldier is limited to one
tin cup, knife, fork, and spoon, and meat can
with handle, furnished by tho Ordnance De-
partment. The meat can may be used for indi-
vidual cooking. The kitchen may be furnished
as described under FIELD COOKING, or the camp
may Tbe sufficiently permanent in character to
admit of the employment of field ranges and
ovens. See FIELD COOKING.

FIELD LARK. In the United States, the
meadow lark (q.v,). In Great Britain, the sky-
lark or the pipit See TEPLABK,

FIELD MARSHAL

532

FIELD SERVICE

FIELD MARSHAL. A military title of
the highest rank in the armies of England, Ger-
many, Austria, Russia, and Sweden. The rank
is more nominal throughout continental Europe
than in Great Britain, it being occasionally
bestowed by one nation on the ruler of another.
In the year 1818 the Duke of Wellington was
field marshal in the armies of Austria, Prussia,
and Russia. The rank was abolished in the
French army in 1848. A lieutenant field mar-
shal in Austria ranks as a general of division.
The insignia of rank for a field marshal is the
baton. In England the pay of the field-marshal
commander in chief is £3000 per annum. In the
spring of 1914 the following personages bore the
title bestowed by tbe English government: the
German Emperor, the Emperor of Austria, Duke
of Connaught, Earl Roberts, Earl Kitchener
of Khartoum, Lord Grenfell, Lord Methuen,
Lord Nicholson, Sir Henry Brownlow, Sir Evelyn
Wood, and Sir J. D. P. French, the last named
resigning in the same year as chief of the
Imperial general staff on the occasion of the
agitation over the Ulster question. See RANK
AND COMMAND.

FIELD HOUSE. See MOUSE.
FIELD OF BLOOD (It. Oampo di Sangue).
A name given to the battlefield of Cannae (q.v.).
FIELD OFFICER. A military title applied
to all officers above th^ rank of captain or com-
pany officer and under the rank of general offi-
cer. Commissioned officers may be divided into
four general classes: general, staff, field, and
regimental. The term "regimental field officer"
includes all officers qualified by rank and as-
signment to command a battalion or regiment.
They arc always mounted. See ABMY ORGAN-
IZATION; RANK AND COMMAND.

FIELD OF FORCE. See FORCE ; MAGNETISM ;
DYNAMO-ELEOTBTC MACHINEBY; ELECTEICITT.

FIELD OF LIES, or L-&GENFBLD. The plain
of Rothfeld, near Colmar in Alsace, where in
June, 833, Louis the Pious (q.v.) was shamefully
deceived by his sons.

FIELD OF MARCH. See CHAMP DE
MAES.

FIELD OF MAY. See CHAMP DE MABS.
FIELD OF THE CLOTH Of GOLD. The
name given in English and French history to
the place of meeting and interchange of civili-
ties between Henry VIII of England and Fran-
cis I of France, from June 7 to June 24, 1520.
The meeting occurred on a plain between Guisncs
and Ardres in the present Department of
Pas-de-Calais. The name originated in the
gorgeous trappings and apparel of the partici-
pants and the splendor of the pageantry in
the jousts and banquets which took place.
Politically the meeting of the two kings was
without result. Francis I indeed sought the
aid and friendship of the English King against
Charles V of Germany and had proposed to
raise the English favorite, Wolsey, to the
papacy if this result were accomplished. The
meeting on the Field of the Cloth of Gold was
followed by interviews between Charles V and
Henry VIII at Gravelines and Calais, which
more than offset the previous meeting of Henry
with Francis. Shakespeare in Henry VIII, Act
ij Scene 1, has put into the mouth of the Duke
of Norfolk a graphic account of the encounter
on the Field of the Cloth of Gold. Consult:
Brewer, The Reign of Henry VHI (London,
1884); Bwald, Studies Restudijd (ib., 1885);
Martin, Histoire de France, voL vii (Paris,

1856) ; Pardoe, The Court and Reign of Fronds I
(London, 1887).

FIELD OF VTEW. The space within which
objects can be seen through an optical instru-
ment; more strictly, the area from within which
the pencils of light unite to form a real
image.

FIELD PLOVER. In the United States, the
local name of three different shore birds: (1)
the Bartramian sandpiper (Bartramia longi-
cauda), frequently called "upland plover,"
though not a plover at all; (2) the golden
plover; and (3) the black-bellied plover. See
PLOVER ; SANDPIPER.

FIELDS, ANNIE ADAMS. See FIELDS, JAMES
THOMAS.

FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-81). An
American author and publisher. He was born
in Portsmouth, N". II., and was educated in the
public schools of ihat place. In 1834 he re-
moved to Boston, and in 1839 he became junior
partner in the 'publishing firm of Ticknor, Reed,
and Fields, in which he later became the con-
trolling partner. His charming personal quali-
ties, his sympathy, his liberality to all with whom
he dealt, and his sound literary judgment drew
to him most of the best-known American au-
thors of the time, and he became the publisher
of Longfellow, Hawthorne, Emerson, Holmes,
Whittier, and Lowell, besides introducing Tenny-
son and Browning to American readers even
before their true worth was recognized in Eng-
land. He edited the Atlantic Monthly from
1862 to 1870. The last 10 years of his life were
spent in authorship and lecturing. His own
published works include: Poems (1840; 2d ed.,
1854) ; A Few Verses for a Few Friends (1858) :
Yesterdays with Authors (1872; 2d ed., 1000) :
In and Out of Doors with Charles Dickens
(1876); Underbrush (1877), a volume of es-
says. He also edited, with Edwin P. Whipple,
a Family Library of British Poetry (1878).
Consult: Annie Adams Fieldw (his wife)* J/^
moir of James T. Fields, &y his Wife (Boston,
1881); also her Author** and Friends (ib.,
1896).— ANNIE ADAMS (1834-1015), bin wife,
was born in Boston Mass. Her publications-
include: Asphodel (1866) ; Under thr Olive
(1880), a collection of verse; //otr to Help the
Poor (1883); A Shelf of Old Books (1894);
The Singing Shepherd, and Other Poems (1895) ;
the Life and Letters of Harriet Bcerher titoice
(1897) ; Nathaniel flaictJiornc (1899) ; Orpheus,
a Masque ( 1000 ) ; Charles Dudley Warner
(1904).

FIELDS, JOHN CHARLES (1863- ). A
Canadian mathematician. He was born in Ham-
ilton, Ontario, and was educated at the Hamil-
ton high school and Toronto Univerwty, where
he graduated in 1884 with the highest honors
in mathematics. He afterward studied at
Johns Hopkins University. In 1880-02 ho was
professor of mathematics in Allegheny College,
Meadville, Pa., and in 1803-1000 he studied in
Paris, CKJttingen, and Berlin. In 1002-04 he
was special lecturer in mathematics in Toronto
University and in 1905 became associate pro-
fessor. He is the author of papers in the jour-
nals of various American and foreign mathemat-
ical societies. In 1000 h<* was made a fellow of
the Royal Society of Canada, He published
Theory of the Algebraic Funotion* of a Com-
plex Variable (1006).

FIELD SEB VICE KEGULATIOITS. A mil-
itary manual, for the guidance of armies, em-

FIELD SPANIEL

533

bodying the principles of war and their appli-
cation in the field. All modern armies publish
such regulations from time to time, either under
this or other titles. The purpose, character, and
contents of the Field Service Regulations, U. 8.
Army (1914), is indicated in the following in-
troduction to that book and in the titles of the
parts into which the book is divided.

"The following Field Service Regulations, re-
vised by the General Staff of the Army, are ap-
proved and published for the information and
government of the Regular Army and the Or-
ganized Militia, and in time of war, the Volun-
teer forces. Success in war can be achieved
only by all the branches and arms of the ser-
vice mutually helping and supporting one
another in the common effort to attain the de-
sired end. The basic principles of the combat
tactics of the different arms are set forth in
the drill regulations of these arms for units as
high as brigades. It is the function of higher
troop leading to so combine and coordinate the
combat tactics of all the arms as to develop in
the combined forces the teamwork essential to
success. While the fundamental principles of
war arc neither very numerous nor complex,
their application may be difficult and must not
be limited by set rules. Departure from pre-
scribed methods is at times necessary. A
thorough knowledge of the principles of war
and their application enables the leader to de-
cide when such departure should be made and
to determine what methods should bring success.
Officers and men of all ranks and grades are
given a certain independence in the execution
of the tasks to which they are assigned and are
expected to show initiative in meeting the dif-
ferent situationa as they arise. Every individ-
ual, from the highest commander to the lowest
private, inunt always remember that inaction
and neglect of opportunities will warrant more
severe censure than an error in the choice of the
means."

Synopsis of Table of Contents F.S.B., tT. S.
Army, 1914. Organisation: Land forces of the
United States, coa«t defense, oversea depart-
ments, tables of organisation.* Operations; In-
formation, security, orders, marches and con-
voys, combat* shelter. Administration: Service
of the interior, service of the theatre of opera-
tions, the zone of the advance, the xone of the
line of communications, transportation by rail,
military police, censorship, field poat office. Ap-
pencKaes: War strength in round numbers, road
spaces, and dimensions of camps. Semiperma-
nent camps, types of field 'intrenchmcmtH, forms
of field orders, field maps and sketches, distin-
guishing flags and lanterns, . extracts from
international conventions and conferences, mis-
cellaneous data, signals and codes. See STRAT-
EGY; TACTICS ; WAS.

FIELD SPANIEL. See SPANIEL.

FIELD SPABEOW. A small sparrow (&p*-
ssella pustlla), common through the northern
half of the United States in summer and going
south in winter. It closely resembles the chip-
ping sparrow in size and color, except that
where that species IH ashy this is suffused with
brownish. It nests on or near the ground in
fields and meadows, lays spotted eggs, and has
a slender, pretty song, as if in weak imitation
of the song sparrow. A Western form (Spfaella

pun ilia arenacca) has been separated, living in
the Great Plains region.

FIELD SPORTS, or TEACK ATHLETICS. The
various sports and competitions practiced in the
open air (usually on a prepared track or course) ,
and included under the general description of
field sports, are principally as follows:

One hundred yards dash (100 yards dash!

Two hundred and twenty yards dash (220 yards d '

Four hundred and forty yards dash (440 yards d;

One-half mile run (880 yards run]

One thousand yards run (1000 yards r

Running one, two. and five miles (1,2, and 5 mftw,

One hundred and twenty yards hurdle . . (120 yards hurdle
Two hundred and twenty yards hurdle . . . (220 yards hurdle

Sack racing (on the flat

Sack racing (over hurdles

One mile walk (1760 yards "

Running broad jump.
Running high jump.

Polo vaulting (for height)

Pole vaulting (for distance)

Throwing tho sixteen pound hammer (16 Ibs.)

Throwing the fifty-six pound weight (56 Ibs.)

Throwing the discus.

Bicycling, from one-quarter to five miles . . (440 yards-5 miles)

Other outdoor sports, such as cricket, foot-
ball, fox hunting, golf, curling, lacrosse, paper
chase, etc., will be found described under their
proper titles.

In 1884 the title of Ail-Around Athletic Cham-
pion$Mp of America was instituted, the pro-
gramme of which consistw of 10 events : the 100-
yard daflh, running high jump, running broad
juinj), pole vault, throwing 16-pound hammer,

futting 10-pound shot, throwing 86-pound weight,
20-yard high hurdle race, half-mile walk, and
one-mile run. The competitor scoring the high-
est percentage in the 10 evonta wins the title
of Ail-Around Champion. Competitions are
held annually. See ATHTJEJTIOS. The following
measurements have been laid down as a fair
average of what the proper dimensions of an all-
around athlete Hlumld approximate:

HBIGHT

Weight

Chest

Waist

Hips

Thigh

Calf

ft. ins.
5 0
5 8
5 10
6

IbB.
120
140
155
16$

hiB.
35
37
39
40

ins.
27
28
29
31

ins.

ins.
20
21
22
23

ins.

* The Tablts
*

CT. & Arm (1914), giving «H

a Mparat* pamphlet. .

FIELD WORKS. Temporary devices, usu-
ally of earth, for immediate use, designed to
increase tho fighting power of troops occupying
a position. Sec FOBWICATION.

IFIBUTZ, f^lttfl, ALEXANDER VON (1800-

). A German composer, born of Polish
parents at Leipzig, Dec* 28, I860. Tie studied
piano with J. Schulhoff and composition with
K. Krotnohmer in Dresden. From 1887 to 1897
ho lived in Italy, mostly in Capri, for tho sake
of his health. After his return to Germany he
•was for some time a teacher in Stern's Conger*
vatory in Berlin. In 1905-08 ho taught at
Ziegf old's Conservatory in Chicago, and also
conducted the Chicago Symphony Orchestra* or*
gantaed by himself and not connected with the
orchestra of tho same name (which then was
tho Theodore Thomas Orchestra). In 1008 he re-
turned to his position at Stern's Conservatory*
He is chiefly known as a compoaer of aongs, of
which the two cycles Mtidahcniioder and flliland
are tho best known. He also wrote some pieces
for piano, two suites for orchestra, and two

'ffTTC'R. A "ftlfr. A ff

534

FIESCO

operas, Vendetta (1891) and Das stille Dorf
(1900).

FIERABHAS, fyfi'ra'bra', or FBBTTMBBAS.
A paladin of Charlemagne, whose name gave
the title to various romances of the fourteenth
and fifteenth centuries. One version appears
in Caxton's Lyf of the Nolle and CrysLen
Pryncc, Charles the Grete (1485). Ficrabras
carried away from Rome the crown of thorns
and the balsam with which the body of Christ
was embalmed and which possessed healing prop-
erties of the greatest efficacy.

EIEE/DING COTJET, or THING (Scot.
ferding, farthing, fourth part, from AS. /<5or-
ping, feorphng, farthing, from fvorp'ing, fourth).
A district court of civil jurisdiction and of a
popular character which existed among all the
Germanic nations of western Europe before the
establishment of the feudal system. There were
usually four of these courts in every "hundred,"
and their jurisdiction extended to all causes
where the matter in dispute did not exceed tho
sum of three marks, or 40 shillings. There are
no traces of this court in English history after
the Conquest, but it probably survived in the
court baron or manorial court of a later day.
All of those local and popular tribunals in course
of time gave way before the advance of the
national organization for the administration
of justice. See CTTOIA REGIS.

FIEBI PACIAS, fi'S-ri fa'shl-2is (Lat., cause
to be done). One of the moat ancient writs
known to English law, taking its name from
two leading words in the mandatory clause of
the instrument — quod fieri facias de bonis et
cafallis — that you cause (satisfaction) to be
made of the goods and chattels (of the defend-
ant). It was issued to the sherUT for the pur-
pose of enforcing a judgment for damages and
costs. Originally, as the clause quoted above
indicates, it was leviable only upon personal
property. If a judgment creditor wished to
levy upon real estate, he was obliged to take
out a writ of elegit (q.v.). Both writs have in
most jurisdictions been superseded by tho mod-
era writ of execution (q.v.).

FIERY BOLE'TTTS. See FUNGI, EDIBLE AND
POISONOUS.

FIESCHI, f^-eVkS, GIUSEPPE MARTA (1790-
1836). A Corsican, known through his attempt
on tho life of King Louis Philippe. At first
a shepherd, he later entered the Neapolitan
army under Murat, became a sergeant and a
member of the Royal Bodyguard, and was given
the cross of the Two Sicilies for bravery in the
campaign of 1812-14. With shameless treachery
he twice betrayed the cause of Murat to tho
Auatrians. In 1316, having returned to Cor-
sica, he was sent to prison for 10 years for
forgery and served his time at Embrun. After
leading the life of a vagabond for a year, Fieschi
came to Paris at tho time of the July revolu-
tion and was employed by tho police in a minor
capacity. The immediate cause of his plot was
his dismissal by order of the prefect of the
Seine. Disguising his purpose under the cloak
of political enthusiasm, he leagued with him-
self one or two persons of Republican enthu-
siasm who hated the government of Louis
Philippe. These were Morey, a saddler; Pepin,
a grocer ; and Victor Boireau, a maker of lamps.
Fieschi sketched the plan of an infernal machine
with 20 barrels that could be simultaneously
discharged, had one made, and placed it in a
house on the Boulevard du Temple. The re-

view of tho National Guard held there, July 28,
1S35, afforded him the opportunity he desired.
On the approach of the King and Queen he fired
hit* machine. Eighteen people were killed, among
whom was Marshal Mortier, wbo fell dead be-
side his sovereign. Louis Philippe, however,
escaped with a mere scratch and was able to
continue the review. The assassin was imme-
diately seized and, with his accomplices, was
tried, condemned, and executed Feb. 1C, 1830.
Consult: Proces de FiescJii et de scs accom-
plices, devant la "our des Pairs (Paris, 1836),
containing a biography of Fieschi: Blanc, 11 is-
toire de dix am (Paris, 1842; Eng. trans., Lon-
don, 1844-45) ; Du Camp, Les ancetrcs d<e la
Commune: Vattenlat Fieschi (Paris, 1877) ;
Thornbury, Old Stories (London, 1870) ; G.
Weill, La France sous la monarchic dc Juillct
(Paris, 1902) ; Thurcau-Dangin, Histoire de la
monarchie de Juillct (ib., 1887-00).

FIESCO, fe-Ssltf. A tragedy by Schiller
(1783).

EIESCO, or PIESCHI, fe-eslcS, GIOVANNI
LUIGI, COUNT OF LAVAGNA (c.1523-47). The
head of a conspiracy against Andrea Doria
(q.v.). He was born about lf>23 and was a
member of one of the oldest and most illustrious
houses of Genoa. In organizing and planning
his famous plot he seems to have been actuated
by motives both of patriotism and class feeling,
lie belonged to the French, or popular, party,
while the Doria were aristocrats and imperial-
ists. Andrea Doria, the famous admiral, sprunjr
from a race hereditarily at feud with the Fiesohi,
having expelled the forces of Francis I from
the state, had made himself practically dicta-
tor at Genoa, and held the office of do<*et while
his nephew, Gianettino, commanded the galleys.
Count Fiesco organized a plot, having for itrf
object the death of Doria and Gianettino, whom
the admiral had designated as hi* auctvhxor in
power, and the establishment of an oligarchic.'
form of government. IEe speedily enrolled a
formidable array of accomplices, his three
brothers among the foremost, and entered into
secret negotiations with France and Ruim? inul
the Duko of Parma. Doria, in spite of repented
warnings, refused to ascribe treacherous or aub-
versive designs to Fiesco, whom he regarded MS
a friend and partisan, and an alliance by mar-
riage was even arranged between the families
Complete success seemed at first to crown tho
conspirators. When tho attack was finally made,
Jan. 2, 1547, the gates of the city were forced,
the fleet was captured, (Gianettino was assassi-
nated, and Doria put to ilight. Tho Count had
but to appear and dictate, but he was nowhere
to be, found. It was finally discovered that, in
stepping from one, galley to the other in i\w
darkness of night, lie had stumbled and, fulling
overboard, was borne down by bin ponderoiw
armor and drowned in the harbor. This put an
end to the conspiracy, and the whole Piettco fac-
tion was dissolved by his death. Doria returned
in triumph, and those of the Vieachi who were
not slain were banished forever from Genoa.
This episode has been the subject of manv poems
nnd dramas. Fioaeo'B fame is due to Cardinal
Rets! mid especially to ,1. ,7. Rousseau, who nrndt*
a cult of him. Schiller founded a tragedy on
this dramatic event. Consult: Maacardi, *//&-
torwal Relation of the Conspiracy of the Count
of Mcschi, trans, by Hare (Edinburgh, 1886) ;
Retss, La conjuration tin cwmtv ae Fieiiqw
(Paris, 1884) j Brca, BMa congiwa de conic

FIESOLE

535

FIFTH M03STABCHY MEN"

G. L. Ficxclii (Genoa, 18G3) ; Sismondi, History
of 1hc Italian Jtepublies (Iflng. trans., New York,
1870); Petit, Andrd Doria (Paris, 1887); Cal-
li&ari, La congiura del Fiesco (Venice, 1892) ;
Gavazzo, Nuovi documents sulla congiura del
conte Ficsco (Genoa, 1886) ; Acinclli, Com-
prndio ddJa stona dl Geneva (ib., 1750).

FIESOLE, fya'zO-lft (Lat. Fasulw). One of
the ancient Etruscan cities. It ia situated on
the crest of a hill, about 3 miles northeast of
Florence. The heights of Fiesole (070 feet)
command a remarkably beautiful view of Flor-
ence and the surrounding hilla. In 225 B.C.
Fiesolc was tho scene of a Roman defeat by tlio
Gauls; here also Hannibal encamped after cross-
ing the Apennines. The city was sacked by
Sulla, who afterward dispatched thither a mili-
tary colony, which was chosen by Catiline an
his headquarters. During the Gothic rule in
Italy, Fieuole was so strongly fortiiied and gar-
risoned as to endure a long siege by Bolisariun.
The growth of Florence during tho Middle Agea
gradually reduced it to insignificance. Pop.
i commune), 1001, 17,170; U)ll, 10,434. The
only vestige of Etruscan structures still remain-
ing is the cyclopean city wall, constructed of
huge blocks of stone, many portions of which
are wonderfully perfect. The site of the Etrus-
can fortress is now occupied by a convent,
and interesting fragments of tho foundations
have, been brought to light. To the Ilomun pe-
riod belong the ancient theatre, small but well
preserved, and some interesting ruins of baths.
The church of ftt. Alexander contains 15 an-
cient column* and probably occupies the site of
a lioman temple. The cathedral of 8an Tlomolo,
begun in 1028 and restored in 12.10, is an ex-
ample of tho wimple; early Romanesque style.
Consult: Baedeker, Northern Jtaly (Leipzig,
101 iJ) ; Dennis, Ci lifts and flcwclrricti of Etrn-
ritt> (2(1 edM London, 188IJ); Nissen, llalif*chti
Lwtdnkunde, vol. ii (Berlin, Ifloa).

FIESOLE, KHA, GIOVANNI DA. See ANOKMCO,
FUA.

FIESOLE, MING DA. Bee Mrrco DA Frissons.

FlfivfiE, fyft'va', Joswvit (1707-1830). A
French publiciat and novelist, born in Paris.
JIi« tfur Id Hcccsftitc d'-unc. religion (1795), an
well aw many cutting epigrams, made him un-
popular with the Directory, and ho thought it
prudent to withdraw to tlie. country, where ho
spent hirt leisure, in writing two clever novels,
La <tt>t tic, ftusrite (1708) and MWiMc* (I7fl»).
The advent of Napoleon to power brought FitWo
to Paris, where IKS became a loyal chronicler of
the, Consulate and the Empire. I to left an in-
teresting (torrcHptMtlntuw Gt ralationtt area Mono,*
parta (4 vols., 18IJ7).

FIFE (Fr. fifra, It. piffero, ptfara, from OHO.
pftfa, Oer. rfciffc, pipe, from ML. pipa, pipe,
from Lut. piparc, to pipe, from onomatopwtio
Ok. vardftt^ pipawin, to chirp). An ancient
wind instrument witli six hole.s. Tt differs from
the piccolo in that it haw no keys. Its compact* is
two octaves from <!' to d*. The ilfo is pitched in
varioiiH key«, tlie. moat common being V and Bbt
The fife flgureH in tho flculpturwl memorialfl of
the Argommtic expedition and from that time
to thiw haw maintained its place aa a simple
yet effeetivo iiiHtrument for martial purposes

FIFE. See FiKKsniKK.

FIFE, A&BXAND8R WtLWCAM QFX)BflB DlTjFDC,

firnt in; KB OF, ami MAiwiais OP MAOOUKF (1849-
1012). A British peer. He was educated at
Eton and ^u«ceftl<*l Kin father aw tlui nixth Karl

of Fife in 1870. From 1874 to 1879 he aat in
Parliament as a Liberal. From 1889 to 1898
he was vice president of the British South Af-
rica Company. In 1889 he married Princess
Louise Victoria Alexandra Dagmar, the eldest
daughter of Edward VII, then Prince of Wales,
and was created Duke of Fife. He was made
Knight of the Garter at the coronation of
George V, his brother-in-law. In December,
1911, with his wife and two daughters, he was
shipwrecked in the Delhi on the coast of Mo-
rocco ; and he died in Assuan, Egypt, six months
afterward of pneumonia. He was an able
business man and. prominent in the Volunteer
movement.

FIFENESS, flf-nos'. A low headland, the
easternmost point of Fifeshire, Scotland, lying
on tho north side of the Firth of Forth (Map:
Scotland, F 3). To the north in the sea are
tho clangorous Carr rocks, with an iron beacon
35 feet high, which required six years to con-
struct. Fifeness is in view of tho Isle of May
and Bell Hock lights. There still remain traces
of a wall built by the Danes in the latter part
of the ninth century.

FIFE BAIL. Wee BELAY.

FIFE'SHIRE. A maritime county of the
eastern midland diviHion of Scotland, between
thu Kirth of Forth on the south and the Firth
of Tay on the north (Map: Scotland, 1C 3).
Area, 504 square, miles; coast line, 108 miles.
mostly rocky and having many small ports.
Tho surface is a succession of cultivated vales
and hills, agriculture being in an advanced state.
rl he principal river, the Kdeii, flows for 25 miles
generally northeast into the North 8oa. There
are, many coal and iron mines and lime quarries.
Fifeshire. ranks next to Lanarkshire in its pro-
duction of coal in Scotland. Linens of all
Annies, oil cloth, paper, and malt liquors con-
Htihito tlw leading manufactures. Pop., 1801,
!)3,743; .1W51, 15,V>40; lilOl, 218,840; 1911,
ii(J7,7!W. Capital, Cupnr. See SCOTLAND,

FIFTH MONTABCBCY MEN*. An ICnglish
Beet of niillenariatiH which appeared during tho
Vuritun Devolution. It expressed belief in tho
literal interpretation of Daniel's prophecy that
the four {great monarchies of Antichrist — As-
w.vria, Persia, (I recce, tuul Rome — were to lw suc-
ceeded by ft fifth monarchy — the reiyu of Christ
on ourth for 1000 years. They differed from
other Second Adventiwts In considering it a
duty to assist the establishment of the new
kingdom by force, lu the expectation that the
Commonwealth was the commencement of the
new er:i, they joined Cnnuweirs army in largo
numbers. Tlw march of events WIIH, however,
not HUiticiently swift to please them; and in
l(t»7, cm tho discovery of a plot to murder tho
Protector and to revolutionize tho government,
their leaders, Venner, Urey, ICopkins, and others,
w«r« arrested and kept imprisoned until after
Cromwell's dfath. Aftw tho Restoration on
Jan. 0, 1061, Venner, who WUH a wino cooper,
l<»d .50 a*wociateH in an attempt to take posae-a-
Bion of r,ondon in the name of King Joguft.
Tlume who wero not killed were taken prisoner^
and Vonner and 10 others were hanged for
trenHOTi, Consult: JMtuwnn, //t"/o of Milton, vol,
iii (Crtmbridpp, 1850-1)4) ; (Urilint^r, Comma*
ircrt^/t and J*nttwtar<ttc (T-ondon, 1BI14--1{IOI) $
KcHil, totrltan* (Portsmouth, 16KM7); Car-
lylo, drtMntwWB Letter* and Speeches M Condon,

FlGt

3PIG (AS. /?c, Otfr.

536

i, from Lat. ficus, ative where there is a suitable market for the

fig) . The fruit of \arious species of Ficus, but fresh product. As a greenhouse plant, the fig

especially the edible fruit of Fious carica, a
dioecious plant, 15 to 30 feet high, with rough,
deep-lobed leaves, belonging to the Moraccae
family. This plant, so far as known, is a native
of Asia from Syria to Caucasus and Kurdistan.
Like the date, it is an inhabitant of tropical and
subtropical countries, and because it often bears

is common everywhere outside the range of suc-
cessful outdoor culture.

In the United States the fig- lias long been
in cultivation in the G-ulf States and even as
far north as North Carolina, while in Cali-
fornia it finds its most congenial conditions; it
is here too that the closing years of the nine-
three crops of edible fruit in a season, it was one teenth century witnessed the successful estab-
lishment of caprification, as a result of
which the production of Smyrna figs in
California may be accepted as an estab-
lished enterprise. Caprification is the
name given to the operation commonly
practiced by the natives of fig-growing
countries. It consists in the tying of
branches of the wild fig, or capfifig, in
the tops of the cultivated trees. The
caprifig, which is found wild in south-
ern Europe, northern Africa, and west-
ern Asia, now cultivated in California, is
the only fig bearing staminate flowers.
It is therefore absolutely necessary that
this variety be planted near cultivated
sorts from which mature seeds are de-
sired. Because of the peculiar structure
of the fig fruit, the llowers being borne,
as it were, on the inside of the recep-
tacle, the process of pollination cannot
be accomplished either by the wind or
by ordinary insects. A peculiar hymen-
opterous insect, called Blastophaga, is
an inhabitant of these wild figs in their
native country and also visits the culti-
vated varieties; it is to them alone that
the pollination of the cultivated sorts is
due. Smyrna fig culture would be an
impossibility without this insect. Until
this fact was known all attempts at
cultivating this fig outside of Smyrna
were failures. Now, however, these fign
can be quite as successfully grown in
California as in the native country. A
recent discovery of great importance to
the industry is that the insect-bearing
caprifigs may be carried through severo
winters indoors if packed in boxes, the
layers of figs alternating with layers of
sand. As the Smyrna iig produces only

BIG AND iriaracK&xu pistillate flowers, without pollination,

A typioal Italian cultivated fig ("fetifero") and the fig-pecking bird, the fruits attain only partial develop-

the "beocafioo" (q.v.). ment, no seeds arc formed, and the

delicate flavor which constitutes the

of the chief reliances of the peoples inhabiting chiof value of the Smyrna fruits cannot be
its native country previous to the time when secured.

cereal grains were introduced into general cul
tivation. Besides being edible in a fresh state,
the fig can be canned, preserved, or dried, in
which conditions it is sold as a commercial
article. Its chief importance, however, is .as a
dried fruit, thousands of tons being annually
consumed in the United States and England
alone. Pound wild in the earliest inhabited
countries, the fig has accompanied man in all

Besides the caprifig ( Ficus earica, var. sylve*-
tris) and the Smyrna fig (JPioun carica, var.
smyrnioa,) there are numerous other sorts more
or less commonly grown, which attain edible
perfection without the aid of pollen of tbe cap-
rifig and without developing seeds. These are
roughly grouped under tlu> name "common edi-
ble figs." Of this class, the Mission figs bear
two crops annually, the early figs, or "brebaa,"

his wanderings wherever a suitable climate has and the late or "summer figs." This subclass

permitted its introduction. It was common in includes almost all of the figs in California and

Greece during the time of Plato, was early car- in the Southern States. Another peculiar group

ried into Italy and thence to Spain and Gaul, known aa the San Pedro figs, some of which are

It was introduced into England prior to 1257' grown in California and in Florida and other

and has since maintained a more or loss pre- Southern States, mature only one crop of fruit

carious existence as a standard in the south of the "brebas"; the second crop always falling

England to this day. It is most successful when
trained on walls and given winter protection,
In such situations it bears well and is remuner-

bofore reaching maturity. This is explained by
the fact that the first fruits contain so-called
xnule flowers, which can develop edible fruits,

537

FIGHTING FISH

while the fruits of the second crop contain only
pistillate flowers, like those of the true Smyrna
ng, and, as there is no pollen to fertilize them,
they fall. In the Adriatic figs, a third sub-
class, these conditions are reversed; hence the
"brebas" fail to develop. The United States
Department of Agriculture recently announced
the successful employment of a fig from Abys-
sinia in caprifying this "brebas" crop.

The fig is easily propagated either by budding,
grafting, cuttings, or layers. In general, how-
ever, cuttings servo the purpose best. They
are best made from the ripened wood of the
previous season's growth. As the fig is not a
hardy plant, its cultivation as a standard is
limited. On the Atlantic seaboard it is con-
fined to States south of Virginia, and in the
West to California, \vhero the most extensive
orchards of America exist: The tree is long-
lived, comes into bearing early, and consequently
requires a froe apace in which to ripen its fruit;
it is therefore frequently planted as an avenue
or border tree. In the orchard it should be
given 40 feet each way; and if grown with other
plants these must be removed before crowding
occurs.

All the dried figs grown in America are pro-
duced in California: outside this region the
copioiw rainfei have a detrimental effect upon
the fruits, rendering them unfit for the pur-
pose. The dried % output of California is
steadily increaHinq. In 1886 the total output
was estimated at 100,000 pounds. It reached
an annual average, of 10,000,000 pound* for the
three yearn ending with 1913. During the sumo
period the United States imported from Smyrna
an average of 20,000,000 poundH annually. Tn
a frenh state for table URC the fig can be trans-
ported only a short diHtnnee. In recent years
the canned-fig induRtry has tmsumed commercial
importance in the flulf States.

For a diHCUfittion of varieties suited for these
variouH purposes, consult: Bailey, Standard Cy-
clopedia r>f nortienlluro ("tfew York, 1014) ; Van
Velzer, Pig Culture (Houston, Tex., 1000) ;
'The Fig," California, Board of Horticulture
(Sacramento, 1800) ; "The, Fig," United Rtatcs
Department of Affrirultwrfl, Division Pomology,
Bulletin 9 (Washington, 1001).

Fossil Fig. The fig and its allies are repre-
sented. by numerous fossil remains, consisting
almost entirely, however, of the leaves. The
genus Firus itself appears first in the Lower
Cretaceous rocks, and it has been recognized in
tiie Cretaceous deposits of Greenland, of Mo-
ravia, and in those of Kansas and Nebraska
in the United States, Numerous species have
been found in the Tertiary rocks, especially in
the Kocene and Miocene deposits of Kurope and
North America. Few fossil remains of the genus
Ficiis have been found in the rocks of those
regions whe.ro the fig now grows in its native
condition. Consult Solms-uuibach, Jforkunft^
Verbreitung, Domestication der geutihnlichcn
JFcfy<m5ffum0 (GOttingen, 1882).

FIG, ADAJML'H* See PLANTAIN.

FIG, INDIAN. See PRICKLY PJCAB.

FIGABO, tt'ga'ro'* 1. A famous dramatic
character, central figure -in Beaumarchais' come-
dies Le barbier de SMllo and Le mariage de
Figaro, a clever, witty, nonchalant rogue.
Mozart made am opera of The Marriage of Fi-
garo/ Paisicllo, and afterward Rossini, of The
Barber of 8*ville. & In 1826 the name "Figaro"
was chosen for a Parisian journal, since famous,
VOL.

that counted among its contributors George
Sand, Jules Sandeau, Alphonse Karr, Jules
Janin, and other literary celebrities. It sus-
pended in 1833, to be revived in even greater
brilliancy in 1854 by its great editor, Villemes-
sant (q.v.), whose JM6nioircs (1867) are a most
valuable contribution to the history of French
journalism. Sec MABIAQE DE FIG ABO; NOZZE DI
FIGARO.

' FIGEAC, fe'zh&k' (Lat. Figiaoum ) . The cap-
ital of an arrondissement in the Department of
Lot, France, in a wooded valley on the right
bank of the Sellc, 32 miles east-northeast of
Cahors (Map: France, S., G 4). It is irregu-
larly built. The churches of Saint-Sauveur and
Notre Dame du Puy, dating from the twelfth
and fourteenth centuries, the HOtel de BalSne
of the fourteenth century, are interesting and
important. There is a fine obelisk to the memory
of J. J. Champollion-Figeac, the Egyptologist,
who was a native of the town. A college,
library, and museum comprise its public in-
stitutions. It manufactures cotton, wool, and
woodenware and carries on a trade in wine
and cattle. There arc zinc mines near by. Pop.
(commune), 1901, 5861; 1011, 5808. The town
arose around a Benedictine monastery founded
in 75;5. Tt was captured by the Huguenots in
1576, and was one of their strongholds.
FIGEAC, ,J. J. CIIAMPOLLION. See CIIAMPOL-

LION-FlGEAC.

FIG EATER. See JUNE BKKTLE.

FIG FOU MOOMCTTS, A. A volume of poet-
ical satires by Lodge (1505), dedicated to the
Earl of Derby.

FIGKGIS, JOHN NEVILLE (1800- ). An
English clergyman and historian, born in
Brighton- He was educated at Brighton Col-
lege, ut St. Catharine's College, Cambridge, and
at Wellw Theological College, held several cu-
racies, was lecturer at St. Catharine's in 1805-
1001 and chaplain of Pembroke College, in 1808-
1000, and \yaw Ilulsean lecturer at Cambridge
University in 1008-00, Noble lecturer at Har-
vard in 1011, and Bishop Paddock lecturer at
tho Ne.w Vork General Theological Seminary in
1013. In 1000 he became a member of the Com-
munity of the Resurrection, lie contributed to
the Cambridge Modern History; edited with R.
V. Lawrence Lord Acton's fjcoturon on Modern
History (1000) and bis History of Freedom,
Historical Nssays and Studies (1007), and Lec-
tures on the French Revolution (1010); and
wrote Tho Thvory of Dimnc Right of Kings
(1800; rev, eci., 1914), Illustrations of Kng-
lish Mb tary, 7tf6'0-/7/5 (1002), OMstianity and
History (1004), Political Thought from fftrnoit
to (Irotius (1007), The tiospct and f/uman
Need ft (1000, Hulsean Lectured), Religion and
English Society (1010), Civilisation at the
Cross Koadft (1012, lecture* at Harvard), Anfa
Christ (1018), and Ohurohcs in the Modem
titate (1014).

FIGHTING FISH. A «mall climbing perch
(Otcnopft pugnax) of Houthea&tcrn Asia, and
particularly of Siam, whore it is very commonly
kept captive for tho amuHcmcmt of its owners
by its pugnacity. Two of tho«o creatures when
brought together often ruwh immediately to com*
bat, or one will attack it» own image in a mir-
ror* Fish figlita arc a favorite amusement of
the Siamese; the licence to exhibit them yields
a considerable annual revenue; and an extraor-
dinary amount of gambling takes place in con-
nection with them. Tha fighting flub has the

JOE HOOKER 538

anal and dorsal fins prolonged into tapering
points. When the fish is quiet, its colors are
dull; but when it is excited, they glow with
metallic splendor, and tho projected gill mem-
brano waves like a black frill around the throat.

FIGHTING- JOE HOOKER. A nickname
given to Gren. Joseph Hooker (q.v.).

FIGHTING PABSON, THE. A nickname
given to W. G. Brownlovv (q.v.).

FIGHTING PBELATE, THE. A name given
to Henry Spenser, Bishop of Norwich, who
fought against the insurgents in the rebel-
lion of Wat Tyler and later led an army into
Flanders.

FIGTTEBOA

FIGHTING

See

, ta'ma'rar', THE.

FIGIACUM. See FIGEAC.

FIGIG, ft-geg'. An oasis in the eastern part
of the Moroccan Sahara, near the Algerian
frontier, covering an area of about 6 square
miles, well watered, and containing large groves
of date palms (Map: Africa, D 1). It has
about 13,000 inhabitants, dwelling among 10
fortified villages, the chief of which is ftenaga.
The inhabitants nominally recognize the sover-
eignty of Morocco, but are independent in their
internal affairs. The chief industries are fruit
raising, cloth weaving, and manufacture of
clothing.

FIGLINE, fe-lyp'nA. A city of Florence, cen-
tral Italy, 2o miles southeast of Florence, on
the left bank of the Arno, in the valley of which
near here have boon found many fossil masto-
dons, hippopota?ni, tigers (Map: Italy, F 4).
The town markets silk, wine, and oil, and manu-
factures straw goods and knives. Pop., 1901,
11,478; 1011, 12,035.

FIG SHELL. Any of various tropical gastro-
pod shells, of the genera Ficida, Pyrula, etc., so
called from their shape. One of the beat known
is Pyrula vcntrioosa,, of Oriental waters, which
has a very extensive foot, like its relatives the
tun shells (q.v.), and the mantle large-lobed,

A, FIG SHELL (PTEULX VBNTBICOSA).

1, dorsal view of the shell and expanded muscular parts.
2, ventral view, showing the extended siphon, head, with
two short tentacles, and the oblong creeping muscle or
"foot."

renexed upon, the shell, and profusely spotted.
The shell is pear-shaped, lias along siphon canal,
and the surface is transversely ridged. Several
other species belong to the genus, which goes
back to the Chalk and Tertiary period*!.

FIGKJEIRA, fS-gfl'e-ra, or FIGUEIRA DA Foz
DO MONDEQO. A seaport town in the District
of Coimbra, Portugal, situated at the mouth

of the Mondego JUver, about 25 mill's west by
south of Coimbra (Map: Portugal, A 2). It
is connected by rail with Lisbon and Oporto.
The harbor is small tind obstructed by a bar,
but the town has considerable trade in salt,
wine, fruit, and oil. Figueira is much visited
for it* bathing. Pop., 1890, 5676; 1000,
7800.

FIGTTEBAS, ft-gfi'rAs. A town in the Prov-
ince of Geroua, Spain, situated in the centre of
the -Ampurdfin, 14 miles from the French fron-
tier and 21 mill's north -northeast of Gerona
(Map: Spain, G 1). On a height (480 feet)
near the town is the pentagonal citadel of San
Fernando, one of tho strongest fortresses of
Spain and the key of the Pyrenees. It was con-
structed in the hitter half of the eighteenth cen-
tury and admits a garrison of 16,000 men. This
fortress has been so frequently taken by the
French as to give rise to the common saying
tli at in time of peace it belongs to Spain, but
in time of war to France, having been captured
by the latter in 1704, 1808, 1811, and 1823.
The fertile plain of Ampurdnn produces oil,
fruit, grain, and wine, and the town has manu-
factures of soap, leather, liquors, alcohol, etc.
Tt contains a secondary college, a civil and mili-
tary hospital, and an 'asylum for the aged. In
the pariah church here Philip V married Maria
Louise of Savoy in 1711. The antiquity of
Figueras has been proved by the discovery of
a Latin inscription dating before the Christian
era. Pop., 1000. 11,084: 1010, 11,778.

FIGTTEBAS Y MORACAS, 6 mft-ra'kils, Es-
TANTSI.AO (1810-82). A Spanish statesman.
He was born at Barcelona, studied law at
Madrid, entered politics, and beciune active in
the Republican ranks. Tie was elected to the
Cortes from Barcelona in 1851 and became the
principal spokesman of his party. He was
exiled in 1807 for complicity in u'plot against
Narvfiex, but returned after H few months. Attor
the revolution of 1868 and the expulsion of
Queen Isabella, he joined with Castclar, Sal-
meron, and Pf y Margall in actively opposing
the reestablish nlent of the monarchy, and in
1870, when, in spite of their efforts,' Amadcus
of Savoy been me King, Figueras continued to
oppose him. Upon tho abdication of the King
in 1873 and the establishment of the "Republic,
Figtieras was made President of the Provisional
Council of Ministers, a position which he held
until the Constituent Cortes established a new
cabinet. Figueras remained in tho Cortes, a
strong supporter of the Republic, until the res-
toration of the monarchy. l)ecemlx»r, 1874t when
he retired to private life.

FIGHTEROA, fe"gft-rf/A, FRATOTFJCO ACKJNA DBS
( 1701-1802) . An Uruguayan poet, born in Mon-
tevideo. He was educated at Buonos Aires in
the College of San Carlos, whore he early distin-
guished himself by his metrical compositions in
Latin. His first great work was an historical
diary in verse describing the groat siecc of Mon-
tevideo in 1812-14. His poetical works cover a
wide range of subjects, arc written with great
perfection in many different metres, and are
considered Spanish- American classics. Figuoroa
published his poems under the title Uosdico
pottico in 1857.

FIGTJEBOA, fe'ga-rW, FBANOISOO DE, (EL
DIVJNO) (c.1540-1020). A Spanish lyric poet,
a contemporary and fellow townsman of Cer-
vantes, having been born at Alcala <le He*
Hares. Little is known of him, beyond the fact

Y BAIiLBSTBB

530

that be served for a time in a Spanish regiment
in Italy, that he studied at Rome and Bologna,
that soon after his return to Alcald he made
an advantageous marriage, and having won the
favor of Don Carlos of Aragon accompanied him
to Flanders in 1579. Shortly before Ids death
Figueroa gave orders that all his poems should
be burned. Most of those that escaped were
afterward collected and edited by Luis Tribal-
dos de Toledo, to whom we owe those scanty de-
tails of his life. The first edition appeared in
Lisbon, 1G25; and the second, considerably en-
larged and preceded by a brief discourse on the
poet's life, appeared in Lisbon, 1626. The poems
include sonnets, canzoni, elegies, and an eclogue,
Tirol, the name by which the poet himself was
introduced by Cervantes in his pastoral Gala-
tea. Figueroa was a disciple of Boacan and
Garcilaso, both of whom he surpassed in his
mastery of blank verse. His best-known son-
net is that written upon the death of Garcihiso's
son. He shared with Francisco do Aldana, Fer-
nando de Herrera, and Miguel Sanchez the title
of 7vV Divino. A selection of six of his poems is
given in the Biblioteca (10 Autorcs JVspanolcs,
vol. xliii. Fifteen previously inedited poems
were published by R. Foulche-Delboac in Rwnc
Jli8pani<tu(\ vol. xxv, pp. 317-343 (Paris,
1911), with a complete bibliography. Consult
also the facsimile reproduction of the Obras
(1626 edition) made by Archer M. Huntington
(New York, 1903).

riOTEBOLA Y BAXiLESTEK, fo'gA-rolu
6 Ml'yks-tilr', LAITRICANO (1810-1908). A Span-
ish political economist, born at Calaf ("Barce-
lona) . He became professor of political economy
in the University of Barcelona and subnequoatly
of commercial law at Madrid. Art Minister of
Finance, from 1800 to 1870, he did much to im-
prove the wretched condition of the Spanish
treasury. Among other reforms that ho proposed
were a, reduction in the number of bishoprics
and clergy and the reduction of the standing
army by one-half. Upon the accession of Ama-
deo I he retired to his professorship and con-
tinued teaching uis doctrine of free trade. Tn
1872 he wan again forced into politics by being
elected l*;esident of the Donate. In 1885 ho
was elected counselor for the District of Latiua
in Madrid, and the Council appointed him
Syndic. From 1898 until his death he. was
president of the, Real Academia de Oioncias
morales y politic-art. Ho published the Kstadls*
tica dc ttawelowi (1849-r>4).

', GtTTUAtTMK LOUTS (1819-

3JTOTJIEB,

94). A French chemint and scientific writer.
lie became professor of chcmwtry at Montpfillier
in 1840 and at Vans in 1853 and carried out
Home original investigations. Later he devoted his
time chiefly to the popularization of science. He
became scientific editor of l*a> /Ye*w and after-
ward of La JPranoi). His works and contribu-
tions to scientific journals include some 80 vol-
umes, many of which were translated into Eng-
ISsh. Among these are: PJoDpoftiticn et hittoire
rffltf principal™ (WwnwurtM stietitifiques mo*
*iw* (4 voln., 1851-53; 6th ed., 1862) ; Histoire
du merveiltcitx dans ICB temps modcrnes (4
vole., 1850-62) ; l/alohmie ot /c« alcMmistes
(3d od,, I860); Vies dos savants iltwtres de-
put* frmtfytfittf Jnsqu'au XTJ&ne steole (5
vols.t 1865; 2d ed., 1872-75) ; Le* mwooille* de
fa Mienw (4 vol*,, 1860-69; new ed., 1011);
Let mcrveUlw da Industrie (4 vols., 1873-76) j
Lt» ftowtttw conqutte* dc la wicnoe (4 vein.,

1883-85) ; Lett myst&reu de la suience (2 vols.,
1887).

FICKITLIKrE. A term sometimes given to
vessels or objects, especially ornamental ones,
made of potter's clay. Palissy's rustic figulines
are well known.

FIGTJXUS, PUBLITTS IHGIDItrS. See

NlGIDIUS FlGULUS, PUBLIUS.

FIG'TTBATE MTTMBEB. See NUMBER.

FIGtTBE, or FORM (Lat. figura, from fin-
gere, to fashion, to feign; connected with Gk.
Biyytiveiv, thinganein, to touch, Skt. dih, to
snicai. Goth, deigan, to knead, OHO. teic, Ger.
Teiy, Tcel. deig, AS. dull, Eng. dough), PERCEP-
TION OF. Tlie spatial attribute of extension
(q.v.) is ascribed only to certain classes of
sensations, the visual and tactual; spatial rela-
tions, on the contrary,' are predicable of all
sensations alike, since all are localizable. Form,
or figure, as used in psychology, is defined
(Kuelpe) as "the general term comprehending
all the spatial characteristics that can be attribu-
tively predicated of an . impression." The per-
ception of the figure of an object may then be
regarded us the perception of a sum of exten-
sions, and the problems involved are 1 united in
their application to those sense departments to
which extent may be assigned.

Tl»o cutaneous perception of figure has re-
ceived but little investigation. Experiments
made with certain stimulus forms — angles, open
and filled circles, filled triangles — upon the tip
of the tongue, the lips, and the tip of the
middle finger, showed that the open circle is
most easily cognized, and that the capacity of
the surfaces for cognition of the forms is, in
order of excellence, tip of tongue, tip of finger,
lips. Thin dependency of the form lirnen upon
the place stimulated is illustrated by the simple
experiment of drawing a pair of dividers along
the arm from the elbow to the finger tips, or
from the lobe of the one ear to the. lobe of the
other, SUTOSH the face. The objectively parallel
linea seem to diverge tovvardw the wrist, and as
they pass the lips. The cutaneous liraen for
form IK susceptible of marked decrease through
practice.

Tin* visual perception of figure may, like the
perception of simple, extension, bo obtained by
the resting eye in monocular vision, but for its
full development binocular vision is essential.
Tho visual perception of figure furthermore in-
volves not only the perception of surface, but
alHO the nerception of depth, or tho apprehension
of extension in tho third dimension. One problem
of the perception of surface consists in recon-
ciling the fact that the field of vision pre-
sents a continuous surface with tho fact that
the sensitive parts of the retina, the. rods and
concH, form a mosaic of discrete points separated
by nonsenttitive areas. (The diameter of a ret-
inal com) is estimated at 0.0015-0.0044 milli-
meter, and the distance' from tho centre of one
cone to the centres of adjacent cones at 0.0040
'millimeter.) Explanations have been made in
terms of binocular vision, of eye movement, and
of our a priori bias towards continuity. See
also BUND HPOT.

Of special importance to tho perception of the
third dimension of figures are. those optical
phenomena known as the prevalence and rivalry
of contours. When we observe tho form of an
object, the imagtw which are cast upon the
retina* of the two oyes differ aligntly, owing to
Um difference in tho position from which the

FIGKTBED BASS

540

FICKTBES OS SPEECH

two eyes view the object. If now these two
images completely fused, the principal factor in
the perception of depth would be removed; if,
on the other hand, the two images remained
obstinately disparate, it would be impossible to
refer them to a single external object. It is
the "prevalence" and "rivalry" of contours which
"prevent the fusion of the two retinal images
and secure to each a certain amount of inde-
pendence" (Hering), although "the impressions
of the two eyes always fuse to a single idea"
(Wundt). The contour phenomena are easily
demonstrable with the aid of the stereoscope.
If, o.g,, the right eye be stimulated by a uniform
surface of white, and the left eye by a black
letter A upon a white background, we have a
striking instance of the prevalence of contour.
The A is not made grayish, not washed over by
the white of the right monocular field, but is
seen in perfect clearness in the resultant single
field; its contour suppresses or prevails over
the surface presented by the white field. If
each retinal field contains contours, and these
contours possess little congruence, the phenom-
enon of "rivalry of contours" is observed. Thus,
if the letter U were presented to the left eye and
W to the right, or a vertical black band to the
left eye and a horizontal black band to the
right, there would be no 'fusion of the two
images, nor would either image permanently
prevail over the other; but there would be a
rivalry and alternation of the two fields.

The visual perception of form plays an im-
portant part in the production of what are
known as the "elementary aesthetic feelings."
(See ^ESTHETICS, EXPEBIMBNTAX. ) Finally, the
perception of figure is extremely subject to illu-
sion; small angles are overestimated, the height
of a square is overestimated, etc. (See article
ILLUSION.) And the study of illusory figures
has, in turn, thrown a reflex light upon the
psychology of the form perception. Tt has been
found that the predisposition of the observer is
important for the result: if the experimenter,
e.g., prescribes a certain direction of attention,
the perception may be modified. When, there-
fore, we speak of figure as a "sum" of exten-
sions, we should add that this sum is to be taken
in the integrative or psychological senne, and
not in the sense of mere mechanical addition.
(On the mechanism of this integration, see
DETERMINING TENDENCY; PERCEPTION.) Con-
sult: Titchener, Experimental Psychology (New
York, 1901) ; Wundt, Human and Animal Psy-
chology (Eng. trans., London, 1896) ; Kuclpe,
Outlines of Psychology (ib., 1909); Witasek,
Gfrundlinien tier Paychologie (Leipzig, 1908).

FIOTKED BASS, or THOROUGHBASS,
A system of musical notation in which chords
are denoted by placing figures over the bass
note. It was first used in Italy during the latter
part of the sixteenth century. The original ob-
ject was to furnish the organist with a simple
means of recognizing at a glance the necessary
harmonic foundations in large choral or instru-
mental works. (The arrangement of the differ-
ent parts in a score (q.v.) was not known then.)
Playing from figured bass was a great art, be-
cause this system of notation indicates only the
chord or its inversions, but nothing as to the
leading of the various voices. To-day the art is
not called for, as modern scores are written out
in detail, and the figured bass in scores of the
older masters (Bach, Handel) has been written
out by eminent masters. (See FBANZ.) Fig-

ured bass plays an important part in the study
of harmony, as all exercises are written in
figured bass notation. Only the bass note is
written. If no figure appears above the note, the

ordinary triad is meant; the figure 6 denotes
the first, 4 the second inversion. The domi-
nant seventh is expressed by 7 ; its inversions by
|, f, 2 respectively. Suspensions are ex-
pressed by two figures — the first indicating the
dissonance, the second its resolution. The in-
terval of the third is not written out unless
chromatically altered. Chromatic alterations are
denoted by the usual signs placed before or after
the figure 3(, 5b, Ofy Sharps are also indicated
by a line through the figure, j?. In figured bass
all intervals are counted from the bass note,
not the fundamental. For further information
or complete exposition of the theory of figured
bass, consult Richter, Manual of Harmony
(trans, by Theodore Baker from the 25th German
cd., New York, 1912), See ACCOMPANIMENT.

FIGUREHEAD. A figure, or imago, either
a head, or bust, or full length — usually carved
from wood, but in more recent vessels composed
of hollow-cast bronze, carried at the prow or stem
of ships. Its form is frequently dependent upon
the name of the ship; the United States ship
Delaware had the head of an Indian, supposedly
of the Delaware tribe; the Macedonian had the
bust of a Macedonian jvarrior, etc. The custom
of placing figureheads on vessels of war is very
ancient; the Phoenicians, Egyptians, Greeks, Ro-
mans, and Northmen all placed images of their
deities or of other persons, or animals, or objects
upon the prows of their war galleys. The change
from sail to steam, the removal of the bowwprit
and substitution of the straight stem, caused the
old types of figurehead, scrollhead, billet-head,
fiddle-head, etc., to disappear. For some years
the ornamentation was placed on each side of
the upper plating near or on the stem and
consisted of scrollwork, the national coat of
arms, etc., in gilt and colors. In some European
navies anil in passenger ships of the, merchant
service this practice still continues, but in the
United States navy the figurehead and all other
ornamentation have boon entirely given up.

FIGURES OF A SYLLOGISM. Classes of
the traditional categorieal syllogism (q.v.) ob-
tained by dividing syllogisms according to the
relative positions of the major, middle, and
minor terms. (See MAJOR.) Designating these
terms respectively by the conventional symbols
P, M, and S, we have these four classes of fig-
ures represented by the following formulae, in
which the four vertical columns to the right
give the four figures respectively:

I II in iv

Major premise MP PM MP PM

Minor premise SM SM MS MS

Conclufion SP SP SP SP

See LOGIC.

FIGURES OF SPEECH. The general terra
under which are comprised all deviations in
the use of words from the literal sense or from

FIGWOBT FAMILY

541

FIJI ISLANDS

the literary or common forms and constructions.
Such deviations have at different periods been
variously classified and minutely differentiated.
At the present time the tendency is towards
greater generalization. The deviations from com-
mon use may be classified as figures of thought
(figures of rhetoric) and grammatical figures
(figures of etymology and figures of syntax).
The individual figures are treated under ETY-
MOLOGY, FIGURES OF; SYNTAX, FIGURES OF; and
RHETORIC, FIGURES OF. In addition to these
classes older authorities 'recognized a fourth,
figures of orthography, the subclasses of which
were called mimesis and archaism — mimesis rep-
resenting the imitation in spelling of illiterate
or provincial speech, as in the modern dialect
stories; and archaism, the reproduction of anti-
quated orthography and form. The FIGURES OF
ETYMOLOGY, concerned entirely with the forms of
words, are employed chiefly "for their effect on
rhythm and poetry. The omission of an initial
letter ( aphaeresis ) , as 'gainst for against, or of
a letter within a word (syncope), as ne'er for
never, or the separation of parts of a compound
(tmesis), as how good soever, have almost no
application to common speech or proso writing.
The FIGURES OF SYNTAX, or deviations in the
construction, on the other hand, arc in constant
and unconscious use by speakers of all clashes
and ages. Their use adds directness, picluresquo-
ness, and force to language. Of the, figures of
syntax, ellipsis is the most common and appears
in exclamations, commands, and energetic utter-
ances of many kinds. It consists in the omission
of a word, phrase, or clause theoretically essen-
tial, the absence of which, however, heightens
the effect of the words. Thnn, Here! is more
striking than Come here-. Bread may be equiva-
lent to (7iw we some bread; and in many busi-
ness forms and in signs a word or two may have
the value of a whole sentence, as Aro smoking,
for ft making is not permitted. "Emphasis is
gained by the figure called redundancy (the use
of unnecessary words to express an idea) ; e.g.,
I did it my own self. The FIGURES OF RHETORIC,
or deviations from the usual application of
words, add grace and beauty to the expression
of thought and increase the resources of speech.
Therefore they appear constantly in poetical
composition and are frequent in prose and ordi-
nary conversation. Simile requires a connective-,
pointing out the comparison : He is as brave as
a lion; metaphor omits it: Ho is a lion. Such
expressions as roof for house (synecdoche), or
gray hairs for old ago (metonymy ) , are figures
in very common use founded on contiguity; and
all the, figures may bo referred to the conscious
or unconHcious tendency towards enlarging the
boundaries of language and heightening the em-
phasis of speech,

jBTGKWOBT FAMILY. See SOBOPIIXJLARIA-
CK/B.

KJ1 (ftfjf) or VITI (vC/t6) ISLANDS. A
group of islands and a crown colony of Great
Britain, in the southern Pacific, between lat.
15° 50' and 20° S. and long. 170° 40' K, and
178° W. (Map: Australasia, K 4). It is the
largest and most valuable group in Polynesia.
It consists of about 200 inlands, of which about
80 are inhabited and among which the most
important are Viti Le.vu (4250 square miles),
Vanua Levu (2600), Taviuni (217), and Kan*
davu ( 150 K The total area, including the island
of Botumaht lying north of the group and added
thereto in 1880, is estimated at 7435 square

miles. The larger islands are mountainous, -with
elevations of 4000 feet, and one of 5000 feet
above sea level. The islands on the south and
southwest side of the group are clothed with
dense forests containing many valuable woods.
The coasts are surrounded by coral reefs and
form many good harbors. The islands are very
fertile and well provided with rivers, of which
the Rewa, the Ba, and the Singatoka, all on
Viti Levu, are navigable in their lower courses
through the coastal plain. In spite of their
tropical situation the Fiji Islands have a com-
paratively cool climate. The temperature sel-
dom rises above 90° F. or falls below GO0 F.
The rainfall is abundant, although unequally
distributed. Severe hurricanes occur from time
to time and cause immense damage to planta-
tions, etc. Those rotary storms or cyclones usu-
ally occur from December to April. Owing to
their sanitary precautions, Europeans enjoy al-
most complete immunity from the diseases com-
mon to the Fijians and the Indian coolies. The
flora of the islands is exceedingly rich. The
principal native plants are yams, coconuts, ba-
nanas, and breadfruit. Sugar cane was intro-
duced by European planters. The economic
prosperity of the colony depends on three staple
industries — the production of sugar, of copra,
and of fruit, principally bananas and pineapples.
The cultivation of corn and cotton, formerly
important, has greatly declined. The sugar ex-
port increased from 32,001 tons (valued at
£393,987) in 1000 to 72,834 tons (£797,274)
in 1911; copra increased from 15,005 tons
(£151,701) to 10,337 tons (£294,245); fruit in-
creased from' £28,112 to £151,007. There are
also exports of Troehus shell, moliiRWH, coconuts,
cacao, bOche-do-mcr, and bark. About 80 per
cent of the trade is with Australia and New
Zealand. There is no direct communication with
the United Kingdom, but regular steam com-
munication i« maintained with Sydney, Auck-
land, Samoa, and Tonga. The total tonnage
entered and cleared increased from 349,055 tons
in 1902 to 018,343 ton« in 1912. Total imports
and exports, in 1002, £520,847 and £535,171; in
1912, £940,044 and £1 ,0*58,000. Huva, the, capi-
tal, is connected by cable with Briabane. and
Canada, and is an important allograph station.
The colony is administered by a governor ap-
pointed by tlio crown. An executive council is
composed of the governor and six official mem-
bers. The legislative council consiatH of tin*
governor and 10 official members, six elected
members, and two native, members. The colony
is divided into 17 provinces, each under the
control of a European commissioner or a chief
native officer* A large share of self-government
is conceded to the natives; their system of vil-
lage and district councils has been recognized
and improved, and is supplemented by an occa-
sional meeting of the high chiefs and provincial
representatives, presided over by the governor.
An advisory board, consisting of the governor
and British and native officials, formulates regu-
lations in respect of native marriage and divorce,
property succession, the powers and procedure of
the native courts, and various otner matters
relating to the well-being of the native popula-
tion* These regulations must receive the sanc-
tion of the legislative council before acquiring
legal force. The seat of government was trans-
ferred from Levuka, in the island of Ovaluu, to
Sura, in Viti Levu, in 1882. The Dependency of
Rotutnah is administered by a European com-

FIJI ISLANDS

542

FILAN0IERI

missipner. In 1910 the revenue (of which over
half is derived from customs) and expenditure
of the colony- were £211,952 and £236,661 re-
spectively; in 1912, £238,947 and £268,158.
Public debt (1911), £93,515.

The population of Fiji has been returned by
the census as follows: 1891, 121,180 (of whom
105,800- Fi jians ); 1901, 120,124 (94,397); 1011,
139,541 (87,096). It is to be noted that,
while there was a considerable increase in the
total population during the last decade, the
native race continued to decline. It was esti-
mated in 1808 at 170,000; by the epidemic of
measles in 1875 it was reduced by more than
one-fourth. In 1911 males numbered 80,008,
and females 59,533. The total was made up as
follows: Fijians, 87,096; Indians, 40,286 (17,105
in 1901); Europeans, 3707; half-castes, 2401;
Polynesians, 2758; Rotumans, 2170; Chinese,
305; others, 812. The Wesleyan mission re-
ported 84,306 adherents at the end of 1911,
and the Roman Catholic mission 10,592. Na-
tive education is provided chiefly by these mis-
sions, the Wesleyan schools numbering 1002 and
the Roman Catholic 124. Suva, the capital, on
a fine harbor on the south coast of Viti Levu,
had a white population of 1376.

While somatically the Fijians are in basic
association with the Mclanesian race, there are
recognizable traces of Polynesian admixture. At
least two such mixtures arc readily identifiable.
One is superficial and somewhat narrowly con-
fined to the eastern district, which the 'island
geography denominates Lau. This mixture is
quite modern, the result of intercourse with the
neighboring Tongans which there is evidence to
restrict to the last three centuries. The other
mixture is a more general factor in the race and
is of wider extent, for it is as plainly to be
seen in the mountaineers of the great island as
in the coast people. It is manifest in the bodily
measurements, for the Fijians in stature and
proportions more closely approximate the Poly-
nesians than they resemble such Melanesia HH as
are established as of pure stock; yet in the
minor bodily characters, such as pigmentation,
hair section, contour of the outer ear, and in-
terstitial measurement of skin pores, the Fijians
show wholly Melanesian character. The period
of the great contact of the two races which has
established this mixture is not yet definitely
determined, but it lies at one of the two great
historic events in the Polynesian settlement of
the Pacific — the later being the incoming of the
later, or Tongafiti, branch of the race, concern-
ing which Samoan history establishes the last
period in the expulsion of the Tongafiti in the
onfall of Matamatame about 700 years ago.
The earlier period of Fijian mixture lies at least
1000 years earlier. Present research into the
problem will probably result in the establishment
of the earlier date. The language betrays the
double origin, the vocabulary having drawn very
largely upon Polynesian, the grammar beting of
Melanesia*! complexity and precision. The Fiji-
ans have taken from the Polynesians the use of
kava, have given to them (according to Samoan
testimony) the art of tattooing, practice the
Melanesian art of pottery with no little success,
are cautious navigators, and excel in canoe
building. In social condition they fell far below
the Polynesians; for the power of the chiefs,
while enormous in the individual, lacked the he-
reditary quality by which families become great.
Cannibalism was practiced with great gastro-

nomic delight and remained in the most frequent
use down to the annexation to Great Britain,
and even as late as 1892 appeared in a sporadic
recrudescence of the ancient habit. In the sav-
age state the Fijians were constantly engaged in
wars, yet the casualty list was insignificant.
The decline in their numbers began with the
suppression of this exit for their animal spirits,
with the interruption of their polygamy entail-
ing a greater infant mortality, particularly with
the introduction of alien diseases to a field in
which protective immunization had not been ac-
quired. The picture of the vital statistics is not
yet a satisfactory one, but at each of the census
periods there is observable a decrease in the
rate of mortality which leads to the hope that
the people will before long take the upward
track.

Some of the islands of the Fiji group were dis-
covered by Tasman in 1643 and visited by Cook
in 1773, who discovered several others in the
same group. The first accurate knowledge of
the archipelago was obtained through the ex-
plorations of Duonont d'Urville in 1827 and of
the American expedition under Wilkes and Hale
(1840-42). Though fugitive convicts from Aus-
tralia settled in Viti Levu as early as 1804, the
European population grew very little, owing to
the hostility of the natives, who were numerous,
warlike, and addicted to cannibalism. Weslovan
missionaries reached the islands in 1835 and in
]854 succeeded in converting not only Thakoni-
bau, the most powerful of the native 'chiefs, but
the mass of the people also. Complications with
the United States led Thakombau to offer the
sovereignty over the islands to Great Britain
(1858). The proposal was declined. Between
18(50 and 1809 immigration was rapid, 1800 set-
tlors being there in the latter year. An attempt
to establish a parliamentary government under
Thnkombau did not prove successful, and the
offer to Great Britain was renewed and accepted
(1874). In 1878, when sugar began to bo ex-
tensively cultivated, the native Fijians began
to deteriorate hocause of the competition of the
coolies from India. In 1900 an attempt made
by New Zealand to add the Fijis to herself failed
because the Colonial Secretary would not sanction
it. Consult: \ffassiz, "The Islands and <\>ral
Reefs of Fiji," in Museum of Comparatire Zo-
ology Bulletin, vol. xxxiii (Cambridge, 189!) I;
Gumming, At Home in Fiji (London, 1887);
Guppy, Obftwva-tions of a Naturalist in tJir /*«-
cifio (ib,, 1903) ; The Australian 11 'ttndbook (Mel-
bourne, 1913) ; Quarterly Remctc, vol. cexvi, t»p.
55-78 (London, 1912); Thompson, FIJI: /*«*f
and Present (Melbourne, 1899) ; Orimahaw, Fiji
and its Possibilities (New York, 1907); Thom-
son, The Fijians; A. Study in the Decay of Cm-
torn (London, 1908) ; Churchill, The Polynesian
Wanderings (Washington, 1911).

ITLAN'DEIL See KANCIAROO.

FILANGIEBI, fe"lan-jya're-, GAETANO (17f>2-
88). An Italian jurist, author of a monumental
treatise, La- soiensa 'delta, legislation*. Born in
Naples, of a noble family, lie was trained for a
military career, which he soon abandoned for
legal and scientific studies. When barely 20,
he published his first work, Public and Private
Education. Among his early successes as a
lawyer was an able defense of a royal decree,
which won him the appointment of court advo-
cate and led to various other offices and honor*
from the King. The first three parts of his
principal work appeared in 1780-8$ and incurred

FILARETE

543

ITLDES

the censure of the Catholic church. Ferdinand
IV, however, rewarded the author with a pension
and relieved him from all his court duties. The
Sciensa della legislations (1780-88), which was
to have consisted of seven books, but remains
incomplete, was evidently written under the in-
fluence of Montesquieu, but shows the effects of
Vic'o, Giiinnone, and Rousseau. It has the de-
fect, characteristic of the century, of subordi-
nating empirictil research to deduction from
philosophical principles and is somewhat colored
by local problems of Neapolitan government; but
this great work is still of use.

His non, CARLO (1784-1807), Prince of Satri-
ano, was born in Naples. Ho entered the French
army, was made a captain at Austerlitx, and
fought in Spain with Murat. Tn 1849 he became
Viceroy of Sicily under Ferdinand II, and he
was made Minister of War by Francis II iu
1859. lie held this office for one year, when
he fell from power, and did not a^ain enter
politics.

EILARETE, fe'la-ra'ta, ANTOXIO (called also
ANTONIO AVEBULIXO) (c.lJOO-70). A Floren-
tine sculptor of the Renaissance. I To probably
assisted Ghiberti on the doors of the baptistery
at Florence and was engaged by Pope TCugene
IV to execute the bronze doors for St. Peter's in
Rome (1438-45), now used for the central oil-
trance of the church. His work in an inferior
imitation of Ghiberti's anasterpioce, but the re-
liefs are clumsy, the iiguren lifeless, and the
subjects represented are a strange mixture of
Christian and pagan thougbt. The figure of St,
Mark over the entrance of San Marco i« also
attributed to him, as well as the ionib of the
Cardinal of Portugal (except the elfigy) in the
Lateran, but without suttioieut proof. He was
afterward banished from Homo and was invited
to visit Milan by Francesco Sfomi, for whom
he began the Ospedide, Maggiore, but lived to
complete only the right wing. Ho was OIK* ot' the
many architects employed on the cathedral at
Milan and constructed the cathedral at Bergamo.
He wrote a curious and intercut ing treatise on
architecture, Twiiato di arohilcttiira (141)0--
04), in which he described an ideal city,
called Rforzinda. This work remained in manu-
script until 1800, when it was published in
Vienna. Consult Von Oettingen, "Leben uml
We.rke dos Antonio Averulino," in IMtrttg** cwr
Kumttgcsohichte, new aeries, vol. vi (Leipzig,
1888) ; and especially Laxssaroni, WUarc.lti, WM/-
tvr$ r.t architrtto del netwh AT (Rome, 1008).

FILA11IA ( from 1 jat. filwn, thread ) . A para-
site' found in the blood, lymph, and other fluids
of the human body. It wan first seen by
Demarquay, in 1803, in a fluid obtained from
a galaetocele, and was identified in 180<t by
Wuoherer of Brassil. In 1808 Salisbury found
the eggs in human urine. En 1872 T. K. Lewis
found ftlaritt in the blood. Filaria wediueniti$r
or Guinea worm, is found in different tissues
of the bodies of negroes , in Guinea, Senegal,
Kgypt, Arabia, Persia, and India. It is from I
to 10 feet long and about A of an inch wide,
and causes painful tumors, blisters, or boils, and
sometime** gangrene. Fituria sanguinis hominitt
nocturna, which in about fa of an inch long,
in found in the blood, it is indigenouB to
Africa, India, China, Australia, and Brazil, and
hat) been found in negroes in our Southern
States, "Craw-Craw," a West African skin d la-
ease, hag been found to be associate with fUari-
In MaHa toa, also a Wait African dU-

ease, the filarise wander through the subcutaneous
tissues, especially of the face and eyes, produc-
ing inflammation. At least half of the natives
of Samoa are said to be affected with filariasis.
The parasite is transmitted by mosquitoes, as
lias been demonstrated by Manson and by Low.
In Oulex fastigans filaria embryos mature
rapidly, after the insect has fod on the blood of
a patient suffering from filariasis, and the per-
fect filariae are found in the head, neck, and
proboscis of the -mosquito. Strong, of the Chief
Surgeon's Office, Division of the Philippines, has
found .filariasis iu Iloilo. He believes that the
disease will become domesticated in the Southern
States, through the return of the American sol-
diers. Thin form of filaria is a white, opaline,
hairlike worm, tapering towards the ends, which
are blunt. It is found only after sundown, ap-
pearing in the blood about C P.M. A diurnal
variety has been discovered by Manson in Congo
negroes. The nocturnal variety in found by day
in the blood of patients who work by night and
sleep by day. Granville advances the theory
that the appearance iu the blood of this para-
Kite IB dependent upon certain conditions of
the circulation and of the chyle during sleep.
JfilariasiH in limited between the parallels of lat.
30° N. and 30° S., unless transported by some
one infected within the tropical limits. It is
found in Brazil, many of the West Indies, in
Mexico, and the west coast of South America,
tbe South Sea Islands, Japan, Australia, and
China, besides the countries already named as
com pricing the habitat of the Guinea worm.
Parental forms of filaria cause several endemic
diseases, including elephantiasis arabum, lymph
scrotum, lymph vulva, chyluria, hcpniatochyluria,
and ascites. Consult: Wucherer, in Oazeta
Medic* da Bahia (Brazil, Doeember, 1808) ;
Lewis, in Mcdwinisches ticntralltatt, No. 43
(Vienna, 1877) ; Mannon, Tha Filaria, tfanguinfo
Horn win (London, 188;)); and Tropical Diseases
(New York, 1007); Daniels, Tropical Medicine
<nid llf/fflmr (ib., 1918).

FIL'BEBT. See UAHELNUT.

FILDBS, fUdss, SIR Low (1844- ). An
Kngllnh genre and portrait painter and illustra-
tor, born in Liverpool, lie ntudi«d in the
South Reusing tou Kchoola and the Koyal Acad-
emy, ma do many drawingH for the Oornhill
Maffostw, the London Graphic, and other peri-
odicals, and illustrated the lust work of Charles
Dickenw — AMftctn Drood — and of Lever. He ex-
hibited his first oil picture in the Royal Academy
in 1872— ."Fair, Quiot, and Sweet Rest/7 JPildos
painted a series of large pictures of the life of
tbe Knglish people, such as "Return of the
Penitent," "The Widower," and "The Poor of
London." He HOeim peculiarly tmccesHful in
depicting the hard and Hordid experience of the.
London suffering poor. Well equipped techni-
cally, he portravs these $cen<^ and situations
with a realism that strongly impresses the he-

holder and wit^i a great deal of manly i w
Hid vividly colored Venetian street scenes^ with
thejr irroupH of idealized women, such as Vene-
tian Life/1 and "An ai-frcHeo Ttoilrtte" (18S9),
are al»o well known, . Later he paini#d chiefly
portraits, including the coronation portraits of
King Edward Vfl and Queen Alexandra and the
ntate portrait of King George (1012). Hi»
painting "The Doctor" (1891) ig ia the Tata
Gallery, London. Tie was electod to the Koyal
Academy in 1887 and knighted in 1000. Conault
hU biography by Tlwrnsoti (London, 1805),

FILE

FILE (AS. feol, OHG. fihala, fila, Ger. Feile,
OChurch Slav, pila, file; connected ultimately
with Lat. pvngere, to paint, OChurch Slav, pisati,
to write, Skt. pis, to adorn) . A steel instrument
with sharp ridges or teeth made by the indenta-
tions of a chisel, which is employed for cutting
down and shaping metals or other hard sub-
stances. Abrading instruments having the gen-
eral characteristics of files are doubtless very

544

by a broad-bladed chisel. Files and rasps are
distinguished first by their length, which is al-
ways measured exclusive of the tang, second by
their shape, and third by their cut, which has

DOUBLE CUT SMOOTH.

DOUBUD CUT 2D OUT.

DOUBLE CUT BASTARD.

DOUBLE CUT COARSE.

ancient. Indeed, the file may be said to be rcprc- (
sen ted in its earliest and crudest form by the'
rough stones used by prehistoric man in shaping
his implement? of war and of the chase. Artifi-
cially made files are mentioned in the Old Testa-
ment in 1 Sam. xiii. 21, and they are also
mentioned in the Odyssey. These files were
doubtless crude in form and very inellicient in
operation compared with the modern tool of the
same name; but the fact that they were men-
tioned in these early writings is proof of the
consideration in which they^ were held by the
metal workers of ancient times. The file has
continued to be one of the most useful of hand
tools for working metals and is to-day produced
in enormous numbers and with an almost endless
variety of forms and characteristics.

The modern file is a bar or rod of hardened
steel having one end forged down to a long slim

CUT SMOOTH. 8WOLB1 CTJT 2D CUT.

BQTCHUB CUT BASTABD.

SINGLE OUT COAfcSB.

point or tang for insertion in a wooden handle,
and the remainder of its length covered on one
or all sides with serrations or teeth. A rasp
is a species of file in which each tooth is an
angular pit with a strong burr formed by a
pointed punch, instead of a long furrow formed

HASP SMOOTH.

BASF 2D CUT.

BASF BASTARD.

RASP COARSE.

reference not only to the character, but also to
the relative degrees of coarseness of the teeth.
The length of a file is the distance between its
heel, or part of the file where the tang begins,
and the point or end opposite. In general the
length of files bears no fixed proportion either to
their width or their thickness, even though they
be of tlae same general shape or kind. By kind,
in speaking of files, is meant the varied "shapes
or styles of files which are distinguished by
certain technical names, as, e.g., ilat, mill, and
half-round. The various kinds of files are
grouped according to the shape of their cross
section into rectangular sections, circular sec-
tions, triangular sections, and miscellaneous

Round Crossing

Pitsaw

Half Round Shoe Rasp Cabinet

Tumbler Cross Cut Square

Pillar Rasp Fta

igaaaMB8am
Mill Warding 3 Square

BBS™™™

Cant Saw Cent File Knife featherEdge

CBOBS SECTIONS Off TTPICAL

sections. These sections are in turn subdivided,
according to their general contour or outline,
into taper and blunt. The term "taper" desig-
nates a file the point of which is more or less
reduced in 8i#e, both, in width and thickness, by

543

FILE

a gradually narrowing section extending from
one-half to two-thirds the length of the file from
the point. The term "blunt" designates a file
that preserves its sectional shape throughout
from point to tang. The cut of files is divided,
with reference to the character of the teeth, into
single cut, double cut, and rasp cut, and with
reference to the coarseness of the teeth into
rough, coarse, bastard, second cut, smooth, and
dead smooth. The accompanying illustrations
show all of these cuts. The rough-cut file is one
in which a single unbroken course of chisel cuts
is made across its surface, arranged parallel to
each other, but oblique to the centre line or
axis of the file. The double-cut file has two
courses of chisel cuts crossing each other, the
second course with rare exceptions being finer
than the first. Rasp-cut differs from single or
double cut in the respect that the teeth are dis-
connected from each other, each tooth being
made by a single-pointed tool called a punch.

File teeth of any of the cuts described may
bo arranged so as to be spaced equidistant, or
they may be arranged so that the spacing varies
at different points of the file. When the latter
arrangement is used, the files arc designated as
increment cut. The arrangement of the tooth
in increment cut may be described as follows:
1. The rows of teeth are spaced progressively
wider, from the point towards the middle of
the file, by regular increments of spacing, 2.
This general law of spacing is modified by intro-
ducing, as the teeth are cut, an element of con-
trollable irregularity of spacing, which irregu-
larity is confined within maximum and minimum
limits, but is not a regular increment or decre-
ment. 3. The teeth are so arranged that the
successive rows shall not be exactly parallel, but
cut slightly angularly with respect to each other,
the angle or inclination being reversed during
the operation of cutting as necewaity requires.

The usual different sectional shapes of com-
mercial files are shown in the accompanying
illustration. In length guch files range from 3
inches to 20 inches. Smaller files for jcwelerH,
die sinkers, and watchmaker**, and needle Tiles
are made of special material and in various
special sizes. As indicating the small SIKGH in
which files are produced, it may be noted that
the smallest size of Nicholnon round broach
iile is but 0.033 of an inch in diameter, and
about 1 inch long.

Manufacture. Formerly, all files were hand-
made*, the steel bar being forged to shape, ground
smooth, and cut by hand tools. Most flleB arc
now made by machinery designed to perform all
of these essential operations. The old method of
hand cutting has a peculiar interest because of
the deftness and skill required of the workman,
and it will IMS described briefly for this reason,
and also because it will help to explain the na-
ture of the work required of modern file-cutting
machinery. The following description is taken
front HoltzapffePs Turning and Mechanical Ma-
nipulation:

"The first cut is made at the point of the file;
the chisel is held in the hand at a horizontal
angle of about 65° with the central line of the
file, , . . and with a vertical inclination of about
12° to 14° from the perpendicular. . . . The
blow of the hammer upon the chisel causes the
latter to indent and slightly to drive forward the
ateel, thereby throwing up a trilling ridge or
bur; tho chisel is immediately replaced on the
blank and Blid from the operator, until it en-

counters the ridge previously thrown up, which
arrests the chisel or prevents it from slipping
farther back and thereby determines the succeed-
ing position of the chisel. The heavier the blow,
the greater the ridge, and the greater the
distance from the preceding cut at which the
chisel is arrested. The chisel, having been placed
in its second position, is again struck with the
hammer, which is made to give the blows as
nearly as possible of uniform strength; and the
process is repeated with considerable rapidity
and regularity, CO to 80 cuts being made in one
minute, until the entire length of the file has
been cut with inclined, parallel, and equidistant
ridges, which are collectively denominated the
first course. So far as this one face is concerned,
the file, if intended to be single cut, would be
then ready for hardening. Most files, however,
are double cut; that is, they have two series
or courses of chisel cuts. In cutting the second
course, the chisel is inclined vertically as before,
at about 12°, but its edge only a few degrees
from the transverse line of the filo, or about
5° to 10° from the rectangle. The blows are now
given a little less strongly, so as barely to pene-
trate to the bottom of the first outs, and from
the blows being lighter they throw up smaller
burs, consequently the second course of cuts is
somewhat finer than the first. The two series,
or courwca, lill the surface of the file with
teeth, which are inclined towards the point of
the file."

At first sight it would appear from the
simplicity and continual repetition of the move-
ments required in file cutting that it was au
operation especially adapted to be performed by
machinery. Nevertheless, it was not until many
years after the first inventor of a filo*cutting
machine had patented his device that file-cutting
machines were successfully used, and that
machine-cut file* could compete with the hand-
made product in the market. Among the notable
inventors of file-cutting machine*! may be men-
tioned J)uvcHgcr (101)0), Fnrdonct (1725),
Thiout (17*10), Braclml and Gamin (1705-78),
Jtaoul 0800), EriehBOii (18M), Robimion
(1843), and Winton (1847). None of these
machines was commercially Hiiccctfsful. In 1805,
howver, Mr. W. T, Nicholson, of Providence,
It. I., invented a flic-cutting machine, which, as
improved imd modified from time to tim**,
is now extensively twctl in the United States.
About th<» same time M. Bcrnot, a French-
man, devwed a machine which proved com-
mercially successful, Briefly described, the fluc-
ctWHfnl forms of file-cutting machines consist
of a moving table on ythioh the Ale blank is
fixed, and which moves it progrcusivoly under a
sort of trip-hammer arrangement carrying cut-
ting ohtacls. In making machine-made Hies the
bar» of steel arc firwt forged by hand or by
machines and then ground smooth. The smoothed
blank ift them run through the cutting machine.
The Anal process is to temper and harden the cut
file.

Piling. To the uninitiated this may seem a
simple operation of rubbing one pitice of metal
upon another, requiring only muscular strength
and no skill. This is far from being the case,
for a skillful workman will in a given time,
with a given amount of muscular work, out
away & far greater quantity of metal with a Jftlo
than one who is unskillful, for he makes every
tooth out into the work, instead of rubbing over
it. To do this, he must adapt the pressure and

PILEFISH «

velocity of motion of the file to the coarseness of
its teeth and the hardness, brittleness, and
toughness of the material ho is working upon.
To file flat — i.e., to avoid rounding the sharp
edges of a narrow piece of work — is veiy difficult,
and some years of continual practice is required
before an apprentice can do this well, especially
in "smoothing up" or finishing work before pol-
ishing, and there are some who never succeed in
filing, smoothing, and polishing without rounding
the edges of fine work. The power to do this
constitutes the main test of skill among mathe-
matical-instrument makers and other metal
workers. The flattest surface can be obtained by
laying the work, where its form admits, upon a
pieco of cork held in the vise, and filing it with
one hand; the pressure on the file being communi-
cated by the forefinger. It is mainly to aid the
workman in filing flat that the rounded or bellied
form is given to files; this partially compensates
the tendency of the hands to move in a curved
line with its convexity upward when thoy move
forward, and apply pressure, as in the act of
filing. In draw filing the file is held in the
fingers of both hands and moved so that the
ridges of the teeth are nearly parallel to the
direction of motion. This makes a long shearing
cut along the surface filed, and no tooth marks
are left.

FILE'I'ISH. One of a family (Monacaii-
thidse) of small tropical and semitropical fishes
closely related to the plectognath trigger fishes
(q.v.). The scales are very small and rough, giv-
ing the skin a velvety appearance and making it
serviceable as a polishing material. The name
refers to the filelike appearance of the stout dor-
sal spine, which is rough and armed behind with
two rows of barbs. The type genus Monaoan-
thus contains several species, but the best-known
filefish is the "barnacle eater" (Alutera sohwpfi) ,
which ranges northward to New England, may bo
18 inches long, and has a "bright skin sometimes
of an orange and sometimes of a tawny hue." It
is a favorite object in aquariums. The habits of

DENTITION OF PlbBFIBH.

Palatal and profile view of the teeth.

the group are much the same as those of the
trigger fishes (q.v.). See Plate of PLECTOGWATH
FISHES.

ITLELPO, fe-lel'f6 (Lat. philelphus) , FBAN-
OBSCO (1398-1481). An Italian humanist, born
at Tolentino. He studied at Padua, and in
1417 was called to teach moral philosophy and
eloquence at Venice. There lie became distin-
guished as an expositor of the works of Vergil
and Cicero, which then constituted the principal
textbooks in his subjects. In 1410 I*e was ap-

46 FILIBUSTERS

pointed secretary to the Venetian Consul at Con-
stantinople, where he acquired an excellent
knowledge of the Greek language and a valuable
collection of Greek manuscripts. From 1427 he
taught Latin and Greek at Bologna, Florence,
and Siena, and from 1440 at Milan, where he
was also attached to the court of the Duke,
Filippo Visconti, an poet and orator. He wrote
for the next Duke, Francesco Sforza, 12,800 lines
of an epic known as the Sforsiad. In 1475 he
went to Rome, and in 1481 accepted the chair of
Greek at Florence. He was neither a profound
nor an accurate scholar, and his arrogance made
him personally unpopular, but his energy did
much to further the spirit of learning inspired
by Petrarch. Consult Rosmini, Vita di Filelfo
(Milan, 1808), and Syuionds, The Xcnaissance
in Italy (London, 1877).

FILE SHELL. A pholad. See PnoLAS.

FIXJLA/TIOIN' (from Lat. filius, son). In
English and American law, a proceeding
instituted for the judicial determination of the
paternity of a person. It may be employed for
the purpose of establishing legitimacy with
reference to inheritance, or to determine the
paternity of a bastard, in order to charge upon
the father the support of his illegitimate off-
spring. In the United States the term is more
commonly employed in the latter sense, as in the
expression "filiation proceedings," for bastardy
proceedings. See BASTARD; LEGITIMACY; PARENT
AND CHILD.

PII/IBTTS'TEItS (Sp. filibustero', from Fr.
fiibustier, fribnsticr, from Dutch vrijbueter, vrij-
luiter, freebooter, from vrij, free + "butter, from
tioete, Eng. loot, profit) . The name once applied
to a class of piratical adventurers in the West
Indies during the seventeenth century ( see BUC-
CANEERS), but now generally used to designate
any group or association of men who in disre-
gard of international law forcibly intervene as
private individuals in the affairs of any foreign
state with which their own government "is at the
time on terms of peace. In American history the
term is applied specifically to those citizens of
the United States, or residents therein » who nt
various times in the nineteenth century inter-
vened in the affairs of the West Indies or of
Central or South America for the purpose of
freeing colonies from Spanish domination or in-
dependent states from misgovernment, frequently
with an underlying motive of securing the annex-
ation of additional territory to the United States,
and in many cases of extending the area of
slavery and thus augmenting the influence of
the "slave power" in governmental affairs. Aaron
Burr planned to lead a great filibustering expedi-
tion into Mexico and Central America in 1806-
07, and the independence of Texas* in 1830, wan
brought about in part by filibusters from the
United States; but the. most famous expedi-
tions in American history were WXOBC of Lopez
and Walker. Lopez, after making several fruit-
less attempts in 1850-51 to effect the liberation
of Cuba, was finally, on Aug. 16, 1851, defeated*
captured, and executed. Walker succeeded
(1855) in overturning the government of Nica-
ragua, but quarreled with the native leaders and
in 1857 wan brought back to the United States
by an American naval officer, to whom he had
surrendered. Tie subsequently (1857-60) or-
ganized three more expeditions, each of which
failed, and in September, 1860, was routed by the
President of Honduras and summarily executed.
(Seo Lome, NARWSO; WAJUKBB,

FILICAJA

547

FILIGKREE

Minor expeditions were sent from the United
States to Cuba during the years 1868-98, but
they accomplished little and attracted relatively
little attention, though much excitement was
caused in 1873 by the brutal execution at Santi-
ago, Cuba, of a number of Americans, mostly
filibusters, found by the Spanish authorities
aboard the captured steamer \irginius. Consult
Roche, Byways of War: The Story of the Fili-
busters (Boston, 1901). See VIBGINIUS MAS-
SACRE, THE.

^FILICAJA, fe'lfc-kti'ya, VINOENZTO DA (1642-
1707). An Italian lyric poet, born in Florence.
He was a member of the Arcadia und Crusca
academies and was patronized by Christine of
Sweden, who educated his children, and by the
Grand Duke of Florence, who made him senator
and later Governor at Volterra and Pi«a. Of
his numerous poemn (Poesic Toscatie,, Florence,
1707) the most famous are those on the Turk-
ish wars (1683) and the sonnets to Italy. The
conflicting estimates of his work are explained
by tho fact that he had groat emotions and a
vivid imagination which he obscured under the
exaggerated artificiality of the academic style
of his time, of which he remains one. of the
most brilliant cultivators. Consult Amico,
Poettie o lettcre di Twmsio Filicaja (Florence,
1864), and G. Caponi, rinvcnsna da Filicaja e
1e s?/o opera (Prato, 1901).

FILICAiES, fn'I-kfilez. Roc FERN.

FILIGREE (formerly {Migraine, fitigrane,
Fr. filigrana, from Lat. filwn, thread + granum,
grain; the old filigree work being a combination
of these two elements). Tho name applied to
delicate wire work .ornaments, usually of gold or
silver wire, twisted and plaited into* spirals and
other convoluted forms, combined to form a sort
of metallic lacowork, and joined at their points
of contact by gold or silver solder and borax, by
tho help of the blowpipe. Small grains or
beads of tho same metals arc often set in the
eyes of volutes on tho jnnctiona, or at the in-
tervals, at which they will effectively set off the
wi rework; in early Greek work the gold
ground was covered with infinitesimal gold
grains. The more delicate tracery is usually net
in a framework of stouter wire. Tt is uaed for
brooches, earrings, erodes, head ornaments,
jewel caskets, and like objects of a light and
elegant character. This work is now chiefly-
done in Malta* India, Genoa, some Tuscan vil-
lages, the Ionian Islands, and some part** of
Turkey.

The technique of filigree was not unknown to
Kgyptian jewelers, but it was perfected by Greek
art, to which belong the examples found in
Italian tombs, wrongly called Etruscan. The
Greek filigree work of tho golden ago of the fifth
and fourth centuries B.C. is of extraordinary
Iwjauty. The delicate frosting of the solid sur-
face, produced by tho sprinkling of fine gold
grainn, which IB an eHscntial part of perfect fili-
gree work, appeared to be a lost proeoHfl after
the decline of Greek art, but was revived by the
famous Roman collector, Castollani, who exe-
cuted many beautiful copies. The firm of Tiffany
has more recently carried its excellence still
further. Necklaces, tiaras, hairpins, safety pins,
earrings, rings, bracelets, are the principal
clasaea ofpersonal jewelry in the original Greek
works. The Vatican, Louvre, and Metropolitan
museums have the greatest quantity of works
found in Italian tombs, while the British Mu-
seum lias a large number discovered in Greek

lands. The latest Greco-barbaric forms are best
shown in specimens from southern Russia, at
St. Petersburg and Kertch.

From the lloman period to modern times that
part of the technique was most popular which
consisted of the use of wirowork. But the secret
of frosting with gold grains was not lost, only
the fashions had changed. In many collections
of early medueval jewel work there are reli-
quaries, covers for the Gospels, etc., made either
in Constantinople from the sixth to the twelfth,
century or in monasteries in Europe, in which
Byzantine goldsmiths' work was studied and imi-
tated. These objects — though not entirely in
filigree work — besides being enriched with" pol-
ished but uncut precious stones and with enamelt
arc often decorated with iiligree, soldered on to
large surfaces of gold ; and corner pieces of book
covers or the panels of reliquaries are not infre-
quently made up of complicated pieces of plaited
work, alternating with spacer incrusted with
enamel. Byxantine iiligree work occasionally has
small stones set among tho curves or knots. In
the north of Europe the Goths, Saxons, Britons,
and Celts were from an early period skillful in
several kinds of goldsmiths' work. Brooches, anil
other personal Jornainents in England, were in-
cniHted with enamel work varied with borders or
centres of iiligree. The Irish filigree work is
especially varied in design and reached its
highest perfection in the tenth and eleventh cen-
turies. The Royal Irish Academy in Dublin con-
tains a number of such reliquaries and personal
jewels, of which filigree IH the general and most
remarkable ornament, varied by numerous de-
signs, in which one thread can be traced through
curious knots and complications, which, disposed
over largo surface, balance one another, but
always with nponial vuriotiow and arrangements
ditficiilt to trace with the. eye. The long threads
appear and dinappear without breac.h of con-
tinuity, tho two ends generally worked into tho
heaU and tail of a serpent or a mounter. Tho
reliquary containing tho "bell of .St. Patrick" i«
covered with knotted work in many varieties
A two-handled chalice, called the *Ardagh cup,1
haw boltw, IMHHOB at the junctions of the bundles,
nnd tho whole lining of the foot ornamented with
work of this kind of extraordinary fineness
Much of the later tnodheval jewel work till over
Kurope down to the fifteenth century, on reli-
quaries, erodes, erosierrt, and other ecclcs i ant ieul
gohfamiths' work, t« wet off with bottscH and
borders of filigree. Mobamnunlan damatwene
work must bo carefully distinguished, but filigree
work in silver waw practiced by the MoorH of
Spain during the Middle Agc'a with groat skill
and was introduced by thorn and oHtablinhod all
over the ponintwla, where silver filigree jewelry
of delicate and artintic design is still made hi
considerable quantities. Tho manufacture ttpread
over the Balearic Islands and among the popula-
tions that border the, Mediterranean and con-
tinuoR all over Italy and in Albania, the Ionian
Islands, and many other parts of Greece. That
of tho Greeks is flometimoB on a large scale,
with several tMcknosHos of wire alternating with
larger and smaller bosses and beads, sometimes
set with turquoises, etc., and mounted on convex
plates, making rich ornamental headpieces, bolts,
and breast ornaments. Filigree silver buttons
of wtrework and small boHsea are worn by the
paasantH in most of the countries thai produce
this kind of jewelry* Silver filigree brooches ami
buttons are made also in Denmark, Norway, and

Sweden. Little chains and pendants are added
to much of this northern work. Beautiful speci-
mens have been contributed to the various inter-
national exhibitions. Considerable filigree work
in silver is produced by Armenian jewelers in
Constantinople and Asiatic Turkey. Some very
curious filigree was brought from Abyssinia
after the capture of Magdala in 1870 — arm
guards, slippers, cups, etc. They are made of
thin plates of silver, over which the wirework
is soldered. The filigree is subdivided by nar-
row borders of simple pattern, and the inter-
vening spaces are made up of many patterns,
some with grains set at intervals. The Indian
workmen retain many Greek patterns, and work
them in the same way, down to the present day.
Wandering workmen are given so much gold,
coined or rough, which is weighed, heated in a
pan of charcoal, beaten into wire, and then
worked in the courtyard or veranda of the em-
ployer's house, according to the designs of the
artist. The completed work is weighed on its
restoration and the workman is paid at a speci-
fied rate for his labor. Very fine grains of gold
are still used. This work requires the utmost
delicacy of hand and is of extraordinary richness
of effect. Great interest has been felt in the re-
vival of the designs of antique jewelry by Signor
Castellani. He collected examples of the peasant
jewelry still made in many provinces of Italy on
extraordinary designs preserved from a remote
antiquity. Most of the decoration is in filigree
of many varieties. It was in part through the
help of workmen in remote villages, who retained
the use of various kinds of solder, long forgotten
elsewhere, that the fine reproductions of antique
gold filigree have been so beautifully executed in
Italy and by Italian jewelers. Consult the
authorities referred to under JEWELET.

FILINTO, f 6-len'ta, ELTSIO. See NASOIMENTO,
MANGEL DE.

irLIO'QTJE. A Latin phrase meaning "and
from the Son," which was added to the Niccne
Creed by the Western church and has formed a
prolific source of controversy between the Greek
and Roman Catholic churches. According to the
received Greek text, this article of the creed runs
thus: "And we believe in the Holy Ghost, . . .
who proceedeth from the Father." This was the
form common to all sections of the Church in the
fifth century. At the Third Synod of Toledo ( 589
A.D.), the Spanish bishops used a Latin version
which contained the filioque addition, thus: "I
believe in the Holy Ghost, . . . who proceedeth
from the Father and the Son." This addition
met with favor in the Western church, especially
in Spain, after the conversion of the Goths, but
was very offensive to the East. Passages could
be cited from the writings of Augustine and Leo
the Great in support of the doctrine of the
"double procession," as it is technically called,
but its formulation as part of the creed was
destitute of ecclesiastical authority. The early
ecumenical councils had omitted any expression
of the double procession, and the symbol which
expressed this faith had been pronounced un-
alterable. Nevertheless the Western church con-
tended, first, for the truth of the doctrine implied
in the filioque, and, later, for the symbolic au-
thority of the clause itself.

The Synod of Gentilly (767) approved the
clause, and in 809 Charlemagne convened a synod
at Aix-la-Chapelle to examine the whole question
of the proper wording of this clause. The de-
cision was in favor of the form sanctioned at

Toledo; but, the case coining before Pope Leo
III, he discreetly refrained from giving his ap-
proval to the change in the creed, though he
admitted the truth contained in the doctrine as a
proposition of theology. The earliest formal
recognition of the filioque by a pope was in 1014,
when Benedict VIII permitted its use at the
coronation of Henry II. By the middle of the
eleventh century it had become well established
in Rome. Meanwhile the break between the
Eastern and the Western church had come.
Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople, had
charged Rome with violating the canons by allow-
ing a change to he made in the creed, and this,
together with other causes which need not be
specified here (see GBEEK CHUBCH), brought
about the great schism. Frequent efforts have
since been made to heal this breach, but without
success. Even the most hopeful attempts of
Greek and Roman Catholics to reach some agree-
ment on the filioque question, e.g., at the councils
of Lyons (1274), and especially of Ferrara-
Florence (1438-3*)), have accomplished no per-
manent result. That the Eastern church has
persistently refused to admit the validity of the
Roman contention may be seen from such oilicial
pronouncements as the Orthodox Confession of
the Eastern, Church (1C43) and the Larger Cate-
chism of the Orthodox Eastern (Russian) Church
( 1839 ) . The great Greek theologian and doctor,
John of Damascus, went to the limits of Eastern
orthodoxy when he said, "The Holy Ghost pro-
ceeds from the Father through the" Son." It is
worthy of note that these words formed the basis
of doctrinal agreement on this creed article
reached at a conference of Old Catholic, Greek,
and Anglican divines in Bonn in 1375, but no
practical result followed their deliberations.
Consult: E. S. Ffoulkes, Historical Account of
the Addition of the Word Filioque to the Creed
(London, 1867) ; Hefele, History of the Councils,
vol. iii (Eng. trans., ib., 1883): Schaff, Creeds
of Christendom, vol. ii (New York, 1800) ; liar-
naek, History of Dogma, vol. v (Boston, 1800).

FILIPINO, fll'I-pe/nd. See PHILIPPINES.

FHiIPPI, f$-leyp$, FILIPPO DE (1814-07).
An Italian traveler and naturalist. Ho was
born at Milan and, after holding professorships
in zoology at Pavia and Turin, made a tour to
Persia in 1802, which is described in his Xote di
un viaggio in Persia (1865). He was director of
the zoological exploring expedition sent out in
the Magenta to circumnavigate the globe, but
died on reaching Hongkong. He was the author
of the important work entitled Dellc fuwtoni
riproduttive negli animali (2d ed*, 1856) and
various books on travel.

EILIPPI, fMeype, FlLOTO DE (1869- ),
An Italian physician, alpinist, explorer, and
historiographer. He was born in Turin in
April, 1869. As a member of the Italian Al-
pine Club he had made numerous ascents in
the Alps, when (in 1897) he was invited to join
the Duke of the Abruzzi's expedition to Alaska,
which accomplished the first ascent of Mount
St. Elias. The history of the expedition he
later prepared. In 1006 he accompanied the
Duke to Africa in his exploration of Ruwenzori
(probably "Mountains of the Moon" of Ptolemy)
and in 1911 went to Kashmir to attempt the as-
cent of "K2" (Godwin Austen). The elaborate
volumes narrating these expeditions, as also
the story of the Arctic voyage of the Stella
Polare, on which the farthest north of the period
was attained by the Abruzzi expedition, were

FILITE 549

also prepared by him. In 1913 he organized an
expedition for a geological and physical study
of an unvisited portion of the Karakoram
Himalayas (Kashmir), in which he was en-
gaged during the next year.

JFILITE. Sec EXPLOSIVES.

EHiIX-llIAS. See FERN, MALE.

JETLLAN, fil'an, or FAETiATT, SAINT. Two
Irish or Scottish saints, whose histories are more
or less legendary. 1. ST. FILLAN, or Faolan, the
leper, was commemorated by a church in Scot-
land at the east end of Loch Erne in Perthshire,
where "St. Fillan's well" was long believed to
have supernatural power of healing. lie also had
a church in Ireland at Bally heyland (anciently
called Killhelan, or Kill Faelain), in the barony
of Cullcnagh, Queen's County. His day was
June 20. 2. ST. FILLAN, the abbot, lived in the
eighth century. He was a native of Ireland,
became a monk there, and went to Scotland,
where he seems to have lived at Strathfillan in
Perthshire. His chief church was there, and also
a well-endowed priory dedicated to him. His day
is January 0. The silver head of his crosier, or
pastoral staff— called the "coygerach" or "quig-
rich" — appears in record as early as 1428 and,
after a curious history, is now preserved in the
museum of the Society of Antiquaries of Scot-
land at Edinburgh. A hand bell which bore his
name and was believed to work miracles is also
in the same museum. Consult: Wilson, The
Quiffrich or Crosier of Saint Fillan (Toronto,
1850) ; alKo "Historical Notices of Saint Lilian's
Crosier," by Dr. Stuart, reprinted from the Pro-
wcdings of tho tfocicty of Antiquaries of Scot-
land, vol. xii (1878); Forbes, Calendars of
' tfaints (Edinburgh, 1872).

( Fr., The Daughter of the Regiment) . An opera
liy Donizetti (q.v.), first produced in Paris, Feb.
11, 1840, in the United States in 1843 (New
York).

EH/LET (OF. fillet, ML. fihttum, tmmll
thread, dim. of Lat. filum, thread). In archi-
tecture,, a narrow flat surface or «cmaro edge
in the profiles of moldings. In heraldry (q.v,),
a charge. In Greek and Roman religious rites,
a while and rod band of woolen stud, worn upon
the forehead, as a sign of religious

and of inviolability. It was iwd by the priests
and hence is spoken of usually as a sacred fillet.
It appears in carved ornament in the fluttering
ribbons associated with festoons (see FESTOON),
both in antique and Renal usance art.

EH/IiEY, CIIAITNOKV IVEFJ (1829- ). An
American merchant and politician, born in Lan-
smgburg, N. Y. ITe became, tin* largest importer
and distributor of queenH\vare in tho. Mississippi
valley. HP was mayor of St. Lonta in 1863-05
and in 1 860 a member of the, Rtate Constitutional
Convention which aboliHlied slavery in Missouri,
fie waa a member of the Republican National
Convention iu 1804 and thereafter of every State
and national convention up to and including
lH06,and al«o served as a member of the Repub-
lican National Committee from 187C to 1802,
He was postmaster of Rt Louis in 1873-78 and
president of the St. Louis ftoard of Trade in
1876-79. He published Some JfowMfoan Hi*-
tori/ of J/toouri, JflJ«-/fflW (1898).

yiUxWOBB, MILLABD (1800-74). The tbir*
teenth President of the United States. He was
horn in Caywga Co., K Y., Feb. 7, 1800. After
a youth of industry .with littl« opportunity tor
education, he undertook tlie study of law, and

was admitted to the bar in 1823. His practice
of his profession, chiefly at Buffalo, continued
actively for 24 years. His political life began
in 1828 with his election as an Antimason (nee
ANTIMASON) to the State Legislature, where he
served for three terms. In 1832 he was elected
to Congress as a Whig and retained his seat,
with one intermission (1835-37), until 1843.
During this period he was prominent as a debater
on the Whig side, upheld the right of petition,
served as chairman of the Committee on Ways
and Means in the Twenty-seventh Congress, and
reported the Tariff Act of 1842, of which he was
virtually the author. He sought without success
the presidential nomination in 1844, and in tho
same year he ran for Governor of New York on
the Whig ticket, but was defeated by Silas
Wright (q.v.). He became Comptroller of New
York State in 1847. In the following year he
was elected by the Whig party Vice President on
the ticket with Zachary Taylor (q.v. ) . Upon the
death of the "President, in July, 1850, Fillmore
succeeded him, and the change in administration
was marked by the early passage of the Com-
promise Measures. (See COMPROMISE MEASURES
OF 1850.) Fillmore's support of those measures
and especially his signing of the Fugitive Slave
Law (q.v.) alienated many of the extreme
Northern members of his party. Aside from the
development of the slavery problem, his admin-
istration was marked by one conspicuous event — •
the establishment of diplomatic relations with
Japan. In 1852 he was a prominent presidential
candidate before the National Convention of the
Whig party. In 1850 ho\wnB a candidate for the
presidency on the ticket of the Know-Nothing
(q.v.), or American, party, and, although sup-
ported by many conservative Whigs, such as
Edward Everett (q.v.), he received the electoral
votes of only one State (Maryland). He took
no active part in the Civil War, and spent the
remaining years of hia life at Buffalo, whore he
died March 8, 1874.

Though devoid of many advantages in his
youth, Fillmorp acquired a dignity and urbanity
which imule him greatly respected while Presi-
dent. Consult: Chamberlain, Biography of Mil-
lard Ml I more (Buffalo, 1850) ; Htoddard, Millard
mUmoro (New York, 1888) ; Wilson, Th* /Vrsi-
dcntft of the United tftates (i}>,, 1894); Stan-
wootl, A History of t)w Presidency (last cd.,
JJoHton, 1808); ,T. F, Khodcs, A History of the
llnilwl tftatcs from th<\ Compromise of 18X0,
vol. i (New York, 1903) ; Manure, Our Prexi*
dents (3d Cil., ib., 1005). For an account of his
administration, HOC UNITED STATES.

PII/MEB, SIB KonERT (?~1653). An Eng-
lish political writer, defender of the divine right
of kings, Ho was educated at Trinity College,
Cambridge, was knighted by Charles I, and wa«
active as a Koyalist during the Civil War. Ills
moat Important work is his posthumous Patri*
aroha; or, The Natural Pother of Kings (1680),
which attempts to trace kingly right by primo-
geniture back to Noah and to Adam. The book
waa reckoned a classic defense of divine right and
was answered by Algernon Sidney, in MR post-
humously published Discourses Concerning Oov-
crnmtnt (1008), and by Loeko, in his Two
TrQ&lte&t of Government; In th& Former, the
False Principles and foundation of Rir R, Mlmer
and his Mlowcrs ar& Detected and Overthrow,
etc, (1690). Filmer also wrote: The Anarchy
of a Limited and Mixed Monarchy (1'648) ; The
Power of King*, and Pwtiwlwly of the King of

FILOCOPO

550

FILTH DISEASE

England (1680); The Freeholder's Grand In-
quest Touching our Sovereign Lord the King and
Us Parliament (1648); Observations Concerning
the Original of Government (1652), attacking
Hobbes, Milton, and Hugo Grotius; Observations
on Aristotle's Politiques Touching Forms of
Government (1652) ; Advertisement to the Jury-
men of England Touching Witches, together toith
the Difference "between a Hebrew and <m English
Witch (1653).

FILOCOPO, fe>l6-ko'p6, IL. A prose version.

by Boccaccio, written at Naples about 1340, of

the old French metrical romance Flore et

Blanchefleur.

FILON, fS'lON', CHARLES AUGUSTS D-fisiafi

(1800-75). A French historian, born in Paris.
He was the author of many valuable works,
which include: Histoire compwee de France et
d'Anglet'erre (1832); Histoire de VEurope au
XVIeme siecle (2 vols., 1838); Histoire de la
dtmocratie ath6nienne (1854). — His son, PTERBE
MABIE AUGUSTTN (1841- ), was the tutor
of the Prince Imperial from 1867 to 1870. He
wrote several histories, novels, and critical re-
views, such as Quy Paton, sa vie, so, correspon-
dence (1862) ; JJistovre dc la literature anglaise

(1883), crowned by the Academy; Prosper
Merimee (1894); Le tlMtre anglais (1896);
De Dumas a Rostand (1898) ; Leu caricature en
Angleterro (1902).

FILOSTRATO, fe-lGs'tra-td, IL. A narrative
in poetic form by Boccaccio (1341), closely fol-
lowed by Chaucer in Troilus and Crcssida.

FILTER AND FILTBA'TION (Fr. filtre,
doublet of Fr., OF. feidre, It. feltro, felt, from
OHG. file, Ger. Vila, AS., Eng, felt; connected
with OHG. fate, Ger. Fate, fold, Lat. pellerc,
to drive). The original and oftentimes the sole
object of filtration is the removal of suspended
matter from liquids by the mechanical process
of straining. Recently science has shown that
in some of its applications filtration is far more
than a straining process, particularly in water
and sewage purification, where, by the agency
of bacteria, organic matter, both in solution and
suspension, is removed or transformed, thus pre-
venting or delaying the clogging of the filter
by the latter. The end to be attained in filtra-
tion may be the securing or the recovery of
matter suspended in a liquid, or the clarification
or other purification of the liquid itself. The
filter may be either a vessel of porous material,
such as carbon in some form of baked clay, un-
glazed porcelain, or fine-grained sandstone, or it
may be a vessel containing a granular or fibrous
material, supported on a perforated bottom.
Granular filtering materials may be sand, crushed
quartz, powdered or crushed glass, bone, or wood
charcoal, crushed coke or cinders, or other
substances more or less similar. Fibrous filter-
ing material may bo cotton, wool, or asbestos,
either in the form of cloths or otherwise, and
like substances. Both experience and theory
show that in many instances the material to be
filtered out adheres to the surface of the indi-
vidual grains or fibres of the filtering material,
often forming a layer or membrane on the sur-
face of the walls of filter vessels. In such cases
adsorption assists in the process, and the re-
duction of the size of the pores of the filtering
medium, whether through straining or adhesion,
makes it more difficult for the suspended mat-
ters to pass through. Another contributing
cause is the tortuous passage through the filter-
ing material, the several particles of the latter

serving as so many dams or barriers to the
progress of the suspended matters, adsorption
again aiding in this process. The speed or
capacity of filters, and also their efficiency or
thoroughness, may be aided in some cases by
the use of a coagulant, which serves to bring
the suspended matters together in flakes or
clots which are readily retained by the filtering
material. The burden upon filters, or their
tendency to clog, may be lessened in some cases
by previous sedimentation. When filters dete-
riorate so that they give a filtrate deficient in
quality or quantity, they may be either dis-
carded or cleaned, according to their nature.
Sometimes they may be washed by reversing the
flow of liquid through them. See SEWAGE DIS-
POSAL; WATEE PURIFICATION.

FILTER PRESSES. A combination of
strainers or filters with some form of press de-
signed to hasten the process or increase the
thoroughness of separating liquids and solids.
In many cases the filtering is nominal only, the
filter cloth being used chiefly to retain the solid
matter, which otherwise would be squeezed out
between the plates or racks of the press. The
force used in pressing may be applied by hand,
steam, or other power, by means of- simple
screws or more or less complicated gearing, or
air pressure may be used. Common examples
of the former are the ordinary cheese and cider
presses, and tankage presses used in garbage
and fat-rendering establishments. Compressed
air is sometimes tised both to fill and operate
presses dealing with matter having a high per-
centage of water, like sewage sludge. (See
SEWAGE DISPOSAL.) Hydraulic power may alHO
be used to operate filter presses.

FILTH DISEASE. A term that may be ap-
plied to any disease caused or supported by ac-
cumulation of filth. The term, although uat»ful,
is not strictly scientific. It has been applied to
typhoid fever, cholera, dysentery, and dwrrhcpa,
as well as to erysipelas, pytpmia, septicaemia,
and puerperal fever. These were called **filth
diseases" on the supposition that they were
caused by putrefying excrement, garbage and
refuse, leakage and seepage from cesspools,
privy vaults, and sewers, through which wella
and springs, as well as the atmosphere, became
polluted. Since the discovery that the causative
principle in each of these disease* is a specific
bacillus, the term *kfilth diseases" has fallen into
partial disuse. It is known that bacteria <lo
not pass through the air accompanying the va-
por arising from a fluid, and that, in general,
cases and vapors cannot convey infection, bac-
teria being carried by spray or du«t. Yet it is
true that allowing filth, particularly human ex-
crement, to accumulate so that it may gain
access to drinking water, or may attract in-
sects which will carry it about, is to invite,
contamination and infection by the. bacteria
that may exist in such filth. Thu«, flies may
carry focal matter about and transfer it to
food. Typhoid fever is spread through the me-
dium of water or milk or other food which has
been infected by the excrement of patients suffer-
ing with the disease. Want of personal cleanli-
ness may encourage disease, and an accumulation
of refuse affords a nidus for the multiplication
of pathogenic germs. It is therefore clear that
preventing the accumulation of filth must in a
large measure serve also to prevent filth dioeaaet*.
See INSECTS, PROPAGATION OF DISEASES
TYFHOID

FILTRATION

551

EINALISM

FILTRATION". See FILTER AND FILTBATION.
PILUM AQTJ^J (Lat., thread of the stream).
In law, the imaginary line running along the
centre of a natural stream, which is the pre-
sumptive boundary between the lands on the
opposing shores. When one conveys lands
bounded by a watercourse, he is presumed, if the
stream is private and the bed of it is vested
in the grantor, to convey to the centre or thread
of the stream. This presumption may be re-
butted by a plain expression of a contrary in-
tention in the deed, or the whole of tho stream
may be granted with the land on either side.
But where, as is usually the case, a stream is
taken as the boundary without special restric-
tion, it is the thread, or filnm aqua>, which is
understood as the line between the riparian
owners. This thread has no reference to the
position of the channel, nor does its location
necessarily follow the flow of the water; but it
is, as a general thing, a line midway between
the banks and following the contour of the
shore as nearly us possible. The principle of
the filvm atiure finds its most frequent illustra-
tion in the case of riparian proprietors in pri-
vate streams, but it is equally applicable to the
delimitation of frontiers between opposing
states or nations or of minor political divi-
sions. See "RipAitiATsr HKIHTH.

FIMCBEIA, CAIUS FLAVIUS (?-84 n.c.). A
Roman soldier and partisan of Hhxnus during
the civil war with Sulla. As legate to the
consul Valerius Flaocus at Ohalcedon, he stirred
up mutiny among the troops, who murdered
their consul and took Fimbria a« their leader.
Fimbria undertook a campaign against Mitliri-
datea, whoso general, ArchelauB, hud invaded
Greece. When in 85 n.c. Sulk, after the defeat
of Archelauw, imulu peace with Mithridutw, he
turned his arms against Fimbria, who, finding
himself deserted by his troops, put an end to
bin life (84).

Fimbria waa noted for the- cruelty of his
treatment of the enemies of the Roman arms,
and it is related of him that, having by a ruse
obtained entry to II him, he burnt the town,
which Rulla afterward caused to be. rebuilt.

IXMTBBIATEI) (Lat. fimbriatus, fringed,
from /wftftna, border, fringe). A term in her-
aldry, applied to an ordinary having a narrow
border or edging of another tincture*.

3OTT (AS. finn; connected with Lat. pinna,
fin). An organ possessed by aquatic1 animals
and used for locomotion in the water.

General Considerations. Fins are cutaneous
folds which may or may not be supported by
ftn rays or other framework, Tn the squid the
fins are cutaneous lobes; in plcuropods they are
morphologically paired parts of tho foot. Folds
of skin occur on the tails of certain adult and
larval Amphibia, The forelegs, or "AipperR," of
marine turtles and cetaceans arc. modified into
finlike organs, besides which the tail of ceta-
ceans ends in a fin, and a fatty dorsal fin may
also be present. The fins of both turtles and
cetaceans ant supported by a bony framework.

Fins of Fishes, ' Fishes' fins may consist of
mere folds of the skin, or thene membranous
folds may be supported by cartilaginous or bony
rods, the fin ray*. When the supporting rays are
unsegmcnted, in which case they are usually
strong, we have a spiny-rayed fin like the first
dorsal of the porch; the whole or a part of a
given ftn may b$ .spiny-rayed, Such fishes aro
clawed a» 'Wnthopterous." When the rays

are segmented, we have soft-rayed fins, and the
fishes possessing only such are classed as "mala-
copterous." Fins arise as folds of the skin. In
young fishes these folds are much more exten-
sive and later disappear, except in the region
where the permanent fins are to develop. For
the wholly different fins of certain ancient fishes,
and the few existing lung fishes, see DIPNOI.

Fins are of two kinds — paired and unpaired.
The paired fins, placed at or near the ventral
side of the body, are the pectoral and anal,
corresponding to the .anterior and posterior
limbs respectively of higher vertebrates, Along
the median dorsal line we may have one or
more unpaired fins — the dorsal fins. The cau-
dal fin terminates the
body posteriorly. The anal
fin (usually one, but
sometimes several) is the
unpaired fa in the me-
dian ventral line of the
body, posterior to tho
anus. In flounders and
in certain fish embryos
there is.a continuous dor-

FIN STBUCTURE),

« .»-.t«&t«.»u. showing tho

sal and ventral fold of skin relation of the fin boncp
supported by fin rays. Tn ^ra^^t^hdSSMrtfi:a of
most adult 'fiahea only iao- deriving flesh and HpirSl
lated patches of tho con- column,
tinuourt fin remain — two
dorsal, one ventral, and one caudal. See illus-
trations under Fisir.

Fins may be variously modified. The pecto-
rals m.iy be greatly broadened and lengthened
and act as flying organs, as in the flying fishes.
The ventral 'fins may he entirely absent, art in
the Apodes. They may be united in a manner
to produce a sucking disk, as in the lumpsuckcr,
or the dorwil fin may be transformed into a
sucking dink, aw in the remora. The anals may
be entirely wanting, as in certain sharks. The
modifications of the caudal fin (tail) fall into
two forma, proposed by Agassis, which are
characteristic of groups and much used in the
olanBifi cation of italics. TheHe forms are:

IfoniootiTdaL — A condition where the, caudal
fin is Hymmetrieal an to the axis of the body;
i.e., the lobes arc equal, and the Hpine (then
said to be "ieowrrol"} ends at the middle of the
base of the fin. The perch and salmon have
such tails.

Helervwrcdl. — A condition where the upward
bending of the spine and its extension into the
upper lobe cause an evident inequality in the
lubes, as in sharks. In this case the spine is
said to be ^liphycorcal."

JTWAIi CATJSE. Sec OAUHALITY.

IXNTAIiE, tt-nJl'lft ( It,, end) . Tho name given
to that part of a musical composition which
finishes the act of an opera; ako to tho last
movement of a cyclical instrumental composition,
as in tho symphony, quartet, quintot, sonata,
etc. Tho character of tho finale in purely in-
strumental works ifl generally lively. Tn the
opera it depends on the tmhjwt, sometime,* bdn#
an aria alone, instead of tho usual full concerted
music for soli and choim

FENTAXB NBLL' EMILIA, nSI'lft-xneayft. A
city of Morlena, north Italy, on the Panaro, 27
milcrt northeast of Modcna (Map: Italy, 02).
It has a trade in cattle and manufactures silk.
Pop. (commune), 1901, 12,798; 1911, 13,422.

ET'KAIjISM. The view that the world'*
«»uw> as well aa it« origin is the <
a plan having' an end in vfovr, or of

JOHN

552

necessarily harmonious. The most familiar form
of this doctrine is the traditional Christian view
that God has decreed the creation and the main-
tenance of the world for the accomplishment of
ends that he thereby realizes. Finalism gen-
erally rests on a theistic conception of the uni-
verse, but it has been held by some who do not
believe that one overruling Providence guides
the course of events, but that what takes place
is the result of the conflict and compromise of
multitudinous wills, no one of which is para-
mount. All forms of voluntarism (q.v.) are
finalistic. Finalism is opposed by mechanism,
which maintains that the course of events is not
determined by an end foreseen and desired, but
by natural laws, blind and unfpreseeing. It has
been the fashion to set finalism over against
determinism; but Bergson (q.v.) maintains that
both finalism and mechanism are deterministic,
differing only in that the former regards the
determining principle as the end worked toward,
while the latter regards it as the law working
from behind. See DETERMINISM; MECHANISM;
TELEOLOGY.

PI3STAJ/ITY JOHKT. A nickname applied to
Lord John Russell (q.v.), who advocated the Re-
form Bill of 1831 and spoke of it as a "finality."

EINATXCW (Lat. finantia, payment, derivative
of finare, to pay a fine, from Lat. finis, end,
settlement). A term which is popularly ap-

ices as are required; but there are reminders
of the older system at the present time. Of
these the most conspicuous is the obligation to
bear arms; but a homely illustration is found
in the road taxes of rural communities, which
are so often satisfied by actual labor upon the
roads.

While questions of public policy respecting
the fiscal operations of the government form
a large part of the literature of economics, it
was not until the latter half of the nineteenth
century that the general use of the term
"finance" became common among English writers
to designate this group of phenomena. The im-
portance of this development lies in the fact
that before it took place all these questions were
regarded from the standpoint of the individual,
instead of that of the state. The former is apt
to be one of hostility, the latter at least of sym-
pathy. While earlier writers emphasize the
dangers of taxation, the oppression which it
causes, the disturbances in the economic life
of the community which it involves, later writ-
ers recognize certain normal activities for the
government, - the satisfaction of its needs by
taxation as appropriate, and look upon the
payments of the citizens, not as sums wrung
from them by extortion, but as assessments for
the maintenance of a system essential to the
general well-being. This attitude has led to a

NATIONAL EXPENDITURE IN MILLIONS OF DOLLARS

COUNTBIBB

1830

1340

1850

1860

1870

1880

1890

1900

1910

United States

315

$24

$39

$63

$309

$267

$352

S590

$659

100

140

107

United KinjdoTn . ....,,......,

275

200

275

345

340

400

430

641

789

135

320

463

756

France

201

285

300

405

020

685

674

860

220

312

380

533

759

746

1324

Italy

161

222

274

371

384

510

Spam

105

165

170

181

207

Avjffcriji-HuTxgary. .. * r .........

140

185

225

295

375

420

001

1094

plied to the management of transactions involv-
ing large sums of money, such as the floating
of great corporate enterprises and the stock-
exchange transactions incident thereto; or, on
the other hand, the administration of the re-
ceipts and expenditures of nations, states, or
cities. The operations first named are frequently
designated "private finance," while the latter
is spoken of as "public finance," or simply
.finance. The rules of private finance, if such
there be, have not yet been formulated, and it
is indeed only in recent years that economic
writers have sought to coordinate the rules and
principles of public finance into a science of
finance. Scientific usage restricts the term
"public finance" to questions affecting the ex-
penditure, revenue, and debt of governments, al-
though in a popular sense it is applied to ques-
tions of monetary and banking policy.

The science of finance is much younger than
the art of finance, and this dates only from the
rise of the modern state. In the latter public
needs are mot by expenditure of money drawn
from the people by taxation and other methods,
while in the mediaeval state such needs were
largely met by direct personal services. These
have been almost entirely superseded by the
^^JbHgation to pay taxes, and by the payment in
jauW**. from the public treasury for such serv-
ng materf&i,

fuller investigation of the facts concerned and
furnishes a central point about which they can
be coordinated.

The development of a science of finance an
here indicated has pointed out the contrasts as
well as likenesses between the management of
the money affairs of states and individuals. To
both the rule of economy and caution applies

XHy, however great the temptation in public
rs to neglect it. By its sovereign power
over the citizens, the state rooms to bo in a
position to take all it wants. This has led to the
hypothesis laid down by certain writers that in
private economy expenditure is measured by
income, but in the economy of the state income
is measured by expenditure. The epigrammatic
statement is not wholly true, since among in-
dividuals expenditures arc made by inroads
upon capital when income does not suffice,
while in the state expenditures are sometimes
curtailed and more, frequently postponed for
lack of sufficient income* Yet, within limits,
such a contrast exists and marks the divergent
tendencies of public and private economy.

Public Expenditure. It is through the ex-
penditure of public money that the stat<» worke
in all of its activities, and it in the first duty of
the science of finance to determine thoir nature
and scope. Finance accepts public expenditures

FINANCE

553

FINANCE

as a fact. It is not concerned with justifying
them, either in whole or in detail. Whether a
given expenditure is proper is in part a ques-
tion of political philosophy, in part a question
of practical expediency. The former may in-
fluence general lines of policy in this respect,
though in practice each proposed public ex-
penditure is apt to be judged on its own mer-
its. The grounds upon which such proposals
are approved or rejected lie outside the domain
of finance. But the fact that expenditure is
made is of prime importance, and, scrutinising
the expenditures which are actually made,
finance seeks, by classifying them, to arrive at
the laws of their development.

Classification of Public Expenditures.
Formerly economists classified public expendi-
tures as necessary and voluntary. This classi-
fication, based upon a definite theory of the
functions of the state — a subject beyond the
province of finance — obviously fails to meet the
requirements of modern financial theory. A
fairly satisfactory classification is that of Prof.
Henry C. Adams, who classes public expendi-
ture as protective, commercial, and develop-
mental. The first class includes the preserva-
tion of internal peace and the defense of the
nation against foreign aggression. In the sec-
ond class arc placed expenditures entailed by
the performance of a number of functions in
which the state takes the place of the private
capitalist, as in the management of enter-
prises such as the post office, telegraphs, and
railways. In tho third group, develop mental
expenditures, arc included those which the state
undertakes to promote its own interests or those
of its inhabitants, such as expenditures for edu-
cation and other outlays which arc designed to
improve general conditions among the people.
It is not to be understood that the boundaries of
those groups can bo sharply drawn. Legtelative,
expenm»B, e.g., fall under all theno heads. Such
a classification has its value in pointing out
that, besides the expenditures for protection
which are essential to existence, there arc other «
equally natural and equally unavoidable which
are incident to growth and progress. The pre-
cise form which tUc latter take dependw on lo-
cal necessities and liiHtorical antecedent H.

Growth of Public Expenditures. Whatever
may bo the theoretical justification of expendi-
tures, however they may bo appropriately
grouped, finance inuflt take cognizance of tho
fact that in volume expenditures are growing at
a rapid rate. The evidence upon this point is
cumulative, but not comprehensive. Tno divi-
sion of authority between national and local
governments materially enhances the difficulty
of ascertaining the aggregate expenditures for
all public purposes within a given nation. Tho
distribution of expenditures between tho na-
tional and local governments differs widely in
the various countries; and for this reason it is
necessary to excrete great caution in compar-
ing the national expenditures of modern states.
For national expenditures tbe figures arc gen-
erally available. Wo borrow from Professor
Adams a tabta giving the, national expenditure
in millions of dollars for a number of states
from 1830 to 1800, to which we have added,
from tlxe latest sources, the figures for subse-
quent decades*

So far as these figures go they show steady
advance, though it is by no means uniformly
rapid, for the various countries. The signifl-
VOL. VIII.--36

cance of this advance in national expenditure
can be fully understood only by a detailed study
of each of the countries involved. The first
consideration is the relation of expenditure to
population. For the United States this is
shown by the following table, taken from tlie
Report of tho Secretary of the Treasury:

TEAR

Total
mills,
dolls.

Per
capita

THAR

Total
mills,
dolls.

Per
capita

1840 . .
1845

$24.3
22.9

S1.42
1.15

1880. .
18S5 . .

$2676
260.2

$5.34
4.03

1850

39.5

1.71

1890. . .

318.0

5.07

1855

59.7

2.19

1895

356.2

5.16

1860 ....

03.1

2.01

1899

605.1

8.14

1805

1297.6

37.34

1900. . .

487.7

6.39

1870

309.6

8.03

3905

567.0

7,46

1875

274.6

625

1910

659 7

7.30

(Net expenditure*, i.e., all national expendi-
tures except payment of the national debt In
the nomenclature of the Treasury report unet
expenditure" includes "net ordinary expendi-
ture" and interest on the public debt.)

These figures ahow a marked difference be-
tween the period which preceded the Civil War
and that which followed; they also illustrate
the disturbing influence of war on the national
finances. Both the earlier and the later pe-
riod manifest a general tendency towards an
advance of expenditure slightly more rapid than
that of population. The tendency of expendi-
tures to outrun population is characteristic of
most modern states. Tims, the expenditure of
Groat Britain advanced from £2.31 per capita
in 1800 to 13.52 in 1900, declining slightly (to
£3.50) in 1010.

But the vital point is whether expenditure
has outstripped wealth. Owing to the extreme,
uncertainty of all calculations of national
wealth, thitt is a point which cannot bo deter-
mined with absolute accuracy. They appear,
however, to have kept pae« with national wealth
in France, but to haves fallen slightly behind
in the United States and considerably behind in
Great Britain.

Respecting local expenditure OITT information
is leas explicit. Figures cannot be presented
for as many eountries. In the United Statea
we have census figures on this point tqy to 1800,
but no investigation into local expenditure was
made in tho census of 1000. In 1004 a special
censm inquiry WRR macto on wealth, debt, and
taxation. Tn 1870 local expenditures were 47
per cent of all public expenditures, in 1800 they
had roachod 61 per cent, and in 1004 they wart*
63.8 per cent, in Oreat Britain the share of
local expenditure row* from 34 per cent in 1870
to 44 per cent in 1800 and 65 por cent in 1910.
This increase in local expenditures is to bo ac-
counted for chiefly by the fact that the rapidly
increasing developmental expenditures fail in
great part upon the local governments. To
estimate their true significance for tho general
welfare and for the financial outlook of a na-
tion, the expenditures should be weighed aa
well as measured* In general, the growth of
military expenditure is to b$ depleted. Yet even
this has its compensations, ainoe the array, es-
pecially in Home of tho more eastern parts of
Kurope, contributes by its training in discipline
to industrial efficiency. On the other hand, tbe
increase of the developmental expenditures must,

554

FINANCE

if -wisely directed, be a clear national gain. The of the state forests and domains and the rather

facts can only be surmised from the general limited system of state railways. The Russian

statements of public expenditure which are clas- budget bears the costs of operation of the al-

sified statistically by administrative depart- cohol and tobacco monopolies, of the railroad

ments rather than by classes of expenditure, system, and of the state domains. A more com-

We may cite a few facts for the national ex- mon illustration is offered by Prussia, where

penditure of the United States, tabulated from the cost of operating domains, mines, and rail-

the Treasury statements:

ways is about half the aggregate expenditure.

EXPENDITURE IN MILLIONS OF DOLLARS

YUAB

Civil and
miscellane-
ous*

War

Navy

Indians

Pensions

Interest on
the Public
Debt

Total

1870

948.3

$57.6

$21.7

$3.4

$28.3

$129.2

$288.8

1875

63.8

41.1

21.4

8.3

29.4

103.0

267.4

1880

51.6

38.1

13.5

5.9

56.7

95.7

261.7

1885

82.9

42.6

16.0

6.5

56.1

51.3

255.6

1890

74.5

44.5

22.0

6.7

106.9

36.0

290.8

1895

82.2

51.8

28.7

9.9

141.3

309

345.1

1900

98.5

134.7

55.9

10.1

140.8

40.1

480.4

1905

127.9

122.1

117.5

14.2

141.7

24.5

548.2

1910

171.5

155.9

123.1

18.5

160.6

21.3

651.2

1912

172.2

148.7

135.5

20.1

153.5

22.6

652.9

* Exclusive of postal deficiencies.

The table displays in condensed form some
tendencies of expenditure in recent years.
The fall in the jntoroat charge is accounted
for chiefly by the reduction in the public debt,
but partly by reduction in the rate on loans.
(See DEBT, PUBLIC.) The expanding elements in
expenditure in the recent period are civil and
miscellaneous, which doubled from 1895 to
1900; war, which increased nearly threefold •, and
navy, over fourfold. The other major item, pen-
sions, increased somewhat in the same period, but
has since manifested a tendency to decline.

Comparison of National Expenditures. A
comparison of the budgets of leading nations to
show the place occupied in each of the several
classes of expenditure is an inquiry which
tempts the student, but which is confronted
with well-nigh insurmountable difficulties. The
most serious is the fact that while data for the
finances of the several local governments are
frequently missing, the distribution of functions
and therefore of financial responsibility between
the nation and the various subordinate govern-
ments differs greatly in the several States. This
distribution rents upon constitutional provi-
sions and administrative regulation. In com-
paring national budgets we find little that is
common to all except the expenses of foreign
intercourse, national defense, and public-debt
charges. To ascertain, therefore, the propor-
tional costs of the several items of public ex-
penditure would require a compilation of all tho
expenses of all the local governments in addi-
tion to the figures for national expenditure.
The lack of figures for such local expenditure
renders a statistical study of national budgctw,
without note or commentary, valueless

Another obstacle to a simple comparison of
national budgets lies in the varying extent to
which the nations concerned undertake indus-
trial functions. The inclusion of the postal ex-
penditures would add '220.0 million dollars to
the aggregate for the United States in 1910.
In most national budgets the postal service
is included, but this is not true of Austria-
Hungary. The French national budget is charged
with the expense of operating the tobacco,
matches, and gunpowder industries, together
with the expenditures due to the management

Local Expenditures. It has already been
pointed out that local expenditures grow more
rapidly than national expenditures, and a few
figures indicative of the extent and nature of
sxich local expenditures may be adduced. Kather
than single out particular localities, it is better
to have resort to the figures fumi8hed by the
tt. S. census report on Wealth, Delt, and Taxa-
tion of 1004. The expenditures for governments
of all grades were as follows:

National Government $617,530,137

States and Territories 185,764,202

Counties 197,305,827

Cities (over 2500 inhabitants) 408,637,749

Other minor civil divisions 222,«82,8S4

Duplications 09,040,242

Total (less duplications) $l,621,734,f>r>7

Tho expenditure for schools is distributed
among the States, counties, and municipalities.
Tho character of expenditure of tho national
government having been already noted, we may
cite from the cenws the following statement
for local expenditure:

Legislative $7,301,063

Executive 2,052,847

Law offices and accounts 7,170,091

Finance offices and accounts 10,725,828

Miscellaneous general government 18,004,135

Court?.... 30,034,003

Military nnd poluve 54,551,829

Fire department.. „ 38,185,700

Miscellaneous protection to life and property . . . 3,786,570

Health and conservation 0,400,520

Sewers, drainage, and other aanitation 20,4 17 ,047

Street Ifchtin* 22,010,293

Other highway expenditures 93,801,607

Charities 58,400423

Insane 23,021,207

Penal institutionH 24,420,029

Education 281,219,278

Parks and recreation „ 14,025,414

Agriculture 3,239,000

Intercut 78,002,297

Industries S2,OS4,894

Investment expenses 156,846

Outlays 208,475,012

All other 19,098,160

Public Revenue. The revenues* of the state
are chiefly derived from taxation, but this is not
the exclusive source of income. Omitting minor
or casual sources of income, such as fines and
gifts, the state derives a revenue from the
management of its own property, from its in-

PINANCE

555

FINANCE

dustrial activities, and from other services
which it renders to the community. Nomen-
clature is by no means fixed, but we may desig-
nate the sources of income as prices, charges,
fees, and taxes.

1. Prices. — Under the head of prices we may
include the revenue arising from the sale of
public property, such as land or its products.
By price we mean a return fixed in the main
by private competition. Such a return can be
obtained when there is no monopoly of the prop-
erty to be sold. \Vhcthor or not "such shall be
the aim of the state depends largely upon ques-
tions of public policy. As an owner of prop-
erty, the state is trustee for the people, and a
wise policy may in some cases dictate the neg-
lect of commercial interests, while in other
cases it may require that they be strictly ad-
hered to. Wherever the state has possessed
large domains fitted for agricultural lines, as in
the public lands of the United States and of
Australia, such lands have boon uned rather
to promote national development than to insure
public revenue. Products incidental to the func-
tions of government, such UH the lumber from
state f Greats or goods produced in penal e»-
tiiblishmentH, must, if brought into the market,
be sold at market prices, lest the state should
injure its own citizens. Tho revenues from
these sources arc but a pmall portion of the in-
come of modern states.

2. Char got. — Charges may serve as a general
term for the amounts pnid for specific indus-
trial services which the ntato performs. Tlieso
include the operations of the, post oflicp, the
telegraph, the telephone, the railroad, municipal
gjifl and electric plants, and the sale of certain
products mich as liquors, tobacco, matches, etc.
The range of industrial activity represented,
though of cotirse not equally extensive in tho
various modern states, is varied and compre-
hensive. In all there is a common feature,
public monopoly, which makes tho term
"ehargea" for public service more appropriate
than "prices." The determination of the charge
rests upon the motives which load the state to
enter upon a specific kind of industrial activity.
That motive is seldom to obtain the largest pos-
sible revenue from the enterprise, although thia
character iHPB fiscal monopolies, HiiHi as tobacco
and match monopolies, which arc4 frequent upon
tho continent of Europe,. The liquor monopoly
as it exists in Switzerland is not wholly fiscal
in its purpose, as it necks to eliminate some
of the abuses which grow out of the private
production of spirjtuouH liquors. Far more ob-
vioufl arc the social interests involved in tlu*
government management of ga« and electric-
lighting plants, railroads, telephones, tolej^raplw,
and the postal service. Tn the measure in which
those social interests are regarded in fixing
charges mu«t tho revenue-producing character
of the industry be superseded. Hence tin* tend-
ency under government management to render
services at cost. This is well illustrated in the.
history of the postal service, which, in Homo
states has ceased to bo a «ource of not revenue.
This feature should bo carefully considered in
all proposals for tho a«»umption of various
branches of industry by tho state. From a
purely nacal point of view thcra is generally
greater advantage, in private ownership subject
to taxation than in public ownership.

3. JVfl?.*— • Fed* are payments for definite, am*'
ices rendered by public authorities in th6 ad-

ministration of public business, Such arc court
fees, license fees, and the like. Tliey arc based
upon the theory that a special service is ren-
dered to those who pay them over and above the
general social service which the operations of
government imply. As the benefit derived by
the individual is intangihle, there can be no
question of an exact equivalence between the
payment and the service rendered. The only
rule which can be fixed is that they should not
be so oppressive as to interfere with the orderly
conduct of public a/lairs. Thus, marriage foes,
either to the state or church, should not be so
high as to promote unions not legally sanc-
tioned. Court fees should not deprive the poorer
classes of the protection of the law. Similar to
fees in their nature are the taxes called special
assessments in American finance. Whon a
street is opened or a highway improved, while
the public receives a benefit, yet the chief ad-
vantage is frequently enjoyed by the owners of
the abutting real estate. For this they are com-
pelled to pay by a special rate levied upon such
renl estate. Special assessments, like fees, con-
tain therefore an element of commensurable pri-
vate advantage. Unlike foes, they arc levied upon
reul estate and are applied for the purpose of en-
hancing the value of that real estate. See TAX.
4. Taxvn. — Tn the three kinds of payment
thus far discussed there is in general a direct
benefit to the individual, and the payment is
made only in exchange for a direct service of
the state*. In this they differ radically from
taxes. The latter are forced contributions to
tho public treasury. In practice, as in the most
advanced financial theory, taxes rest upon the
duty of eittaciiH to support the state. The bone-
fits which tho citixon enjoys from the existence
of government are general and not specific, and
no attempt to establish a parallel between such
benefits and lax payments ean be successful.
Writers on finance have indeed frequently at-
tempted to justify taxation on tho ground* that
government renders an equivalent sen* ice in
protection to person and property; but there
is obviously no demonstrable relation between
the payment* which may bo exacted from indi-
viduals in taxation and the protection afforded
them. Taxes aro baaed, then, upon the duty of
e.iti/ons to support tho state of which they are
members; and tho measure of such duty in,
found in their ability to bear a share of tho
burden. For a comprehensive treatment of tho
theory und practice of taxation, seo TAX.

REVENUES OF THE UNITED 8TATE8 FOR THE
FIHOAL YEAR ENDING JUNES 30,

t salct of :

_______ Uud*

Ordnanca material
Government property

$5,302,790

234,732
2.782,028

?o«tal service 240,744*016

, lottcrt patent, land, , .
focHt, fines, penalties, , . .
t fuad ...............

Internal rovunuo ..............

Customs , i i.i .....

" "Di'atrict'of Columbia .

Judieii

Fon*t
Other

indemnity *

on ftofmtgA, bullion, dapoaittt etc,

l foeH, fine*, pmuiltift* ,

twt resorot fund ,*<*.„,,, *

ttooipt* not olwwad *

4,478,829
3.33M19

Bi&R

•105*081
" "70»lfid

Total ordinary roooipts together with postal . . $938,040,089

FINANCE

556

FINANCE

Revenues of the United States. > modern
nations taxation greatly overshadows all other
sources of revenue. This is brought out in a
detailed statement of the revenue of the United
States for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1912,
in which the sources of income are arranged,
so far as practicable, by classes.

It would be possible to carry the classifica-
tion into further detail, and to place under the
main heads a number of items falling together
under receipts not classed. In each case the
receipts are gross, without deduction for ex-
penditures connected therewith, which may in
some cases exceed the receipts.

RECEIPTS OF THE UNITED STATES IN MILLIONS
OF DOLLARS

Year

Total

Customs

Int. Rev.

1840

S19.5

S13.5

1845

30.0

27.5

1850

43.6

39.7

1855

65.3

53.0

I860

56.1

53.2

1865

322.0

84.9

$209.5

1870

396.0

194.5

184.9

1875

284.0

157.2

110.0

1880

333.5

186.5

124.0

1885

323.7

181.5

112.5

1890

403.1

229.7

142.6

1895

313.4

152.2

143.4

1900

567.2

233.2

295.3

1905

544.2

261.7

234.0

1910

675.5

333.6

289.9

1912

691.7

311.3

321.6

Revenues of Various Nations. The com-
parison of revenues of foreign countries is beset
with difficulties similar to those which are en-
countered in comparing their expenditures.
Just as there are certain unquestioned func-
tions of national states, so there is at least one
unquestioned source of national revenue, viz.,
customs duties. But with it are found asso-
ciated other forms of taxation, both indirect
and direct, and other forms of income, accord-
ing to the scope and variety of the functions
exercised by the national government. The
most marked contrast between the United States
and Great Britain on the one hand, and the
continental countries on the other, is in the
extent among the latter of industrial income.

Local Revenues. The most comprehensive
statement of local revenues in the United States
is given by the census report on Wealth, Debt,
and Taxation, for the year 1002. According to
this report the revenues of the several local
governments were as follows:

States and Territories ..................... $189,165,067

CoxmtiflB ............................... 199,119,468

Cities over 25,000 ........................ 424,763,472

Cities 8,000-25,000 ....................... 75,216,973

r civil

,,
All other minor

,,
l divisions .............. 219,304,262

Total ............................... $1,107,569,242

The sources of local revenue are classified under
general revenues, amounting to $934,629,816, and
commercial revenues, such as receipts from pub-
lic industries aggregating $172,939,426. The
general revenues are classified as follows:

General property tax ........................ $706,660,244

Special property and business tax ............. 62,327,400

Poll taxes .................................. 16,581,786

Liquor licenses ........................... 55,241,197

Other licenses and permits ................... 19,841,348

Fines and forfeits ........................... 7,962,322

Subventions and grants ..................... 60.984,892

Donations and gifts ....................... 2,903,477

All other .................................. 2,127,150

Public Debt. A third division of the subject
of finance concerns public credit and its use.
As the creation of public debt often required
by the exigencies of national life rests upon
the public credit, a complete theory of finance
must concern itself with the means by which
public credit ib established and maintained, as
well as the methods by which it is drawn upon
for the support of the public finances.

Like the credit of individuals, public credit
rests upon confidence; and like the credit of in-
dividuals, such confidence rests upon past per-
formance of obligations incurred. Without a
sacrifice of sovereignty the state can offer no
other guaranty to its creditors. It is true that
in certain cases the obligations of one govern-
ment have been guaranteed as to interest and
principal by the government of another state,
ns in the case of the Egyptian bonds guaranteed
by the English government. But in such a case
the power which guarantees tends to extend its
sovereignty over the government which con-
tracts the obligations. Again, governments have
sometimes set aside the receipts from certain
revenues, as, e.g., customs, for the payment of
interest obligations ; but without good faith this
guarantee is of little value unless such reve-
nues are placed under foreign administration,
as was the case of the customs revenues of
Santo Domingo, administered primarily in the
interest of foreign creditors by officials named
by the President of the United States. Such
a plan, while it may support the public credit,
is usually regarded as highly objectionable on
account of the abdication of sovereignty it en-
tails. *

The basis of public credit is therefore the
ability of the state to fulfill its contracts and
the punctiliousness with which it actually does
so. Public debts are therefore bonds without
mortgages or similar security. They are prima-
rily contracts to pay interest, but may include
also an obligation to pay the principal, either
in whole or in part. Usually, in European coun-
tries, no fixed date is set for the repayment of
public debt. A different policy is pursued by
the United States. See DEBT, PUBLIC.

Sinking Fund. Provision for the payment of
public debt is sometimes made by the establish-
ing of a sinking fund. A sinking fund contem-
plates the gradual extinction of a d<»l>t, provided
by the law authorizing ihe debt, and while it
has been discarded in the practice of the more
advanced nations, is sometimes used by the na-
tions of weaker credit. Jt is needless to say
that the faithful fulfillment of the condition
when it exists tends to support public credit.
Sinking funds may assume various forms, but
the principle is simple. The state guarantees
an annual appropriation, as, e.g., 1 per cent of
the principal of the debt, which is used to re-
purchase a part of the debt in the market. The
bonds so purchased are not destroyed, but are
set apart in a separate fund or sinking fund
and continue to draw interest. The interest of
the first year's installment to the fund plus
the second year's installment is used to pur-
chase bonds. By this process carried out the
government in time acquires possession of all
its own bonds, which are then destroyed and
the debt canceled. This plan seems very simple
and in the early part of the nineteenth century
was widely adopted. Its defects are, first, that
the state has not always the money available
for such an appropriation; second* that it is

557

FINANCE

not always expedient to purchase bonds in the
market because of the premiums upon them,
and, third, that such a reserve of unredeemed
securities can with difficulty be maintained in-
violate in times of emergency. In view of these
defects, sinking-fund arrangements planned in
this way by statesmen like Pitt and Hamilton
have never been followed to their logical con-
clusions. Modifications of one sort and another
have been introduced which have left of the
original institution little more than the name.
This is shown in the history of the sinking
funds in the United States, especially that of
1802. By the Law of Feb. 25, 1802, it was pro-
vided that, after the gold receipts from customs
had been used to pay the interest, they were
to be applied uto the purchase or payment of one
per centum of the entire debt ... to be made
within each fiscal vear, which is to be sot apart
as a sinking fund, and the interest of which
shall in like manner be applied." No obliga-
tion could be more formal, yet it was not for-
mally observed. No attention was paid to this
provision after the war, and at its close tho
payments and purchases did not proceed in the
orderly fashion prescribed by law. Tho surplus
revenues which for a time were alnintlant were
used for the cancellation of debt fur more
rapidly than had been contemplated by the law.
Nor were the bonds called in or purchased re-
tained as a fund, for by the Law of July 14,
1870, it was ordered that they be canceled and
destroyed, and that an amount equivalent to
the interest upon such canceled bonds be paid
annually into the sinking fund. In the subse-
quent history of the country there were epochs
in which there was no debt cancellation, others
in which it proceeded rapidly, just as the condi-
tion of the revenues permitted. Congress and
the Treasury Department have been satisfied
by the explanation that the aggregate debt re-
duction has boon far greater than that con-
templated by tho law. The- sinking fund to-day
therefore stands practically as an expression of
tho policy of debt reduction, and of the author-
ity of the Secretary of tho Treasury to purchase
bonds in tho market for this purpose, and has
no other significance. Tho expression occurring
in financial reports of purchases for the sinking
fund means simply for debt repayment.

Whenever tho financial condition of the na-
tion warrants a repayment of debt there are
simpler methods of proceeding than sinking-
fund arrangements. Bonds may cither be called
in or may be purchased in the market Theo-
retically purchase in the market is preferable
when the bonds arc below par, but as this con-
dition is not likely to occur in any state which
ha« a surplus for debt payment, the cnsc is of
no practical importance. On tho other hand,
the terms of the contract may be such as to
prohibit calling in the bonds, as has boon the
case in the United States, and leave no way of
redemption open except purchase at a premium,
In such a case the premium paid is to be com-
pared with the saving of interest which would
have to be paid during the unoxpircd term of
the bond before redemption becomes optional.
Much more suitable, therefore, for the purposes
of fiscal administration are bonds which ate
not limited as to term of payment, but which
can be redeemed at their face value at the will
of the government.

When there are no specific sinking-fund at-
tachments to public debts, the repayment of

public debt might be regarded, so far as the
contract with creditors is concerned, as a work
of supererogation. But just as a business man
gains in credit by prompt or anticipated pay-
ments, so a policy more liberal to creditors than
legal requirements demand redounds to the
credit of the state. Repayment of the principal
is not essential, as we have seen, to the main-
tenance of public credit, as states whose debt
continues to increase stand in good repute, but
is a policy to be recommended. Of its utility
as an outlet for surplus revenues we shall speak
in discussing financial policy. For conversion
of public debts, see DEBT, PUBLIC.

When loans have been raised for industrial
purposes there are valid reasons for the adop-
tion of a fairly rigid sinking-fund policy. As
we have seen, it is customary to operate many
public industries on the principle of covering
costs, but without surplus profit. Charges
should be fixed at a level sufficient to sink the
principal of the loan before the equipment of
the public industry wears out or becomes ob-
solete, and such a policy would involve the
maintenance of a sinking fund. This principle
of finance, though unquestionably sound, has
found only occasional observance in practical
financial policy.

Having considered public debt in relation to
public credit, we may briefly outline its rela-
tions to fiscal operations. The creation of debt
is a source of revenue which serves to equalize
the difference between public expenditures and
ordinary revenue. This difference may be caused
by irregularity of revenue or casual deficit.
Loans are then required in anticipation of rev-
enue, and in such cases they should be tempo-
rary, of short duration, subject to redemption
at will or in a brief period. Jf at the expira-
tion of this period there is no accumulation of
funds available for payment, the only alterna-
tives are an extension of tho loans or their in-
corporation in the funded debt. The difference
betwwn ordinary revenue and expenditure may
bo caused by a national emergency, such ns war,
to provide for which tho ordinary sources of in-
come, however stretched, arc wholly inadequate.
Or, again, the difference way be caused by the
investment in groat public works, which either
in their effect on the general tax-producing ca-
pacity of the people or by revenues appropriate*
to themselves are expected to pay for themselves
in tho long run. In the eases named a resort
to funded debt is tho only way open by which
to meet sueh expend ititres. For a further devel-
opment of these principles, sco DFJHT, PniUiro.

Financial Policy. The aim of financial pol-
icy can bo summed up as the attainment of
adequate revenue, a revenue adequate to fiscal
needs and responsive to changes in them. This
involves the questions of distribution of sources
of revenue and elasticity of income.

The separation of government into national
and local authorities, with the interposition of
a third class of regional authorities in tho case
of Federal States, brings with it a division of
expenditures and tho need of adequate reve-
nues for each form of government. The ideal
of independence in action within thoir several
fields can only be realized when to each are as-
signed certain independent sources of revenue,
without such revenues these authorities be-
come mere disbursing offices lacking vitality,
The problem of proper revenue is the most se-
rious one which, confronts the maintenance of it

FINANCE

558

FINANCE

distribution of authority sanctioned by usage or
proposed by legislation. It is a question of
practical statesmanship, which must in each
country take into consideration the facts of
national development and cannot be decided
upon general financial or political principles.

The question at issue is partly one of law and
partly one of fact. What sources of income does
the law allow to the several bodies, and are
these in fact suitable? In the United States
the Constitution i>ives the Federal government
the power to collect taxes, duties, imposts, and
excises, but prohibits it from imposing a capi-
tation or other direct tax except in proportion
to the population. This in fact excludes the
Federal government from the field of direct
taxation, which is left to the States. The inter-
pretation of the term ''direct taxation" has
varied in different periods of American history.
The practical efl'ect of the varying interpreta-
tion of the term is illustrated in the history
of the Federal income tax. Such a tax was lev-
ied in the time of the Civil War and was held
to be a constitutional exercise of the Federal
taxing power. The income tax was in 1894
declared to be a direct tax, and therefore un-
constitutional, by the Supreme Court. An
amendment to the Constitution authorizing the
Federal government to levy income taxes re-
ceived the necessary adhesion of the States in
1913, and an income-tax law was passed in the
same year. (See TAX.) Should the nationaliza-
tion of railroads demanded in many quarters
ever become a fact, it would withdraw from
the States an important and remunerative ob-
ject of taxation. Given the present functions
of the Federal government, the revenue oppor-
tunities have proved ample for its purposes.

In the States the revenue question is more
perplexing. Except that they may not impose
customs duties, there is no limitation upon the
power of the States. But since the needs of
the State governments are relatively small as
compared with those of local governments, the
relation of the two is of great importance. It
cannot be said that there is anything like a
system in the actual distribution of revenue
sources between the two forms of government.
It must, however, be obvious that the orderly
development of each requires that well-defined
sources of income be assigned in such a way as
to satisfy the more rapidly increasing necessi-
ties of the local governments.

A revenue system should therefore supply
current needs, should increase in productive-
ness as those needs increase, and should more-
over be regular in its returns and capable of
meeting the fluctuations of financial necessities.
The customs revenue is peculiarly subject to fhic-
tuation, and a State which relics solely upon
it is exposed to serious embarrassment. This is
well illustrated in the financial history of the
United States, and depicted in the table of re-
ceipts of the United States, given previously in
this article.

Imports on which these revenues are based
follow the vicissitudes of trade and reflect the
hope or fear of tariff changes. Far more regu-
lar has been the productiveness of the internal-
revenue taxes imposed by the United States.
To meet these fluctuations of revenue from cer-
tain sources, as well as to meet fluctuations ixx
the need for money, the financial system of
every nation needs some elastie element, some
tax whose productiveness can be reduced or

augmented, as the case may be. The United
States may be said to have such a source of
revenue in the internal-revenue system. When
drawn upon for fche increased expenditure for
the war with Spain, the eft'ect upon the revenue
was rapid and considerable. But nowhere else
has this element of elasticity attained the im-
portance which it has assumed in England »
where the income tax is used for this end. In
the United States it has not been necessary to
increase or reduce taxation frequently, since in
the past 30 years there has generally been a
surplus revenue which has been applied to debt
reduction.

Local Finance. As a result of the division
of authority and functions between central and
local governments, a distinction is coining to
be clearly drawn between general and local finan-
cial operations. The extent of the latter has
been treated at the beginning of this article; it
is here necessary to emphasize Home of the
chief principles of local as distinguished from
general finance.

Esopenditures. — Those expenditures which re-
sult in purely local advantages are most natu-
rally borne by the local government. Such, e.g.,
are those which are incurred for local improve-
ments and the costs of local administration.
Besides those expenditures, there are some
which are of general interest, but are best placed
under the control of local bodies, so as to be
more nearly under the supervision of the pub-
lic. Examples of expenditures of this kind are
those which are incurred in the support of pri-
mary education and for poor relief and the ad-
ministration of justice. It is these classes of
expenditures which are increasing most rapidly,
Revenue. — If local government is to possess
real autonomy, it must possess independent
sources of revenue. Certain classes of taxation
cannot be employed by local governments.
Such, e.g., are tho income and general excise
taxes, import and export duties; taxes on be-
quests and inheritance. These forms of taxa-
tion are difficult to collect by local authorities ;
and if practice is not unifo'rm throughout the
state individuals and industries \yill escape tax*
ation by shifting from one locality to another.
There remain taxes on real property and on
local occupations. Neither of these objects of
taxation can ewcape the local assessor. Fran-
chise taxes frequently afford a considerable lo-
cal revenue. Further revenues may be secured
through charges for special benefits, e.g., water
rates, and special assessments (q,v.) may be
employed to cover the outlay for some of the
more burdensome* local improvements. It re-
mains true, however, that the revenues which
can be obtained from local sources are frequently
insufficient to cover the expenditures "which
are incurred by the local government. In many
countries it has become customary to supple-
ment local revenues by grants from the central
treasury. In England, up to 1887* many grants
for specific purposes were mude; since that year
various duties, collected by the central author-
ity, have been marked off for local uses. In
the United States the most familiar application
of this principle is the grant of State funds for
educational purposes.

Debt. — The local government, even more than
the central authority, is often compelled to
incur debts to cover the cost of undertakings
which are too extensive to be paid for out of
current revenues. A large proportion of local

FINANCE

55$

FINANCE

expenditures are productitc and hhould there-
fore bo met by loans which distribute the cost
over a, long period. Local authorities tire, how-
ever, frequently inclined to be reckless in the
expenditure of "resources thus gained. For this
reason the central government usually exer-
cises close supervision over the creation of lo-
cal debts. In the United States State consti-
tutions frequently fix a limit beyond which lo-
calities cannot go in incurring debts; in many
oases debt limitation is provided in municipal
charters. In Great Britain a special act of
Parliament is required in order to authorize
a municipal loan; and a similar practice is fol-
lowed in France and other continental countries.
In England the central government acts as an
intermediary in securing loans for local bodies,
thus giving to the latter the advantages of the
national credit; in Belgium the national treas-
ury keeps a fund out of which loans are made
to municipalities ; and in Germany Home part
of the workingmon's insurance funds adminis-
tered by the state government arc loaned in
thin manner. See TAX; MUNICIPAL GOVRBNMRNT.
Bibliography. The principal comprehensive
works in English are Bastable, 1'ublic Finance
(i\c»w York, 181)2) ; Henry C. AdimiH, Science of
Finance (ib., 1012); W. M. Daniels, Moments
of Pulille Finance (ib., 1809); C. ('. Tlehn, In-
troduction to I'ublio Finance (ib., 1000) ; D, ft.
Dewey, Financial History of the United 8lates
(4th wlM ib., 1012); D. 0. Sowers, Financial
History of the State of New York from .778,9-
Wte lib., 1014). J. W. Oricc, National and Lo-
cal Finance (London, 1910) contains valuable
discussions of the relation of central and local
finance*, in Groat Britain. The census report
UVwWi, Debt, and Taxation (Wa«hington,
1004) gives not only the* most comprehensive
fttatistics available for the United States, but
also valuable general discussions of cln&silica-
tion of revenues and expenditure. Sec BUDGET;
PKBT, PUBLIC; CUHTOMH DUTIES; INTERNAL
TARIFF; JREPUDTATIOIV ; TNDBPENI>-
TBKASITUY; and authorities oitod.

WAR FINANCE

The coming on of tho European War natu-
niHy introduced a very great: chang1 into na-

course, those] of the belligerent nations. Co-
incidently with this great expansion in public
expenditure, followed the necessity of great in-
creases in public income; and from the latter
came the necessity of now types of taxation,
as well as unprecedentedly high rates under old
taxes. At the same time there occurred a vast
enlargement of public debt, due to the fact that
even with the most urgent effort to equalize
budgets by means of taxation, war expenses had
become so excessive as to necessitate a very
heavy resort to borrowing. Although, as else-
where noted, public finance necessarily relied, so
far as practicable, upon taxation as a moans of
obtaining needed revenue, it was true that, prac-
tically from the beginning of the war, nations
recognized that it would be essential to borrow
heavily with a view — it was true — to later re-
funding and perhaps partial cancellation, but
with the distinct expectation that the debt thus
created would continue in effect for a great
while.

Tn studying war finance a beginning should be
made by reviewing expenditures during the
period of belligerency and immediately there-
after. These may then be compared with tho
figures already given (page 552) for peace out-
lays. The table below surveys the expenses of
aomo of the principal countries.

Incomes of Chief Countries. Tn order to
make provision for these enormous expenditure*
the various governments almost from the outset
of the war sought to increase taxation, although
this plan was resorted to in a very varying
degree. Tn ROIUO countries, notably Germany,
the belief that the war would be short and that
its cowt could best be met by borrowing led to
a limitation of new taxes and a substitution of
loans, HO that war finance was largely concerned
with lx>XTowing, either through popular loans or
through short-term borrowing at banks. In
othcrw, however, it was recognised froxn the be-
ginning that action designed to provide an ade-
quate l>anin of taxation was absolutely cBHontial,
and accordingly new methods of taxation were
devised and applied. Tn the table on the fol-
lowing page, it) furnished a survey of the income
from taxation and other sourceH (non-borrow-
ing) obtained by each of the principal conntricH
during the war period.

NATIONAL

(000,01)0 oiulttiMl)

COUNTKIKH

1014

ioir>

1010

1017

1018

1010

1020

1021

tTni1<vl Ntato*

$ 700

7.11

723

1,035

12.007

1H,515

1 1 ,470

3,073

£ 100

ir>8

#27

408

620

402

472

330

Unitwl Kingdom.

£ 107.5

408.0

1,J)50.1

2,108.1

2,000,2

2,570.3

1 ,<Mfi

1,105

C {on nan v

mark 8,054

25,708

27,723

40,008

53,300

40,00(1

01,471

1SK.202

Franco *,..*>,,,.,,

franc 0,580

22,804

20,630

30,345

30.410

40,020

52,183

44,412

IllltiSUl , , . ,

roubUi « .

2,808

8,047

4,078

47,077

230,0(X)

ftnlv

lire 2,262

5,428

10,557

17,140

25,320

32,454

28,121

24,088

Ami ria Hungary .....

kronen 5,210 l

0048

26,012

jfiputi , , ,

yon 574

'«83

'wi

584

'807

1,(HM

1,335

C'uiuula. ,.

$ 127

107

200

450

522

712

347

537

* 1013.

tional financial practice as well as financial
condittoim, although war experience wibnequcnt
to It) 14 vindicated rather than altered the con-

Chief Sources of Taxation. While there
was no uniformity of taxation throughout tho
world during the European War some general

arid thoorioH winch had boon developed features may be regarded as practically identical
as u result of prewar experience* Probably tho an most countries. Among theno wan an early
mo»t striking feature of the European War resort to income and excess profits taxes. Of

from the financial standpoint was the enormous these ty
expansion of the expenditures of central gov- affo

' all over the world j conspicuously, of the. Uni

es of taxation the bcflt examples were
the legislation of Great Britain and
States. Great Britain wits naturally

FINANCE

first in the field and having first attempted to
provide for her necessities by means of an ad-
vance in the rates of taxation it was determined
to undertake new types of levy in that field.
In 1914 Great Britain accordingly doubled tlo
rates of the income tax and imposed additional
internal revenue or excise duties; theie, how-
ever, speedily proving insufficient and being suc-
ceeded by new legislation adopted early in 1915.

FINANCE

taxation. No actual revenue measure was put
into effect prior to June 30, 1917, which was
the end of the fiscal year, but the question of
tax legislation was taken under advisement and
on October 3 of that year a measure whose
yield was estimated at $3,400,000,000 was en-
acted by Congress. This provided for income
surtaxes and an excess profits tax on the same
basis as that of Great Britain. An abortive

NATIONAL (GOVERNMENTAL) INCOME
(000,000 omitted)

COUNTRIES

1914

1915

1916

1917

1918

1919

1920

1921

United States

$ 735

698

780

1,117

3,665

5,132

6,695

5,625

Australia
United Kingdom

£ 21.7
£ 198.2
mark 2,350.83

22.4
220.7
1,735.20

30.8

330.8
2,029.43

34.1
573.4
7,830.12

30.8
707.2

44.7
S89.0

52.8
1,339.6
8,400

63.5
1,418.3
46,100

France

franc 1,239

4,113

4,641

5,811

6,987

10,177

20,000

23,000

Russia .... ....
Italy

rouble ....
lire 2,262

2,878
2,155

3,647
2,702

3,999
3,722

16,583
4,645

48,000
5,560

kronen 5,210 l

5,724.8

8,003

Japan. . .."..."

yen 549

509

513

595

486

664

1,064

1,335

Canada

$ 163

133

172

233

261

310

246

U913

NATIONAL EXPENDITURE
(000,000 omitted)

COTTNTEIES

1914

1915

1916

1917

1918

1919

1920

1921

United States

J700

731

723

1,935

12,697

18,515

11,470

3,073

Australia

106

158

327

40S

020

492

472

3o6

tinted KiTigdoTTV .„,,...,

£ 107.5

498.6

1,559.1

2,198.1

2,000.2

2,579.3

1,006

1,105

Germany
France

mark 8,654
frano 6,589 *

25,708
22,804

27,723
32,945

49,098
41,680

53,360
54,537

46,066
49,039

61,471
52,064

188,21:2
44.U2

Russia

rouble . .

Italy

lire 2,262

5428

10557

17 146

25329

32 454

23 121

24 OSS

Austria Hungary

kronen .

Japan **. . ",

yen 574

648

583

591

584

807

1 004

1 335

Canada

$ 127

197

296

456

522

712

347

537

i Figure for second half of 1914. Figure for 1913—4,718.

This legislation was practically forced by the
fact that from April 1, 1015 to March 1, 1916,
government outlays had been met to the extent
of about 84 per cent by means of borrowing.
The new plan of 1915 accordingly provided for
an increase of normal income tax rates to 3s. 6d.
in the pound, while a super tax increasing at
a progressive rate from lOd. to 3s. 6d. was im-
posed upon incomes ranging from $12,500 to
$50,000. For the first time, the excess profits
tax was introduced at the rate of 50 per cent on
incomes which had been, earned during the
months from Aug. 1, 1914 to July 1, 1915. A
basis for the levy of this tax was afforded by
authorizing the contributor to establish a basic
prewar income representing the average returns
for any two of the three years preceding the
war. Receipts in excess of the amount thus ob-
tained by the taxpayer over and above his
average prewar income were taxable at the 50
per cent rate already referred to. This system
of taxation was continued throughout the war,
although from time to time with changes of
rate and extensions of the number of taxable
objects as circumstances seemed to require.
Customs taxes were decidedly raised and the
rates on alcoholic drinks advanced almost to
prohibitive points. Stamp duties and luxury-
taxes were also added and proved more or less
productive although in varying degrees.

The Unrted States did not enter the war until
April 6, 1917, and as in the case of Great Brit-
ain found it necessary to defray her early ex-
penses by means of loans rather than by

measure adopted on March 3, 1917, hud pro-
vided for an excess profits tax which, however,
had not been collected, so that the act of Oct.
3, 1917, was the first real war revenue measure.
Exemption of incomes Was fixed at $1,000 for
unmarried persons and $2,000 for married per-
sons and the normal tax rate wan set at 2 per
cent on incomes over these amount H. Surtaxes
beginning with a rate of 1 per cent on incomes
over $5,000 and running up to 50 per cent on
incomes in excess of $1,000,000 were imposed.
The excess profits tax was levied on Imtunew in-
comes in excess of an amount equal to a maxi-
mum of 9 per cent return on the capital
employed by business on the average during
the years 1911-13. On all excesa income* as
thus ascertained, a profits tax ranging from 20
per cent for the first 15 per cent up to 00 per
cent on everything over 33 per cent was imponed.
The result was to bring in an enormous return
to the Treasury which however was still far
behind the necessities of the Treasury, and ac-
cording it was undertaken to enact new legisla-
tion about the middle of 1918, designed to
enlargg the income yield. This legislation was
modified as a result of the announcement of the
Armistice, but nevertheless took effect in a form
which greatly added to the burden of the public.
Normal tax rates were set at 12 per cent for
1918 and 8 per cent for later years, while the
surtax was altered and applied in such a way
as to make it very much more thorough and
more burdensome, its rates now running up to
77 per cent on incomes in excess of $1,000,000.

Taxation in France followed a somewhat
different course from that which was pursued
in England or the United States, owing to the
different attitude of the public toward taxation.
The first legislation on the subject made its
appearance in 1914 when measures were adopted
with a view to providing a regular income in
future years. This tax, however, was first
made effective in 1016 and applied to all in-
comes in excess of $1000, although with suitable
exemptions and allowances for dependents. Tho
tax was 2 per cent as a basis but with progress-
ively increasing rates, while accompanying it
were excess profits taxes levied at the rate of
50 per cent upon a basis practically similar to
that adopted by Great Britain. On July 1,

1916, a special war levy was made on all citizens
who had not actually been compelled to serve in
the army while higher taxes were levied on in-
comes from investments, and extensive internal
revenue taxes occupied with heavy fees and
stamp dues on postage, telegrams, and the like
wore also introduced. A part of those taxes,
however, did not come into effect until the year

1917. Additional taxes were agreed upon just at
the close of 1916, with severe penalties for non-
payment, while in 1917 it became necessary once
more to amend the income tax and obtain some
modifications in the existing system. Among
those was a tax of 4 per cent on all business
profits with special levies on the. volume of re-
tail business (a kind of Rales tax). In 1918,
income tax rates were still further raised and
luxury taxes were introduced although with
somewhat questionable effect.

Germany, as already seen, had been under the
impression that the war would be a short one
and that taxation need not bo carried far. Ac-
cordingly the early war period in Germany was
financed largely by means of loans and bank
accommodation, the first substantial increase, in
taxation being provided by the Act of 1915, a,t
which time the several German states materially
increased their local direct levies upon tho
citizens. The imperial government in 1910 in
order to meet recurring deficits enacted war

§ refits taxes in addition to internal revenue
uties and excess profits taxes. These measures
were adopted on .June 5, 1910, and were fol-
lowed by an advance of 20 pe.r ee.nt in the war
profits tax beside taxes on coal and railway
traffic and on a variety of objects and trans-
art ions. Action, however, was slow and re-
ceipts were small up to the middle of 1917. In
1918 there wan an extension of the internal
duties as well as increased taxation upon war
profits, but Germany still refused to rowort to
the heavy taxation on incomes and estates which
had been adopted by her principal opponents.
Xfp to tho close of the war, she continued to
hold back not only in connection with taxation,
but also in enforcement of existing taxes apply-
ing them only upon an incomplete and unsatis-
factory basis with correspondingly poor yield,
reliance being chiefly placed upon short-term
borrowing and currency note issues and largely
upon the large public loans which were iloated
through popular subscription. A like policy
was pursued in Austria taxation being con-
sidered already very burdensome so that ex-
treme reluctance to the levy of new taxes was
Mi at the outset. However, in 1916, it was
found necMary to increase the rate of existing
taxes and in IP 17 new methods of taxation were
called for. Very little progress however

made in introducing them, the government con-
tinuing to rely upon loans and bank borrowing.

Italy, on the other hand, recognized the neces-
sity o! a resort to taxation practically from the
very beginning of the war, enlarging the previ-
ously existing rates under the act of Oct. 15,
1914, and then providing a substantially heavy
income tax with a provisional excess profits tax
and a great variety of temporary expedients of
one kind or another borrowed evidently from
the experience of Great Britain and of France.
In 1916, further effort was made to enlarge
taxation, but little success was secured owing
to the disruption of business conditions, al-
though the tax on war profits was materially
enlarged and some success was had in collecting
it. In 1918 great extensions of luxury and con-
sumption taxes were made and in 1919 a supple-
mentary income tax was resorted to.

In other countries a variety of iiseal expedi-
ents were resorted to. Tho southeastern states
of Europe wore not very successful in collecting
taxes and found it necessary to provide funds
through issues of paper currency, popular loans,
and foreign borrowing. Japan was in a peculiar
position, owing to the fact that although a
belligerent her expenses were not very greatly
increased during the war, her national debt in
fact being materially reduced. Some reductions
in land taxes were effected, while prewar in-
come taxes were also rendered much less burden-
some, through various types of modifications.
In tho neutral countries, including the Scandi-
navian states, Holland and others, special prob-
lems existed which grew out of the demands
resulting from the war involving as these did
nn enlargement of public expenditures mon*
than three fold. The advance in taxation in
such countries as Holland, Switzerland, and
Scandinavia varied considerably, some of the
countries contriving to avoid a very great in-
crease in direct taxea as compared with indirect
taxation, although in nearly all it was necessary
to borrow heavily abroad as a means of meet-
ing tho tremendous Increases which had taken
place in the cost of carrying on government.

Relations With Banks. As has been scon,
it WIIH true in nearly all of the European countries
that they were taken by surprise at tho opening
of tho war and found it necessary to fall back
on bank loans in order to provide themselves
with the funds absolutely necessary to moot
their requirements. This, as noted elsewhere,
was an inevitable episode in war .finance and was
not open to criticism save in so far as it might
be adopted as a systematic policy. Unfortu-
nately in several countries foar of popular dis-
satisfaction led the financial authoritioM to make
this method of temporary financing practically
permanent. Indeed it may bo said that of all
the countries which were affected, by the Euro-
pean War, whether through direct belligerency or
in some indirect way, the only ones which had
the national solidarity to tax tncmHolvoa severely
and make tho taxation really effective were
Great Britain and the United States, Other
countries were divisible into two classes: Those
winch like Germany made but little effort dur-
ing tho early war years to impose new taxation
and those which, like Italy, while imposing tho
taxes in theory, found it hard to collect them in
practice. In falling back upon the banks, the
various governments resorted to methods of ad*
vance which had not boon tried in any such
form in former struggles, Relatively small use

559C

FINANCE

of legal tender paper or "fiat money" was made
but the banks were required to take and dis-
tribute short-term obligations which were then
funded from time to time into longer term loans
as circumstances seemed to permit. The fact
that the subscribers to these loans were en-
couraged to borrow from the banks the funds
which were necessary in order to enable them
•to make good their subscriptions naturally
tended to produce in all countries a highly in-
flated condition of prices, (together with a steady
disappearance of specie notwithstanding an
early embargo upon movements of coin 'which
took effect in nearly all countries, comparatively
early in tlie struggle although at slightly differ-
ing dates. The United States was of course the
last to declare such an embargo, owing to the
fact that it did not enter the war until the year
1017 was well advanced. Heavy borrowing at
the banks in nearly all countries left these in-
stitutions at the close of the war in a very
unliquid condition, their government paper
holdings being "frozen" owing to inability to
iind buyers for them either at home or abroad
due to the deterioration of public credit. But
reliance upon foreign borrowing which was
characteristic of practically all European coun-
tries that had found themselves able to get access
to other markets, left all of them at the close of

cost of their government to such an extent as
to make it possible to pay the necessary sums
from the proceeds of taxation thereby avoiding
further borrowing, while at the same time en-
larging their surplus export power sufficiently
to provide a balance large enough to furnish the
necessary funds abroad with which to pay in-
terest and maturing obligations. This latter
necessity was the more obvious because of the
fact that for one reason or another it had been
found necessary to "release" a great deal of gold
as the war advanced thereby reducing the bank
reserves and in some cases bringing the specie
stock to so low an ebb that it was exceedingly
doubtful whether any restoration of gold re-
demption could be brought about in the near
future.

Besults of Inflation Policy. The self-con-
scious inflation policy which was thus adopted
by the belligerent governments was soon proven
disastrous. It was not only exceedingly dis-
turbing to business, but it also defeated the
efforts of the governments which resorted to it
as a fiscal expedient. Price levels rose rapidly
and enormously in nearly all countries as may
be seen from the table of index numbers below.

The effect of this advance in prices, brought
about as it was by the practice of borrowing
over-heavily at banks was to make commodities

INDEX NUMBERS OF WHOLESALE PRICES (ALL COMMODITIES). 1

United
States; Fed-
eral Roiservo
Board
(90 quo! a-
tions).2

Canada;
Department
of Labor (272
quotations) .*

United King-
dom; Board
of Trade Q50
commod-
ities).

France; Bul-
letin de la
Htatistique
G6n6rale
(45 commod-
ities) .»

Italy; Prof.
Bachi (38
commodities
until 1920, 70
during 1921
and 100 there-
after).3

Germany;
StJitixtLsehes
Reiohsfcmt
(38 commod-
ities).*

Sweden ;
Svent-k Hnn-
(lolstirlmiip;
(47 quota-
tions).*

1913

100

7 100

1014

101

110

1019

206

217

357

364

330

1920

233

24G

314

510

024

1 ,48<i

347

1921

145

1S2

202

345

T>78

1,911

211

AiiHtralian

Ohristiama,
Norway;
Okonoinisk
Rovue
(03 commod-
ities).*

Denmark;
Finanbtid-
ende
(33 commod-
ities).5

Belgium;
Department
of Statistics
(130 commod-
ities)."

Switzerland;
Dr. Loronz
(71 commod-
ities;."

Holland;
Central
Bureau
of Statistics
(53 commod-
ities),"

Common-
wealth;
Bureau of
(VnfniR and
Statistics
(92 commod-
ities).8

Japan;
Bunk of
.Inpun
for Tokyo

'* 'itVe^y W "

1913

100

» 115

» 100

'« 100

100

105

» 100

1910

QOO

294

297

ISO

JEW

1920

377

382

282

218

259

1921

2C9

250

J95

LSI

307

200

* These figures ore taken from the table published in the
Bulletin of the Bureau of Labor (Statistics, United States
Department of Labor.

a Average for the month.
8 End of month.

* Middle of month.

' End of year and end of month.

0 First of month.

7 July 1, 1913, to June 30, 1914-100.

the war with tremendous external obligations
whifli they were in no position to liquidate,
owing to the fact that as a result of the conflict
their productive power had been very greatly
decreased. An unavoidable consequence of the
drawing off of a large share of the population
from economic occupation had been in all a
corresponding curtailment of productive effort, '
The close of tlie war therefore fotmd practically
all Tftiroponn countries facing a highly complex
problem in public finance — that of reducing the

* Deo. 31, 1913-Junc 30, 1914 - TOO.

9 July 1, 1912-Juno 30, 1914 - 100.
»° July, 1914 - 100.

11 I View a« of first of the month, 014 * 100.
18 Bated upon prices of 32 commodity during 1920, 53
during 1921. 1913 - 100.
11 Average of last half of month.
14 April, 1914-100.

and wr vices cost enormously more than they
otherwise would. Particularly harmful results
were- experienced in the case of those countries
which found it necessary to apply to foreign
markets for munitions and supplies. Nearly all
of the European countries had found themselves
obliged at an early stage to buy heavily in the
United States. , Although the American price
level had risen considerably even .before our
entering the war the advance had not been
comparable to that which occurred at a later

FINANCE

559*

FINANCE

date, while such as it was it "was directly
ascribable to the heavy buying of the European
governments and to the transfers of gold which
they made to the United States in payment. As
the foreign currency units deteriorated in value
as measured by their power to command com-
modities at home, they deteriorated fully as
much or more in their power to command
American dollars in New York. The result was
that when they were expended in the United
States the amount of commodities realized as
tho result of the large sale of bonds either at
home or in this country was relatively small,
the short-term borrowing policy thus defeating
itself by preventing the governments which re-
sorted to it from getting the full value of taxa-
tion or louns which they had used as a means
of obt .lining money. This criticism, while
theoretically sound, "must of course be consid-
ered in the light of the fact that the industrial
power of various countries had become so greatly
reduced, and so largo a proportion of the popula-
tion had become actually engaged in war opera-
tions, that it may be questioned whether in Rome
of the countries a larger application of the tax-
ing power would have produced any result or
whether perhaps it would have been endured by
the population if added to the general suffering
resulting from shortened food and other sup-
plies, as well as from the actual lighting which
had to be shared by practically the entire adult
male population throughout the belligerent
states. The war finance policy, however, left
all budgels at the clone tremendously inflated
and left all debts far in excess of what they
would have been had a non-inflation policy been
pursued with corresponding dotibt aa to whether
the burden of taxation necessary to pay the
interest on these inflated obligations can actually
1>6 carried.

Reliance on Direct Taxation. Prewar
finances in many countries had relied largely
upon indirect luxation. In the United States
the Federal government waw collecting 5n normal
years the great bulk of its income from customs
duties and internal revenue charges. Dunne
the early war yearn a small income from direct
taxation was also obtained. Great Britain had
long had the income tax in effect and it was
producing substantially at the opening of the
war. Ne.verthelcHH Great Britain also rolled
largely xipon indirect taxes and the same was
true, of most countries. The war necessities
changed all this and hostilitien greatly increased
the total burden of taxation and made it t ab-
solutely necessary, in order to get the required
fumU, to rely largely upon the proceeds of
direct levying. Not only, therefore, was tho
total burden of taxation very greatly added to,
but al BO the amount paid to governments as
direct deductions from income not dependent
upon purchase or the performance of specified
acts was greatly enlarged. The effect of this
change in method of taxation was undoubtedly
to mnko the burden of the tax loads very much
more obvious and to make it seem more serious
than would have been true had it been collected
entirely through indirect sources. Efforts to
reduce budgets after the clone of the war did
not prove very «uccensful and it WHS found in
almost all c.a*e* that indirect taxation had teen
carried practically to the extreme of its pro-
ductivity, while the income and excess profit*
taxes in this country which depended upon then*
of income predominantly had b*en

to a point which was interfering with the growth
of wealth. This latter consideration seemed to
be of peculiar force in Great Britain and in the
United States where during the early postwar
years there was an obvious decline in the amount
of saving due to the fact that taxpayers of large
income really engaged in business found it a
matter of relative indifference whether to in-
crease their business expenses to a point which
consumed what might otherwise have been ad-
ditional net income or to pay the latter in large
part to the government. With rates on incomes
running as high as 60 to 70 per cent the induce-
ment to saving beyond a specified limit was not
strong. Hence most postwar fiscal policies
which aimed at budgetary economy sought to
bring about such economy by a reduction in the
burden of direct taxation. One outgrowth of
this movement was the adoption in November,
1021, of the Income Tax Revision Law in the
United States which eliminated the excess prof-
its tax, while in Great Britain the budget esti-
mates for the year beginning April 1, 1022,
al>andoned the idea of further debt reduction
during the year in question, excess profits taxes
having already been repealed in 1921. The post-
war taxation on the continent naturally fol-
lowed a somewhat different course because of
the fact that during the war so great a re-
luctance to further tax increases had been made
manifest. The necessities of such countries as
France, Germany, and Itaty after the war
naturally dictated the imposition of new rather
than the withdrawal of old taxes because of the
necessity of providing means which would carry
the very heavy interest charges resulting from
the borrowing policies of the war.

POHTWAR FINANCE

Postwar finance, both in the United States
and in Hhirope, has had three principal objects —
the 'reduction or abolition of the enormous tax-
ation of the war period, the funding and con-
solidation of the debts created during war, and
the reduction of government expenditures. Co-
incident with these it has been necessary to find
a means of beginning tho restoration of bunk-
ing syHtomB to a sound condition in order that
foreign exchange rates might he placed upon a
more stable basis and the international flow of
trade and of investments lie correspondingly
facilitated. One principal obstacle to success
in thorn undertakings has been the tangle of Sn-
dcbtednens existing hctwoen the varrous coun-
tries Such indebtedness represented the aid
extended by one country to another during the
war, but it was early perceived that in the last,
analysis there wa» nut one great creditor, the
United States and one great debtor, Germany.
It wast recognized accordingly that the key to
the restoration of a sound HVHtem of p<wtwar
finance wan probably to be found in tho intro-
duction of a flatinfactory system of reparation**
of payments which should enable the Allied
belligo'renta to collect from Germany enough to
enable them to off«ot the hulk of the IOHHCH to
which they had been subjected and ati the name
time to settle with tliclr external ervditoni. Th«
Treaty of \VmUllcH h«d made no definite din-
potrftion of th«w» (nicmtforw, leaving Anal Battle-
ment to th<* Ro-cnlle<l Keparationa Comm'iHaion,
which in March, 1»20, announced a ache-me of
repanitionrt payments whereby Germany1* total
obligation was ftxed at 1&8,000,QOO,MQ markw
gotd value). Elaborate details con.-

FINANCE

559®

PINANCE

cerning the payment of this sum were provided
and the bulk of the cash proceeds was assigned
to France, Belgium, and Italy. The Germans,
however, have since then failed to pay more
than approximately enough to cover the cost of
holding the occupied German territory which
had been taken by the Allies as security for
the liquidation of their claims. Accordingly,
France and, in a much lesser degree, some of
the other countries which have been relying upon
the collection of German indemnities as a means
of meeting their budget requirements have been
unable (July, 1922} to obtain the funds neces-
sary to settle the budget obligations they were
incurring in the belief that they would be able
to transfer the cost to the Germans. Hence,
their budgets have failed to balance, and such
reductions in taxation as have occurred have
simply cut away the fundamental "basis upon
which a restoration of soundness would neces-
sarily rest. Great Britain, which has not relied
upon any considerable receipts from Germany,
has been able gradually to restore her export-
ing power, despite some serious industrial
obstacles such as the coal strike of 1021, and
appears to be on the point of beginning the pay-
ment of interest upon her foreign obligations.
The Continental countries, including France and
Italy, show no indications of any such prospect
to be realized in the early future and probably
cannot be expected to balance their budget
satisfactorily without borrowing at an early
date. The pressure for reduction of the ter-
rible tax load has been severe in all countries,
but even in those where a cut might have been
made, as in the United States, the recurrence
of socialistic or semi-socialistic antagonism to
wealth and capital has resulted in the retention
of many war taxes as a peace expedient. The
Republican party, elected in the autumn of
11)20, largely on a platform of tax reform,
adopted in October, 1921, a so-called tax revision
measure which, however, has thus far cut the
burden of taxation but slightly, although tech-
nically repealing the excess profits tax. Great
Britain likewise has done away with the excess
profits tax and similar action has been taken in
other countries. Nevertheless, in all the problem
of rebalancing, the budget has been seen to rest
more and more upon the restoration of sound
banking conditions.

Progress toward sound budgetary conditions
was greatest in the United States and in Eng-
land during 1020 and 1921. In the United
States ordinary receipts up to November 12,
for the fiscal year beginning July 1, 1021, ex-
ceeded ordinary disbursements by about $155,-
000,000. The British budgetary situation was
less satisfactory, showing deficits in 1920-21,
although it was steadily improving. It must
be remembered, however, that the main factor
in tax policy which accounts for this unfavor-
able balance was the reduction in receipts from
the excess profits tax. Although certain funds
were still coming in on this account from ex-
cess earnings during earlier years, there ^was
a decrease during the first six months of 1922
of £82,336,000 from the corresponding period
of the year before.

In most of ttoe Continental countries the
budget situation during 1921, on the contrary,
showed no real improvement; in fact, the re-
verse, although in the case of France and Italy
i certain amount of relative advance was scored.
fa other words, the total amount of outgo of

these countries which had to be made, not from
the proceeds of taxation, but either from short-
term bank borrowing or the issuing of currency,
increased rather than diminished. Figures for
Italian finances for the fiscal years ending June,
1921, and June, 1922, were still in the form of
estimates, the actual accounts not being avail-
able at the latter date. According to the latest
estimates, however, it appeared that the deficit
for the year would be only about one-half that
for the year ending in June, 1921. In other
words, the estimated deficit for 1920-21
amounted to 10,300,000,000 lire, while the esti-
mated deficit for 1921-22 worked out at 5,000,-
000,000 lire. The French government contem-
plated an expenditure for 1921 amounting to
42,412,000,000 francs, as contrasted with re-
ceipts of 23,312,000,000 francs, thus leaving a
deficit of about 19,000,000,000 francs to be pro-
cured by the flotation of loans. Of this deficit,
about 16,000,000,000 francs was regarded as
eventually recoverable from Germany under the
terms of the peace treaty. Of the ordinary re-
ceipts, 14,558,000,000 francs were expected from
indirect taxes and monopolies. During the first
half of 1921 the total public debt of France rose
from 245,000,000,000 francs to 264,000,000,000
francs, calculating in both instances the foreign
debt at par. This figure does not include loans
floated by the cities and industries in the dev-
astated regions, although the government is
responsible for their interest and repayment.
In the case of Germany close estimates of the
total amount of government expenditures for
1922 were not available.

There has been a prevailing belief for a long
time past that the principal element in the
existing fiscal difficulties of many countries is
to be found in their great outlay for war. This
statement is true in broad terms, but requires to
be qualified and limited in its application. In
some countries, such as the United States, the
outlay for war, while a very large part of the
total outlay, is in large measure an expense
which serves to carry the cost of past wars in
the form of interest on public debt. While
naval and military expenditure is large in auoh
countries, it is a relatively moderate part of
the entire budget. In other countries, like
France, the current cost of military support still
constitutes a very important fraction of the
budgetary outgo. It has, therefore, been thought
worth while to compile statements designed to
show the comparative situation of the budget
in several of the principal countries, with a view-
to ascertaining approximately how each owe of
them stands in this matter of expenditure for
national defense, especially as compared with
the prewar years.

Compared with 1913, the last prewar year, the
amounts of money expended for national defense
by the governments of France, Italy, and Ger-
many show enormous expansion, but it should
be remembered that the purchasing power of
the currencies of these countries has undergone
varying degrees of depreciation, and that the
larger amounts for the more recent years, when
reduced to 1913 monetary equivalents, will not
show the same degree, of expansion as is in-
dicated in the table. Dxiring the war years the
proportion of the total expenditures made for
war purposes was in excess of 80 per cent in all
three of these countries. In 1020 the proportion
had declined to 60 per cent in Germany; to
about 50 per cent in France, and, according to

FINANCE 559!

GREAT BRITAIN.
(In thousands of pounds sterling.)

FINANCE

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Net revenues.

Net
expenditures.

Public debt
charges.

Percent
(o) to (b)

Expenditures for
national defence.

Per cent
(d) to (b).

1904-05
1912-13
1916-17
1918-19
1920-21

137,590
165,778
646,974
802,625
1,376,485

136,176
165,598
2,171,659
2,552,905
1,145,928

27,000
24,500
127,250
269,965
349,599

19.8
14.8
5.9
10.6
30.5

66,055
72,436
1,302,603
1,701,545
292,228

48.5
43.7
60.0
66.7
25.5

FRANCE.

(In thousands of franca.)

1905

3,502,034

3,453,634

1,205,124

34.9

1,143,820

33.1

1913

4,558,044

4,718,462

1,284,079

27.2

2,070,530

43.9

1917

5,575,845

Ul.679,600

4,863,686

11.7

34,065,809

81.7

1919

10,161,214

1 49,026,687

7,980,823

16.3

35,811,390

73.0

1920

17,760,789

i 52,183,217

11,833,174

22.7

26,432,545

50.7

ITALY.
* (In thousands of lire.")

1905
1913
1917
1919

1,764,220
2,385,130
5,170,430
9,372,300

1,701,430
3,289,010
10,971,000
32,150,100

680,050
598,220
1,227,310
2,705,200

37.6
18.2
7.2

8.4

419,200
1,666,660
14,310,680
26,974,420

24.6
50.7
84.3
83.9

GERMANY.
(In thousands of marks.)

1005

1,110,451

1,310,290

112,047

8.6

1,052,288

80.8

1913

1,957,380

2,024,523

231,176

11.4

1,582,200

78.2

1917

2,122,304

27,821,047

2,016,703

9.4

24,920,907

80.0

1919

0,348,400

46,966,460

5,914,204

12.6

40,179,143

85.5

1920

14,379,439

61,470,870

8,922,602

14.5

37,033,588

60.2

i Total expenditures.

preliminary figures not included in the table, to participation of the government in business
less than 40 per cent in Italy; in Great Britain which before the war had produced a very con-
and the United States the proportion for the siderahle element in the revenue system of some
fiscal year 1921 was 26 ana 24 per cent, re- countries (e.g., France, Germany, Austria and
spcctivcly. Nevertheless, the financial burden, others), received a considerahlo extension in
upon taxpayers of those countries due to mili- consequence of the war and of necessities at-
tary expenditures was much heavier at present tendant thereon, but the success obtained has
than Iwjfore the war, since national production been so slender as to produce a reaction of
and income had suffered severely, and fiscal opinion among those who in former years re-
requirements for rehabilitation and roconBtruc- gurded public activity of this kind as a probable
tion were an additional drain on national re- source of future increase iu revenue, yield. Rail-
sources and income. While the proportion of road operation which was undertaken on an
total expenditures devoted to military purposes extensive scale both by Great Britain and the
was, according to the fiscal returns, smaller in United States has proved an actual source of
some countries in 1922 than before the war, loss and has been discontinued in both coun-
these expenditures undoubtedly constituted a tries. The operation of ocean-going ships has
larger proportion of the diminished national in- been equally disappointing and state mamtfac-
comes and were, therefore, a more crushing load ture of various kinds of commodities has turned
on the financially weakened countries of Europe, out even more unsuccessfully than during pre.-
The following table exhibits the par capita war years. Instead of assuming an increasingly
burden of taxation in some of tho chief countricH important position in budgets, revenue derived

from industrial and business occupations has not
only come to form a smaller and smaller pro-
portion of total income; hut, as just, stated, it
lias been obtained xmder circumstances of such

of the, world:

PER CAPITA TAXATION
On Basis of 1020-21

Aiwtralia ...................... , ............... Jg.ig

Canada ....................................... 35.05

JS'I? Acuity as to make it clear that it must

Italy

regarded as an inadequate reliance for the

35.05 future.

US! Tariffs and Internal Bevenue. Prior to the

22.RO opening of the war it seemed probable that

7-38 tariff duties had reached approximately their

The question whether some adjustment or ultimate position of productiveness. ^a^J7

alleviation of this tremendous burden can he years of experiment with the protective* tariff

devised hag occupied the attention of statesmen In the United States had failed to bring atwut

since the close of the war hut has confirmed a total revenue larger than about $350,000,000

most in the belief that heavy direct taxes will t>er annum. Tn "Europe the productiveness of

continue the chief reliance of most countries tariffs had fallen as rates increased, expense of

for a long time to come. administration advancing very rapidly. The

Government Activity in Business. The war had a peculiar effect upon customs duties

559fi

In all countries. It naturally diminished the
amount of private international trade while it
greatly increased the amount of such trade
undertaken for the benefit of governments. But
this latter type of trade was in general free of
customs duties. Except for sporadic and tem-
porary yields of unusual size in a few countries
due to sudden changes in the movement of com-
modities as the result of war, tariff duties were
an unimportant source of income especially
when compared with the enormous revenue de-
rived from direct taxation. Since the war, this
disproportion has in some measure decreased
owing to the moderate reduction which has
taken place in some countries in the amount of
direct taxes. At the same time, there has been
a tendency on the part of tariff duties to in-
crease in rate and to become more numerous
partly as a result of the particularism of newly
erected states in different parts of the world.
Protectionism has also assumed a new activity
in some countries, notably the United States,
with the result that the yield of the tariff has
tended to be impaired nearly everywhere. As
for internal revenue duties such as the taxes on
tobacco they were already near maximum
productivity* in many countries before the out-
break of the war and the war taxes, in some
cases, at least, pushed them beyond the point of
maximum productiveness and into the field of
partial prohibition. The war added very
greatly to the number of taxable objects and in
that way increased the yield of internal revenue
taxation, but these "luxury taxes" or "con-
sumption taxes" proved so expensive and un-
popular from the standpoint of the consumer
that soon after the war was over effort was
made to reduce them and substantial cuts in.
their number occurred, the United States event-
ually abolishing luxury taxes entirely (on and
after January 1, 1022). This movement against
consumption taxes tended to leave the prewar
excises on such articles as tobaccos and liquors
as the chief revenue producers. In the United
States the prohibition amendment and legisla-
tion under it, however, speedily eliminated
alcholic liquors as a foremost source of income.
Tobacco has continued to yield an increasing
revenue. It does not appear, however, that ex-
cise taxes will in any near future play the im-
portant part that was allotted to them in the
prewar budgetary arrangements.

State and Local Taxation. Expenditures
were enlarged as a result of war conditions not
only for national governments, but also for
local governmental units of every kind. This
was the outcome in jjart of higher prices re-
sulting from the inflation policy of various gov-
ernments which not only increased tlxe cost of
commodities to administrative organizations,
but also necessitated rapid advances in rates of
pay. Local governments for the most part met
these requirements by increasing the rates of
taxation on taxable objects already chosen, and
by borrowing so far as necessary. State gov-
ernments, however, in a number of instances,
found it desirable to resort to the income tax
or in those cases where they already were em-
ploying this method of raising revenue, they ad-
vanced tax rates on incomes and in other in-
stances added surtaxes. Heal estate levies were
very generally enlarged throughout tie United
States. In European countries local govern-
ments which posHPssed tax systems of their own
generally followed the plan of intensifying pre-

FINANCE

rates on existing objects, but without en-
deavoring to introduce any decidedly novel
system of tax contribution. Public debts, how-
ever, had a very rapid growth locally as well as
nationally and this growth was accelerated by
the fact that the practice of exempting local
securities from taxation prevailed so widely,
especially in the United States, thereby en-
abling local governments to borrow cheaply.
During the business reaction of 1920, the de-
mand for employment designed to take care of
individuals who were out of work tended to a
great expansion of public borrowing in order to
provide funds for the conduct of such public
works. On the other hand urgent demand for
the disbursement of large bonuses to returned
soldiers imposed upon not a few State govern-
ments burdens heavier than they felt warranted
in putting into taxable form especially in those
cases where the bonus was paid once in a lump
sum. Hence a further enlargement of local
loans.

NEW UNITED STATES BUDGET SYSTEM

The President introduced the budget under
the new budget system with a message to Con-
gress, Dec. 5, 1021. It was the result of ten
years of active work, beginning with Presi-
dent TafVs attempt to provide for executive
control over national expenditures. The law
approved June 10 providing for a national
budget system and an independent audit of gov-
ernment accounts was hastened by the confused
condition of the national finances resulting from
the war. The new system, however, was simply
a step toward a genuine executive budget sys-
tem, and, if it wore to have that result, radical
changes must still be made, but, according to
some, they could not be introduced without an
amendment to the constitution. The essential
element of the budget system is that income
and expenses are prevented as a whole and con-
sidered in relation to each other. For purposes
of comparison similar statements running back
for a term of years must be considered. In the
United States where the transactions of the
government are complicated and very numerous
this information had never been fully obtained.
Appropriations in Congress being in the hands
of many separate committees in each House and
being without executive control, there were prac-
tically no means of providing the information
required under a genuine budget system. The
machinery outlined in the following paragraphs,
including the Bureau of the Budget, an inde-
pendent audit department , under a controller-
general and a general accounting office, was
established for the purpose, of securing the
necessary data. Before the close of 1021 the*
Bureau of the Budget had established a lnr#<»
number of coordinating agencies, including tin*
following:

(1) A Federal Purchasing Board, on which
the chief purchasing officer of each, department
serves with a chief coordinator as chairman
named by the President;

(2) A Fedenil Liquidation Board, cottrdi-
nating sales under a tinified plan of large sur-
plus stocks of the various departments -of the
government ;

(3) A Corps Area Organization, correspond-
ing to the nine Army Corps Areas, to provide
for interdepartmental transfers and exchange of
supplies in connection with eithar purchases or
sales and operating together with the Purchasing

FINBACJI

ami Liquidation Boards at \VabIunglon to handle
properly the entire purchase andsupply situation;

(4 1 A Surveyor General of Real Estate, to
handle propel ty owned by the United States and
leases of property required for government busi-
ness and to assign, and reassign spaces to the
various departments, bureaus, or oifices;

(.">) A Federal Motor Transportation Agent,
to coordinate motor transportation;

(0) A Federal Traffic Board, to coordinate
and classify articles shipped by the government
and the business involved in the government's
annual transportation bill;

(7) A Federal Board of Hospitalization,
which provided for the feeding and housing of
about 500,000 persons;

(8) A Federal Specification Board, for the
standardization of specifications; and

(0) An Interdepartmental Board of Contracts
and Adjustments.

Bibliography. The principal sources of in-
formation of war finance are still the financial
reports of the various countries. For the United
States the reports of the Secretary of the
Treasury and the annual reports of the Federal
Keserve Board give the most complete and au-
thentic information. The League of Nations
has also published, preliminary to the inter-
national financial conference at Paris, a series
of documents which deal at great length with
public finances during the war. Volume 3V is
perhaps the most useful of those publications.
Tho following works are also of service in this
same connection: Bogart, Direct and Indirect
(Josts of the dreat World War; Anderson,
tiffeets of the War on Money, Credit, and Hank-
ing in. France and the United ftlaUs; Gottlieb,
L. R., Financial Htahis of the Jlelligercnla and
/*«»/- lV«r Finance ( a series of four monographs

by the Bankers Statistics Corporation,
New York, 1020-21) ; Benson, Ktato OredU and
Ranking during the War and After; Seligman,
Ourmit'i/ Inflation and Pullio fiebts (Equitable
Trust Company, New York, 1022) ; Hollander,
War Harrowing.

FOTBACK, or FIN'ffEB. A whalebone
wliiilo of the geniw nata»noptera, BO called be-
cause of tho marked development of tho dornal
I'm, which in most whaloH in either Hinall or
wanting. They are the largest of living uuhunl«,
ranging from'ttO feet up to the eohmsal dimen-
sions of the "sulphur bottom" of the Pacific,
which is Homctimcfl more than 100 feet in length.
They yield little oil, and the, whalebone i« of
poor quality, so that they are not mueh nought
after. The most common whale on the coast of
the eastern United States in a finback, or raxor-
back (ftalwnoptcra wusoulvs), which rwiohen
a length of about 70 feet. Consult True, Whalo*
lone Whales of the Wettitm North Atlantic
(Washington, 1004). Seo Plate of WIIAMW.

XXKTCH (AS, jiway Ger. Fink; connected with
Welsh pine, chaffinch, Rusa. pienka, hedge Hpar-
row). The popular name of a great number of
species of small birds of the family Fringil-
Hdas (q*v.). Many of thorn have great powers
of song and are called by bird fanciers "hard-
billed song birds/* in contradistinction to the
Old World warblers (Sylviid*), or uerft billed
song birdw," The name is sometimes used as
equivalent to Fringillidtt; but the limits of its
popular use are ill defined, and some birds are
known as finches and also as linnets, or as gros-
beaks, etc. The word "finch" often forms part
of the popular name of birds of this family, i»

bulliiuch, cballhidi, hawfinch, etc., and is almost
always used with Borne prefix or qualifying ad-
jective. When used as a general term applica-
ble to the whole family, it includes those nine-
primaried oscines (q.v.), with more or loss eoni-
rostral bill, which have the corners of the mouth
more or less sharply drawn down. The shape
of the bill varies greatly; sometimes it is short
and thick, sometimes comparatively slender and
elongated, but it is almost always adapted to
crushing seeds. Finches feed mostly on bucdct
and buds, but some species arc more or less
insectivorous. The family is a very laige one,
including over 1000 species, divided into about
140 genera, and found in all parts of the world
except Australia. They arc most abundant in the
Northern Hemisphere and especially in America ;
200 species and subspecies occur in the United
States and Canada.

Finches are nearly allied to the tanagers,
weaver birds, and American starlings and black-
birds, and it is difficult to draw any hard and
fast linos between these families. The birds
called buntings, sparrows, grosbeaks, linnets,
redpolls, longspura, and snowbirds arc all finches,
but will be treated of under these separate heads.
In the United States th(* name "findf i« not
in very common n.se, though there are some
species with which it is constantly associated.
The purple finch (Carpodacns purpurvuii) is
a good songster and is often called the linnet.
The female is plain brown, streaked with black,
but the male is suiruwed with rich rowo red, es-
pecially deep on this head, so that he is a hand-
Rome bird. This finch and very closely allied
spcoioH occur over the whole of the, United States.
The rosy finches, of which there are some half-
el oxen species, constituting the genus Lcucontictc,
arc characteristic of the Jlocky Mountain region,
extending north and westward. They are 7
inches or Jews in length, brownish or grayish in
color, the males surfurted with rosy red posteri-
orly. The grasH finch (Pooccctcs gramintwtt) IB
more properly a uparrow, and is usually called
vesper sparrow or bay-winged bunting. Other
well-known finches of the United States are the
Hummer finches (/Vwctw), of which half a down
HiwieH are found in the Southern and Western
States; the painted finches (7'aowma), of
which the indigo bird (<j,v.) is a good example;
the pincfineheH, or sittkins (q.v,) ; and finally,
the goldfmchoH (q.v.). Pee Plates of CAOK
BTUDH, Fkum OK SONG BIRDS, and SPAIUEKOWH.

Commit Kidgway, Birfo of North and Middle
A-nwHua, part i (Washington, 1001).

FINCH, ANNUL See WiNciUffwocA, • COUN-
TKSS ov.

JOTCH, DANIEL (104M730), fi«-ond KAur, OK
NOTTINOHAM and sixth KARL OF WINCHKLHKA.
An Knglish statesman* llu wan educated at
Wcstmintttor School, Christ Church College, Ox-
ford, and the Inner Temple, entered Parliament
in 1070, became a Privy Councilor in 1(580, and
waw FirHt Lord of the Admiralty from 3680 to
1084. In 1682 ho was called by M* father's
death to the House of Lords. After the Revo-
lution he remained, in theory, loyal to the
fltuartb, hut diBtiaguiHhed between the King
do facto and the Km# do jure and #avc in his
adherence to tho new regime. He was one of
the (Secretaries of State from 1088 to 1603 and
again from 1702 to 1704. He became the leader
of the church party and introduced the Tolera-
tion Act of 1689 in the House of Lords. He
was a favorite of Qw&n Mary and enjoyed to

FINCH

some extent the confidence of Queen Anne until
lie urged that the Electress Sophia be invited
to live in England. From 1714 to 1716 he was
President of George I's Council. In 1721 he
wrote An Answer to Mr. Whiston's Letter Con-
cerning the Eternity of the Son of God. He is
the subject of Dean Swift's famous ballad, "An
Orator Dismal of Nottinghamshire," and he was
nicknamed Don Dismal and Don Diego.

FENTCH, FRANCIS MILES (1827-1007). An
American poet and jurist. He was born at
Ithaca, N. Y., and graduated at Yale in 1849.
He studied law and began practice at Ithaca.
He was a collector of internal revenue during
Grant's first administration, and in May, 1880,
was appointed a judge of the New York Court
of Appeals, to fill a vacancy. In the fall of
1881 he was elected to the same bench for a
full term of 14 years. He took a prominent
part in the organization of Cornell University,
was a member and secretary of the board of
trustees for many years, and in 1892 became
dean of the law school. His literary work con-
sists largely of poems, among the best known
of which are "The Blue and the Gray" (1867)
and "Nathan Hale" (1833). A volume of his
verse was published in 1909 under the title
The Blue and the Gray and Other Verses.

3riKrCH, HENEAGE. See NOTTINGHAM.

PIITCH, WILLIAM ALBEBT (1855-1912). An
American lawyer and law writer. He was born
at Newark, N. J., and, graduating from Cornell
University in 1880, was admitted to the bar in
the same year. Until 1891 he practiced at
Ithaca, N. Y., and from then until his death
he was professor of law at Cornell. He became
known as an authority on the law of real prop-
erty, and he published Finch's Selected Cases
on the Law of Property and Land and The Law
of Property and Land — A Syllabus (1900).

ITN'CH'LEY. A municipality of Middlesex,
England, about 4 miles north of London City
(Map: London, 06). The town owns its elec-
tric-lighting plant, a fine recreation ground,
16"% acres in extent, and a group of workmen's
dwellings. Pop., 1901, 23,699; 1911, 39,419.
Finchley common was a favorite resort of Dick
Turpin, Jack Sheppard, and other celebrated
highwaymen, who mado it a dangoroxis neigh-
borhood as late as the close of the eighteenth
century.

PINCK, fink, IfciEDBicra: AUGUST VON (1718-
66). A Prussian general, born at Strclitz. He
served successively in the Austrian (1735), Bus-
sian, and (after 1743) Prussian armies and was
appointed adjutant major to Frederick the
Great. In 1759 he was promoted lieutenant
general. Detailed by Frederick tho Great to
assist Prince Henry in the defense of Saxony,
he compelled Field Marshal Daun to retreat,
but expostulated with the King when ordered
to pursue. He followed Daun as far as Maxon,
where he was attacked by an overwhelming body
(42,000) and compelled, after a bravo defense
lasting two days, to surrender his entire force
(11,000). Although personally blameless, he
was condemned by the military tribunal to be
expelled from the army and to be imprisoned
in a fortress for two years. In 1764 he entered
the service of the King of Denmark. He died
at Copenhagen. Consult Mollwo, Die Kapitw-
lation von Masoen (Marburg; 1803).

PINCK, HENBY THEOPHILUS (1854-1926).
An American musical critic, born at Bethel, Mo.
A few years after his birth tho family removed

56o

to Portland, Ore, There he studied piano and
violoncello, and taught himself Latin and Greek
so thoroughly that he was able, in 1872, to enter
the sophomore class at Harvard, where he de-
voted himself chiefly to philosophy, the classics,
and music, the last under Prof. John K. Paine.
In 1876 he attended the Bayreuth Festival, of
which he wrote accounts for newspapers and
magazines. A subsequent fellowship from Har-
vard enabled him to spend three years in study
in Berlin, Heidelberg, and Vienna. In 1881 he
became musical editor of the New York Evening
Post and entered upon his long propaganda for
Wagner's music, beqoming the leading American
advocate of that composer's theories. His writ-
ings include: Romantic Love and Personal
Beauty (1887) ; Chopin, and Other Musical Es-
says (1889) ; Pacific Coast Scenic Tour (1890) ;
Spain and Morocco (1890) ; Wagner and his
Works (1891); Lotos Time in Japan (1808);
Primitive Love and Love Stories (1899); Z'*V-
torial Wagner (1899); Anton Scidl (1890);
Songs and Song Writers (1900) ; Edvard (Jricg
(1905); Massenet and his Operas (1910).
* EIITCKEWSTEINV flnk'en-stln, KABL WIL-
HELM, COUNT FINCK vox (1714-1800). A Prus-
sian statesman. He was a son of Count Al-
brecht Konrad Finckenstoin, field marshal of
Prussia and preceptor to the Crown Prince, after-
ward Frederick the Great. He was educated at
Geneva and was Ambassador to Stockholm from
1735 until 1740. Frederick the Great, upon his
accession to the throne, sent him as Ambassador
to Denmark ( 1740-42 ), England (1742-44), and
Stockholm (1744-46). He was Ambassador to
Russia from 1747 to 1749 and upon his return
was appointed member of the cabinet, becoming
one of the chief advisers of Frederick, who cor-
responded with him with great freedom and
frankness throughout the Seven Years' War
and sent to him the celebrated secret instruc-
tions dated Jan. 10, 1757. Until 1703 he con-
ducted the foreign affairs of the kingdom and
in June, 1799, celebrated his fiftieth anniver-
sary as Minister.

EI3ST 2>E Sr&CIiE, fllsr de sWkl' (Fr., end of
tho century). A phrase that became popular
in Paris in 1889 and then made ita way into
the vocabulary of other countries. It was in-
tended to signify that an idea, an objtxst, or
what not, was quite up to the latest date and
thoroughly characteristic of the hour. When the
twentieth century began, the phrase wa« dropped,
and vwgtieme sitcle was used in its stead,
though this latter phrase had not the vogue
of the former.

nanXHTG- (from find, AS. findan, Icel. /inner,
OHO. findan, Ger. findcn, Goth, finfian, to find).
1. A qualified source of title to goods and chat-
tels at common law. It ia true the loser is not
divested of His title to his goods when they patw
by finding into the hands of another: he may
reclaim them until his right becomes barred
by the statute of limitations; but the finder
acquires what is known as a "special property"
in them, which is available to* him against all
the world except the true owner. He may
make no use or disposition of them except such
as is necessary to preserve them, but he may
by appropriate action recover them from any
one but the owner who interferes with his pos-
session, even from a subsequent finder. It has
been decided that if the property had not been
designedly abandoned, ana the finder knew whd

561

lETNTE

the owner was or knew that he could have dis-
covered him, he was guilty of larceny in keep-
ing and appropriating the articles to his own
use. In the absence of statute the finder has
no lien on the property for the expenses in-
curred by him in caring for it or in seeking to
discover the owner, but in some States statutes
have been enacted giving him such a lien. As
between the owner of premises in which lost or
secreted chattels are discovered and the finder,
the former has usually the better title. But if
the articles are found in a shop, hotel, or other
public place, the finder is entitled to them as
against the possessor of such place. If goods
arc improperly withheld by the finder, the com-
mon-law remedy of the rightful owner is the
action of detinue (q.v.) ; where the finder uses
them as his own or disposes of them, lie is
liable to an action of trover (q.v.). In many
of the United States statutory remedies have
been provided not differing essentially from
the common-law procedure. See DEKELICT.

2. The technical designation of the formal
statement of the conclusion reached by tho tri-
bunal trying an issue of fact. It is called a
general finding when it disposes of the entire
case. If it is a statement of particular facts,
to which the law is thereafter to bo applied by
the court, it is known as a special finding. Tho
refusal of a court or referee to make a finding
concerning a material fact with respect to which
evidence has boon given constitutes an error of
law, entitling tho injured party to relief from
an appellate court. The finding of a court, ref-
eree, or jury when the evidence is conflicting
i« rarely disturbed on appeal; but a finding
without any evidence to support it or one
clearly against the weight of evidence will bo
set aside. In the United States the term "find-
ings " is U!HO usually employed to describe the
conclusions of law, as well as those of fact,
announced by a referee, commissioner to hear
and de.tormine, or other wubordinate judicial
officer to whom issues of law have been sub-
mitted for determination, See APPEAL; COURT;
JURY; REFERENCE, HEFEHEK, and authorities
cited.

IFINDIiATER, fln1a-to>, ANDREW (1810-85).
An TOngliwh encyclopedist, born at Abordour,
Aberdeenahire, and educated at the University
of Aberdeen. Ho began hi a connection with the
publishing firm of Messrs. Chambers of Edin-
burgh in 1853, and subsequently became editor
of their flncyolopcedia,, to which he, was also a
contributor. This work, completed in 1808, was
issued in a revised edition undor his editorship
in 1874. Among tho scientific manuals pre-
pared by him for the firm, tho handbook on
philology is regarded as especially meritorious*

FINTD'LAY. A city and the county float of
Hancock Co., Ohio, 45 miles by rail south by
west of Toledo, on tho Blanchanl Kiver, and on
the Toledo and Ohio Central, the Cincinnati,
Hamilton, and Dayton, the Cleveland, Cin-
cinnati, Chicago, and St. Louis, the Lake Erie
and Western, the Lake Shore Electric, and the
Western Ohio railroads (Map: Ohio, 0 3).
It is situated in tho oil and natural #as fields
of Ohio and is surrounded by a rich agricultural
country. In the vicinity are beds of clay, build-
ing stone, and lime, and deposits of sand and
gravel The manufacturing establishments are
numerous and include brick and tile works, ma-
chine shops and foundries, boiler, bridge, and
target works, sugar and oil refineries, potteries,
VOL. VIJX— 37

lime kilns, and manufactories of automobiles,
traction ditchers, electric insulators, gloves,
shoes, furniture, carriages, etc. Findlay Col-
lege'(Church of God), opened in 1886, is sit-
uated here, and the city contains a public
library, city hospital, detention, orphan, and
Elks homes, and several fine parks. Settled in
1S13, Fiudlay was first incorporated in 1837.
The government, under a charter of 1002, is
vested in a mayor, chosen biennially, a city
council, and members of public safety and ser-
vice, the two latter being appointed by the
mayor. Tho city solicitor, auditor, treasurer,
and board of education ure chosen by popular
vote. The water woiks ave owned nnrt operate'1
by the municipality. Pop., 1000, 17,613; 1910,
14,858; 1020, 17,021.

EUTDLAY, GEOJJOE GILLANUERS ( 1840- ) .
An English Wesloyan scholar and educator,
born at Welsh pool, Wales. ITe graduated from
Wesley College, Shcilield, the Richmond Theo-
logienl Institution, and Ixmclon University
(1868). From 1870 to 1874 he was assistant
tutor, and after 1381 tutor of New Testament
exegesis and classics, at Headingly Theological
Institution. During the interim" (1874-1881)
ho had l)oon clansical tutor in the Richmond
Theological Institution. He is author of volumes
on various Epistles of Paul, in The Expositor's
Bible, The Expositors Greek Tostatiwnt, and
The CfambHtlgc Greek Testament (1888, 1802);
The Epistles of tho Apostle Paul: Their Origin
and Contents (1802) ; The Churvh of Christ in
the A'cw Testament (1803); Christian Doctrine
and Morals (1804) ; The Books of Ihe Prophets
and their Historical JSiirocasion (I) voln., 1800-
1007); Tho Things Above (1002); Fellowship
in the. Life Etvrnul; An Exposition of the
Epistles of St. John (1900) ; Life of William P.
MouUon, the Methodist Scholar (1010). He
also contributed largely to biblical encyclo-
pedias and theological journals.

FOTDLAY, JOHN RITCHIE (1824-08). A
Scottish newwpaper proprietor and philanthro-
piwt, born at Arbroath, Scotland, and educated
at Edinburgh University. He entered the buai-
ness office of the Scotsman in 1842, rising until
in 1808 he became a partner with law pproat-
unclc, John Ritchie, who when ho died in 1870
loft moat of his interest in the paper to Find-
lay. Under the* latter's control tic prestige and
ciretilation of the Scotsman and tho wealth of
tho ownor were greatly increased- Much of
this money Findlay spent during his lifetime
in public benefactions, of which the most notable
wan tho Scottish National Portrait Gallery in
Edinburgh, which cost £70,000 and was opened
in 1880.

PIMTB (OF., Fr. fa from Lat. finis, end, sup-
plementary payment, fine). A form of convey-
ance of lands at common law through the me-
dium of a fictitious suit, employed in cam**
whore an ordinary conveyance would not have
the effect of vesting tho full estate intended to
bo conveyed. It was for centuries the favorite
method of "barring an entail," i.e., of enabling
a tenant in tail to transform his limited £ee
into an absolute fee simple, and thus bar the
heirs of his body and the roversioner or re-
mainderman of his interest in the estate. See
DB DONIS; FKHS TAIL.

4 fine is defined by Coke as "an amicable
composition and final agreement by leave and
license of the King or his justiciaries"; and it
was called a fine because it put a termination

PTNTE

563

FINGAL'S CAVE

(finis) to all litigation between the parties, and
those claiming through them, in regard to all
matters touching the suit. The proceedings in
a fine were shortly as follows: The party to
whom the land was to be conveyed commenced a
fictitious suit against the vendor. But the case
was no sooner in court than the plaintiff asked
leave to agree or settle with the defendant.
This leave having been obtained, a covenant was
entered into whereby the vendor or defendant,
called the cognteor, recognized the right of the
plaintiff, called the cognizee, to the lands, of
which he admitted that the plaintiff was wrong-
fully kept from the possession. These proceed-
ings, which at first were real, were afterward
adopted universally without having a shadow
of foundation in fact. The solemn farce hav-
ing been completed, a note of the fine, being an
abstract of the covenant, the names of the par-
ties, and the parcels of the land, was entered
on the rolls of the court; and the business was
concluded by what was called the foot of the
fine, setting forth the parties, the time and place
of agreement, and before whom the fine was
levied. The whole was embodied in indentures
commencing HOBO cat finalis concordtia. It was
necessary that a fine should be levied openly
in the Court of Common Pleas, or before the
Chief Justice of thai court, or before two or
more commissioners, duly appointed. In order
that a fine should have full effect, it was
required to be levied with proclamation, i.e.,
open proclamation of the transaction in court.
A fine so levied cut off the right even of
strangers who failed to assert their claim dur-
ing the period allowed by law; hence an estate
was said to be barred by fine and nonclaim. A
fine levied by a married woman had the effect
of cutting off all right she might have in the
lands and was the only mode by which a mar-
ried woman could convey her lands or her dower
right in her husband's lands. Like the feoff-
ment and the common recovery (q.v.), a fine
was known as a tortious conveyance; i.e., it
had the extraordinary operation of conveying
whatever estate it purported to convey, irre-
spective of whet'her the vendor was seised of the
estate conveyed or had any right to transfer it.
The effect of such a tortious conveyance was to
vest a defeasible title in the ventjee, leaving the
person entitled to the possession to pursue his
remedy by entry or appropriate action.

The practice of conveying lands by fine, as
well as the process of common recovery, was
abolished by the Fines and Recoveries Act, 3
and 4 Wm. IV,' c. 74. Both of these modes of
conveyance were in use in the Colonial period of
American history, but have become obsolete or
have been abolished by statute. The fine was
recognized and confirmed by legislative act in
N"ew York and was not done away with until
1830. See CONVEYANCE.

FltfE. In criminal law, a pecuniary mulct
or punishment imposed by a competent court
upon an offender convicted of a crime or mis-
demeanor. The term came into use in England
during the reign of Edward I, when it became
common for a court to sentence a culprit to a
short term of imprisonment and then to allow
him to "make fine," i.e., to make an end (ftnem
facere) to his imprisonment by paying into
court a certain sum of money. At the outset
this was considered a sort of bargain to end his
imprisonment, and not as an infliction of a
pecuniary penalty, as the judges desired to avoid

the possibility of the practice being confused
with that of amercement (q.v.), which must
be fixed by the assessment of the offender's peers.
The practice of allowing a culprit convicted
of a trivial offense thus to have his option of
fine or imprisonment still prevails in our crim-
inal jurisprudence. This is true especially in
the punishment of misdemeanors, the penal
statutes usually prescribing as the punishment
a short term of imprisonment or a moderate
fine or both, in the discretion of the court. In
the less aggravated cases the magistrates usually
impose the fine only, or give the misdemeanant
the option of fine or imprisonment; but where
a fine is imposed, if the culprit is unable to pay,
he is remanded to prison, and a certain amount
of his fine is considered as discharged for each
day of confinement. For example, in New York
if a magistrate imposes a fine of $10, on default
of payment the culprit is confined in a penal
institution for 10 days, his fine being consid-
ered as reduced $1 each day. It is provided in
the United States Constitution (Eighth Amend-
ment) that "excessive bail shall not be required
nor excessive fines imposed." This does not set
any definite limitation on the power of Congress
to impose such pecuniary penalties as may swm
expedient, but it affords grounds for attacking
the constitutionality of a statute which seems
oppressive in this particular and thus makes
the legislative act subject to review by the
courts. Most of the States have inserted sim-
ilar provisions in their constitutions. See
AMERCEMENT; FOUFEITOBE; PENALTY.

FI1TE, HENKT BUBCHABD (1858- ). An
American university dean and mathematician.
He was born at Chambersburg, Pa., and was
educated at Princeton (A.B., 1880) and Leipzig
(Ph.D., 1885) universities. At the former in-
stitution he was assistant professor from 1885
to 1890, when he became professor, and h<*
was also dean of the faculty in 1903-12 and
dean of the department of science uftw 1009.
Tie was president of the American Mathematical
Society in 1911-12. Besides papers on mathe-
matical subjects, he is author of Euclid's Ele-
ments (1891) ; The Number System of Algebra
(1891; 2d ed., 1003); A College Algeltnt
(1904) 3 Coordinate Geometry, with Henry Dal-
las Thompson (1909).

PTNTE, fen, or FENlS, fena', OBONCK. See
ORONTIUS FINEUS.

PINE-EAB. A servant of Fortunio, in the
fairy tale Fortunio, who could hear the #ra«s
or a sheep's wool grow.

iETNTET'TA. A fairy tale, by the Comtesse
d'Aulnoy (1682). It is only a slightly altered
version of Cinderella.

PHraAIi, fln'gal. The name of the hero in
Macpherson's Poems of Ossian. (iSee MAOPHBB*
sow, JAMES.) It represents an original Gaelic
Fionn Gaidheal (Fin the Gael) and appeared as
Ffonnghael in the 1763 edition of Temora. But
in the collected edition of Macpherson's Gaelic
texts (1807) the spelling is regularly Fionnghal.
In all genuine Ossiahic literature the name of
the leader is simply Fionn (earlier Finn), but
this regular form occurs very rarely in Mac-
pherson. Consult Macpherson, Poems of Ossian,
with an historical and critical introduction by
J. Byre-Todd (London, 1906).

FIHGAIu Another, but unauthorized, name
for the Gaelic hero Fionn Maccumhail
CAVE. See STAFFA.

IFINGKB

FINGER. See HAND.

tfnSTGKER-AND-TOE DISEASE. See CLUB-
BOOT.

FINGER BOARD (AS. finger, Icel. ftngr,
Goth, figgrs, OHG. fingar, Ger. Finger, finger +
board). In stringed musical instruments, the
thin strip of wood glued upon the neck, above
which the strings are stretched and on which
the player presses his finger when shortening
the strings. At its lower end the finger board
projects over the sounding board of all instru-
ments played with the bow, but in other varie-
ties, as in the guitar, it is glued down on both
neck and sounding board. In some stringed
instruments plucked with the fingers the finger
board is divided by frets to enable the player
more readily to find the correct pitch. See
KEYBOARD.

FINGERING. In music, the method of ap-
plying the fingers to the keys, holes, strings,
etc., of musical instruments. The simplest fin-
gering is upon the brass wind instruments,
whose keys are so few that they can be manip-
ulated by one hand without change of position.
The wood-wind instruments come next in order
of difficulty, various functions being assigned
to each finger, and sometimes the same key
being pressed by different fingers. For the fin-
gering of stringed instruments, such as the vio-
lin, see POSITION. Tho most complicated finger-
ing, however, is on instruments having key-
boards. The method of notation for fingering
used at present on the pianoforte in which the
thumb is marked 1, and the fingers 2, 3, 4, 5,
is the outcome of a long series of experiments,
prominent among the reformer a being Bach,
Liszt, Tausig, and Bfilow. The English system,
in which the thumb was marked x and the fin-
gers 1, 2, 3, 4, has practically boon abandoned.
Consult: Whittingham, Companion to all In-
struction Book ft for Keyed instruments (Lon-
don) ; C'h. Neate, An Eway on Fingering (ib.,
1855) ; O. Klauwcll, Der Fingersats dcs Ktwvier-
spicls (Leipzig, 1885). See also articles on the
various instruments.

FINGER PRENTTS. The patterns composed by
the papillary ridges on the palms of the hands
and solos of the foot possess two characteristics
that adapt them peculiarly to the requirements
of personal identification — persistence in gen-
eral character through life, and wide variation
as between individuals. These characteristics
are especially marked in the case of the patterns
of the fingers. Ilecognition of this fact has
led to a widespread advocacy among men of
science of the practice of obtaining and pro-
serving impressions of the finger patterns of
persons whom it may later be necessary to
identify with certainty. Among the proposed
applications of the finger print the one of great-
est general interest is ita use as a means of
criminal identification. Low as are the chance*
of error under the Bertillon system (q.v.), they
are not altogether wanting. By supplementing
the Bortillon measurements with records of fin-
ger prints identification can bo made certain.
The use of finger prints as a means of identifi-
cation of soldiers has been proposed and in
some eases has been practiced. Another appli-
cation of importance is as a substitute for the
signature on legal doeuments or as a supple-
ment to such signature. The use of the finger
print renders forgery impossible 5 furthermore, it
offers a means for securing authentic evidence
of the personal cooperation of an illiterate in the

563

execution of documents in his name. A number
of financial institutions, both in the United
States and in other countries, have experimented
with the use of finger prints with satisfactory
results, although without gains sufficiently strik-
ing to secure the wide acceptance of the plan.

The most spectacular application of finger-
print methods is to the detection of crime. In
the course of the commission of a crime the
criminal may accidentally leave an imprint of
his fingers upon some object on the spot — e.g.,
a windowpane, a knife blade. Such an imprint,
if identical with the finger print of a suspect,
offers almost irrefutable evidence at least of
complicity. In rare instances such evidence
has been offered in court, although convictions
secured upon it fall, for the most part, in the
realm of romance. In the nature of the case
sufficiently clear imprints arc seldom found and,
in the absence of a general finger-print record,
will seldom serve for the detection of a crim-
inal upon whom the suspicion of guilt is not
already securely fixed.

As an alternative to the Bertillon system
the chief difficulty with the finger print cop
siats in classification. Sir Francis Oalton (Jflfai
ger Prints, 1802) finds nine chief classes, o.-
genera, with a large number of subordinate
classes, or species. No two investigatora, how-
ever, would agree precisely in assigning prints
to species or even genera. Accordingly most
criminologists reject the proposal to employ the
finger print exclusively for identification, al-
though they recognize its valu<s in combination
with other systems. Consult: L. R. Almandos,
Daotiloscopia argentine, sw historic. Q inflitcncia
en la IcgitslaMn (La Plata, 1900) ; L. Seymour,
Fingerprint Classification (Los Angeles, 1012) ;
F. A. Brayley, The Anangvmcnt of Finger-
prints Jdcntifi cation an*l their Uses (Boston.
1013).

PltfGKEB SPONGE. See GLOVE SPONOE.

PINGEB SYMBOLISM. A representation'
of number* known to the ancients and common
in tho Middle Agon. Since only one mimber
could conveniently be represented at one time
upon the abacus (q.v.), it is possible that the
finger symbolism was invented to enable tho
calculator to hold in mind tho numbers with
which he was T^orking. It is also probable that
the subject was of practical value in bargaining
at international fairs in the medieval period.
Nicolaus ttliabdas of Smyrna, a medieval Greek
(fourteenth century), describes tho finger sym-
bolism in use in his timo and long before; thus,
80 was represented by laying the thumb of the
left hand upon the palm, bending the forefinger
closely over tho first joint of tho thumb, and
slightly bending the remaining fingers. Con-
sult Tannery, Notice sw les down lettrw arith*
da Nwolatt Rlwtbdas (Pari»» 1886), and

Gow, History of (track Mathematics (Cam-
bridge, 1884). For the work of Rhabdas, con-
sult Notices et evtraita dcs manuaorits da fa
Bibliothcque Rationale, vol. xxxii (Paris, 1886).
JTINIAI* (from Lai finis, end). A terminal
carved ornament at the summit of a peak, pin-
nacle, gable, spire, or other pointed structxire.
Finials are found in Greek architecture, as in
the exquisite choragic monument of Lysicrato,«
and other works of similar form, and in nearly
all subsequent stylos. In Christian architec-
ture, after tho eleventh century, flnials took on
increasing importance with the development of
steep roofs, high pointed gables, and especially

FINl&TJE&RA. 564

of the apires and pinnacles of Gothic buildings.
During the latter part of the twelfth century
and the whole of the thirteenth century finials
of the most perfect form and of infinite variety
were used as the crowning ornaments of every
salient point in the buildings of the period.
Conventional foliage forms, usually in the form
of crockets, were grouped around a central stem
ending in a knob, bud, or flower. The archi-
tects of the fourteenth century in the finials,
as in other ornaments, imitated more closely
the forms of natural foliage, with greater rich-
ness but less vigor of outline than those of the
preceding century. In the late Gothic of the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries the finials
were made longer and more attenuated and
were used to terminate the ogee drip moldings
over arches as ornaments in relief on the walls
as well as to terminate pinnacles and gables.
Finials were carved both in stone and in wood,
and in the latter material with great delicacy
and minuteness. The English developed beau-
tiful finials for the tops of wooden pew ends,"
especially in the fifteenth century. Finials at
the points of hipped roofs, called hip knobs,
were often, of copper or lead, sometimes of
terra cotta or of wood; and whatever the ma-
terial adopted, its natural capabilities were made
a source of special beauty. In Renaissance
architecture finials were much less important,
as steep roofs, pinnacles, and high-pointed gables
passed out of use, except in transitional or
early works, as in the Francis I style, which
produced beautiful finials based on Roman can-
delabrum types. Knoblike and turned finials
are common in both Renaissance and modern
furniture. In Elizabethan architecture finials
are almost entirely, of a geometric form and
without foliage, and are frequently, especially
when terminating wooden gables, combinations
of finial and vane, partly wood and partly iron.
In the strict classic the only traces of the finial
are in the balls, obelisks, etc., used as termi-
nations and also in the shields and supporters
(themselves a remnant of feudalism) which
form the crowning ornament of gate piers, ped-
estals, etc., and which really correspond more
closely to the ancient anthemion terminations.
Mohammedan finials on minarets and doinoB
are usually of metal, with balls^or other swell-
ing forms surmounted by the crescent.

ITNIGUEBBA, fg'nA-gweVra, MASO (TOM-
MASO) (1426-64). A Florentine goldsmith,
draftsman, and engraver of the Renaissance.
He was born of a family of goldsmiths and was
probably a pupil of his father Antonio. It was
formerly supposed, on the authority of the
sculptor Baccio Bandinelli (q.v.)» that he as-
sisted Ghiberti on the famous portals of the
baptistery; but there is no confirmation of this.
The chief influence upon his art was probably
that of Antonio Pollajuolo, with whom he was
in partnership in 1457. In 1463 he designed
cartoons for the five figures in tarsia which
were carried out under the supervision of Giu-
liano da Majano for the sacristy of the cathedral
—his only authenticated surviving work. He
made his testament Dec. 14, 1464, and died
shortly afterward. According to the statement
of Benvcnuto Cellini (q.v.), certainly an author-
ity on the subject, h,e was the first master of
his day in the art of niello engraving. Now
we know from the records that he executed im-
portant work in this medium. His master*
piece was a "pax" of the "Crucifixion" for the

baptistery of Florence. Finiguerra was long es-
teemed, on the authority of Vasari, the inven-
tor of engraving on metal; but this statement
is no longer credited, since it is certain that
line engraving (q.v.) was practiced in Germany
.before his day. It seems likely, however, that
a number of drawings of the school of the Polla-
juoli in the Uffizi, and part of a picture chron-
icle in the British Museum, are by him. Con-
sult: Duchesnc, fissai sur les nielles (Paris,
1824) ; Baldinueci, Notizic del professori di
disegno (Florence, 1845) ; Colvin, A. Florentine
Picture Chronicle (London, 1898).

PILING- (from fine, OEng. finen, to refine,
from fine, pure, from OF., Fr. fin, from Lat.
finitus, p.p. of finire, to end, from finis, end), or
CLARIFICATION. The process by which turbid
liquors such as beer or wine are clarified or
made clear. The simplest method of fining is
by passing a liquid through a porous substance,
such as charcoal, a cloth, or filtering paper,
which retains the solids and allows the clear
fluid to pass through; but this method cun be
used only with those liquids that contain mut-
ter that is mechanically suspended in thorn.
Such liquids as contain * mucilaginous or other
gummy matter that readily clogs the filter re-
quire 'special means of separation. The fact
that the albumen of meat collects the mueilajri-
nous material in soup has been taken advantage
of for the purpose of fining.

In the fining of sirups and such liquors as
may be heated without injury, a soluble albu-
men such as the white of egg may be used. To
a small portion of the turbid liquid albumen
is added, and after thorough mixture the por-
tion is poured into the rest of the liquor and
agitated. On the application of heat the albu-
men coagulates and contrat'ts into scum that
envelops and draws together the suspended mut-
ter, which may then be readily removed. As
albumen is coagulated by alcohol, it may be
used for fining wines and cordials without tho
application of 'heat. Malt liquor«, on the other
hand, are fined by means of gelatin, as isinglartw.
Thus, one pound of isinglass may be, soaked in
three or four pints of water or sour beer to
which, as the isinglass swells, more sour liquor
is added, until it measures a gallon. The re-
sulting jelly is then dissolved in seven or eight
gallons of liquor to be fined, and this* solution,
called 4<brewer's finings," which has the consist-
ency of sirup, is used in the proportion of a
pint to a pint and a half to a barrel of ak»
or porter or to a hogshead of wine. The isin-
glass combines with the astringent matter of the
liquor, forming an insoluble solid which winks
to the bottom and carries with it tin; auHponded
matter, where it is allowed to remain, a« the
flavor of malt liquors depends Homewhat upon
the astringents they contain. For the fining
of spirits a proper proportion of alum is added
to the liquor and then a solution of sodium
carbonate, and after agitation in the presence
of air the spirit is allowed to rest for 24 hours,
after which it will bo found to be clarified-
Frequently salts are used for fining; thus, ace-
tate of lead is sometimes added to the liquor,
and then, after thorough agitation, a solution
of potassium sulphate. In this case an insoluble
lead sulphate is precipitated, which carries
down with it the gummy material. This proc-
ess is objectionable,, ait lead salts are poisonous.
Ox blood is sometimes used as a substitute for
albumen. The best liquors need no artificial

565

fining, a» they clarify themselves, for the tur-
bid matter sinks to the bottom soon after the
fermentation is completed, and much care must
be exercised in the use of finings, especially in
cases where the liquors require a certain amount
of astringency, briskness, and piquancy, as these
qualities are diminished and the liquor is likely
to become flat and vapid. Those liquors which
fail to become clear when treated with finings
in the usual manner are called "stubborn." Con-
sult Gardner, Breicer, Distiller, and Wme Manu-
facturer (London, 1883).

PENTSTERE, fS'nS'aUlr' (Lat., finis terra,
land's end). The westernmost department of
France (q.v.), comprehending a part of the
former Duchy of Brittany (Map: France, N.,
B 4). Area, 2714 square miles. Pop., 1901,
773,014; 1011, 800,771. It is traversed from
oast to west by two low, picturesque chains
of hills. Its coast is rugged and broken, its
shores bristling with dangerous granite rocks
and fringed with many islands. The soil, one-
third of which is occupied by sandy tracts and
marshes, is moderately productive. Corn, hemp,
and flax arc grown in considerable quantities,
as well as fruits. On the coast are large pilch-
ard fisheries. The silver and lead mines are
valuable, those of Poullaouen and Huolgoat be-
ing nlxmt,tliG richest in France. Capital, Quim-
per. Brest ia the chief harbor.

ITOISTER MOUNTAINS. A range of
mountains in Kaiaer Wilhelms Land. They
reach an altitude of 11,315 feet.

ITMTISTERRE, ft'ne-'star7, CAPE. See CAPE

PINK, ALBERT (1827-97). An American
civil engineer, born near Frankfort-on-the-Main,
Germany. Onulujiting from the Polytechnic In-
stitute (Darmstadt) in 1848, he emigrated in
the following year to America, where ho became
a draftsman for the Baltimore and Ohio Hail-
road; subsequently ho had charge of designing
and constructing for that company the first im-
portant iron bridges in tho United States. Tn
1857 he became an assiHtant to George McLeocl,
chief engineer of the Louiflvillo and Nashville
Railroad, and while thun connected he built
the great bridge over the Ohio River at Louis-
ville, Ky. During tho Civil War he was chief
engineer and superintendent of the road and
machinery department of the Federal army.
In 1805-75 lie wan general manager and in 1870-
75 vice preHJdent of tho Louisville and Nash-
ville Railroad. In 1875 Ho organised tho South-
ern Railway and Steamship Association, by
means of which he affected a "pool" of four
great trunk linen and thus revolutionized the
traffic management of American railroads. In
1870-80 he wag president of the American Bo-
ciety of Civil Engineers.

tflNK, Lours MAHIA ( 1 834-1004 ) . An Ameri-
can Catholic prelate, born at Triftcrflberg, Ba-
varia. He wftft educated at Batisbon, came to
tho United States in 1852, was ordained priest
in 1857, and was stationed at Bellefonte, Pa.,
Newark, N. J., Covington, Ky., and Chicago, Til.
In 1871 he was consecrated titular Bitmap of
Kucarpia and appointed coadjutor to Bishop
Miege, Vicar Apostolic of Kansas. He was
transferred to the diocese of Leavenworth in
1877.

(Fin. $«omenmaa, land of lakes
and marshes), A grand duchy of Russia* ex-
tending from about lat* 60° to about 70° &,
tad lying between long. 20* 80' and 38* E*

(Map: Russia, C 2). Its extreme length is 700
miles from north to south. The greatest breadth
is about 400 miles. Finland is bordered on the
north by Norwegian Lapland, on the east by
Russia proper, on the south by the Gulf of
Finland, and on the west by the Gulf of Both-
nia and Sweden. It includes part of Russian
Lapland. It has an area of 144,255 square
miles, of which about 35 per cent is forest (in-
cluding many moors and morasses), over 11
per cent is occupied by lakes, about 3 per cent
is arable, and about 5 per cent is in meadow.
Finland has been called the "Land of the Thou-
sand Lakes." Among its largest lakes arc Kallu,
PUyiinne, Enare, Tornea, Hauki, and Raima.
The last of these, about 180 miles long, is the
centre of the system of water communication
between the central part of the country and
the Gulf of Finland. Lake Ladoga indents the
southeast corner. While heights, even to 4100
feet, as in Haldisckok, are reached in the extreme
north, the most of Finland contains no moun-
tainous elevations and all reliefs have been
rounded off in the south to 400 to 600 foot by
the action of an ancient ice sheet. The .forms
of the country everywhere are clue to this glaeia-
tion; bowlders, many of them so large that the
peasants build houses in their shelter; lakes,
lagoons, and marshes, the labyrinth of water-
ways, and the general alignment of the country
aw marked by hills and valleys. The rivers are
unimportant, the chief being the Muonio, which
flows between Finland and Sweden, the Kemi,
and the Ulea. The coast line* is generally low,
skirted in the south by numerous rocky islands.

Th« crown forests are extensive, yielding the
government a considerable income. The forest
trees are mainly conifers. Oaks and other broad-
leaf trees are found in tho southern portion.
In the northern section the vegetation is that
of the Arctic tundras. The chief mammals are
bears, wolves, lynxes, gluttons, foxes, elk, and
reindeer. Game birds aud waterfowl abound,
an well as fish, principally herring and salmon.

Climate. The climate of Finland is rigorous
but healthful, marked by long winters and **hort
but hot summers. It lion within the zone of
cyclones and anticyclones, which pass over
northern Europe from west to east at intervals
of two or three days throughout the year and
give, variability to the winds and weather. The
mean annual temperature varies between the
southern and the northern boundary from 40°
F. to 34° F., ranging from 20* F. to 8° F. in
January, and from 64° F. to 62° F. in July.
The extreme range of temperature is about 110°
to 1156 F. Tho prevailing winds in winter are
from tho south and southwest and in Hummer
from the north, northwest, and west, Tho
amount of rainfall varies from 10 inches in
the northern to 25 indies in the southern part,
being greatest during August. Tho degree of
cloudiness varies from 50 per cent at the south
to 72 per cent at the north.

Gfreology and Mineral Resources. In its ge-
ological structure Finland is closely related to
the Scandinavian peninsula* Granite and Ar-
chaean rocks predominate, overlain by glacial
materials The granite is extensively quarried
for building stone. Bog-iron ore aud copper are
the only metallic minerals of importance* The
former occurs in marshes and in the numerous
lakes, while the copper mines are located at
Pikaranta on Lake Ladoga,

Agriculture* Owing to its situation and to

566

FINLAND

the very limited cultivable area as well as to
the primitive methods employed, Finland's home
supply of agricultural products falls far short
of the demand. In 1901 the number of farms
was 271,154, of which 1855 embraced over 247
acres each. There is a large class of small-
farm owners in areas ranging from 10 to 25
acres. The influence of the landed aristocracy
as a class, once considerable, has greatly waned
since the Law of 1863-64, which enables every
citizen to buy tax-exempted land from the nobil-
ity. The state owns about one-third of the whole
area and rents land on very advantageous terms,
giving lessees every reasonable opportunity for
purchase. Rent of private lands is paid mostly
in labor. Though the laws governing the rela-
tions between tenant and landlord leave much
to be desired, the condition of tenants was per-
haps better during the last century than that
of the average in the countries of Europe. After
Finland became a Russian duchy, its agricul-
ture underwent a significant change. Owing
to the excess of pasture over arable land, the
dairying industry has always been more or less
important, but prior to 1850 agriculture in Fin-
land meant chiefly the raising of rye, corn, oats,
barley, and potatoes. Since then dairy products
have become more prominent, and the use of
machinery in their production, introduced by
the example of owners of the larger estates and
followed by the cooperative societies, is now
very general. The wheat crop of 1910 was ap-
proximately 130,000,000 bushels; rye, 13,000,000;
oats, 28,000,000; potatoes, 25,000,000. Finland
exports annually about $8,000,000 of animal
products, chiefly butter. In the development of
its fisheries as well as of its live-stock interests
the country has greatly advanced.

Manufactures. Naturally Finland is not fa-
vorably situated for manufacturing, although
the numerous streams offer an abundant supply
of power. During the period of 1887-1002, how-
ever, the number of manufacturing establish-
ments grew from 5615 to 8534 (52 per cent
gain) ; the number of workmen employed in-
creased from 43,085 to 96,282 (121 per cent);
and the value of products, exclusive of flour,
rose from about $22,500,000 to about $59,800,-
000 (161 per cent). In 1910 the product of the
wood industries was valued at $28,000,000; tex-
tiles, $13,000,,000; paper, $18,000,000; iron and
mechanical works, $10,000,000.

Commerce and Transportation. Respecting
commerce Finland has been practically inde-
pendent of Russia. The Finnish manufacturer
gets his material much cheaper than the Rus-
sian, hence has been able to compete with the
latter even in the Russian market. The great
difference between the prices on certain manu-
factures in Finland and in Russia has led to
extensive smuggling. These difficulties, how-
ever, were somewhat obviated after a measure
was instituted by the Czar in 1897, which pro-
vided that all articles of Russian origin, except
spirits, sugar, salt, tobacco, and beer, were to be
admitted free to Finland; all agricultural and
handmade articles from Finland were to be
passed free into Russia; all products of the
principal industries wore to be liable to dif-
ferential duties; the remainder were to be
treated in the same way as foreign products.
Finland's annual imports increased from $28,-
120,000 in 1890 to $91,500,000 in 1911, and its
exports from $18,480,000 to $62,180,000, The
imports comprise chiefly foodstuffs, metal prod-

ucts, textiles, and machinery. About 15 per
cent of the exports consist of animal products,
mostly butter, and about 70 per cent of wood
and wood products, including paper and pulp.
Timber is the leading export and amounted in
1912 to $32,038,000; paper and wood pulp, $12,-
352,000; butter, $6,750,000. The trade is
mainly with Russia, Germany, Great Britain,
Denmark, and Sweden, named in the order of
their importance. The transportation facilities
are fully adequate to the demands of the coun-
try. Its even surface greatly facilitates the
construction of common roads, of which there
are over 30,000 miles. The numerous lakes are
utilized freely for transportation, and, joined
by short canals, they afford continuous water-
ways. The first railway in Finland was com-
pleted in 1862 — a line of about 88 miles be-
tween Hclsingfors and Tavastehus. In 1911 there
were 2,332 miles, of which only 182 miles were
owned by private companies. The income of the
state lines forms an important item in the
budget.

finance and Banking. The revenues of Fin-
land amounted in 1911 to about $31,200,000,
and the expenditures $30,100,000. The largest
expenditures were for public works (mainly
railroads), administration and service of the
debt, worship and education, and military af-
fairs. The public debt, contracted exclusively
for railway construction, amounted at the be-
ginning of 1911 to about $34,000,000. Finland
has a gold standard, and the unit of value is
the mark, or markka, equivalent to 19.3 cents,
the same as the French franc. The chief finan-
cial concern is the Bank of Finland, a state in-
stitution established in 1811, and by means of
which most of the financial undertakings of the
slate are carried out. The first savings bank
was established in 1823. In 1911 there were al-
together 382 savings banks, mostly privates but
under the supervision of the state, with 308,939
depository and deposits amounting to $48,-
700,000.

Government. The position of Finland in the
Russian Empire is that of a grand duchy, with
its own constitution, and practical autonomy
in its internal affairs, all diplomatic relations,
however, being carried on by the Empire. The
executive department consists of the Semite
(which meets at Helsingfors), whose members
are nominated by the Emperor (the Grand
Duke of Finland), the Governor-General, and
the State's Secretariat for Finland at St. Peter«-
burg. The national Diet was formerly componed
of nobles, clergy, burghors, and peasants, but
was reorganized in 1906 to consist of one, cham-
ber of 200 members chosen by direct and pro-
portional election, in which ail entitled to suf-
frage have an equal vofn*. The suffrage is pos-
sessed by both sexes alike, on reaching the age
of 24, and both sexes are eligible to the Diet;
and the first election resulted in the selection
of 19 women as members of the Diet. The
Diet has powor to consider and act upon all mat-
ters not affecting fundamental laws or the or-
ganization of land and sea defense. In 1910,
however, the Russian government enacted a
law depriving the Diet of the right to legislate
on taxation, police direction, school manage-
ment, and control of the press, and in 1911 toe
Russian Duma enacted a law placing Russians
on an equality with Finns in the grand duchy.
(See History, below.) The Finnish army, ae-
.cording to the provisions of the Defense

FINLAND

567

FINLAND

of 1878, could not be required to serve outside
of Finland and is under the command of Fin-
nish officers.

Population and Religion. The population
of Finland numbered 2,060,782 in 1880, 2,712,-
562 in 1900, 2,857,038 in 1904, and 31B4.284 in
191 1. Estimated population, Dec. 31, 1919, 3,335,-
237. The females exceeded the males in 1904 by
22,580, and the urban population formed only
about 13 per cent of the total. The chief cities
and their populations (1910) are: Helsingfors
(the capital) , 147,218; Abo, 49,691 ; Tammerfprs,
45,442 ; and Viborg, 27,508. As regards religion
in 1910 there were 3,057,627 Lutherans, 52,004
Greek Orthodox. The language of the country is
Finnish, although Swedish is spoken by the
higher classes, in addition to the Swedes, who
form about 13 per cent of the population. The
Russians number but a few thousand. See Firms.

The University of Helsingfors is at the head
of the Finnish educational scheme. It was
founded at Abo in 1640 and transferred to Hel-
singfors in 1827. In 1912 it had an attendance
of 3030, of whom 730 were women. There wore
69 lyceums in 1912. Primary instruction is
furnished by public, parochial, and traveling
schools. According to the school census of
1806, out of 457,678 children of school age only
17,771 roceivod no education. The public schools
are. maintained largely by local funds, but re-
ceive a subvention from the government. Fin-
hind has a large number of periodicals and not
a fow learned societies.

History. The Finns are said to have dwelt on
the Volga in the seventh century and to hnvo
been driven northward at tho beginning of tho
eighth. The true. Finns call themselves Suomi.
Tn the twelfth century the Swedes began the
long struggle which ended in the closing years
of the thirteenth century in the Christiani-
zation of the people and their subjection to
Swedish sovereignty. Henrik, tho English-born
Bishop of Upsaia, who accompanied the first
Swedish expedition in 1157, was murdered by
a Finn and became Finland's patron saint and
martyr. For over COO years Finland remained
an appanage of tho Swedish crown. Guatavus
Vasa (q.v.) introduced the Lutheran religion,
in 1 528, and John III made the country a grand
duchy. Under Swedish rule the people enjoyed
an autonomous constitutional government and
developed a simple, intelligent, and unique*
civilisation. While Finnish remained the lan-
guage of the peasantry, Swedish became that of
the towns and of tho cultivated and official
classes. During the long wars between Russia
and Sweden, Finland was frequently a battle
ground, and as the Finnish frontier is only 33
miles from St. Petersburg, it was naturally do-
aired by the former country to round out its
territory and complete its defenses. This de-
sire was realized in the Peace of Fredrikshamn,
Sept. 17, 1800, following upon a Russian inva-
sion, by which Sweden ceded tho grand ducby
with the Aland Islands to Russia. Alexander
I (q.v.) guaranteed to Finland the preserva-
tion of its laws, constitution, and religion, and
this pledge was solemnly renewed to the Fin-
nish JDiet by every Czar including Nicholas II.
In 1897, however, the Russian government be-
gan a aeries of systematic attacks, culminating
in the attack on Finnish liberties and the man-
ifesto of Feb. 16, 1899, which removed from
the competence of the Diet all matters af*
footing the grand duchy in common w?tb Rttfl-

feia proper. The Eussification of the country
was carried on under the auspices of the noto-
rious Plehve, who was made Secretary for Fin-
land in 1899. Between 1900 and 1902 the in-
corporation of the Finnish army was decreed,
Russian was made the language of higher ad-
ministration and of the Senate, and Russian
subjects were made eligible for service under
the government. Finally, the Governor-General,
Bobrikoff, was invested with dictatorial pow-
ers (April 15, 1903) and proceeded to suppress
freedom of assembly and the press and to exile
the most prominent leaders of the opposition.
On June 16, 1904, Bobrikoff was assassinated.
He was succeeded by Prince Obolenski. The
revolutionary agitation in Russia (1905) found
no echo in Finland in the beginning; even the
creation of a state Duma for Russia was re-
garded as not affecting the peculiar status of
Finland under its own Diet. On October 30,
however, the workmen at Helsingfors decided
to join in the general strike which was raging
in Russia. A tremendous public upheaval fol-
lowed, which in one day, and without recourse
to arms, succeeded in sweeping away the work
of Russian aggression during the previous eight
yenrs. On October 31 a deputation presented
to Prince Obolenski a series of popular de-
mands, including the repeal of all illegal ordi-
nances and the immediate convocation of the
Diet. These demands Prince Obolenski promptly
granted* On November 4 the Czar wigned a
manifesto summoning an extraordinary meeting
of the Diet on December 20. Thifl was followed
by absolute quiet in Finland. On May 29, 1906,
the Diet adopted a radical system of represen-
tation. See GOVKUNMKNT, Finland proclaimed
her independence Dee. 9, 1917, and established a
Republic. Her independence was recognized by
practically all the European powern immediately
and by the Ruwsian Soviet government on Jan.
9, 1918. Civil war immediately broke out be-
tween the red guards (Bolshevik) and the white
guards (pro*( German). Throughout the year tho
German influence was predominant. Tn July,
1919, however, Profctwor K. J. Stanhllwrg, a
strong Finnifih nationalist was elected president
of the Republic over General Mannerheim, 1m
pro-German opponent, an a result of a Won
formed by Socialists, Agrarians, and Progres-
sives. The German influence was largely wiped
out and Finland began her career afl a really
independent wtate. See RtirmBMBNT.

Consult: Mechelin and others, Finland im
19ten Jahrhundert (Helsingfors, 1894; Fr.
trans*, 1900) ; Tweedic, Through Finland in
Carts (London, 1897); 8ta,ti$tiak Artok for
Finland (annual, Helsingfora) ; Barnhafc, #tw«-
land und Finland (Leipzig, 1900) -, The People
of Finland in Archaic Times (London, 1892) ;
Koskincn, Pinniaohe (tesohtohte (Leipzig, 1873) ;
Jonas, Da* Grostffurstentum Finland (Berlin,
1886) ; Fisher, Finland and the Tsar a (London,
2d ed,, 1900) ; Nyholm, Die Striking Finland*
im russisolien Kaisvrreich (Leipzig, 1901);
Arnheim ( ed, ) , Der auss^rordcntUohefinliindisohft
Landtag, 1899 (Ger, trans, from the Finnish,
ib., 1900); Gotz, Das staatsrecbtfohe r«r-
h&ltnis zwischen Finland und Russian* (ib.,
1900) ; De Windt, Finland a* It Is (New York,
1903) ; M. Robinson, Finland (ib., 1906) ;
Wainerman, A. Bummer Tour in Finland (Lon-
don, 1908); Chalboub, La Finland* (Paris,
1910) ; Renwick, Finland !To-7>CM/(LondoTi, 1911 } ;
Jtaftav from Finland (ib., 1011); M.

568

Young, Finland (ib., 1012) ; R. Butler,
Eastern Europe (New York, 1910) ; M. P.
Thompson, Finland (New York, 1921). See
RUSSIA; SWEDEN.

FINOLADSTD, GTJLF OF. An arm of the Baltic
Sea bounded by Finland on the north and east,
the Government of St. Petersburg on the east
and south, and Esthonia on the south (Map:
Russia, B 3). It extends in an easterly di-
rection for over 250 miles and varies in width
from about 12 to over 80 miles, its narrowest
point being at the east end. Its depth ranges
from 26 to over 200 feet, although in a few places
it exceeds 300 feet. The north coast is rugged
and bordered with numerous- small islands.
There are also islands, mostly uninhabited, in the
midst of the gulf. By the Neva and the Ladoga
Canal the gulf is connected with the lakes of
Ladoga and Onega, while the Narova connects
it with Lake Peipus. Besides the two above-
mentioned rivers, tlio gulf receives a number of
small streams, both from Finland and from Es-
thonia. Navigation is greatly hindered by sand
banks and rocks, and by ice during the winter.
Among the ports are Reval, "Kronstadt, on a
powerfully fortified island protecting the Neva,
Viborg, and Helsingfors.

HNOiAY, GEORGE (1799-1875). An English
historian, born at Favorsham (Kent). He
studied law in an office at Glasgow and Roman
jurisprudence at Gottingen. In 1823 he pro-
ceeded to Greece, met Byron, went to Mis-
solonghi, but soon left for Italy and thence for
Scotland, where he concluded his legal studies
and passed his civil-law examination. In 1826
he was once more in Greece and from that
time until the termination of the war (1829)
was either in active military service or em-
ployed in missions on behalf of the patriot
cause. He then bought an estate in Attica and
devoted himself to agriculture and writing his-
tory. Among his works are Greece Under the
Romans (1844) ; A- History of the Byzantine
and Greek Empires from 116 to 1J$S (1854);
Greece under Ottoman and Venetian Domina-
tion (1856) and Greek Revolution (1861).
Those, with manuscript corrections and addi-
tions by the author, were published at Oxford
under the editorship of H. F. Tozcr as A His-
tory of Greece, from its Conquest by the Ro-
mans to the Present Time, J'/6 B.C. to 186 Jf AJ>.
(1877). Consult the Autobiography in vol. i
of the Oxford edition.

PINOLEY, JAMTCS BRADLEY (1781-1850). An
American Methodist Episcopal clergyman, born
in North Carolina. He entered the ministry in
1809; was for six years superintendent of the
mission to the Wyandot Indians, for three and
a half years chaplain of the Ohio penitentiary,
and for 21 years presiding elder; and was a
member of eight general conferences. He was
author of The History/ of the Wyandot Mission
(1842) ; Life Among the Indians, ed. by D. W.
Clark; Sketches of Western Methodism, ed. by
W. P. Strickland. Consult his Autobiography,
ed. by W. P. Strickland (Cincinnati, 1854; 2d
ed., 1857).

HlTIjEY, JOHN HUSTON (1863- ). An
American educator and editor. He was born at
Grand Ridge, 111., studied at Knox College (A.B.,
1887) and at Johns Hopkins University, and
became secretary of the New York State Char-
ities Aid Association. He was president of
Knox College from 1892 until 1899, editor of
Harper's Weekly (1809), and editor of

Magazine (1899-1900). In 1900 he became

Professor of politics in Princeton University, in
903 president of the College of the City of
New York, and in 1913 New York State Com-
missioner of Education. He was Harvard Uni-
versity exchange lecturer on the Hyde Founda-
tion at the Sorbonne, Paris, in 1910-11, served
as president of the American Social Science As-
sociation after 1910, became a member of the
National Institute of Arts and Letters, and re-
ceived the degree of LL.D. from several col-
leges and universities (including Columbia,
1914). He wrote: Taxation in American States
and Cities, with Richard T. Ely (18S9); The
American Executive and flaoecutii-e Methods,
with John F. Sanderson (1008).

PINLEY, JOHN PARK ( 1854- ) . An Amer-
ican meteorologist, born at Ann Arbor, Michi-
gan. He graduated at the State Normal School
at Ann Arbor and continued his studies at the
Michigan State Agricultural College. As as-
sistant to the chief signal officer at Washington,
he instituted the system of meteorological re-
ports from localities where there were no regu-
lar signal- service officers by moans of volun-
teer observers. He was later placed in charge
of the Signal Service Bureau on the Pacific
coast, where his observations were of groat
value. His writings are extensive, his investi-
gations regarding the phenomena of tornadoes
being his most valuable contribution to meteor-
ology. Among his published works are: Torna-
does (1887); Manual of Instruction in Opti-
cal Telegraphi/ (1889); Bailor's Handbook of
Storm-Track, Fog, and Ice Charts of the Xorth
Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico (1889); l$it*a}/ on.
the Development of Tornadoes (1890); Certain
Climatic Features of the Two Dakotas (1893),

TIlSTLEY, MARTHA (MAETIIA FARQUH ARSON)
(1828-1909). An American author. She was
born in Chill icothe, Ohio, lived for many years
in Philadelphia, and became widely known for
her numerous stories of the Sunday School Li-
brary type. Her "Elsie Series" (26*voK), ^Mil-
dred Series" (7 vols,), and "Finlcy Series" (7
vols.) for adults, and many Sunday-school
books, including the '"Do-Good Library" (9
vols.) and the " Pewit's Nest Series" (12 voK),
were very popular. Among her many other
publications are An Old-Fashioned Boy (1871)
and The Thorn in the .Yes* (1886).

FINIiEY, ROBERT (1772-1817). The organ-
izer of the Colonization Society, born at Prince-
ton, N. J. He graduated at the college in his
native town at the age of 15 years and taught
school there, in Allentown, N. J., and in GharW-
ton, S. C. In 1794, having returned North, he
was licensed as a minister by the Presbytery
of New Brunswick, N. J., and in 1790 acceptod
a call to Basking Ridge, N. J- From a study
of the negro question he came to the conclusion
that the only solution of the problem was to
colonize these people in worne remote* region,
preferably on the coast of Africa. In Decem-
ber, 1816, ho went to Washington, D. C., where
he organized the Colonization Society (q.v.J,
and among those who became interested in the
project was John Randolph of Roanoko. At
this time Dr. Finley was not aware that Jef-
ferson had suggested a similar plan in a letter
written in 1811, nor that only the previous
autumn a motion had been made in the Vir-
ginia Assembly to colonize free blacks on the
Pacific coast. In January ho returned to Nw
Jersey, where he organized an auxiliary ao-

dety, and then wont South again and became
president of the University of Georgia, where
he died.

PIHLEY, SAMUEL (1715-66). An American
clergyman of the Presbyterian church, born in
County Armagh, Ireland. Fie came to Phila-
delphia in 1734, was licensed to preach in 1740,
was ordained by the Now Brunswick Presbytery
in 1742, and in 1743 was settled at Milford,
Conn. Having preached at New Haven to the
"Second Society* of that place, an organization
unrecognized by the church, Jio was seized as
having violated tho law forbidding itinerants
to preach in any parish without the consent of
the settled pastor, and was ejected from the
Colony as a vagrant. From 1744 to 1761 he
was pastor at Nottingham, Md., where he also
conducted an academy of considerable reputa-
tion. In 1761 he became president of Prince-
ton. His publications consisted entirely of ser-
mons, among them Christ Triumphing and
Satan Raging (1741); Satan Stripped of his
Angelic Robe (1743); A Charitable Plea for
the Speechless (1747); On the Death of Presi-
dent Davies (1761).

FHTOT, FRANK ( 1868- ) . An English orni-
thologist, born in Maidstone. He was educated
at Oxford, where he was classical scholar at
Brasenose College. He went on a collecting
expedition to East Africa in 1892, was assist-
ant superintendent (1894) and deputy super-
intendent (1805-1903) of the Calcutta Indian
Museum, and in 1009-10 edited the Avicultu-
ral Magazine. Some of lua books are: Faney
Watcrfoicl (1900); Fancy Pheasants (1001);
Garden and Aviary Birds of India (1006) ;
'\Yadcrs (1007); The World1 8 Birds
The Making of Species (1909), with
Jtiqgs and Xcsts of British Birds
Talks About Birds (1911); (jame-
Birds of India and Asia (1011) ; Wild Animals
of Yesterday and Today (1013).

PINNER. See FINBACK.

nw<NK3T, CHARLES GEANDISON (1792-1875).
An American clergyman and educator, born at
Warren, Conn. He began the study of law in
1818, in 1821 abandoned the law for theology,
wa« licensed to preach by the Presbyterian
church in 1824, and was active as an itinerant
evangelist from that time until 1835 and at
subsequent intervals. Tn 1834 he became pas-
tor of tho Congregational Church known as the
Broadway Tabernacle, Now York City. He was
called to tho chair of theology in Oborlin College
in 1835, was appointed pastor of the Congrega-
tional Church at Oberlin in 1837, and from 1851
to 180C waft president of the college* In 1849
and 1858 he visited England as a revivalist. Ho
wrtablinhcd the Oberlin JMvangclist in 1839 and
wa» its editor until 1863, Among liis publica-
tions are: Lectures on Revivals (1835; 14th cd.,
enlarged, 1868) ; Sermons on Important Sub-
jects (1839); Lectures on Systematic TJwology
(2 vola., 1847; new ed*, 1878). Consult his
Memoirs (Now York, 1876; 2d ed,, 1903)-,

ETIOriSH IiAM-GrtTACra AND LITEBA-
TTIjRE. The Finnish language belongs to the
Finno-Ugrlc branch of the Uralo*Altaic family
of languages. The tongues of the FinnoUgric
group are spoken in Finland, Lapland, and
part of the Baltic provinces by a number of
Finnic tribes scattered over a vast area in
northern and eastern Russia and western Si-
beria and by the Magyars of Hungary. The
richest and most highly cultivated languages

Indian
(1008);
I)cwar;
(1010);

LAHGtrAOfrE

of the group are the Suonxi, the language of
Finland, and the Magyar (Hungarian). The
dialects are all distinctly agglutinative forms
of speech, with decided tendencies towards in-
flection, so much so that in many grammatical
endings the essential difference between agglu-
tination and inflection becomes obscured. As
in other Uralo- Altaic tongues, progressive vowel
harmony forms a characteristic feature of the
Finnish group. The Finnish language is spoken
by over 2,500,000 people and in several different
dialects, of which the most important are the
East Finnish, or Karelian, the South Finnish,
and the West Finnish. The first of these ^is the
oldest and least developed; the second is the
main vehicle of Finnish literature. It is em-
phatically vocalic. It has five fundamental
vowels — at et i, o, and u — and employs two
diphthongs. The grammatical relations between
the several parts of speech are expressed ex-
clusively by suffixes. Nouns are. used without
any article, have no gender, and are declined,
in both singular and plural, through 15 dif-
ferent cases, so as to express the relations which
in the Indo-Gcrmanic languages are commonly
indicated by prepositions. Verbs have but two
tenses, present and past, the future tense being
expressed by a circumlocution; hut their con-
jugation is very intricate. The language is
capable of expressing the nicest shades of mean-
ing. Consult Eliot, Finnish Grammar (Oxford,
1800) ; Ojansuu, Suomcn lounaismurtciden Mnr
nehistorfo; vohaalioppi, descenfontti csitys
(ITelaingfors, 1001); Karsten, "NAgra ger-
rminBka lanord i finskan" (Nordiska Rtudier,
1904) ; Zaborowski-Moindron, "Relations primi-
tives deft Germaina et des Finnois" ($oc* d'An*
throp. de Paris, 1007); Karsten, "Altdeutsehe
Kulturatromungen im Spiegel des flnnigtshen
Lchnworts (fndogcrmnniftche Forschungcn,
1010) ; S/innyei, Finnisch-uqrische ftprachwis-
sensch aft (Leipzig, 1910); Poirot, Beitr&ge ntur
Kenntniss dcr Quantittit dtsr finnifwh-uffrifwlicn
flprachcn (Helsingfors, 1012). HJrwast, Finnisoh-
dcutschos Worterbuoh (1888) to still the stand-
ard work.

The eMef monument of Finnish literature is
the Kalcvala, a sort of epic poem, which until
tho last century existed only in the memory
of the peasantry. A collection of Home of the
scattered parts of this poem was published in
1822 by Zachariaa Topehus ; but Ehas Lttnnrot,
13 years later, published a far more complete
collection, at the same time giving to it the
name by which it is now known. Lttnnrot wan-
dered from place to place among the peasantry,
taking down from their lips all that they knew
of tUcir popular sougs. After unwearied re-
searches ho was successful in collecting 12,078
lines, which he arranged into 32 runea, or
cantos, and published exactly an he heard
them sung or chanted. Continuing his re-
searches, he published in, 1840 a new edition of
22,793 verses, in 50 runes. The importance of
this long-hidden epic was at once recognized
in Europe, and translations of it were made
in several languages. Rome specimens of it
were translated into English by Professor Per*
. ter of Yale, and published in New York in 1868*
The entire poem was translated by J. M. Craw-
ford' (1888). It has been several timon trans-
lated into Swedish, the first time by Caatren,
and there arc versions in German by Anton
Schiefner (1852), in Fwich by L. do Due (2
vole., 1867), in Hungarian by Ferdinand Barna

FIlDiriSH MUSIC

570

(1871). The poem is written in eight-sylla-
bled trochaic verse, and an idea of its style
may be obtained from Longfellow's Hiawatha,
which approaches a true imitation of the Fin-
nish epic. The Kalevala is concerned entirely
with the mythology or folklore of the people.
In the story there is a certain unity of plot,
though the various parts are not perfectly hom-
ogeneous and appear to be the product of dif-
ferent minds at different periods, the various
songs having evidently received additions in
course of time. They probably originated be-
fore the Finns wore converted to Christianity,
and when they were not scattered as they are
now. When Lonnrot collected the Kalevala
songs, he also gathered a considerable quantity
of lyric poetry, which he published under the
name of Kanteletar, from the name of the na-
tional instrument to which they are sung — a
species of harp with five strings. Of recent
Finnish poets the most popular seems to be
Paavo Korrhoinen, a peasant, a very sarcastic
writer. Other modern poets are Marteska, Ket-
tunen, Ilhainen, Oksaselta, the brothers Leino.
Finnish poets that have used Swedish are treated
under SWEDISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.
The Finns delight in proverbs, Lonnrot having
published a collection of upward of 7000, with
about 200 charades, while considerable collec-
tions of legends and tales have been published.
The first printed book in Finnish was probably
the Abecedarium of Michael Agricola, Bishop of
Abo, which appeared about 1542. A transla-
tion of the New Testament by the same Bishop
appeared in 1548 at Stockholm. The whole
Bible was not translated into Finnish till 1642.
During the last two centuries there has been
considerable literary activity in Finland, and
books in almost every branch of research
are found in the language, mainly trans-
lations or adaptations. Finland is rich in
periodicals of all kinds, the publications of the
Finnish societies of literature and of the sciences
and other learned bodies being specially valu-
able. Works on Finnish history and geography
are quite numerous. The publication of the
Kalevala gave a powerful impetus to the study
of the Finnish language and the development
of a national literature whose growth was fos-
tered by the Society for Finnish^ Literature.
The prominent names are YryS-Koskinen in
history, Alexis Stenwall (known as "Kivi"),
Erkko (also a lyric poet) and Canth in the
drama, and in fiction Juhani Aho, Ingman, Pak-
kala, and Leiuo. Among these Aho holds the
first place as stylist in a medium which he has
been largely instrumental in shaping to literary
use. Consult: Comparetti, Traditional Poetry
of the Finns, trans, by Andcrton with an intro-
duction by Andrew Lang (London, 1898) ; Vase-
nius, Ofversigt af Finlands Litteratur-historia
for skolor (Helsingfors, 1893) ; Billson, Popular
Poetry of the Fwn6 (London, 1900) j SetBla, Die
finnisohe Litterutur in Die osteuropaischen
Bprachen (Leipzig, 1908), which contains a good
bibliography.

FINNISH MUSIC. As in the case of all na-
tions that have developed a distinctive national
art, the music of the Finns also rests upon their
primitive folk music. These old strains form
a connecting link between the Scandinavian
and Russian folk music. Both the Runic songs
(ranolaulua) and the horn melodies (torven-
tuitptusta) of the Finns exhibit that strange,
fascinating monotony produced by the constant

repetition of some short motive. A distinctive
feature is the prevalence of the £ rhythm. The
prevailing mood is one of melancholy with fre-
quent touches of the fantastic and demonic.
The national instrument was the kantela,
which, in a modified form, is still in use among
the common people. It was a horizontal harp
having originally five strings. Gradually this
number was increased until at the present day
the instrument has 13 strings, tuned in the
scale of Gr minor. A national Finnish art mu-
sic begins with Frederick Pacius (1809-91),
who studied under Spohr and Hauptmann. In
1834 he became musical director at the Uni-
versity of Helsingfors, where ho established a
choral and sympnony society and introduced
the works of the German classicists and early
romanticists. In his own compositions he be-
trays the influence of Spohr and Mendelssohn,
but obtains national color through the intro-
duction of Finnish folk strains. Ehrstrom,
Greve, Moring, Collan, Linsen, Borenius, Wa-
aonius, and others followed his example. In the
works of Martin Wegelius (1846-1906) the in-
fluence of Wagner became noticeable and led
to the establishment of a Finnish romantic
school, whose chief exponent is Robert Kajanus
(1856- ) (q.v.), a composer of decided tal-
ent, who at the same time developed the or-
chestral society founded by Pacius into the,
Helsingfors Philharmonic Society, an excellent
body of instrumentalists capable of performing
the most difficult works. In Jean Sibelius
(1865- ) (q.v.) has arisen a real master of
pronounced individuality, whose cantatas, sym-
phonies, and chamber music have attracted
wide attention in Europe and America. The
untimely death of the remarkable Ernest Mielck
(1877-99) was a serious loss to Finnish music.
While at present Sibelius is the towering figure,
occupying a place in Finnish music similar to
that of Tschaikowsky in Russian music, other
composers of distinction are Armas Jzlrnefelt,
Oscar Merikanto, Erik Melartin, and Ilmari
Krohn. Consult K. Flodin, Die Entwickhtng der
Musik in Finland (Berlin, 1903), and W. Nie-
mann, Die Mu$ik Skandinaviens (Leipzig, 1906).

PrNTWISH VBKSION". See BrurJE.

IPOTNTS. A people of northern and <jaflt<*rn
Europe and western Siberia. Ethnologically
they have been classed with Lapps, but Rip-
Icy calls attention to the fact that among the
Esths on the Baltic coast, through the Tchere-
misaes on the Volga, and beyond the Ural
Mountains among the Ostiaks and Voguls in
Siberia, exists a long-headedness not a whit lens
pronounced than throughout Teutonic Germany.
The Finns described by Retziua and others are
said to be tall men, with fair skin, flaxen hair,
and blue eyes. Height (Tavastians), 1.682
meters; soldiers, 1.713 metera. The cranial
index among the Livs, Esths, Tcheremisses,
Tchuvashes, and Vogul-Ostiaks, is as low a» 79
or 80. There are, however, peoples speaking
Finnish dialects who are short and brachyceph-
alic. Indeed, they are mixed in blood and neces-
sarily present inharmonious characteristics.

Finnish-speaking people having in their veins
more or less Finnish blood may be divided as
follows:

TCHUDIO BRANCH

1. FINNIC OB Suotfio. The Finnish language
proper, or Suomi, is spoken in Finland ana the
border regions of Russia proper.

571

EIGHTH MACCUMHAXL

2. ESTHS. Esthonia, Livonia, etc., in Russia.

3. TCHUDS. Olonetz and Novgorod, Russia.

4. LAPPS. Lapland, in Norway and Russia.

5. VOTS. St. Petersburg Government in Rus-
sia; uncertain.

6. Livs AND KBEVINGS. In Livonia and
Courland, Russia; not certain.

PERMIAN BBANCH

1. VOTIAKS. Between the Kama and Viatka
rivers in Russia.

2. SERIANS. Mostly on the Vytchegda River,
East Russia.

3. PEBMIAKS. Perm, Russia. Bissennian
dialect, with Votiaks.

VOLGAIO BBANCH

1. TCHUVASHES. Kazan, Saratov, Simbirsk,
and Orenburg, Russia.

2. MOBDVINS. Chiefly between the Oka and
Volga rivers, East Russia.

3. TOHEBEMTSSES. Viatka, Kazan, Kos-
troma, and Nizhni Novgorod, Russia.

UGBIO BBANOH

1. MAGYAR OB HUNGARIAN. Hungary; with
the Szeikler dialect in Transylvania.

2. RAMOYEDS. IVcnty thousand in all. A
few in North Russia, but chiefly in Siberia.

Consult Riploy, The Races of Europe (New
York, 1890), with excellent bibliography from
Castr&i (1857) to Nicclerle (1896). See FIN-
KTSII LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.

FIN'S'BTTBY. A northern district and cen-
tral parliamentary borough of Greater London,
England. Tt consists of Holborn, central and
oast divisions, with a population in 1911 of
87,923. In Jonson's day, as Finsbury Field, it
was a resort for the commoner classes of the
capital, and as such is mentioned by Shakespeare
in Henry VI (First Part). It wan also a resort
of Samuel Pepys and is the burial place of
John Bunyan, George Fox, Daniel Defoe, and
Susanna, the mother of John and Charles Wes-
ley. John Wesley's house here IB preserved as
a museum.

FINSCH, OTTO (1839- ). A German zo-
ologist and ethnologist, born at Wannbrunn,
Silesia. He was in commercial business for a
time, but early developed an interest In natural
hitttory and in 1860 became an assistant in the
Leyden Museum. In 1864-78 he was in charge
of the Natural History and Ethnological Mu-
seum in Bremen. He undertook expeditions
to North America (1872), Lapland (1873),
western Siberia (1876), the South Seas (1870-
82), and New Guinea (1884-85). In 1898 he
returned to the Leyden Museum, but in 1904
took charge1 of the department of ethnography
in the Brunswick Museum. Among his works
ere: New-Guinea und seine Bewohner (1865);
Die Pagagcitn (1868-69) ; Die Wgel OstafHkas
(1870); KeifM naoh Wettsioirien (1879); 8a-
moafahrten (1888); flthnologisohe flrfahrungen
(1893); Byate,matische Uoer$ioht dor Krgtib-
nisse seinen Rcisen (1899) ; Der Dujong (1901).

33XNTSEW, fln'sen, NIET.S RYBBRG (1860-1904).
A Danish physician. He was born in Thors-
havn and graduated from the medical school
at Copenhagen in 1890, In 1893 he invented
the method of treating diseases with decolor-
ized light rays. More than 2000 patients were
treated for cancers, etc., at his Institute for

Phototherapy. He was awarded the Nobel
prize for medicine in 1903. His works include:
Das Licht als Jncitament (1895) ; Ueber die an-
wendung von konzentrierten chemischen Licht-
strahlcn in der Aledizm (1896); La Photo-
tlitrapic (1809).

FIWSEIT LIGHT. See PHOTOTHEBAPY.

FUMSTERAARHOBIT, fin'stSr-ar'h6ni. The
highest peak of the Bernese Alps, having an al-
titude of 14,026 feet (Map: Switzerland, 02).
See ALPS.

ITNSTERWALDE, fln'ster-vaTde. A small
town of Prussia, situated on the Shnckebach,
an affluent of the Black Elster, 40 miles north
of Dresden (Map: Prussia, E. 3). It has a
sixteenth -century Gothic church, an old castle,
and manufactures cloth, machinery, heavy iron
castings, cigars, screws, de luxe furniture, rub-
ber goods, soap, glass, bricks, and toys. Pop.,
1900, 10.726; 1910, 13,111.

FIOCCEX See FENESTELLA (the Roman
historian).

FIOGO. See KOBBJ.

FlOira, FINN", or FIND. See FENIAN SO-
CIETY; FIONN MACCUMIIAIL.

FIONlflT M^CCITMHAIL, fin mile-cool' (i.e.,
'Fionn, son of Cumhail'). An Irish epic hero,
leader of the Fiannu, or band of professional
soldiers who lived exclusively for war and
hunting, about the third century of the Chris-
tian era. Although, as always in ancient
sagas, we find much of myth interwoven with
the story of his life and exploits, there seems
no reason to doubt the basic truth of the
tradition. His grandfather was said to have
been a druid, and his father, Cumhail, was
a great leader of the Leinster warriors.
Fionn's chief opponent was Aedh, or lollann,
afterward called Gol mac Morna, who was
the head of the Connacht Fianna. Goll had
slain Fionn'n father in the battle of Cnueha,
and though he afterward served tinder Fionn
they had no affection for each other. Fionn
in Haid to have beon killed at Atli Brea on the
Boinn by the darts of Aichlcch, son of Duibh-
renn. This event is usually placed in the years
252 or 283 A.D. It was Fionn's son Oisfn (called
Ossiun in Scotland) who in later times be-
came famous as the great poet of the Celtic
people. Among the Scotch Gael, Fionn's name
sometimes takes the form of Fionngall, i.e.,
Fionn the Stranger, indicative of an outside
origin. Fionn's chief abode \vaw at Almhain
in Kildare, and his wooing of Grainne, daughter
of hia enemy Cormac, supreme King of Ireland,
and hor elopement with Diarmuid forms the
subject of one of the longest wagaK of this cycle.
But Fionn finally overcame, his rival and mar-
ried Grainne in his old age. The magnificence
of Fionn's abode as well an his hospitality and
the bravery of his followers is described at
length in the sagas. Lists are given of his fa-
mous warriors, and even of his hounds, among
which Bran was tho most wonderful. Though
renowned as a poet — according to O'Curry, no
loss than seven poems in the ancient manuscript
are attributed to him*— his chief glory seems to
rest in the fact that he was leader of the Fianna
at the time when they were in their greatest
strength, Before a soldier could be admitted
into hif* select body he was obliged to promise*
never to receive a portion with a wife, but to
choose her for her good manners and virtues;
never to offer violence to any woman; never to
refuse assistance to the weak and the poor;

never to flee even before nine champions*; and
never to exact eric, or revenge for the death of
any member of his family or clan, which, of
course, meant a complete severance of all tri-
bal relations. Other conditions imposed upon
the aspirants were equally exacting. He was
first required to have passed through the whole
scholastic training expected of a man of learn-
ing and to be versed in 12 books of poetry. His
fleetness of foot mu&t be so great that he could
escape from a body of men following in his
wake without breaking a bough or disturbing
a plait of his hair; he must be able to extract
a thorn from his foot while running at full
speed; he must defend himself from^ a hole in
the ground reaching to his waist with only a
shield and hazel stick for weapons against nine
warriors armed with spears. In spite of its
good qualities the exactions made by this order
upon the clansmen finally became so great that
they brought about its downfall about the time
of Fionn's death. The Fenian sagas are there-
fore naturally concerned with the deeds of
Fionn and his warriors, relating principally to
war and the chase; but their deep feeling for
nature, their delight in fairies and phantoms,
their love for the humorous and grotesque, as
well as their democratic tone, distinguished
them from the tales of the aristocratic Ulster
cycle which had prevailed in Ireland for genera-
tions previous. Talcs of the Fenians are still
related in Scotland and Ireland, possibly out of
respect for the legend that if these warriors
were not mentioned for 24 hours they would
rise again. A later bardic tradition attempted
to attach the Fenian sagas to the introduction
of Christianity into Ireland and related that
Oisfn returned to be baptized after a sojourn
of 200 years on an enchanted island of per-
petual youth. From metrical fragments of the
Gaelic tradition, collected in the Highlands,
Maepherson elaborated his celebrated Poems of
Ossian. Consult: Maclean, The Literature of
the Celts (London, 1906) ; Hyde, Literary His-
tory of Ireland (ib., 1906) ; Hull, Text Book of
Irish Literature (2 vols., ib., 1908-10).

FIOO&A. A village in Switzerland. See
FL-&ELEN.

FIORD, or WORD, fydrd (Norw,, Dan.,
bay, inlet). An inlet of the sea, or a narrow
bay, indenting a mountainous coast and pene-
trating deeply into the interior. Fiords are
bordered by steep, rocky walls, which descend
without interruption to considerable depths be-
low water level. Their origin is usually ex-
plained by subsidence of the coast, whereby the
sea floods the valleys and washes directly
against the mountain flanks. Glacial erosion
may have been a factor in determining the
prominent relief of the land previous to sub-
mergence. The most notable fiords are on the
coast of Norway, the longest being the Sogne
Fiord, which extends inland for a distance of
112 miles, is 4000 feet deep in places, and is
shut in throughout its entire length by high and
precipitous rock walls. Hardly less prominent
are the fiords of Christiania and Trondhjem.
The coasts of British Columbia and southern
Alaska, of Iceland, Greenland, Patagonia, and
of parts of New Zealand are marked by similar
inlets. They are also found on the coasts of
Maine and Nova Scotia. Many of the lochs and
firths indenting the shores of the British Isles
possess the characteristics of fiords. See SHOBK.

KOBE, fyO'ra, PASQUAMJ (1837- ), An

DI LOBtttfZO

Italian jurist, born at Terlizzi, BarL He was
appointed professor of constitutional and inter-
national law at the universities of Urbino
(1863), Pisa (1865), Turin (1876), and Naples
(1881), and wrote the following works, some
of which have been translated into French and
Spanish: Elementi di diritto const it uvionale
(1862); Diritto internasionalc privato (1860);
Trattato di diritto internasionaie piibbhco
(1870); Trattato di diritto international? pco-
nale; Diritto international e privato (1901) ; Le
droit international e codifie" et sa sanction jit-
rid4que (Fr. trans., 1911, of work published in
1907).

PIOBE D'TTBBINO, fyo'ra door-be'nd, IL.
See BAROCCI, FEDEEIGO.

tflOBELLI, fyo-reri$, GIUSEPPE (1823-96).
An Italian archaeologist, born in Naples. In
1845 he was made inspector of the ruins of
Pompeii, but was displaced because of lus po-
litical opinions. Upon the establishment of the
Kingdom of Italy he became superintendent of
antiquities in the southern provinces and also
professor of archeology in the University of
Naples (1860). In 1860-75 he prosecuted, more
systematically than had ever been done before,
the excavation of Pompeii. (Consult Mau-Kcl-
sey, Pompeii: Its Life and Art, 2d ed., New
York, 1002.) In 1875 he was made director of
all the excavations in the country, with head-
quarters at Rome, His publications include:
Ossei'vasioni sopra tahine monete rare di oittfi
greclie (1843); Monete inedite deW Italia an-
tica, (1845); Notisia dei vasi dipinti rinccnuti
a Guma dal conie di Siracusa (1853) ; 1'ompci-
anarum Antiquitatum Historia (1853); Descri*
zione di Ponipci (1875).

riOBENTINO, fyo'ren-te'no-, FBAXCESCO
(1834-84). An Italian philosopher, born at
Sambiaae, Calabria, and educated at the Uni-
versity of Naples. After teaching philosophy
at 8poleto he was appointed jjrofessor of that
subject successively at the univerRitiea of Bo-
logna, Naples, Pisa, and again at Naples, lie
was long a member of the Italian Parliament,
was the editor of an edition of Giordano
Bruno's Opera Latino, (vols. i and ii, 1870-84),
and published a large number of independent
works, of which JSlementi di flosofia and Manu-
als di storia del I a fihsofia (Naples, 1870-81)
deserve especial mention. He was Hegelian in
his philosophical sympathies.

PIOBENZO DI LOBENZO, fy6-ren'ts4 df> 1A-
ren'tsd (e,1440-1521). An Umbrian painter of
the early "Renaissance. He was born at Perugia,
whore moat of his life was spent. The details
of his life are uncertain, and critics differ con-
coming them. According to Bereiuon, lie proba-
bly studied first under Benozzo (toK&oli and
Niccold da Foligno, then under Pollajuolo at
Florence, and also owed much to Luea SignorollL
While under the influence of the Florentine
masters ho painted the eight fascinating panels
of the "Miracles of San Bernardino" in the
Perugia pinacotheca, which combine the charm
and grace of the Umbrian school with the feel-
ing for line and movement of the Florentine. A
"Nativity" in the Perugia Gallery and an "An-
nunciation" in the Portuneula of Santa Maria
degli Angeli, Assisi, also belong to this early
period, and are marked by a sense of apace and
atmosphere and expressive characterisation.
Later his art greatly degenerated, the "Adora-
tion of the Magi" in the Perugia Gallery being
the only other work of real value which he

FIRS

1* WHITE FIR FEMALE FLOWERS,
SL WHITE FIR CONE.

3. WHITE FIR TREE (Abl«s grand!*).

4. BALSAM FIR <Abl«» b«la«m«).

FIOBIK

573

FERBOLG-S

produced. Among the paintings ascribed to
him are a "Madonna" (1481; Berlin Gallery),
"Adoration of the Magi" (Pitti Gallery, Flor-
ence), and "St. Jerome" (Jarves collection, New
Haven). His most famous pupils were Pintu-
ricchio and Perugino. Consult Bercnson, Cen-
tral Italian Painters of the Renaissance (New
York, 1908), and Graham, The Problem of
Fiorcnzo di Lorenzo (Perugia, 1903).

FI'OREN". See REDTOP GBASS; BENT GBASS.

FIOHINI, fyO-re'n^ MATTEO (1827-1901).
An Italian geographer, particularly distin-
guished as a historian of cartography. He was
born at Felixzano (Alessandria) and became
an hydraulic engineer in 1848. Ho lectured at
the University of Turin from 1848 until I860,
when he was appointed professor of geodesy at
the University of Bologna, with which institu-
tion he remained associated during the last 30
years of his life. In addition to numerous es-
says, he published the following works: Le pro-
jesioni delle carte ffeografiche (1881), still re-
garded as a standard work; Le sfere cosmogrvtr
fiche e spcciaJmentc le sfere tcrrcstri (1894;
Ger. trans, by S. Gtinther, 1895) : Sfere tcrrcstri
e cclesti di aittore italiano (1809).

FIB (AS. furh, Icel. fura, OHGL forha, Ger.
FfiJircj ultimately connected with Lat. qucrcus,
oak) . The popular name applied to many co-
niferous trees of the genus Abies. This name
hus often been employed to embrace all the
evergreen coniferous treos that have short, rigid
leaves, occurring singly, scattered over the stems,
as distinguished from the pines (Pinus), whoso
leaves arc longer and usually occur in bundles
of two to five or more, and from those conifers
having small imbricate Bcalolike leaves, as ar-
bor vitro and various cedars. The name "fir"
should be retained exclusively for species of tho
genufl Abies, and the related treos should be
called hemlock (Tauga), spruce (Pioca), etc.
The species of Abies are mostly trees of pyram-
idal habit, with erect cone«, maturing in one
season. Their short leaves, arranged upon the
horizontal branches in such a way afl to ap-
pear to be two-ranked, arc* flattened, tli« mid-
rib showing prominently upon tho underside.
There are about 25 specie found throughout
the, cooler portions of tho north temperate zone.
One of the most common is tho silver iir of
Kurope (Abies pcotinata). It is a common tree
in central Europe, attaining a height of 150 to
200 feet, with a basal diameter of nix to eight
feet. In some places it occurs over extensive
tracts to tho almowt entire exclusion of other
species. The wood, which ift white*, soft, of
light weight, and contains little resin, IB em-
ployed in many wayn. The tree yiuldn tho
Straaflburg turpentine, which is a superior clear
variety. Quite Himilar is the North American
balsam fir (Abies lalsamca). This species is
found from Virginia northward* It attains a
height of 50 to 80 feet; the wood is light a»d
not durable. From it Canada balsam is ob-
tained. Closely related to it ia Fraser'n flr
(Abies frozen}, which is found farther south.
This is a smaller tree, with smaller cones and
differently shaped bracts, Upon the Pacific
coast are a number of indigenous species of fir,
the timber of which is very valuable. Abie*
ffrwditt, which i« found from British Columbia
to Lower California, one of the finest trees of
that region, is known an tho groat silver fir and
attains a height of 300 feet and a diameter of
10 feet or more. The wood is white and soft

and is extensively consumed for cooperage,
boxes, etc. Closely related to it is the Abies
nobilis of the same range, with much the same
characteristics. Both species are highly valued
in England as ornamentals, but they have ^not
been extensively planted in the eastern United
States. Abies nordmanniana of the Caucasus
is one of the most hardy of all the species of
fir. It is a tree that becomes 150 feet high,
with a trunk diameter of 4 or 5 feet. It haa
been introduced for forest and windbreak plant-
ing in parts of the United States and has al-
ready proved one of the most valuable ever-
greens for such uses. The Mount TCnos fir
(Abies ccphalonica) and the Spanish fir (Abies
pinsapo) occur in the south of Europe, where
they are trees 50 to 80 feet tall. Their timber
is considered valuable. Abies ivebbiana occurs
in the Himalaya Mountains at elevations from
7000 to 13,000 feet. It is a fine tree, growing
to a height of 130 feet or more and a diameter
of 8 to 10 feet. The wood is harder and heavier
than that of most species of fir, contains more
resin, and as timber is very valuable. In Mex-
ico is found Abies reUgiosa, a magnificent sil-
vory-loaved tree, which grows to a height of 150
feet and a diameter of 6 feet. It ia well adapted
to lath and shingle making. The boughs are
extenaively used as a church decoration. A
number of other species attain the size of large
trees, as Abies venuftta of the Pacific coast, Abies
siUrica of Siberia and Russia, Abies dlicica of
Asia Minor, Alice veitchii, and Abies homolepis
of Japan. Of many of the above enumerated
species of Abies there are cultural varieties that
differ in habit of branching, color of foliage,
drooping habit, etc., some of them being very
handsome ornamental trees. For accounts of
the somewhat similar and formerly combined
species of evergreen conifers, see SPBIIOB;
HEMLOCK.

£TRANDO. 8eo HZRADO.

CTRANGI, f$-ran/g&. An Eastern name for
Europeans, whose land in called Firangistan.
Tho name is suppOHcd by some to be a corrup-
tion of Frank and to date from the Crusades,
while by others it is derived from the Varan-
gians (Waringa), "Norsemen who entered into
the ae.rvice of the Byzantine emperors at Con-
stantinople* In Bengal the mixed descendants
of the rortugueso, though differing in no re-
spect but religion from the natives, are especially
distin#ui«h<Kl by the term FirangHix.

tflB/BOLGS. The name given in the fabulous
history of Ireland to a tribe said to have de-
scended from the Nemedians, who, under their
leader Nomad, came to the inland some 23 cen-
turies before the Christian era. After remain-
ing for about, two centuries the greater part
fled because of the, oppression of Scandinavian
pirato* known as the Fomariam Tho Nemedi*
an* formed throe bands — one going to Scotland,
another to a northern part of Europe, becoming
the tuath (or tribe) Be danann of a later pe-
riod, and the third to Greece, The colony in
Greece, or the Firbolgs, became restive under
oppression and decided to return to Ireland,
and under the rule of the five sons of Del* they
enjoyed full possession, of Ireland for some-
thing loss than a century. Their kinsmen, tho
tuntfi, De <Uinann, also returned, and the Fir*
bolg& were forced to consent to the partition
of the land. Suoh was the condition of Ireland
until the* Milesians came* These had: left Egypt
for. Spain, aad, after subjugating the latter

FIBCKS

574

FIBDAUSI

country had determined to conquer Ireland.
They became masters of the island about 1700
B.O. According to Guest, Qrigvn.es Oelticas (2
vols., London, 1883), Firbolgs is simply the
Irish name for the Belgse. See IRELAND.

ETRCKS, fgrks, THEODOB VON, BABON ( 1812-
72). A Russian-German author, born at Kal-
ven, Courland, and known under the pseudonym
Sch&lo-Ferroti. He became an officer in the
engineering corps of the Russian army and
supervised the building of Russia's southern
railroad lines. His sojourn in this region led
him to write his Lettres BUT les chemins de
fer en Russie (1858). Subsequently becoming
Russian diplomatic agent at Brussels, he was
dismissed in consequence of his publication of
a brochure in favor of the Polish cause entitled
Lettre tfun patriote polonais au gouvernement
national de la Pologne (1863). His most im-
portant work, Etudes ear I'avenir de la Russie
(1858-68), his Lettres sur ^instruction popu-
laire en Russie (1869), and Die Internationale
Arb&teroewegung (1872) made him in his time
a very influential writer in the domain of Rus-
sian politics. _

FIRDAUSI, fer'dou-s5', or FIBDITSI, fiV-
doTJ-se/, ABTJ'L QASIM MANSUB, or AIIMAD, or
HASAN (c.035-1020 or 1025). The greatest epic
poet of Persia and one of the foremost in all lit-
erature. He was born in Tils in Khorassan about
323 A.H. (935 A-D.). The name of his father is
quite unknown, but he seems to have been a
man who lived in very comfortable circumstances
and one of the Dihqan, or landed gentry. The
best account of the poet's life is given by 'ArudI,
of Samarkand, who visited Tus about a century
after the death of Firdausi. This record is pre-
served by Ibn Isfandiyar in his chronicles of
Tabaristan (the passage is published by Ethe"
in vol. xl of the Journal of the (Herman Oriental
Society). At the age of 28 Pirdausi married,
and of the two children born to him, one, a
daughter, survived her father. When the poet
was about 36, he began the work by which ho
is best known, the ShahrNamah, or Book of
Kings, which occupied him for 35 years, and
of which he completed the first edition in 1010,
when he was about 80 years of age. Other Per-
sian poets had tried their hand at the theme
before him, for the remembrance of their own
Iranian history was preserved despite the con-
quest of Islam. Of these predecessors the most
noteworthy was Daqiql, who flourished in the
tenth century A.D. His work, placed in Fir-
dausi's hand by his compatriot, Mohammed
Laskbari, formed the nucleus of the 8hHh-
N&mah.

This great Book of Kings traces the history of
Persia from the mythical ruler Gayumart, who
lived, according to Iranian tradition, about
3600 B.C., to the Mohammedan conquest in
641 A.D.

The poem, which according to Firdausi's own
account contains 60,000 couplets, or more than
seven times the amount of the Iliad, treats first
of the legendary kings of Iran, Gayumart, Ho-
shang, Tahmuras, and Jamshid, who was the
most famous of them all, and reigned 500 years
during the golden age of the earth. Following
this happy period came the evil rule of the
Arab Dahhflk, or Zohak, who was tempted by
Ahriman, his own ancestor, and fell into sin,
increasing his evil until the smith Kavah set
up his leathern apron, as the banner of revolt,
and Frcdun (Farfdttn), the Iliretaona of the

Avesta, came and bound the tyrant and con-
fined him beneath Mount Demavend on the
shores of the Caspian. The reign of Fredun was
a long one, but its close was darkened by the
strife of his three sons, among whom he had
divided the kingdom. He was succeeded by
Minochihr. At this point in the poem there
is inserted an episode of considerable beauty
which recounts the loves of Zal, of the royal
line of Iran, and Rudabah, the daughter of
the King of Kabul, whose union was blessed
by the birth of the most romantic of all the
heroes of the Shah-N&mah, Rustam, who occu-
pies a position in Iranian legend somewhat
analogous to that of Hercules in the classic
literatures. It was Rustam who during the
reign of Kaus won Mazanderan for the Persian
King and performed seven romantic and peril-
ous quests before he could succeed. It was he,
too, who in combat unwittingly slew his own
son Suhrab, who, ignorant of his paternity, was
fighting among the foes of Iran. Later Rus-
tara again invaded Turan to revenge the mur-
der of vSyavush, a son of Kaus. He fought also
with Firud, King of India, and with the power-
ful Turanian ruler Kamus. From this time on
until the dawn of the historical period, the k'7i«/i-
h'umafi is occupied mainly with accounts of the
wars between the Iranians and their heredi-
tary foes, the Turanians. With the opening of
the reign of Guslitasp there is an episode of ex-
treme importance giving an account of Zardusht,
or Zoroaster (q.v.). The interest of the epic,
which was slightly less during the reigns of
Klmsrav and Lohrasp, now revives, and it is
continued by the legend of the seven adventures
of Isfandiyar, the son of Gushtasp. The father's
jealousy of his son, however, caused Isfnndiyar
to be imprisoned, until his aid against the Tu-
ranian Arjasp became indispensable. Then he
was released, but as soon as possible was nent
by Gushtasp on further adventures and at last
was craftily matched in a duel with Hustam,
by whom the younger hero was slain, while
Rustam himself soon afterward foil in battle.
It is noteworthy that there is no mention in the
Shilh-Nilmali of the Achsemanian kings, a fact
which is not as yet altogether satisfactorily
explained. Of the Arsacid» Firdauni knowa
only the names. The history takes a autlden
leap to the Sassanidte (q.v.). According to the.
SMMfttmah Gushtasp was followed by Bah-
nian and his son Data (Darius), who married
a daughter of the Emperor of Ruin (Byzan-
tium). This princess, who was aoon divorced
by Dara, gave birth at Byzantium to Iwkand&r,
or Alexander the Great (q.v.). The remainder
of the epic, excepting for the long account of
the reign of Bahrain Gor, is of less interest.
It traces with a fairly close adherence to history
the reigna of the Sasaanian kings down to tho
defeat and death of Yezdegird HI (641 A.D.).
Yet there are interwoven in this latter part of
the. epic, and elsewhere, numerous epi nodes of
much interest. Among these may be noted tho
story of the seven banquets of Nushirvan with
the sagea, of whom he inquires concerning a mys-
terious dream, tho introduction of <*he«« from
India into Persia during tho reign of the Bnme
monarch, and the, story of the loves of King
Klioaru Parviz and Queen fthirin.

Thus we have a valuable nourre for the early
history of Iran, which is needed to supplement
the accounts given in the Old Persian cuneiform
inscriptions and tho Avesta (q.v.)* It would

FUtDATTSI

575

PIBE

seem that Firdausi had a distinctly patriotic
motive in writing the 8hah-N&mah in addition to
his poetic and historical incentives. He plainly
desired to keep alive in the hearts of the Per-
sians the glories of their ancestors' deeds and
faith in order that they might not become mere
puppets under Arab domination. This is shown
not alone by the theme and spirit of the epic,
but even by the diction employed. While it is
considered a mark of elegance in other Persian
poetry to employ as large an element of Arabic
as possible, Firdausi rigorously adheres through-
out to the native Persian vocabulary, and the
percentage of Arabic words in his work is ex-
tremely low. The poem flows on in a digni-
fied style, without the excess of coloring or the
straining after effect which is often found in
Oriental poetry.

The epic as a whole is dedicated to Mahmud
of Ghazni (see GHAZNIVIDES ) , to whose court
Firdausi wont to present his work as the tribute
of a poet of fame. Meagre was his reward from
the parvenu Turk; at most the sura was not
more than 20,000 dihrams (about $2400). The
disappointed poot found revenge in a bitter
satire on Mahmud, which he substituted for his
former eulogies of the Sultan. Firdausi then
flod to Herat, and thence to Tabaristan, where
the Prince, Jspahbadh Shahryar, protected him
and counseled him to withdraw the offensive
voraea against Mahmud. This advice was fol-
lowed, and it would seem, from the poet's later
history, that the lampoon never reached the
Sultan. Firdausi is next found living under
the protection of one of the princes of the house
of Bwvayli, for whom he composed a romantic
epopee of 0000 couplets on the loves of Yusuf
and Ziilaykhil, the Arabic version of the biblical
story of tloHcph and Potiphar's wife, a favorite
theme of Oriental poefa. Tn his old age Fir-
daiwi returned to his native town of Tfis. There
is a tradition that Mahmud at last forgave the
poet for MB aatire, and sent him a preacnt of
t>0,000 dihrams (about $7200). A portion of
this may well be true. At all events, we know
that he died in peace, probably in 411 A.U. (1020
AJD) or even later (about 1025 A.D.). About
the name of Firdausi, as of many other great
authors, a number of poetic legends have gath-
ered. As an example, may be mentioned the
ntory that Mahmud's gift of favor came at the
moment when the body oi the poet was being
carried to its final renting place.

Bibliography. Editions of the 8h&h-N&mah
hiive been published by Macan (4 vols., Cal-
cutta, 3822-20); MoUl' (6 volfl., Paris, 1831-
08) ; Vullerfl and Landauer (3 vols., incomplete,
(Loyden, 1877-84) ; translations by Mohl (7
vols., Paris, 1876-78) ; Rtickert (incomplete,
Berlin, 1890); Plasd (8 vols., Turin, 1886-88);
A. Q. Warner and B. Warner (in blank verse,
0 volsM Twondon, 1905-12) ; Schack, selections
(3 vela., Stuttgart, 1877); Modi (trans, into
Gujarati, 1904) ; Rogers (London, 1907) ; Modi,
Ktrisofas from the Shtih»N&mah (2 vols., Boon-
bay, 1900-07) ; Episodes of the Famous Women
of tit e 8Mh~mwah (ib., 1908). There is an
abridgment in English by Atkinson (London,
1832; reprinted New York and London, 1886)
and by A. Rogers (London, 1907), and a
sketch of the Bhtlh-Ntimah in Reed's Persian
Mteralure (Chicago, 1893)* A critical edition
of the Yfouf u ZaltkhQ was published by Bth4
(Oxford, 1908), and the poem has been trans-
lated by Schlechta-Wssehrd (Vienna, 1889).

For further information consult: NSldeke, in
Qrwndriss der iranisohen Philologie, ii (Strass-
burg, 1896-1904); Horn, Qeschichte der per-
sischen Litteratur (Leipzig, 1901); Browne,
A Literary History of Persia. (New York, 1902-
06), and the authorities referred to there.

FIRE. The discharge of firearms, as the fire
of the enemy, broadside fire, etc. Bow fire in-
cludes the fire of all pieces of a ship which are
so mounted as to be able to fire directly ahead;
stern firet that of all pieces which can fire di-
rectly astern; broadside fire, all which can
fire abeam. A raking fire is one so delivered
that the projectiles pass through a vessel in
a fore-and-aft direction, or nearly so. A plung-
ing fire is one directed downward from an ele-
vation; if directed at a vessel, such a fire would
pierce her decks. Direct fire is used when the
gun is aimed so that the projectile will hit
by direct impact. Ricochet fire, much used in
the days of spherical projectiles, consisted in
firing at a short range and allowing the shell
to ricochet, or be reflected from the surface of
the water, once or twice before reaching the
object aimed at. Elongated projectiles from
rifled guns ricochet in a very irregular manner,
usually turning sharply to the right and often-
times rising at a considerable angle after meet-
ing the water; this behavior of rifle shell has
caused the discontinuance of ricochet fire. High
angle, mortar t or hoiailzcr fire is eJTectcd by
elevating the piece at angles of 30° or more
above the horizontal and effecting a hit by drop-
ping upon the object. The same effect is ob-
tained by curved fire from ordinary guns, which
is brought about by extra elevation and a re-
duction of the powder charge. Both kinds of
lire are used to reach objects over other higher
ones which intervene. See GUNNERY; MORTAB;
ARTILLKRY; BALLISTICS; TARGET PRACTICE.

FIRE, OromcAri BY. See O«I>EAI».

FIRE, PRIMITIVE. The conception of early
man as a firdoas animal has been entertained
from remote times, and tho prevalence of this
idea in origin myths Hccma to present a real
stirvival in lore from the primitive period. This
great body of lore with attendant customs
clearly points out the stages in man's progress
by which fire from an unnsod and almost un-
known force became interwoven with his life as
a prime necessity. Theses stages represent: (1)
man in the same case with his feral neighbors
as to fire, but having a clearer knowledge of
its manifestations in the lightning, volcanoes
and other exhibitions in nature (stages of the
knowledge of fire) ; (2) from some of theno
sources fire is acquired and preserved for tlus
most primitive use conceivable, perhaps for
protection from tho beasts (stage of acquisi-
tion and preservation of fire) ; and (8) the
stage marked by the invention of a process of
creating fire at will, either by friction of wood
in the fire drill, fire plow, and fire saw, or by
the percussion of minerals in the flint and py-
rites (stage of fire producing). Growing out
of these great strides in man's progress comes
the fourth stage, marked by an increasing utili-
zation of this element down to the present (stage
of the conquest of fire).

It will be seen that, in respect to the distri-
bution of mankind over the earth, fire has
played the leading part, Tn the first stage, be-
fore the use of fire, tho distribution of man
fell under the laws regulating the movements
of animals. In the second stage, with the prea-

576

XTRE ALARM

ervation of fire, man became sedentary and ag-
gregated into groups having the germs of the
state. In the third stage, with the means of
providing fire at will, fire preservation sank
into a lower place, and man became free to im-
migrate into different zones. With the cumu-
lative employment of fire in the mechanical era,
there enters a time element, and great masses
of humanity move quickly to settle the waste
places of the earth where before the movement
was slow. From this most fertile of beginnings
in the camp fire have grown a great majority
of the arts that have supplied man's artificial
wants— those primary arts represented by light-
ing, cooking, offense, and defense; and those
secondary arts connected with the mechanics
of fire or its use in agriculture, timbering, boat
building, metallurgy, ceramics, etc., all with
vast ramifications. There is also a social his-
tory of fire, a mythology embracing the various
phases of fire worship with its ceremonies and
observances, and a folklore of magnitude and
surpassing interest. Consult: Tylor, Researches
into the Early History of Mankind, pp. 229 et
seq. (New York, 1905); Hough, Smithsonian
Report, 1888, part ii, pp. 531-^87; id., 1890,
pp. 395-409.

FIRE, SAINT ANTHONY'S. See EBYSIPELAS.

FIRE ALARM. A fire-alarm system consists
of a telegraph signaling equipment with a net-
work of wires running from a main office, or
fully equipped central station, to all parts of
a city or district, and provided with signal
boxes conveniently placed and accessible, from
which alarm signals may be sent to the fire
department by any one without special knowl-
edge of the instruments, simply by turning a
crank or pulling a hook. Each fire-alarm box
or street-signaling station contains a transmit-
ter or device to make and break an electric cir-
cuit. The earliest box, first used at Boston,
Mass., \n 1851, contained merely a form of
telegraph key controlled by a revolving wheel
which gave a certain number of signals when
the person sending the alarm turned the
crank "six times slowly," as the directions in-
dicated. In its simplest form and essential
characteristics a fire-alarm signal box may bo
described as follows: A metallic wheel is pro-
vided with teeth or notches, the spaces between
which may be filled with some nonconducting
substance; a contact spring or follower rests
against the wheel and, as the wheel is turned,
touches in succession the projecting teeth, clos-
ing and opening the circuit at each tooth and
causing a signal at the central office, or, in
small towns where there is no central office, at
all the engine houses or alarm stations, such
as tower-bell mechanisms, connected on the elec-
tric circuits of the system. It the arrangement
on the wheel should be two teeth, a space, three
teeth, a space, and two teeth, followea by a long
space, one rotation of the wheel would give two
signals, then three, then two, or the number
232, and this number would be repeated as often
as the wheel is rotated. The wheel may be
turned by a crank or, after being released, auto-
matically by a spring and clockwork ; in the latter
case, once started it cannot be stopped, until the
total number of revolutions for which it is «?fc
and wound have been made. There is often pro-
vided an inner box, to which the firemen alone
have keys, which contains, telegraph instruments
for use in communicating with headquarters, by
means of which the, officer in charge is enabled

to give information and call for such extra and
special supplies as are needed or signal the
extinguishing of the fire. The outer doors of
fire-alarm boxes at one time could be opened only
with keys intrusted to citizens, the nearest resi-
dent, the police, etc., but now automatic doors
for alarm boxes are more generally used. These
may be opened either with a key accessible by
breaking or removing a small piece of glass or
without a key by simply twisting the door
handle. The signal from the box may be received
upon a common Morse recording instrument,
or on a special form of recorder, and registered
on a strip of paper as well as shown by an indi-
cator. Both the time of its receipt at and trans-
mission from the central station may be re-
corded by pens on a revolving paper roll or
appropriate printing register. Through the
agency of a sensitive relay and a secondary cir-
cuit which may be employed also to ring tower
bells and sound steam- whistle alarms, automatic
apparatus transmitting the alarm to the ap-
propriate fire companies may be set in operation.

Historical Sketch, Methods of transmitting
news of outbreaks of fire are very old, and even
until about the middle of the nineteenth century
watch towers with alarm bells were maintained
in American cities, but the perfection of the
electric telegraph was essential to the develop-
ment of instantaneous and reliable apparatus,
which soon became largely automatic. As early
as 1845 Dr. W. F. Channinpr, of Boston, pub-
lished an article in the Advertiser of that city,
outlining a fire-alarm telegraph system. In
1850 Charles Robinson used Morse apparatus for
signaling fire alarms from police stations and
engine houses in New York City to watchmen
at tower bells who sounded the signal of the
appropriate district. In 1851 the city of Boston
appropriated $10,000 for testing a telegraph-
signal plan, and it was put into operation on
April 29, 1852. Dr. Chonning and Moses 0.
Farmer developed the system, which was con-
structed for Boston by Mr. Farmer and operated
under his direction for several years. In Iftfj"
these men patented the system as developed.
John N. Gamcwell became infcerented in the
matter in 1855 and by 1860 had acquired th«%
patent rights. Subsequently he did much to
improve and introduce the system ; Imt t!u>
Civil War, conservatism, and other obstacles
were sufficient to prevent its introdxiction in
more than some 20 cities by 1871. Xew York
installed a fire-alarm telegraph system in 180!),
but has never maintained or equipped this de-
partment on a scale commensurate with its
other fire apparatus.

In 1875 the. number of cities using the fire
telegraph system was 75, and since then the
increase has been rapid, so that to-day most
towns of 10,000 population or over, and many
smaller ones, have the fire-alarm telegraph. Al-
though various systems are in use, tnat de-
vised by Channing and Farmer, and developed
and improved by Gamewell and his associates
and successors, has been the one, most generally
employed in America. In 1807 the "noninter-
fering pull" was patented by 0. J. (Theater, and
in 1880 a noninterfe-ring box was patented by
James M. Gardiner. In 1880 «T. J. Ruddick
patented the "successive" feature, whereby sig-
nals from two or more boxes on the circuit
C"lcd simultaneously were recorded, The key-
door was patented by Tooker in 1875 and the
automatic keyless door by N, H, Suren in 1805.

FIRE ALARM

577

FIRE ALARM

In this the gong was not sounded until the
mechanism of the box was started.

The simple mechanism described in outline
above would be found in what is known as a
plain, or interfering box, the simplest type of
the signaling apparatus. A number of these
can be grouped on a single circuit, but it is
obvious that if two boxes were put in opera-
tion simultaneously the signals would inter-
fere and would not be properly received and
recorded at the central station. Accordingly
noninterfering boxes were developed where such
a condition may be obviated by the selection of
one box to transmit a complete and definite
signal and by the temporary cutting out of
circuit of any other box or boxes whose signals
might interfere and come to tho receiving mech-
anism blurred or confused. This noninterfering
feature has been combined with what is termed
a successive type of fire-alarm box where defi-
nite independent signals may be transmitted
from a number of boxes operated at or about
the same time without the loss of a signal from
any of the boxes, one set of signals following
another as soon as its determined number of
rounds arc completed and the circuit is free,
so that both arc received and recorded. The
importance of this is realized when it is con-
sidered that the circuit loops often contain as
many as 20 or more different boxes, even 50
boxes under very unfavorable conditions, in
order to economize the wire circuits, and by
a so-called interlacing system tho alarm boxes
are distributed as widely as possible. This,
however, i» not good practice, and from 7 to
12 boxes on a circuit are more desirable. In
1013, in New York City, a now typo of box
was evolved which contained the esuontial fea-
tures of the sueecsnive and noninterfering box,
the basic patents of which had expired, with
an apparatus that provided for an axitomatic
return through the ground in case of failure or
defect to the circuit that under the older system
would have impaired tho usefulness of tho cir-
cuit. Sxich a box permitted the UHO of tho
portion of the circuit that was intact and used
tho ground for a return, at tho same time giv-
ing a signal to the operator, who automatically
could switch into the circuit a powerful battery
which would innuro tho proper tranamiasion
of the alarm. Tho best systems work on a
closed-battery circuit, and it is possible to do-
teet at once any failures or defects, and tho
signals arc. indicated at headquarters through
an automatic recorder and an indicator on which
the number of the box is displayed.

On receiving tho signal at tho contra! station
or fire headquarters, it may bo transmitted to
tho various engine houses automatically in the
case of a small city, or manually, by means
of an appropriate transmission apparatus and
series or independent circuits. The automatic
apparatus in connected by moans of a system
of relays or repeaters, so that the signals go
out practically instantaneously to all tho ongino
houses and are given on tho largo gongs and
the indicators at each station, the various com-
panies duo to answer tho various alarms pro-
ceeding in tho usual way. A second signal fol-
lows on a yoker or independent circuit. The
automatic repeating of every alarm to each com-
pany, whether duo at tho HtatSon sounded or
not, would be confusing and unnecessary in a
large city, so an operator or semiautomatic
system is usually employed. In the manual

form of transmission, as soon as the station
from which the alarm is received is indicated,
the operator takes from a cabinet a disk ap-
propriately notched on its edge and attaches
this to the transmission mechanism sending out
a signal over the appropriate circuits, which may
include every company in the city or only tlmse
in a selected district. In some departments the
alarm is sent to every company, and the men
and apparatus, whether due to respond or not,
take their places in readiness to answer the
alarm. In other instances, and often at night,
the signals are sent only to the companies in
a district directly affected. Where there are
two independent circuits running from head-
quarters to the various fire companies it is not
infrequent that before the second set of signals
has been sounded the company is on its way to
the alarm. Tho equipment at the individual
fire houses consists of the bell and gong of the
two circuits, an indicator, a recorder, a clock,
and various local circuits which release the
horses from their stalls, open the doors, and
turn on the lights, so that no time is lost. The
fire departments of most American cities have,
in addition, an elaborate telephone, equipment
maintained usually in connection with, or by, the
local telephone companies, and communication
is maintained between the engine house and fire
headquarters, so that when the company answers
tho alarm its absence from its house may be
reported immediately, and arrangements made
for protecting- the district should a second
alarm be turned in. These telephone systems,
often \vitlijiuxiliary department switchboards,
are maintained as a reserve in cane of accident
to or failure of the alarm system and under
ordinary circumstances to supplement it.

For many years gravity colls were used to
supply current to tho various circuits, but in
all important central stations they have been
supplanted by storage batteries which aro
charged and furnish current at tho dewircd po-
tential. Tho fire circuits in moat cities of any
size arc now placed underground, and while
there is secured increased safety from inter-
ruption by weather conditiona, such as sleet
and ico, there is also tho danger of interference
clue to high-tension circuits for power. For
such protection, as well UH protection from
lightning, elaborate lightning arreHters are rcs-
quirod, and conntant improvements are being
niado in apparatus of this kind.
"•"An important side of the firo-alarm system
is in connection with the protection of largo
public and other schools. In America fire
drills have boon developed to a high degree of
eflloicncr, thus preventing panics and lows of
life which are apt to occur at an outbreak of
fire where a large number of children or othor
persons, such as factory operatives, are con-
centrated in limited apace. For schools and
factories fire-alarm systems have* boon developed
whoro tho sending of an alarm from a certain
box causes bells to bo sounded, at which ranks
are formed and an orderly march is made, to
previously determined exits. Thwc alarm boxen
may communicate with the superintendent's or
principal's' office in tho building and with tho
local fire department and police Htations, and
often are arranged so that they may bo aoundod
for purposes of drill without actually bringing'
out the apparatus.

In connection with city fire-alarm systems
various automatic and private alarm systems*

FIREAR3

578

EIRE BLIGHT

are installed in public buildings and on the
premises of those requiring or desiring such
special protection. These may involve a system
of small call boxes located as frequently as
desired and connected with the nearest street
alarm box, whose mechanism is set in opera-
tion by the signal made within the building.
Often these small boxes have a glass face which
can be broken and the mechanism set in opera-
tion by pulling a chain or turning a key. In
other cases some form of automatic or thermo-
static fire detectors may be employed where an
increase in temperature causes the device to
operate and the signal to be transmitted to the
local headquarters of the fire-alarm service com-
pany, as well as ringing a gong on the premises,
with possibly a return signal indicating that
the alarm has been received. This may result
in an immediate examination of the premises
from which the signal is indicated, or, in ad-
dition, a signal may be sent to fire headquarters,
and not only the employees of the alarm service
company, but the city fire department will
answer as in the case of a regular alarm.

In many cases where a building is protected
by automatic sprinklers the operation of these
sprinklers and the discharge of water is also
sufficient to send in an alarm, either to the
fire-alarm company or directly to the fire depart-
ment. For further information, consult publi-
cations of the National Board of Fire Under-
writers, catalogues of leading manufacturers,
and chapter on "Fire Alarm Telegraph," in
Maver, American Telegraphy (New York, 1903).

FIREARM. A device consisting essentially
of a straight tube, provided with moans of ig-
niting the charge, which projects a mass of
metal or other material through the force of
the expanding gases developed l>y the burning
of a charge of gunpowder. It is said that some
sort of firearm in which stones were used as
projectiles was in use by the Chinese in the
eighth century, but this and other legends as-
cribing even an earlier date are of doubtful
character. However, there is some proof that
at the beginning of the thirteenth century fire-
arms were possessed by the Mongols and that
Genghis Khan used them in 1258. The Moham-
medan powers, then in the height of their de-
velopment as regards science and art, seem to
have been familiar with the use of firearms in
the twelfth century and had developed prac-
ticable small arms in the thirteenth. There
is some probability that the early form of small
cannon used in western Asia and in Europe
was derived from the tubes set in the bows of
galleys for discharging Greek fire (q.v.) upon
the decks of the enemy at the moment of ram-
ming. Greek fire contained the essential in-
gredients of gunpowder and was very explosive
if confined. Early in the fourteenth century
cannon came into general use in Europe, and
by the end of that century cannon and small
arms had become common. See ARTILLERY;
BALLISTICS; GUNNEBY; GUNPOWDEB; ORD-
NANCE; SMALL ABHS; GUNS, NAVAL.

FIREBACK. A pheasant of the Malayan
genera Lophura and Acomus, in which all the
species have metallic plumage on the back. See
PHEASANT.

FIREBALL. A projectile designed, when
discharged from gun or mortar, to set fire to
an enemy's defensive works or for giving illumi-
nation during operations against him. Fire-
balls were the successors to the fire arrow of

ancient warfare and have in turn been super-
seded by the rocket and the incendiary shell.
See AEROLITE.

FIRE-BELLIED FROG. See FEUERKRcJTE.

FIREBILL. A paper giving in detail the
stations and duties of officers and men of a
vessel of war upon the alarm of fire. When the
crew of a ship are at their stations as defined
in the fire bill, the gathering is known as fire
quarters. All precautions are taken against
fire, and pumps, hose, and extinguishers are
prepared for use.

FIREBIRD. See TANAGEB.

FIRE BLIGHT, or PEAR BLIGHT. One
of the most destructive diseases of pears, apples,
and other pomaceous fruits. While not as regu-
lar in its attack as some other plant diseases,
no other is more destructive when it does ap-
pear. Fire blight is a contagious bacterial dis-
ease due to Bacillus amylovorus, which gains
entrance through the soft tissues of new growth
such as twigs and young fruits, through wounds
made by insects or otherwise, but especially
through the nectaries and stigmatic surfaces of
the blossom, from which point of infection the
bacteria rapidly spread, killing the tissues as
they progress. The leaves are sometimes at-
tacked, but usually they die as a result of the
destruction of the twigs, and they remain dried
and attached to the branches, forming one of
the most striking features of the disease. The
part attacked is the cambial layer of the twigs,
down which the disease passes to the branches,
and finally to the trunk, forming distinct can-
kers which are often the source of new infec-
tions. Its rate of progress is not very rapid,
and, when it has run its course, the line of
demarcation between sound and dead wood is
easily seen. Upon bearing trees the first place
of attack is usually in the blossoms, the germs
being spread from flower to flower and from
tree to tree by bees and othe* insects. The
disease may be recognized by clusters of bios-
aoms turning black. From these the disease
spreads. It seems to winter over in infractions
that have occurred late in the summer. The
infected bark is moist, and in the spring #urn
exudes from the diseased area. This is spe-
cially attractive to bees, which carry the germs
from the gum to the flowers. Rapid growth
of the trees, which may be caused by "severe
pruning or by too much nitrogenous food in
the soil, favors the spread of the disease. Any-
thing that will check the growth of the tret***,
such as withholding cultivation and nitrogenous
fertilizers, should bo adopted. The most satis-
factory treatment is to cut out and burn all
blighted limbs while the trees are dormant.
All parts suspected of infection should ba cnrc-
futty examined and severely pruned back aJx
inches or a foot below the line of separation
between sound and diseased wood. The best
time to do this is in the autumn, when the con-
trast between the diseased and the sound
branches is most striking* A careful inspection
of the trees should be made several times during
the summer, and all new infections should be cut
out arid burned. If all pear, apple, quince, crab,
hawthorn, and allied plants be looked after in
this way, the serious spread of the disease may
to a great degree be prevented.

Fire blight is one of the first demonstrated
diseases of plants due to bacteria. Its cause
was discovered by Dr. T* J. Burrill, of the Uni-
versity of Illinois, about 1870. It has spread

PIKE BOAT

579

TTT'R'B DAIO?

•widely in the United States, and in 1913 it
was reported in Europe. In addition to species
of pomaceous plants, it is now known to attack
plum trees. Different varieties of pears, apples,
etc., vary widely in susceptibility to this blight,
and those least subject to it should be given
preference in planting.
FIRE BOAT. See Fnoc ENGINE.
FIRE BOTE. See ESTOVEB.
FIRE BRICK. A brick made of clay capable
of standing a high degree of heat— not less
than 2700° F. Fire bricks arp made in various
sizes and shapes and are required for the lining
of furnaces, and for various receptacles used for
the treatment of raw materials by heat, such
as the smelting and refining of ores, also in the
clay industry for brick and pottery kilns, and
for the manufacture of Portland cement, and in
coking. Naturally the essential clement in the
composition and manufacture of fire brick is fire
clay, and where considerable deposits of this sub-
stance are found, works for making fire brick
are ofton located. Fire clays usually contain
small amounts of fluxing materials, and ordi-
narily are classed as (lint clay and plastic clay,
the former containing a large percentage of
kaolin, and possessing a greater amount of re-
fractoriness, though often flint clay is mixed
witl} the plastic clay which increases the de-
formability. In making fire brick various
crushed silica rocks and other materials may be
mixed with fire clay or lime in order to obtain
a product suitable for the work in hand. The
actual manufacture of fire brick is quite similar
to that of common brick. The mixture of plas-
tic lire clay with the other materials is the
first stage, and it is finally ground in a dry pan
or disintegrator. It is then screened and tern-
pored in a pug mill, after which it in 'molded
and dried, and then repressed and burned. The
burning takes place usually in a down draft kiln
at a temperature ranging from 2250 p F. to 2700°
F. Sometimes, however, an up-draft kiln may
be iwecl (see KILN). In the United fitatea New
Jersey was the first State to produce fire brick,
the induatry being established there in 1812, and
since that timo it has spread widely, many
States producing fire clay in greater or less
amount. The increase lias come largely with
the growth of metallurgical processes, particu-
larly the vast development of the iron and steel
industry (nee IBON AND STEEL, Metallurgy of).
In the actual manufacture of fire brick there
is little variation from ordinary brick processes,
but the composition of the resulting product
has received considerable attention, owing to its
effect on the process. The general nature of
working will be found discussed under BRICK
and CLAY, while the construction of various
furnaces for metallurgical work is described
under IBON AND STEEL. A valuable technical
work of reference is Havard, Refractories and
Furnaces (New York, 1012). Consult also
Kanolt, "Melting Points of Fire Bricks," took-
nologM Pa/per, No. 10, United States Bureau
of Standards (Washington, 1912), and Hies and
Leighton, History of the May-TV 'orbing Indus-
trie* in the United Btates (New York, 1009).

FIBE CLAY. A variety of clay capable of
withstanding a high degree of heat, but varying
otherwise in its physical properties. This is
because it contains a low percentage of flux-
ing impurities such as iron, linne, magnesia,
and alkalies. A good fire clay should resist a
temperature of 2900° F., and some will resist

3500°; but unfortunately many clays are called
fire clays which are not really refractory. Fire
clays are often plastic, but in the United States
especially there exists a nonplastic variety
known as "flint clay." Fire clay is found in
many sedimentary formations, and in the Car-
boniferous rocks may be associated with coal,
but all clays under coal are not fire clays. In
the United States it is found in the Carbonif-
erous rocks of Pennsylvania, Ohio, Missouri, and
Kentucky; in the Cretaceous of New Jersey
and other States, especially Colorado; and in
the Tertiary of the Gulf States, Tennessee, Ken-
tucky, and California. Large quantities are
obtained in Germany, England, France, Belgium,
Austria, and Russia, Some of the German and
Belgian clay is exported to the United States.
Deposits are also known in the Dirt Hills,
Saskatchewan, and Suinas Mountain, British
Columbia.

The following analyses give the composition
of some American and European fire clays:

CONTBNTB

Silica

62.58

52,52

40.88

49.75

64.10

Alumina

33 12

31 84

3542

3583

22 22

.20

.67

1.74

1 92

Limo

.27

.44

.14

Maffnosifl. * . .

.29

Trace

.20

.11

.18

AikSiios?... !...:;;.::

.08

Tracd

1.19

.44

1.10

Water

13.08

14.23

14,10

13.70

7.10

Titanic acid

1.10

1.00

1. Flint day, Hunkor Station, Pa. 2. Flint clay, Min-
eral Point, Ohio. 3. Golden, Colo. 4. Woodbridge, N. J.
5. Stourbridgo, England.

Fire clays are used in the manufacture of fire
bricks, gas retorts, glass pots, assay era' fur-
xiacoB, cruciblcH, and other objects which in their
UHO arc subjected to a high degree of heat, but
their value for one or the other of these purposes
depends on various physical properties in addi-
tion to refractoriness.

Among the varieties recognized are: flint clay,
a hard form, resembling flint in appearance and
lacking plasticity, found in the same bed with
plastic clay; ganiftter, a refractory clay having
a hi^h percentage of silica; pot day, a fire clay
burning dense at a low red heat, but otherwise
refractory, used in the manufacture of glass
pots; fire morfar> a sandy fire clay used for
making mortar to set fire bricks; retort clay, a
very plastic refractory clay used in the manu-
facture of gas retorts. The fire clay produced
in the United States in 1912 amounted to
1,605,837 short tons, valued at $2,363,357. Con*
suit Bischof, Die fcuerf eaten Phone (Leipzig,
1805), and foes, Clays: Occurrence, Properties,
and Uses (New York, 1008). See CLAY; OOAX;
AM BOY CLAYS,

FIBE CREST. A British kinglet (Regulus
ignioapittus) , more fully called "fire-crested
wren" and also "goldcrest." Bee KINGLET.

FIRE DAMP. An explosive mixture of marsh
gas (carbureted hydrogen, CH*) and air. The
specific gravity of tho mixture being lighter
than air, the fire damp is looked for in cavities
of the roof and the higher working places of
the mine. Under ordinary conditions, when 1
part of mars)) gas mixes with 6% parts of air,
the combination is at its lowest explosive limit.
This explosive violence increases with the ad-
dition of air and reaches its maximum when a
mixture of 1 part of marsh gas and 9%

FIRE DANCES

580

FERE ENGINE

of air is reached; beyond this point the explo-
sive violence decreases and becomes inert when
a mixture of 1 of marsh gas and 13 of air is
reached. An increase in atmospheric pressure
will extend these limits, WHITE DAMP is car-
bon monoxide (CO) ; BLACK DAMP is carbon
dioxide (C03) ; STINK DAMP, or sulphur gas, is
hydrogen sulphide (E^S), and AFTERDAMP is
the mixture of gases formed by an explosion.
See MINE GAS; METHANE.

FIRE DANCES. Dances performed around
the fire, generally at night. Fire is almost uni-
versally associated with the hoir>e and hence with
the family, and in the course of religious evolu-
tion the fire dance has gradually gained in im-
portance. Whereas in Vedic India, e.g., we find
the rite as a fertility charm performed at the
solstice, among the American Indians it has
developed into forms of war dances, of which the
most important is the scalp dance. In Australia
the Corroboree, performed in elaborate costumes,
marks a further step towards the purely mimetic
dance and prepares the way for pantomimic
drama, the earliest form of the art as it is
found among the aborigines of that continent.
"Rising higher in the art scale, the fire dance
becomes a simple recreation of more or loss
elaborate character, as is typified in dances
around ordinary bonfires. A highly developed
form of the fire dance exists on the modern stage
where the firelight is represented by calciums of
different colors. See FIBE WORSHIP; SKIET
DANCES.

FIBE EATING. A name usually given to a
variety of feats performed by jugglers with
flaming substances, melted lead, rod-hot metal,
etc. Many feats of this kind are undoubtedly
mere tricks, or illusions, produced by sleight of
hand; others are capable of scientific explana-
tion. There is nothing more wonderful in
stuffing blazing tow into the mouth — a common,
form of mountebank fire eating — than in eating
flaming plum pudding, or in dipping a finger
into spirits and letting it burn like a candle.
It is well known, too, that the tongue or the
hand, dipped in water, may be rubbed with im-
punity against a white-hot bar of iron; the
layer of vapor developing between the hot metal
and the skin prevents contact and produces
coolness. Certain kinds of these performances
are explained by the well-known power of the
living body to maintain its normal temperature
for a time, independently of the external tem-
perature.

FIBE ENGINE. A machine employed for
throwing a jet of water for the purpose of ex-
tinguishing fire. Machines for the extinguishing
of fires have been used from a very early date.
They were- employed by the Romans, and are re-
ferred to by Pliny; but he gives no account of
their construction. Apollodorus, architect to the
Emperor Trajan, speaks of leathern bagu, with
pipes attached, from which water was projected
by squeezing the bags. Hero of Alexandria, in
his Treatise on Pneumatics (written probably
about 150 B.C.), proposition 27, describes a
machine which he calls "the siphons used in con-
flagrations," It consists of two cylinders and
pistons connected by a reciprocating beam, which
raises and lowers the pistons alternately, and
thus, with the aid of valves opening only towards
the jet, projects tho water from it, but not in
a continuous stream, as the pressure ceases at
each alternation of stroke.

A device with two pumps, worked by levers, is

said to have been invented in Egypt in the sec-
ond century B.C. Apparatus called "instruments
for fires" and "water syringes useful for fires"
are described in the building accounts of the city
of Augsburg, 1518. In 1657 Kaspar Schott de-
scribed a fire engine used in Nuremberg, invented
by one Hans Hautsch, apparently similar to that
described by Hero. It had a water cistern, was
drawn by two horses, was worked by 28 men,
and threw a jet of water an inch in diameter to
a height of 80 feet. It was not until late in
the seventeenth century that the air chamber
and hose were added, the first being mentioned
by Pcrrault in 1684, and the hose and suction
pipe being invented by Van der Heide in 1670.
In England small brass hand squirts were used
up to the close of the sixteenth century, while a
work published in England about 1634 describes
in detail "divers quirts and petty engins to be
drawn upon wheels from place to place for to
quench fier among building; the use whereof hath
been found very commodious and profitable in
cities and great* towncs." Paris had fire engines
of some sort at the beginning of the eighteenth
century. In England, in 1734, engines of vari-
ous construction were manufactured; for pre-
viously a law passed in the sixtli year of Queen
Anne's reign provided that "each parish shall
keep a large engine and an hand engine, and a
leather pipe, and socket of the same size as the
plug or fire cock [of the water mains] that the
socket may be put into the pipe to convey the
water to the engine." The most successful early
English fire engines were those invented by
Nowsham, but previous to 1686 the engine for
extinguishing fire was claimed as an English
invention. Two of his machines — the first in-
vention of the kind ever used in this country —
were introduced in New York in 1731. It was
more than 50 years after this that the leather
valves within the cylinders were superseded by
metallic valves, placed in valve chests apart from
the cylinders and the air chamber. Rotary and
aemirotary pumps were also introduced. Hand
fire pumps drawn by men and horsea were u«yd
until the advent of the steam lire engine both in
Europe and America. In the, latter country they
figured in tli« exciting and pictures |U« dayu of
the volunteer fire departments and arc still cm-
ployed in some small towna, though they are
gradually being supplanted with the mor<t
general introduction of water supply and Bmall
gasoline motors. Floating fire engines worked
by hand were used on tho Tlmrm'S before the
close of the eighteenth century. In some cases
the mechanism that worked the pumps was used
to move the paddle wheel*. It waa not until
1850 that floating fire engincw worked by steam
cume into uso in England.

So far as known, the first ateam fire engine
was developed by Brathwaite in 1820 or 1830.
Jolin Ericsson (q.v,) worked on the problem
about the same time, and is credited by one
writer as having built such an engine with
Brathwaite, in London, in 1830, and also with
having built one in New York in 1840, very
soon after he had come to America. In 1841
an engine was built in New York after plans
by Hodge, probably as the result of a competi-
tion after the great firo of 183& Thi« engine
was operated occasionally by or for insurance
companies, but neither it nor the earlier London
engine was satisfactory. In 1850 A. B, Latta,
in Cincinnati, produced the first machine which
was practically, useful. Cincinnati was the first

FIRE' ENGINES

, ' .;

^^n*1r»«^^!*)^'W'*N^^

MOTOR FIRE ENGINES

1 CHEMICAL ENGINE WITH DOUBLE 60-GALLON CHEMICAL TANK, SUITABLE FOR VILLAGE USE
2.' SIX-CYLINDER TRIPLE PUMPING ENGINE WITH A CAPACITY OF 1400 GALLONS PER MINUTE

FIRE ENGINES

1. AMERICAN STANDARD STEAM FIRE ENGINE WITH FRONT-DRIVE TRACTOR

2. HOOK AND LADDER TRUCK WITH 85-FOOT AERIAL LADDER, PROPELLED BY FRONT-DRIVE

TRACTOR

FX&H JBffCKCNB

581

FIRE

city in the United States to organize a steam
fire department, but other large cities and towns
rapidly followed the example* In 1872 self-pro-
pelled steam fire engines were delivered to both
New York and Boston, and in 1873 one was
delivered to Detroit. From 1872 to 1898 about
20 similar engines were bought by American
cities. The more usual practice, however, was
to use steam fire engines drawn by two or three
horses, but recently such apparatus is being in
large part supplanted by motor pumping en-
gines where gasoline engines supply power both
for propulsion and operating the pumps. Such
machines have now become quite general and are
considered approved practice for fire depart-
ments in all parts of the world. Nevertheless
the introduction of motor apparatus was for a
time quite slow, as it required to be demonstrated
that motor-driven machines could be as reliable
as the marvelously trained horses of American
fire departments. Perhaps the complete triumph
for motor fire apparatus was scored in its selec-
tion for the fire protection of the Panama-
Pacific International Exhibition, when such ma-
chines were installed in 1914 in the model fire
houses on its grounds.

The main parts of the steam fire engine are
the boiler, engine, pumps, and the frame and
vehicle on which these are mounted. Boilers
are generally of the vertical water-tube type
designed for rapid steaming. The engines and
pumps are also generally vertical, double-acting,
and in duplicate. In some machines both rotary
steam and water cylinders, instead of the more
common steam pistons and water plungers or
reciprocating engines, were employed, while cer-
tain light machines had horizontal engines and
pumps. To facilitate the readiness of steam iiro
engines for immediate service, heaters are main-
tained in the engine house to give a constant
supply of steam or hot water to the engines.
When the alarm strikes, the boiler pipe con-
necting with the heater is disconnected, a fire
of cannd or other soft coal beneath the boiler is
kindled by moanH of excelsior and dry wood, and
steatn is soon available as the fire engine pro-
ceeds to the fire. The rated capacity of steam
fire engines ranges from about 1300 to 400 gal-
lons por minute, and their weights from 11,000
to 5000 pounds. The largest, or extra-first
size, steam fire engines now in service have a
pumping capacity in excess of 1300 gallons per
minute and weigh with water in the boiler about
11,000 pounds. They require three horseH to
draw them under ordinary conditions.

As soon as horse-drawn flteam fire engines had
been developed to standard types, attempts we.ro
made to utilize the steam in the boiler for
propulsion as well as pumping. A number of
these engines were adapted to be propelled by
power from the main crank shaft, through two
chains running over sprocket wheels on the rear
wheels of the fire engine. The driver steered
the engine by means of a hand wheel and rod
connected with the front axle through a bevel
and worm gearing. By the removal of a key
the road-driving mechanism could be discon-
nected, whereupon the power became available
for the pumps. These self-propelled steam fire
engines never enjoyed a wide vogue, and in most
fire departments horse-drawn apparatus was
considered more serviceable and reliable.

Steam fire engines usually are rated on the
basis of their capacity, but it must be remem-
bered that the amount of water discharged

depends upon the pressure at the pump, and
with an increase of pressure the rate of dis-
charge falls rapidly. The usual ratings of fire
engines in American practice are as follows:

STEAM FIRE ENGINE RATING AND CAPACITIES

Rating

Gals. per.
mm.

Per H hr.

Porhr.

Double Extra First. ...
Extra First

1300
1100

39,000
33 000

78,000
00,000

First
Second

900
700

27,000
21,000

54,000
42,000

Third

GOO

18,000

36,000

Fourth

500

15,000

30,000

Fifth

400

12,000

24,000

Possibly the standard size for most American
fire departments is the second-slue engine, and
tests made in Chicago in April, 1912, of three
new second-size steam fire engines were con-
sidered fairly representative of the capacity of
machines of this size. The capacity tests re-
ferred to continued for an hour and showed an
average discharge for the three engines of 725
gallons per minute at a net pump pressure of
157 pounds. When the pressure at the pump
was increased to 275 pounds not, an hour's towt
showed an average discharge of 400 gallons per
minute. The not horse power developed at the
pump during the various tests ranged from 61
to 72, an average of 66%.

Tn thia age of self-propelled vehicles the horne-
(Irawn steam fire engine is passing, and in the
interests of efficiency and economy is giving
place to motor-driven apparatus which, while
not entirely perfected, is being developed to an
ever-increasing point of efficiency. Self-propelled
firo apparatus has passed the experimental
stage, and motors and tractors have been de-
veloped to a degree where they answer all
responsible, needs of power, Bpc<Kl, efficiency, and
economy. While the well-trained horses not
only were pic'tureaque,, but were efficient and
faithful to a high degree, yet it must be remem-
bered that a largo part of the time they were
absolutely idle and were performing no useful
work in return for their forage and eare. Their
presence in the. engine house required space for
their wtabling, bedding, and feed and made the
building less attractive and sanitary for the
ilremon living in it. With gasoline motor ap-
paratus there is no consumption of fuel except
when it is actually in motion and operation, and
the fuel and lubricating oil are inconsequential
in comparison with the cost of forage, bedding,
shoeing, harness, and veterinary attendance, not
to mention the more rapid depreciation of live
stock.

In tho transitional period from the supplant-
ing of tho steam fire engine to the motor ma-
chine, the first general stop has boon the elimi-
nation of the Horses and the substitution of
some form of tractor at tho front wheels. Tn
place of the horse-draft gear, three and four
wheeled tractors have been placed under the
fifth wheel of an ordinary steam fire engine, as
well as other apparatus, and have answered
admirably, while special forms .have been de-
veloped, such as the fronts-drive tractor uaed
in tne New York, Pittsburgh, Manila, and other
Are departments, where a special form of motor
fitted to the front wheels has been added to the
lengthened frame of a steam fire engine. Another
form of tractor for steam fire engines c

ENGINE

583

ITBE

of a couple-gear arrangement where storage
batteries furnish current to motors placed at
the front wheels. Steam fire engines have been
motorized in many other ways and have been
used to great advantage.

It must he remembered tiaat the firemen of
most large American fire departments are
thoroughly conversant w?ta the operation of the
steam fire engine, which has proved thoroughly
reliable and susceptible of regulation, and in ad-
dition is able to thaw out with its steam frozen
hydrants, an important consideration for cities
with severe winters. Records have been made
of steam fire engines operating continuously over
72 hours, while a capacity up to 1600 gallons
per minute has been obtained. As showing the
endurance of a steam fire engine, it may be
stated that a record of three mouths' constant
operation in service was made from Nov. 18,
3913, to Feb. 18, 1914, during which time the
machine was shut down twice to replace burned-
out grates, three times to replace broken valve
springs and overhaul valves, and once to replace
a broken piston follower.

In regard to motor pumping engines, as desir-
able as they are, progress, while rapid, had not
reached a point where in 1914 such machines
had secured universal acceptance in the large
fire departments. The New York City fire de-
partment, e.g., has never been willing to pur-
chase motor fire engines unless the standards
set for second-size steam fire engine could be
met, although it has installed a number of
motor-driven steamers of this size. The motor
fire engines consist of pumps driven from the
main engine shaft, which is connected with the
propelling mechanism by a system of gears to
reduce its rapid revolution to a useful speed for
reciprocating pumps or to a less extent for
rotary pumps. In the smaller sizes of motor
pumping fire engines, especially those available
for village and suburban use, machines of re-
markable usefulness and efficiency have been
secured. These are fitted either with recipro-
cating or rotary pumps and carry a reasonable
amount of hose and other equipment, including
sometimes chemical tanks which are ready for
use at a moment's notice. Such a machine, hav-
ing a speed up to 40 miles an hour, or far in
excess of any ordinary requirements, can be
maintained at a central point in a village with
a minimum of regular employees in attendance
and be available for service over a wide terri-
tory. Even for a city such an engine is able
to deal with incipient fire, if not through its
chemical tanks, by means of a stream of water
promptly applied. These machines were brought
out first about 1907, and since that time have
been developed and put in extensive use.

At first, insurance officials favored piston
reciprocating pumps, and consequently the rapid
rotary motion of the shaft had to be reduced by
appropriate gearing or chain drives. Although
plenty of power was available, this process was
not marked by efficiency, and at the higher

Pressures the pumping capacity of many motor
re engines, due to excessive slip and other
causes, was limited. Mechanical engineers, how-
ever, mindful of the success of centrifugal and
rotary pumps in other fields, endeavored to per-
fect this form of mechanism in the motor pump-
ing engine, and gradually increased efficiency
was secured, so that a demonstration test to
show endurance, reliability, and capacity, which
took place at New York in connection with

the annual convention of the International
Association of Fire Engineers in 1913, brought
out 11 motor pumping engines, of which three
were able to pump for the entire period of 12
hours assigned for the test. Two operated for
10 hours steadily, two for 9 hours without
cessation, and one for 8 hours. At these tests
a Seagrave motor pump, rated at 1000 gallons
per minute capacity, discharged at 125 pounds'
pump pressure at a rate of 1049 gallons per
minute; at 204 pounds' pressure, 595 gallons
per minute; and at 256 pounds' pressure, 323
gallons per minute. An American La France
motor pump, rated at 1400 gallons' capacity, at
132 pounds' pump pressure, discharged at the
rate of 1402 gallons per minute; at 209 pounds'
pressure, 734 gallons; and at 268 pounds' pres-
sure, 626 gallons. An even better record for
endurance than this was made a few months
later, when a motor engine drafting water from
a distance of 24 feet worked for 24 hours with-
out stopping.

Tire Boats. To protect the water front and
harbors of cities where fire is apt to have the
most disastrous effects on piers, warehouses,
and especially lumber yards and factories, float-
ing fire engines in the form of fire boats are
generally employed, and their design and con-
struction have resulted in excellent types of
marine engineering. In such a fire boat, punip^
ing capacity must be combined with reasonable
speed and ease of manoeuvring, as the boat must
nose its way into slips and take up a position
adjoining a bulkhead or wharf from which it
can deliver through turret nozzles and stand-
pipes vast quantities of harbor water. These
fire boats are maintained constantly under steam
and respond to alarms just as an ordinary land
company. In many cases their powerful pumps
make them available for service at fires quite a
little distance inland, as heavy hose mav be
laid from the waterside to the scene of th«
fire, while it is also usual with high-pressure
systems to provide for the connection of the
pumps of the fire boat with the main aystcm to
supplement the pumps of the central* station
when necessary. Various forms of pumping ma-
chinery have been installed on such fire boats,
the earliest of which were equipped with double-
cylinder, vertical, inverted, reciprocating pumps,
each of which might have a capacity as large
as 3000 gallons per minute. With higher steam
pressures the centrifugal pump either directly
driven by means of steam turbines or by some
form of electric drive with generators and mo-
tors has been found well adapted for this service*.
In the New York fire department there were in
service, in 1914, 11 fire boats, three of which were
equipped with centrifugal pumps, the largest
of which was 326 tons, 131 feet in length and 28
feet beam, with a pump capacity of 9000 gallons
per minute.

At the great iron-ore docka at Dnluth, Minn.,
belonging to the Duluth, Miuabe, and Northern
Railway, a powerful fire boat, tho William A.
McGonagle, is maintained with pumps able to
deliver 12,000 gallons per minute at a pressure
of 150 pounds under ordinary conditions. This
boat is 120 feet in length, 28 feet molded beam,
and is driven by a double, vertical, high-pressure
engine with cylinders each 20 inches in diameter
by 24 inches' stroke. The pumping equipment
consists of two sets of two-stage centrifugal
pumps, each driven by an 800-horse-power hori-
zontal-shaft Curtis steam turbine, the two seti

FIRE ESCAPE

583

EXTINGU

so arranged that they can be operated in series
and a pressure of 300 pounds per square inch
obtained. For the San Francisco fire depart-
ment two fire boats, each 129 feet in length and
26 feet beam, are maintained with steam turbines
connected each to two multistage centrifugal
pumps, each set capable of delivering 4500 gal-
lons per minute at 150 pounds' pressure, or half
this amount at 300 pounds' pressure. The fire
boats of Chicago are somewhat different in that
both the pumping machinery and propelling
motors are electrically driven, two 660-horse-
power Curtis turbines' being directly connected
to 200-kilowatt direct-current generators and
two-stage centrifugal pumps and propelling
motors. These fire boats can deliver at an
emergency between 10,000 and 11,000 gallons of
water per minute at 150 pounds' pressure.
Philadelphia, Boston, Seattle, Detroit, and other
cities all maintain large and efficient fire boats,
and the details of construction have been worked
out with considerable skill. Often local condi-
tions have governed and a boat of light draft
is required. The equipment consists usually of
a turret mast and a number of turret pipes, and
there is stowage capacity for a large amount of
heavy 3 or 3l/s inch hose.

Chemical fire engines and extinguishers
range all the way from apparatus mounted on
wheels and drawn by men or horses, and an
integral part of a hose tender or special motor
car, to small tanks carried on a fireman's back,
or small hand force pumps. The aim of all such
devices is to smother the fire by means of some
gas, such as carbonic-acid gas. The larger and
more effective apparatus include a generating
tank or tanks, possibly as large as 45 gallons'
capacity, in which water and soda are placed,
with an agitator to aid in dissolving the soda,
an acid- feeding chamber, and some 200 or 250
feet of % or 1 inch hose carried in a basket or
on a reel. If the generating apparatus is in
duplicate, with proper hose, connections, con-
tinuous streams may be thrown; otherwise the
stream will cease while recharging is in prog-
ress. The water serves as a medium to carry
the gas, and the* gas is the motive, force for the
water, flmall quantities of water are required
as compared with fire engines, thus permitting
a relatively light apparatus and small and easily
managed nose. For incipient fires, or some of
those where water is inefficient, the chemical
apparatus is very useful, and for that reason
it is often mounted on a high -speed motor oar,
which may, in addition, carry the hose supply
for a following fire engine as well as useful tools
and appliances for the firemen, this being a most
advantageous arrangement, and may be employed
to advantage in some cases where the cost of
steam or motor pumping fire engines is pro-
hibitive, or where the local water pressure is
adequate in connection with the transportation
of the firemen. See FIBE EXTINGUISHER; FUSE
PEOTKCTION, MUNICIPAL.

FIRE ESCAPE. A stationary or portable
device to enable people to escape from burning
buildings when ordinary means of egress to the
ground are destroyed or cut off by flames, and
also, a point less often considered, to enable the
firemen to reach the neat of the fire* In Eng-
land the term is applied to a portable extension
ladder that may be wheeled up to a building
on fire to furnish # means of egress to the occu-
pants. The Are escape most used in America, and
usually required by city building laws, consists of

balconies attached one above another to the out-
side of the building, connected by iron ladders
with each other, and opening on to each floor at
a door or window. Such fire escapes are made
entirely of iron, and one or more of them may be
used according to the size of the building, though
in most cases they leave much to be desired.
Modern conditions of building and fire hazard
have led to the adoption of inclosed fire towers
or fire and smoke proof stairways independent of
the main building, from which access may be
had from each floor by long outside balconies or
by entrances cut off by lire-resisting doors.
These towers have stairs with broad treads and
handrails and are designed to effect the rapid
emptying of the building. Sometimes these
towers are of steel only partially inclosed, but
communicating with balconies at each floor.
Portable fire escapes may be operated from the
interior of the building or from the outside, ac-
cording to their character. Interior fire escapes
of this class vary in character from a simple
knotted rope placed in each room, and down
which the person seeking escape slides, to more
elaborate devices, like canvas tubes, spiral
chutes, cables with slings, etc., Portable fire
escapes operated from the outside consist of
ladders, telescopic tubos carrying slings, cables
which may be thrown up into open windows, etc.
One of the most practical and effective of all of
these devices is a simple ladder of sufficient
length to reach from one story to the next, and
provided with large hooks at one end which may
be inserted over the window sill. The first
ladder i« placed from the ground, the second
from the top of the firflt, and so on until a line
of ladders extends from the, ground to the top
floor, down which the occupants of the building
may descend alone or be curried by the firemen.
The, efficiency of all these devices in saving life
depends largely upon the coolness and self-pos-
session of the endangered persons and those who
are trying to aid them, and upon the device
being maintained in working order, a matter
that in often neglected. For these reasons vari-
ous authorities on fire, protection are coming
more and more to advocate that reliance on
safety from lire should be placed on fireproof
construction, aided by the use of stationary fire
escapes of the first kind described, and the fre-
quent instruction and drill of the occupants of
the building in leaving in orderly ranks without
panic or confusion. See FIREPROOF CONSTKITC-
TION.
FIBE EXTINGUISHER, or FIRE ANMIIILA-

TOfc, An apparatus by means of which lire may
be extinguished, usually by npraying on it cer-
tain liquids or water charged •with a gatt that is
incapable, of sxipporting combustion, especially
carbon dioxide (cj.y.). An extinguisher of this
character wan originally brought into successful
use in London in 1810, and a patent was applied
for in the United States for a Himilar apparatus
by William A* Graham in 1837. These ex-
tinguishers are strong metal cylinders of con-
venient size, partly tilled with a solution of
soluble carbonate, usually bicarbonate of soda.
In the upper part of the cylinder is placed a
glass receptacle, containing sulphuric acid, closed
with a loosely fitting stopper. When the ap-
paratus is to be used, the cylinder in inverted and
the acid mingles with the carbonate solution.
By decomposition carbon dioxide is generated in
sufficient quantity to saturate the liquid and
produce considerable internal pressure. The

5*4

WBJEG

result of this pressure is the forcing of the
carbonated liquid through a short flexible nozzle
which may be directed so as to envelop the
burning material. In the early types the ap-
paratus was carried on the back, and the dis-
charge of acid and flow of the liquid were con-
trolled by valves. At present these have been
largely discarded. Large cylinders containing
chemical salts have been mounted on wheels,
for service on the floors of large establishments,
or, still larger, they are known as "chemical
fire engines," and are used in many of the
larger cities. (See FIBB ENGINE.) For the
extinguishing of fire on shipboard a series of
pipes have been arranged on the upper deck
that communicates with the various compart-
ments of the vessel, as the coal bunkers, the hold,
the main deck, etc. Chemical agents are placed
in the receptacle, to which steam may be ad-
mitted, and in case of fire the steam mingles
with the carbon dioxide, and the two are con-
veyed to the place of danger, where they replace
air, smother and finally extinguish the fire.
Similar arrangements, known as sprinkler sys-
tems, in which water is released automatically
when the temperature rises to the danger point,
are in use in factories. In extinguishing fires
caused by an electric current care must be taken
not to use any solution which will conduct
electricity. Extinguishers charged with chloro-
form or carbon tetrachloride mixtures may be
used.

Hand Grenades, or bombs filled with fire-
extinguishing solutions of chlorine or ammonium
chloride, borax, mixtures of calcium chloride,
magnesium sulphate, sodium carbonate, sodium
chloride, and sodium silicate, are in common
use; but they are of value only in the first stages
of a fire. See FntE ENGINE; FIEE PBOTEOTION.
FIREFLY. The name of many luminous
beetles of the families Lampyridse and Elateridse,
the former of which is known as the firefly or
lightning-bug family. The Lampyridsa are pen-
tamerous beetles of small size and soft texture,
with the head frequently hidden under the
prothorax, but sometimes prominent and with
serrate antennas; the elytra are soft and yield-
ing, are often abbreviated, and in some genera
totally wanting in the females, which are wing-
less, and larvee-like in other respects. These
and the true laryee are called glowworms and are
often more luminous than the adult male light-
ning bugs. "The larvae are flattened, often dark-
colored and velvety, and have an ocellus on each
side of the retractile head; they are generally
carnivorous, living under stones and bark, and
upon the ground, where they devour snails and
larva of insects. Sometimes the velvety larvse
of certain species of Telephones wander about
upon the snow, giving rise to stories of showers
of worms."

The family Lampyridse is confined to warm or
tropical lands and is very abundant in southern
Europe and in most parts of the United States.
Fireflies are gregarious, and their luminosity is
moat evident on warm, dark nights. The light-
giving part is situated ordinarily on the sides of
the abdomen, and the light is greenish white,
like phosphorescence; but in South America
there is a remarkable form, probably a female
of the group Phengodini, which flashes a red
light at each end of the body and a green light
along the sides, suggesting signals, so that it is
known in Paraguay as the railway beetle. The
emission of light by the lampyrid lightning bugs

and glowworms is intermittent, but at definite
intervals, in one case averaging about 36 flashes
a minute, but this varies a little from night to
night, perhaps with the temperature. The func-
tion of the light of Lampyridce is unknown to us,
but since many of the fireflies have unusually
well-developed eyes, and since most of them are
active at night, the flash would seem in some
way to be important for the firefly. In some
species of Lampyridse not only both sexes, but
the eggs, larvse, and pupae are luminous. A com-
mon species of lampyrid firefly in the eastern
United States is PUoturis pennsylvaniea, about
YQ inch long, yellowish and obscurely striped;
its luminous larva has a brushlike anal leg. A
Western species is Photuris pyralis, which has
brownish-black elytra margined with dull yel-
low, and whose larvse live in the ground and feed
upon worms. The most familiar European
species is the common glowworm of England
(Lampyris noctiluca) , of which the blackish
female, % inch in length, is entirely wingless
and without elytra and crawls about in the grass
emitting a soft, steady light, occasionally in-
terrupted. The males and the larva* are also
faintly luminous, the latter being noted for their
voracity and their devouring of snails. In
another genus, plentiful in southern Europe, both
males and females are winged and luminous, the
male giving a stronger light than the female.

Luminous Elaters. The second family that
contains luminous beetles is the Elaterida?.
These give forth at will a steady light and are
all tropical American beetles of the genus Py-
rophorus. There are about 100 species of this
genus, but not all are luminous. These wonder-
ful insects were seen and described by some of
the early explorers of America, but even to-day
only one form, the cucuyo (Pyrophoru* noctilw-
cus), has been studied. It has two yellowish
"eyelike lamps" on each side of the prothorax
through which light shines. The ventral sur-
face of the abdomen is also strongly luminous,
but this light is only evident when the in wet ifl
in flight. These beetles are frequently used as
ornaments for the hair, especially in Vora Crux.
They are blackish brown and nearly 2 inches in
length, so that one may believe the report that
the Indians sometimes use them as lanterns.

The firefly produces light practically without
loss of heat or chemical rays, but concerning the*
method of the production of this moat economi-
cal light we know little. An account of what
has been learned of the nature and purpose of
this luminosity will be found in the article
LUMINOSITY OF ANIMALS.

FIRE IWSTTBA1TCB. It is impossible to de-
termine just when a scientific system of insur-
ance against loss by fire was first introduce!.
The principle of mutual aid in times of distress
was embodied' in many societies both in ancient
and in mediaeval times, and one of the generally
recognized occasions for such aid arose when
the property of a member was destroyed by fire.
In the ordinances of the guilds of the later
Middle Ages, e.g., we find regulations for the
payment of a certain amount of indemnity to
any member who suffered loss of property by
fire. This amount was sometimes paid out of
the funds of the guild, and was sometimes raised
by a specific assessment on the other members.
In neither case were the essential principles of
insurance observed. There was no separation of
the insurance fund from the other funds of the
guild, and no payments to the guild by the mem-

FIRE INSURANCE £

bers based on the risk which, the guild assumed.
The indemnity bore no definite relation to the
amount of loss, or to the amount which the
members had paid to the guild, but was either
fixed beforehand as a uniform sum or a uniform
contribution from each member, or else was
arbitrarily fixed by the guild itself after the
loss had occurred.

England, The earliest recorded proposal for
the establishment of a scientific fire-insurance
company in England was made in 1635. The
first office was opened by N. Barbon, in London,
in 1667, the year after the great fire. It is
highly probable that the business had already
been introduced on the Continent. Barbon's
method was that of individual underwriting.
The first joint-stock association for insuring
against loss by fire was established in 1631.
The oldest surviving English company, the Hand
in Hand, was founded in 1696. No less than
five other existing English companies date back
to 1720 or earlier.

United States. The first fire-insurance com-
pany in the United States was opened at Phila-
delphia in 1752 and incorporated in 1768. It
was called the Philadelphia Contributionship for
the Insurance of Houses from Loss by Fire.
Benjamin Franklin was one of its first directors.
This company still survives. It is a mutual
company and writes only perpetual risks. Its
business is confined to the State of Pennsylvania.
The development of the fire-insurance business
was slow at first, being greatly retarded by the
financial and industrial disturbances due to the
Revolution. Before tho end of the eighteenth
century, however, at least 30 charters had been
granted to companies for carrying on the busi-
ness. Among the oldest existing companies may
be mentioned the Insurance Company of North
America and the Insurance Company of the State
of Pennsylvania, both located in Philadelphia
and both incorporated in 1794; the Mutual
Assurance Company of the City of Norwich
(Conn.), which began business in 1795; and the
Providence Washington Insurance Company, of
Providence, R. I., incorporated in 3700. The
oldest existing New York company was organized
in 1806, and tho oldest Massachusetts company
in 1818. Thousands of charters have been
granted to fire-insurance companies since the be-
ginning of the nineteenth century, but many of
them have never been used. In a general way
the number of new companies established from
year to year has varied with the- general pros-
perity of the country, and every period of de-
pression has seen the failure or withdrawal of
a number of companies. The most trying time,
in the history of fire insurance in tho United
States during tho last 50 years came in tho early
seventies. In October, 1871, as a result of the
Chicago fire, insurance companies became liable
for indemnities amounting to more than $06,-
600,000. In November of the following year
occurred the great Boston fire, which brought a
loss of more than $52,600,000 upon tho com*
panies. These two groat losses, coming in quick
succession, subjected all fire-insurance com-
panies to great strain. More than 100 of them
were forced to suspend operations, while many
others found their surplus wiped out and their
capital seriously imperiled. The Baltimore fire
of 1904 involved losses to the companies esti-
mated at $00,000,000, and the San Francisco
fire of 1906 involved about $175,000,000 in losses
to the companies. The fire-insurance companies

85 FIRE INSURANCE

are so much stronger financially than they were
in earlier decades, that comparatively few
failures were occasioned by these two great
catastrophies. The history of the last 100 years
shows a nearly constant growth in the magni-
tude of the fire-insurance business, and a steady
improvement in the financial standing of the
companies. During the latter part of the nine-
teenth century the establishment of govern-
mental supervision of insurance companies in
many of the States, involving periodical reports
from each company, and thus a great degree of
publicity as to its financial condition, has done
much to prevent reckless management on the
part of the companies and to protect tho in-
terests of the insured.

It is impossible to obtain complete statistics
of the number of fire-insurance companies in the
United States or of the amount of business they
transact. In a number of the States certain
companies, especially the small umtuals, fire
exempted from the duty of reporting to the
commissioner, and statistics about such com-
panies arc nowhere attainable. There are prob-
ably in the United States at the present time
nearly or quite 2000 companies granting insur-
ance against /ire. Of this number, however,
only about 150 are of any considerable sisse or
operate, over a large territory. The total amount
of fire insurance carried by all the companies
exceeds $50,000,000,000. The average rate of
premium in 1012 was practically $8.00 for each
$100 of insurance. The aggregate premiums
collected in 1912 by the companies reporting
to the New York Insurance Department were,
$454,043,419.

Some, indication of the increase in the two of
fire insurance by property owners may bo gained
from a comparison of the total fire loss for dif-
ferent periods with the lotwes sustained by the
innuranee? companies during the same periods
The figures given in tho Spectator Year Hook
for 1002 indicates that, in the decado 1B8M)0,
07.4 per cent of the total fire lofla WHH covered
by insurance, while, in tho decade. 1801-1900,
60.9 per cent of the total lows was thua eovewl.
The following table, compiled from the reports
made to the Insurance Department of the State
of New York by companies operating in that
(State, which, it muat be remembered, does not
include companies not operating in the State,
may serve to illustrate the growth of tho busi-
ness during the last 40 years of the nineteenth
century and the early years of the twentieth
century :

YBA.B

RinkH in force
December 31

Premiums

Loaaoa

1800

1870
1880
1890

11,466,954,382.67
4,149,473,784.00
7,306,720,981.00
15,272,786,000,00
22 352.602,663.00
51,202,402,361.00

$14,436,869.76
37,910,905,23
61,125,6^6*51
104,706,417,51
141,232,031.73
464,943,419,00

$8,570,966.74
22,476,300.70
43,243,430.94
67,026,230,29
89,506>41XK00
157,923,447.07

Organization, Stock Oojfcjpantca,— Nearly all
the fire-insurance companies in the TJnitwl Rtatofl
are organised either as mutual companies or
as joint-stock companies. There are a few
organized as unincorporated associations of in*
dividuals, transacting business on the principle
of the English Lloyds. The mutual companies
are more than ftvc times as numerous as the
joint-stock companies, but the risks carried by
the relatively email number of fctoak companies

EIRE INSTTBANCE 586

are many times as great in amount as those
carried in the mutual companies. The relation
of the insured to the stock company is simple
and definite. By paying the stipulated premium
he becomes entitled to indemnity in case of loss
by fire within a given time. He incurs no lia-
bility, but substitutes a certain and definite
periodical payment for the possibility of a loss
of uncertain amount. It is probably the element
of certainty and definiteness that gives the stock
companies a large part of their advantage over
the mutual companies.

Mutual Companies.— The relation of a person
insured in a mutual company to the company is
by no means so simple as in the previous case.
In the simplest form of mutual insurance the
funds necessary to pay losses are raised by as-
sessment after the losses have occurred. Under
such a system neither profit nor loss can arise,
as the assessments are made to cover only loss
and expenses. Experience has shown, however,
that it is extremely difficult to raise the required
amount in this way, whenever losses are un-
usually heavy. The general custom among the
older mutual companies at the present time,
therefore, is to collect a part of the necessary
funds by premiums paid in advance and to hold
the insured responsible for such additional
amounts as may be required to pay losses. The
liability of the insured is, however, frequently
limited to a certain amount or to a certain pro-
portion of the cash premium. This liability
varies in different companies from a sum equal
to the premium to a sum equal to five times the
premium and occasionally to an even greater
sum. Many of the older companies have ac-
cumulated large surpluses, out of which they are
able to pay any exceptional losses they may
suffer, and in normal years to return to the in-
sured in the form of dividends a very consider-
able part — not infrequently as high as 90 per
cent~-of the sum collected as premiums. In the
Western States in recent years the mutual prin-
ciple in fire insurance has manifested itself in
the establishment of numerous "town" and
"county" mutual companies. The activity of
these companies is usually limited to a single
town or county. They are very largely engaged
in insuring the property of farmers. They act
on a plan somewhat different from that of the
older Eastern companies. Instead of keeping up
rates and using the annual gain -to accumulate
a surplus or to increase dividends they establish
comparatively low rates. On long-time insur-
ance usually a small part of the premium is
paid in cash and the rest is paid by premium
notes. The liability of the insured is limited to
the amount of the notes given by him. No pay-
ments have to be made on these notes unless the
losses of the company compel it to make an
assessment. At the expiration of the term of
insurance the notes are canceled. In many of
the States the companies are authorized to count
these premium notes as the whole or a part of
the legal reserve, and they are to that extent
freed from the necessity of accumulating a cash
reserve sufficient to reinsure outstanding risks.

Lloyds. — In the early nineties there were or-
ganised in the United States a large number of
fire companies on the plan of the English Lloyds.
Most of these companies were located in New
York, where a special provision of the insurance
law gave them a temporary advantage. A
"Lloyds" is neither a joint-stock company nor, in
most cases, a mutual company; it is rather a

FIRE INSURANCE

partnership with limited liability. It is an un-
incorporated association of individuals, each of
whom deposits a certain amount and assumes
liability for a limited additional amount. In
the English Lloyds, where marine insurance is
written, each member of the association does his
own underwriting, specifying how much, if any,
liability he will assume on each risk offered. In
tlie United States companies, on the other hand,
the actual management of the business is put
in the hands of an attorney, who writes the in-
surance. Each member of the association incurs
liability on every risk written, in proportion to
his share in the deposit fund. In case of loss
the deposit fund, and, if necessary, the addi-
tional liability of the subscribers, may be drawn
upon to meet it. There is no reason in the
nature of things why an insurance company so
organized should not be as strong as a stock
company. As a matter of fact, the stability of
the English Lloyds is above question. The essen-
tial thing is financial responsibility on the part
of the members of the association. Tn a great
majority of the American companies this has
been lacking. Not only was the additional lia-
bility assumed by the members usually of no
value, but the deposits themselves were fre-
quently in the form of notes, on which it was
found impossible to realize in case of need. In
New York the Lloyds survived in largo numbers
only so long as they were able to escape the
supervision of the Insurance Department. As
soon as they were brought under the provisions
of the General Insurance Law, most of them dis-
appeared. Of the 125 companies in Now York in
1805, not more than 17 were surviving in 1009.
During the last few years, however, Lloyds have
been appearing in considerable numbers in Chi-
cago under the lax provisions of the Illinois
insurance law. A person inclined to seek in-
surance in the Lloyds, on account of the low
premium rates offered, needs to remember that
unless the company is organized in a State in
which the Lloyds are under caroful supervision
by the Insurance Department, he has no asKiir-
ance of the stability of the association. The
actual value of the assets of the company may be
far below the nominal value. Moreover, aa the
association is not a corporation, a person having
occasion to bring suit against it must resort to
the courts of the State in which the association
is located.

Foreign Companies, Foreign fire-insurance
companies, chiefly British and German, write a
considerable amount of business in the United
States. Many of the States have laws requiring
a deposit by foreign companies of other States
before licensing them to do business in their
borders. Several of the foreign companies have
found it advantageous to do the whole or a part
of their American business through subsidiary
American companies. Sometimes such a com-
pany is directly established by the foreign com-
pany; sometimes the foreign company buys up
an already established American company. More
than 50 foreign companies are operating in the
United States and write over a quarter of the
entire fire business of the country. Partly on
account of the tendency in some States to dis-
criminate against the foreign companies, many
of these companies show a disposition to con-
tract rather than to expand their American
business. Only two States— Connecticut and
Kansas—actually discriminate between foreign
companies and companies of other States, In

FIRE INSURANCE 587

Kansas the tax is 4 per cent on the gross
premiums of the former, and 2 per cent on simi-
lar premiums of the latter; Connecticut imposes
a tax of 2 per cent on gross premiums of foreign
companies and has for other-State American
companies the reciprocal provision. But while
the actual legislative discrimination against the
foreign companies is not very widespread or
very severe, the possibility of such legislation
and the somewhat common advocacy of it tend
to drive the companies away. About 20 such
companies withdrew from the United States,
either wholly or in part, in the five years 1901-
05 and four more in the five years 1905-10.

Self -Insurance. When many pieces of prop-
erty so situated as to constitute separate risks
are owned by a single individual or corporation,
the proprietor sometimes finds it cheaper to
"carry his own insurance" than to have recourse
to an insurance company. When a corporation
adopts this plan of self-insurance, it usually sets
aside an insurance fund, out of which any prop-
erty destroyed by fire is to be replaced. Tlio
losses which are suffered fall wholly on the cor-
poration; the insurance fund merely enables it
to meet them without embarrassment. The
prevalence of this custom of self-insurance
against fire among large corporations constitutes
a Korious indictment of the management of fire-
insurance companies. A part of tho gain from
a system of insurance comes from combining
many separate risks in a single company, since
the more risks the company carries (provided,
of course, they are properly classified) tho less
fluctuation will there be in the amount of loss,
and the smaller the reserve which will have to
be maintained to prepare for unexpected losses.
Consequently, however many risks of its own
a corporation may bo. carrying, it should be to
its advantage to combine them with as many
other similar risks as possible. That so many
largo corporations find it cheaper to carry their
own insurance can be explained in only one way
— that the insurance companies charge more for
the protection they give than is justified by the
riak they assume, A slight extension of the
principle of self-insurance is seen in the strictly
mutual insurance companies often formed, com-
posed of a small number of persons all engaged
in Home one line of business. Perhaps the best-
known example of this kind of company is to be
found in the so-called "mill" or "factory"
mutuals of New England, Such a company con-
sists of a limited number of persons or cor-
porations engaged in some particular line of
manufacture — aa, o.g., the cotton manufacture
— each of whom insures tho wholo or a part of
the value of his mill in tho company. Nearly
all of these companies are very stringent in their
requirements as to the protective measures to
bo adopted by their members; The adoption of
theme measures greatly reduces the danger of
loss by fire and so lessens the degree of riwk.
These companies, however, like individuals,
should be able to insure more 'cheaply in large
insurance companies, if those companies charged
no more for the business than the risk justified.

The Agency System. While fire-insurance
companies were small and their activities were
confined to limited areas, it was possible for all
the business of any one of them to be done
through a dingle office. With the growth of the
business and the extension of the field of opera-
tion of the larger companies, the single-office
system became cumbersome and unwieldy. To

FIRE INSURANCE

meet the difficulty, the "agency system" was
introduced, for a time tentatively and to a
limited extent. It was first tried successfully
on a large scale in the early fifties, by the Home
Fire Irsurance Company. It has since become
practically universal among the large companies.
Under the agency system the territory con-
stituting the field of operation of an insurance
company is divided into a number of depart-
ments, varying for the whole United States
from 2 or 3 to 10 or 12 in number. Over each
department is a general agent or manager, who
is practically in charge of the business of his
company throughout his department, subject to
the general instructions received from the home
office. The manager appoints and supervises
two classes of subordinate agents — local agents,
one or more in each locality where tho company
does business, and special agents, usually one
for each State. The local agent is the one who
solicits business and actually writes the in-
surance, making periodical reports to the general
agent in charge of the department which includes
the locality in which he works. That the local
agent nmy have the greatest incentive to dili-
gence in securing business, his remuneration
takes tho form of a commission on the premiums
received. This method of payment has the dis-
advantage of putting the agent under a strong
temptation to accept undesirable risks, or to
secure business by improper methods, for the
sake of obtaining his commissions. It is one
of tho field functions of the special agent, or
"field man," to keep watch over the local agents
and prevent them from sacrificing the welfare of
the company to their own pecuniary interests.
The special agent is paid a salary in»tead of
coramiKsions, and his chance of promotion lies
in making a good showing for his district. His
interests coincide with the interests of the com-
pany ho represents.

That the agency system has been largely re-
sponsible for tho great extennion of fire insur-
ance in the United States cannot be doubted.
The method in, however, a very costly one. The
direct cost in the form of commissions is enor-
mous and IB increasing from year to year. Thus,
for the nre insurance written in tho decade
1801-70 commissions amounted to $11.21 for
every $100 of premiums; in 1871-80 they were
$14.01 per $100 of premiums; in 1881-00,
$17,89; in 1801-1000 they varied from $17.00
in 1804 to $20 in 1000; and in the decade 1001-
10 they ranged from $20.28 in 1002 to $21.80 in
3008. Moreover, this direct expense represents
but a small part of tho cost of tlut agency sys-
tem. While tho companies themselves are by
no means entirely free from blame for the reek-
IcHsncss with which at timcB rates are cut and
risks accepted, it is the uncontrollable zeal of
tho local agents for business and resulting com-
missions which usually inaugurates sueh a move-
ment. The result of the movement in the accept-
ance of undesirable risks, or of desirable risks
at too low a rate, a consequent diminution in
the ratio of premiums to insurance written,
and, wlion the effect of tho poorer risks has
made itself felt, an increase in the proportion
of nre losses to insurance written, and finally
the failure of weak companies and the depletion
of the surplus of strong companies. The situa-
tion at length becomes intolerable, compelling
a movement to restore rates to a paying basis,
and general and special agents for a time exer-
cise great care in their supervision of local

FIRE INSURANCE

588

PIRE INSURANCE

agents. The effect of the bad risks accepted
during the period of rate cutting disappears
after a year or two, and a period of prosperity
follows, which lasts until the cycle starts anew.
While local agents have done -much good in ex-
tending insurance among people who would
never have resorted to it unsolicited, and while
it is difficult to conceive of any other system on
which the business of a large company can be
well carried on, still it must be acknowledged
that the multiplicity of agents, the magnitude
of their tax upon the insured, and the wide di-
vergence between the interests of the agent on
the one hand and those of the insurer and in-
sured on the other, are very serious evils
necessarily involved in the agency system.

Associations of Underwriters. The tendency
to association on which the business of insur-
ance is based is manifested in the formation of
all sorts of unions and associations among those
engaged in it. In the department of fire insur-
ance these associations are especially numerous
and have attracted much attention through the
obvious attempts of some of them to replace
competition by mutual agreement as a regulator
of rates. There are in the United States more
than 30 general associations of fire underwriters,
some of them extending over many States, be-
sides a considerable number of local associations,
each confined to a particular city. Many of the
forms of activity of these associations are uni-
versally recognized as legitimate. As examples
of such activities, may be mentioned the offering
of rewards for the apprehension of incendiaries,
the inspection of fire departments and water
works, and the organization and support of fire
patrols.

Anticompact Laws. It is the attempt of
the underwriters' associations to regulate rates
and thus restrict competition which has attracted
the most attention. The popular feeling lias
undoubtedly been that the rate agreements en-
tered into by nominally competing companies
through underwriters' associations have resulted
in keeping premium rates illegitimately high.
The discussion of the question how far competi-
tion affords a desirable regulator of rates in the
insurance business belongs in the treatment of
the general subject of insurance. It is of imme-
diate interest at this point to notice the legis-
lation against rate agreements which several
States have enacted in recent years. Such laws
are known as anticompact laws. The earliest
one was passed in Ohio in 1885. This law pro-
hibits not only agreements as to the rates to be
charged for insuring against loss by fire, but
even agreements as to the commissions to be
paid to agents for securing business. Similar
laws, so far as the control of rates is concerned,
are now in force in 10 States besides Ohio— viz.,
Alabama, Georgia, Iowa, Louisiana, Michigan,
Nebraska (declared unconstitutional by the
United States District Court, and by the Su-
preme Court on appeal) , New Hampshire, South
Carolina, Washington, and Wisconsin. In four
other States— viz., Arkansas, Kansas, Missouri,
and Texas — such combinations are specifically
included among those prohibited by general anti-
trust laws. The anticompact movement appar-
ently reached its height in the years 1897-09, no
fewer than eight of the 15 laws in force having
been passed during that time. In 1900 only
one such law was passed, and none in 1901. In
1902 Virginia repealed the law which she had
enacted in 1899. It is coming to be recognized

that the attempt to prevent rate compacts by
prohibitory legislation cannot succeed, owing to
the ease with which secret agreements can be
entered into, and it is coming to be suspected
that the condition of reckless underwriting
which prevails when compacts are actually
abolished may be a worse evil than the rela-
tively high rates maintained by means of the
agreements.

Relation of Insurance to Amount of Loss
by Fire. Increase in Number of Fires Owing
to Insurance. The relation of insurance to the
amount of fire loss deserves careful considera-
tion. Over against the great gain which the
system of fire insurance confers upon society
must be set a direct loss due to the increase
in the amount of property destroyed by fire as a
result of the insurance itself. A part of this
increased loss is due to the greater carelessness
of the owners because of the insurance; a larger
part is due to the deliberate destruction of in-
sured property by the owners for the sake of
securing the insurance. What proportion of
fires is due to incendiarism it is impossible to
determine with accuracy. Various estimates,
ranging from 20 to 40 per cent, have been made
by different investigators. If fires of unknown
origin arc largely counted as incendiary, as
there is a natural tendency to count them, the
proportion is made unduly high. In Massachu-
setts, for a period of seven years just preceding
the first appointment of a State fire marshal,
which occurred in 1894, incendiary fires and
those of unknown origin combined constituted
33% per cent of the total number of fires. The
proportion in most States is undoubtedly higher.
It must be borne in mind, however, that by no
means all incendiary fires are set for the purpose
of obtaining insurance. In Massachusetts, e.g.,
in the four years for which statistics arc avail-
able—viz., 1896, 1897, 1900, and 1901 — out of a
total of 1204 incendiary fires, only 408, or 32
per cent, were sot for the insurance. During the
same years incendiary fires constituted 7.1 per
cent of the total number of fires in the State.
On the basis of figures for Massachusetts, Ohio,
and West Virginia, Mr. Frank Lock estimated
that, of the loss of $29,291,430 through ilres of
incendiary origin in 1912, 38.5 per cent, or
$11,277,200, represented fires set for the purpose
of securing insurance money. Insurance fires,
according to this estimate, amount to 5 per <*ent
of all fires. The value of the property delil>er-
ately destroyed in order to obtain insurance
constitutes one element in the cost of insurance.
The insurance companies thomaelve« ar« indi-
rectly responsible for a part of this loss. It is
a matter of common knowledge that agents and
brokers show too great laxity in granting in«ur-
ance on property up to, and sometimes far
beyond, its full value. Every instance of over-
insurance is a standing invitation to incen-
diarism. The extent of it is one of the unfortu-
nate results of the zeal of local agents for
business and commissions.

Preventive Activity of Insurance Com-
panies. While a part of the annual loss by ilro
must be charged against the system of insurance,
insurance companies must, on tho other hand,
be credited with a large share of the r<>sponHi~
bility for the discovery and application of meth-
ods for preventing such loss. Not only have
they always been active both in the adoption of
preventive measures and in compelling or induc-
ing the insured to adopt such mea*uros» but it

PXBB

is also to their initiative that a large part of
the progress in State and municipal activity
along the same lines has been due. As an ex-
ample of direct preventive activity by fire-
insurance companies themselves may be men-
tioned the maintenance of fire brigades and fire
patrols. The early English companies laid great
stress on the value of their services in extin-
guishing fires. Companies of "watermen," or-
rized for this purpose, were supported at first
„ the individual companies and later by asso-
ciations among the underwriters. It was not
until 1866 that the maintenance and control
of the London fire brigades passed from the
hands of the underwriters to the municipalities.
The English companies still support "salvage
corps," whose duty it is to protect property
from damage by fire or by the water used in
extinguishing fires. Insurance companies in the
United States have established organizations
with duties similar to those of the English sal-
vage corps. They are variously known as fire
patrols, salvage corps, and protective associa-
tions. The earliest American association of
that order was established in New York in 1830.
Similar organizations are supported to-day by
underwriters' associations in at least 30 ol the
larger American cities.

Of more importance than this direct preven-
tive activity of insurance companies is the in-
direct influence which they exert through the
pressure which they bring to boar on the insured.
This pressure is exerted in some cases through
the refusal of the company to accept the risk
unless certain changes arc made in the property
which will lessen the danger of fire; more com-
monly through inserting in the policy that cer-
tain specified acts of the insured, of such a na-
ture as to increase the risk, shall render tho
policy void, and almost universally by varying
the premium rate, in accordance with the. number
of preventive devices adopted by the insured.
The introduction of automatic sprinklers into
general use was directly duo to such discrimina-
tion by insurance companies.

Fire Marshals. Finally, it is largely duo
to the agitation carried on by insurance com-
panies that States and municipalities have
adopted various measures for the purpose of
preventing loss by fire. The more common forms
of public action for this purpose are tho mainte-
nance of fire-extinguishing- organizations, and
tho adoption of regulations concerning the stor-
age of explosives and other dangerous commodi-
ties, and regulations as to the character of
material to be used in the construction of
buildings. A more recent movement in the same
direction is the adoption of laws for the appoint-
ment of State fire marshals. Local fire niarHhals
or other similar officers have long boon main-
tained in the larger cities. The first Rtatc, fire
niarHhals were authorized by Massachusetts and
Maryland in 1804, Their example was followed
by Ohio (1900), Connecticut (1901), and Wash-
ington (1001). SJnco 1001 a number of other
States have established the office of fire marshal,
and systematic efforts have been made to bring
about a uniformity of State laws on the subject.
In 1902 Massachusetts transferred the duties of
tfce fire marshal to the district police. In Missis-
sippi the insurance commissioner acts as fire
marshal. Along with the establishment of the
office of fire marshal has gone the adoption of
laws requiring investigation into the origin of
fires, Maine and Pennsylvania, as well as the

*9 BIBE

States mentioned above, require such official
investigation. Much light will undoubtedly be
thrown upon the causes of fires by these investi-
gations, and more intelligent action will be
possible for the purpose of diminishing their
number and dcstructivenesa.

The duty of State and municipality to adopt
regulations for the purpose of minimizing fire
losses is too obvious to need discussion. When
tho carelessness or misconduct of one individual
may result in irreparable losses to others who
have themselves taken all due precautions, the
State is clearly justified in doing all in its
power to ward off the danger. What munici-
palities have done is but a small part of what
they might .properly do, and what they may be
expected to dp as more enlightened views of
their responsibility in the matter conic to prevail.

Technique. The Bisk. The proper business
of insurance companies is not the prevention of
loss by fire, but the assumption of risk. Through
an insurance policy tho risk to which the prop-
erty of the insured is exposed is assumed by the
insuring company. Insurance in itself may have
no effect on the amount of property destroyed
by fire, or upon the chance of destruction to
which a particular piece of property is exposed.
The gain conferred by insurance*, upon society
arises partly from the reduction iu the uncer-
tainty as to how much loss will be suffered in a
given period through the accumulation of a large
number of risks, and partly from a distribution
of tho losses actually suffered among a large
number of individuals. The risk which an in-
surance company assumes when it insures a piece
of property against loss by fire depends upon
several factors; viz., the value of the property
insured, tho probability of fire within a given
time, the probable doHtructivonms of tho fire if
it occurs, and tho length of time for which the
insurance is granted. Tho first and last of these
factors are determined with comparative ease
and accuracy. The determination of the Hccond
and third, ou the other hand, presents very groat
difliculty. So far as human intelligence "in con-
cerned, it is largely a matter of chance whether
a particular building- IH visited by lire- in a given
year or not. The, adoption of preventive nutOH-
urcs may reduce the probability, but some degree
of uncertainty will always remain. And when
there, is added to that uncertainty the uneor-
tainty as to the extent of the loss occasioned
by the fire, it will bo seen that there in a largo
element of chance in the liability which the
company assumes so far as any particular
property is concerned. Moreover, tho uncer-
tainty is of such a nature that the chance of
lotiH cannot be determined by tho mont careful
examination of the property. The knowledge of
the conditions affecting the possibility of firo Is
too imperfect to admit of such direct determina*
tion. It is necessary, therefore, to roly upon
the statistics of past experience to show what
chance of loss a particular risk brings upon the
company. If statistics show that each year for
a number of years fire ha« destroyed, upon the
average, one out of every thousand buildings of
a certain kind, there is ono chance in a thousand
that any particular building of the same charac-
ter will be destroyed during the following year.
The greater the number of cases from which th«
average is calculated, the more reliable is the
averagft~-i.t»., the less danger i» there that it
nas been unduly affected by temporary fluctua-
tions in the number of fires* The experience of

7IBE INSURANCE

590

FIRE INSURANCE

insurance companies themselves furnishes the
most valuable data obtainable for calculating
average losses. It is extremely desirable that
the movement already under way to combine the
experience of many companies, and thus calculate
combined experience tables for fire insurance, as
they have already been calculated for life insur-
ance, should be carried out.

But even with the help of experience, the prob-
lem of calculating the risk incurred by insuring
a particular building is by no means simple. In
the first place, the probable destructiveness of
the fire must be determined from experience as
well as the probability of the occurrence of the
fire. In the second place, the problem is made
more complex from the fact that no two pieces
of property present precisely the same fire fea-
tures, if the term may be used. To group them
in classes at all it is necessary to overlook many
minor points which may still have some influ-
ence on the degree of risk. Even when this is
done, the necessary number of classes is very
great. The Home Insurance Company, which
has kept a careful record of its fire experience
during an existence of nearly 50 years, has found
it necessary to make more than 150 classes of
risks. The process of arranging risks in groups
according to the chance of loss to which they
are exposed is known as the classification of
risks. It is a matter of great importance that
this classification should be as accurate as
possible. It is of importance to the companies,
because a general underestimating of risks must
result in loss to them; it is of importance to the
insured, because imperfect classification means
an unjust distribution of the burden of insur-
ance. If any kind of property is put in a more
hazardous class than it properly belongs in, the
owners of that property contribute more than
their share to the cost of insurance. Farmers,
as a class, e.g., believe that farm property is
thus unjustly classified by the large insurance
companies, and that rates on such property are
higher than they should be. It is that belief
which is partly responsible for the spread of
small mutual companies among them. The fire
experience of these mutual companies lends some
support to this claim.

The Policy. The terms of the insurance con-
tract are set forth in the policy. In the early
days of fire underwriting there was great diver-
sity in the forms of policies, and considerable
uncertainty in consequence as to their provisions.
Underwriters' associations began early to urge
the adoption of a common form of policy for fire
insurance, and more recently the legislatures of
the various States have taken the matter under
consideration. Fifteen States now have laws de-
scribing the form of policy to be used in writing
fire insurance within their borders. Massachu-
setts adopted a standard form in 1873, New
Hampshire in 1885, New York in 1886. The
other 12 States have since adopted the New York
form, sometimes with minor variations. More-
over, the large companies have introduced the
New York standard policy into many States
where its use is not compulsory, so that a uni-
form policy iff now written by them in nearly
all parts of the United States. This policy con-
tains, among other things, very clear and precise
statements as to the limitation of the liability
of the insurer, as to acts of the insured which
will cause the policy to become void, and as to
the necessary procedure by the insured in prov-
ing a claim to indemnity in case of loss. To give

some degree of flexibility to the policy, a series
of riders has been prepared, which the companies
are in many States authorized to attach to the
policy, and which thus become a part of the
contract.

Termination of the Policy. A fire-insurance
contract may be terminated in any one of four
ways. It may be made void by the failure of the
insured to live up to the conditions contained in
the policy; the time for which the insurance is
granted may expire, when all liability of the
insurer ceases; the policy may be canceled at
the request of either insurer or insured; or,
finally, the insured property may be destroyed
by fire and the payment of the indemnity by
the insurer to the insured terminate the con-
tractual relations between them. The first three
methods are simple, and need no comment.
Trouble arises only in the settlement of claims
for indemnity. Not to speak of the somewhat
elaborate formalities to be observed by the in-
sured in proving the amount of loss he has
suffered, disputes often arise as to the amount
of the liability of the company. In States where
there is no legal regulation prohibiting such an
arrangement, the policy usually provides that
the liability of the company shall be limited to
• the actual value of the property destroyed. Even
in case of total loss the insurer cannot recover
the total amount named in the face of his policy
unless he can prove that his property at the
time of the fire was worth that amount.

Valued-Policy Laws. Partly on account of
the injustice involved in collecting premiums on
a larger amount of insurance than the company
is ready to pay even for a total loss, and partly
because of the tendency to laxness in appraising
property for insurance under this system, sev-
eral States have passed so-called "valued-policy'*
laws. These laws do not apply to movable prop-
erty, for reasons easily discerned, 3n the case
of fixed or immovable property, valued-policy
laws provide that, in the absence of fraud on
the part of the insured, the company must pay
the full amount of the face of the policy in
case of total loss. In some States, however,
allowance may be made for depreciation in the
value of the property between the time of insur-
ance and the time of loss; while in others allow-
ance is made for any change in the property dur-
ing that time of such a character as to increase
tho risk. Wisconsin was the first State to pass
a valued-policy law, which it did in 3874. Nine-
teen other States and Territories haw since
passed similar laws. Several other legislatures
have also passed them, only to have them vetotnl
by the governors. Of the eight bills passed dur-
ing the years 1899-1901, no less than five were
vetoed. Insurance companies have opposed the
passage of such laws, and resisted thorn when
passed, so far as possible. In the. case of the
Missouri law they went to the United States
Supreme Court on the question of its constitu-
tionality. The court declared it constitutional.
In the absence of legislation, when the same
property is insured in several companies, tho
insured can recover only the actual value of
the property destroyed. Tho various companies
pay such a part of the indemnity as the insur-
ance they are carrying constitutes of the total
amount of insurance on the property. In most
States having valued-policy laws, however, the
amount of insurance stated in the face of each
policy must be paid in the case of total loss of
immovable property.

FIBE INSURANCE

591

FIRE INSURANCE

Surplus Insurance. A special form of insur-
ance known as surplus insurance is sometimes
written. This is sold under the condition that
the company granting it does not become lia-
ble for indemnity in case of fire, unless the
loss of property is so great that the entire
amount of regular insurance fails to cover it.
Such surplus insurance is furnished at rates
below those charged for regular insurance, since
in most cases of partial loss the regular insur-
ance is enough to cover the loss, and the company
furnishing surplus insurance escapes liability.

Coinsurance. A large proportion of fires re-
sult in only partial losses to insured property.
In the absence of any stipulation to the con-
trary, a partial loss must be paid in full, pro-
vided it does not exceed the amount of the insur-
ance. There are two unfortunate results of this
arrangement. One is that it increases the com-
plexity of the calculation which an insurance
company must mako in estimating the risks it
assumes. The other is that in the long run per-
sons insuring their property for a small part of
its value gain at the expense of those carrying
insurance more nearly equal to the value of
their property. Tf, e.g., of two similar pieces
of property, each worth $10,000, one is insured
for $4000 and the other for $8000, the premium
paid by the owner of the former property is
only one-half of that paid by tho owner of the
latter. Tf now each piece is damaged by fire
to the extent of $3000, eaeh owner recovers the
full amount of the loss. The ratio of premium
to indemnity is therefore twice as great in the
one case as in tho other. There arc two possible
remedies: The premium rate might be lowered
as the ratio of insurance to value was increased,
since the actual rink for $1000 insxiranco dimin-
ishes pari passu. A very different remedy is
usually adopted, however, known as coinsurance.
A coinsurance clause attached to a flro policy
stipulates that the owner of insured property
must insure for a certain percentage — usually
80 per cent— of its value; or, if he carries loss
insurance,, must be held to be IUH own intwrcr
for the difference between the amount carried
and the 80 per cent. This provision haw no
effect upon the amount of tho indemnity received
in the ease of total loss. In tho case of partial
loss, however, it does away with tho discrimina-
tion in rates in favor of small insurance. To
recur to the example already used, the two pieces
of property, each worth $10,000, must, in accord-
ance with the coinsurance clause, be insured for
$8000. The owner who has only $4000 of insur-
ance ia eonHidered to carry his own intmranco for
the other $4000. Tf the two pieces of property
were totally destroyed, each owner would re-
ceive as indemnity the amount stated in tho face
of the policy, and the ratio of premium to in-
demnity would be the same in the two cases.
If, on the other hand, each piece of property \vas
damaged to the extent of $3000, the owner car-
rying only $4000 of insurance would receive but
$1500 of indemnity, since, as self-insurer for
one-half of the required 80 per cent, be. must
bear one-half the loss. The other owner, having
insured his property for the full 80 per cent,
would receive the full $3000 from the insurance
company. In this way the ratio of premium to
indemnity is made uniform in the two caeca.
The principle of coinsurance is that the entire
property at risk should bear the burden of the
loss of any part of it. It IB a principle long
familiar in marine insurance under the name of

"average." It is applied to all fire-insurance
policies issued in France, Germany, Belgium, and
Russia. It is clearly in the interests of justice,
since it brings about a more equitable distribu-
tion of the cost of insurance.

Anticoinsurance Legislation. In spite of
all these facts, the attempt to introduce such a
clause into fire-insurance policies in the United
States has met with great opposition. It was
first used to any extent in 1892, and as early as
1893 three States passed laws prohibiting its
use. These States were Missouri, Tennessee,
and Maine. (Maine repealed the law in 1895.)
Similar laws have since been enacted by nine
other States, in the following order: Louisiana,
Iowa, Georgia, Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota,
Wisconsin, Ohio, and New Jersey. The Ohio
law, which was passed in 1896, was repealed in
1902, leaving 10 States with such laws still in
force. To break down the opposition to the
coinsurance clause, the companies have adopted
a plan of offering insurance at a lower rate when
the coinsurance clause is in the policy than when
it is not. This they can afford to do, since the
effect of the clause is to reduce the risk. Several
States which prohibit coinsurance clauses under
other circumstances authorize them when they
are accompanied by a reduction of rates.

Governmental Begnlations. The discussion
of tho advisability of government ownership and
management of the insurance business belongs in
the general article on INSURANCE. So far as
fire insurance is concerned, there tyave been but
few experiments in that direction. Such govern-
ment lire-insurance oilices as have been estab-
lished, chiefly in Prussia and Switzerland, have
operated over HO small a territory that their
experience is of little value. They have lacked
one of the chief supports of an insurance office
— the increased regularity in the proportion of
losses to risks which resultH from bringing many
risktt together in one company. In all parts of
the civilized world governmental supervision and
regulation of private companies is the general
rule, in the insurance business. In the United
States each individual State cxercittes supreme
authority over the business within its own terri-
tory, as tho national government has as yet
made no attempt to regulate it. The rcault is
a groat deal of diversity in the laws to which
companies operating in a large number of States
are subjected. Nearly all these laws have been
passed in tho real or supposed interests of the
insured. A few relating to taxation have been
panned for the purpoae of raising revenue. Refer-
once has already been made to certain special
la-WH in forcjp in a comparatively small number
of States, viss., anticompact laws, valued-policy
lawB, and anticoinsurance laws. It remains to
notice a few of the more common provisions of
the different States, In nearly all States it is
necessary for a company desiring to do business
within ita borders to secure a license from the
proper State official* In some States it is neces-
sary for a company from without the State to
make a deposit for the security of policy holders
within the State. It is sometimes necessary
for agents to secure licenses to solicit business
within the State. In nearly all States com-
panies are required to mako annual reports and
to submit to examination by the proper State
official whenever he deems it necessary. In most
States they ere required to maintain & reserve
sufficient to reinsure all outstanding risks. All
States tax fire-insurance companies (certain

FIRE ISLAND B3SAOH

592

FIBELESS

mutual companies are exempted in some States),
and sometimes a discrimination in taxation is
made in favor of domestic companies against
those from outside the State. In many States
a "reciprocal" law is in force with regard to
taxation and the conditions of entering the
State — i.e., the law of the State provides that
a company from any other State, desiring to
enter its borders, must meet the same require-
ments as the State in which the company is
chartered imposes upon other State companies.
The great diversity of the regulations adopted by
the different States points conclusively to the
desirability of national control of the insurance
business through congressional legislation.

Bibliography. Atkinson, The Prevention of
Loss by Fire (Boston, 1900) ; Lewis, State Fire
Insurance versus Stock Company Insurance
(Cumberland, 1900) ; Moore, Fire Insurance and
how to Build (New York, 1903); Kitchin, Tl\e
Principles and Finance of Fire Insurance (Lon-
don, 1904) ; Mathews, Manual of Inspections
(Louisville, 1908) ; Young, Insurance Office Or-
ganization (London, 1908) ; Sweetland, Insur-
ance and Real Estate Accounts (Chicago, 1910) ;
Wolfe, The Examination of Insurance Com-
panies (New York, 1910); Huebner, Property
Insurance (ib., 1911); Gephant, Insurance and
the State (ib., 1913).

FIRE ISLAND BEACH, or GREAT SOUTH
BEACH. A low spit of land, about 30 miles
long, and from ^4 to ^ of a mile broad, which,
with the shorter Oak Island Beach, to the west,
incloses Great South Bay, on the southern coast
of Long Island, N. Y. (Map: New York, G 5).
Near its west extremity is a lighthouse of the
first order, which has a flashing white light, 167
feet above mean high water and visible for 19
(nautical) miles; also a station from which
transatlantic steamers bound for New York are
first sighted. The beach is a popular summer
resort. Margaret Fuller Ossoli, with her hus-
band and child, perished by shipwreck on Fire
Island in 1850.

FIBELESS COOKEB. A device by means of
which foods which have been thoroughly heated
or partially cooked on the stove are kept hot
a sufficiently long time to complete the cooking
process. This is accomplished by providing a
suitable covering of insulating material into
which the cooking pot with its hot contents can
be placed. Many types of fireless cooker are
on the market, which, though like in principle,
differ in the details of construction, the sort of
insulating material used, and in similar ways.
The common insulating materials are mineral
wool and asbestos.

Fireless cookers which will give satisfactory
results can be easily made at home, by using a
box or chest of such size that the cooking pot can
be surrounded with a layer about 6 inches thick
of nonconducting material, such as hay, excelsior,
or crumpled paper. A cushion of suitable size
is placed over the top of the cooking pot, which
should have straight sides and a tight-fitting
cover, and the box closed with a tight-fitting lid.
In such fireless cookers there is no source of
heat excepting that derived from the preliminary
cooking on the stove and retained in the hot
material in the cooking pail.

Some of the commercial cookers have an
extra source of heat, i.e., soapetone or iron
plates which can be heated on the stove during
the preliminary cooking and placed in the cooker
under or over the cooking pot or both. This pre-

supposes an insulating material and construction
which cannot be set on fire by the hot plates.
Advantages claimed for the nreless cooker are
economy of fuel, convenience, and economy of
time. For instance, a housewife while getting
breakfast can start the cookery of many of the
dishes (meats, vegetables, etc.) needed for din-
ner or supper, place them hot in the fireless
cooker, close it, and leave them without further
attention. At dinner or supper time the foods
can be warmed again if they have cooled below a
temperature at which it is desired to serve them.
See COOKEBY.

Bibliography. M. J. Mitchell, The Fireless
Gook Book (New York, 1909) ; Lovewell, Whitte-
more, and Lyon, The Fireless Cooker (Topeka,
1908) ; E. H. Huntington, "Fireless Cooker,"
University of Wisconsin, Bulletin 217 (Madison,
1908); Cornell Reading Course for Farmers9
Wives, No. 28 (Ithaca, 1907) ; Davis and Wood,
"Illustrated Lecture on the Homemade Fireless
Cooker," United States Department of Agricul-
ture, Syllabus 15 (Washington, 1914).

FIRELESS ENGINE. A form of steam or
vapor engine which is detached from the heating
apparatus, and which carries no fuel in process
of combustion to generate heat. Dr. Emile
Lamm, of New Orleans, invented, July 19, 1870,
an engine in which the motive power was derived
from the vapor of ammonia. The ammonia, as it
escaped from the engine, was passed into a reser-
voir of water, in which it was absorbed; the
water when heated to a temperature of about
135° F. gave up the ammonia as gas, which was
returned to the engine to be used over again,
and then again absorbed and returned as before.
This engine was found efficient and economical
for the movement of street cars. The use of
ammonia was soon abandoned, steam taking its
place. Water heated to 212° F. becomes vapor
if the pressure upon it be no more than the usual
atmospheric 15 pounds per square inch. If the
pressure be greater, the water remains liquid
until a higher temperature is reached, the tem-
perature varying with the pressure according to
well-known laws. If steam at a high pressure
be admitted to water of low temperature and
pressure in a closed vessel, the steam will be
condensed in the water, but the pressure in the
vessel will bo increased, while the volume of the
water will be enlarged by the volume of that
derived from the condensed steam. The water
thus becomes charged with steam condensed un-
der high pressure, and when the pressure is re-
lieved, a portion of the steam reverts to Its con-
dition of vapor and may be conducted in the
usual way to a cylinder and piston, where it will
do its customary work. The opening of the
valves gives vent to the vapor, gradually reduces
the pressure, and relieves the condensed steam;
so that a tank, filled with water and stored with
many times its volume of uncondcnsed steam,
will furnish motive power sufficient to move the
engine and a considerable train of cars for a
trip of several miles. On its return th<j tank
is connected with a stationary boiler from which
it receives a fresh supply of steam. It will not
be forgotten that the real force of the steam is
due to the heat which it contains, and that if
the heat be lost, by radiation or otherwise, from
the tank containing the condensed steam, its
potential energy is so much reduced. In the en*
sine used at New Orleans the mechanism was
that of an ordinary locomotive minus its fire box,
having a water tank instead of a boiler; the

FIRELOCK

appliances for stopping, starting, and backing
were as usual. The tank was about 6 feet long
and 3 feet in diameter, covered thickly with felt
and wood to retain its heat. Steam was taken
until the gauge indicated 135 to 150 pounds,
the temperature for 135 pounds being 353°.
With this accumulation of power the machine
ran 5 to 7 miles before the pressure was reduced
to 60 pounds. The labor and care of firing are
avoided on one of these engines, and they offer
no danger from sparks from a chimney stack
or hot ashes and coal from an ash pit of a
furnace. They have been made unnecessary by
the coming in of the compressed-air locomotive
and the various systems of electric traction.
They were never economical.

FIRELOCK. A firearm introduced about
1690, the charge of which was ignited by the
concussion of flint and steel. The matchlock
previously in use required a lighted match at
the powder pan. See SMALL ABMS.

FrREIT'ZE. See FLOBENCE.

FIRElirZE, ANDREA DA. See CICCIONE.

FIRE1TCZTJOLA, fe'rGn-zwola, AGNOLQ, or AN-
GIOLO, GIOVANNINI ( 1493-C.1546) . An Italian
writer, remembered chiefly for the idiomatic
elegance of his language and for his spirited
translation of The Qolden Ass of Apuloius. He
was born at Florence, studied law at Siena and
Perugia, and in spite of a gay life, to which ho
was ever faithful, he finally joined the Brother-
hood of Vallombrosa. .He rose to considerable
influence in Homo, whore ho had gone to practice
law, and Clement VTI, who freed him from his
monastic vows, assured him sufficient income to
admit his exclusive devotion to literature in
Florence. Fironzuola's works include two come-
dies, a dialogue, Dclle beUcszc, dcllo donnc, a
eulogy upon the charms of women; Discorsi dccfli
animali, the basis of which waa probably a Span-
ish descendant of the Sanskrit book of fables
known as the PanPatanlra (q.v.) ; and the Itagio-
nawewtii a collection of novcllo written in imita-
tion of the DccatHfiron. For biography, consult:
Bianehi'H edition of Fircnzuola's works (Florence,
1848) ; that of Guorrini, Novcllc di Wircnsuola
(ib., 1880) ; M. Kosai, L'Asino eForo di Agnolo
Fircnsuola (Citta di Castello, 1901).

FIRE OPAL. Sec OPAL.

FIREPLACE. See HEATING AND VENTILA-
TION.

FIBEPBOOF BUILDING-. See FIREPBOOF
CONSTRUCTION.

FIREPKOOF CONSTBTTCTION'. Fireproof
buildings have been defined as those constructed
with walls of brick, atone, terra cotta, concrete,
iron, or steel, in which wood beams or lintels
arc not placed, and in which the floors and roofs
are constructed as below outlined. According
to the most approved codes the stairs and
staircase landings must bo built entirely of
brick, stone, Portland cement, concrete, iron,
or steel. No woodwork or other inflammable
material shall bo used in any of the par-
titions, furrings, or ceilings in any fireproof
buildings, excepting, however, that when the
height of the building docs not exceed 12 stories,
or more than 150 feet, the doors and windows
and their frames, the trims, the casings, the in-
terior finish when filled solid at the back with
fireproof material, and the floor boards and
sleepers directly thereunder may be of wood, but
the space between the sleepers shall be. solidly
filled with fireproof materials and extend up to
the underside of t\»e floor boards. When the
VOL, VI IK— 3D

P3 FIREPROOF COKSTRTTCTIOtf .

height of a fireproof building exceeds 12 stories,
or is more than 150 feet, the floor surfaces shall
be of stone, cement, rock, asphalt, tiling, or
similar incombustible material, or the sleepers
and floors may be of wood treated by some
approved process to render the same fireproof.
All outside window frames and sash shall be
of metal or of wood covered with metal. The
inside window frames and sash, doors, trim,
and other interior finish may he of wood covered
with metal, or of wood treated by some approved
process to render the same fireproof. All hall
partitions or permanent partitions between
rooms in fireproof buildings shall be built of
fireproof material and shall not be started on
wooden sills or on wooden floor boards, but be
built on the fireproof construction of the floor
and extend to the fireproof beam filling above.
The tops of all doors and window openings in
such partitions shall be at least 12 inches below
the ceiling lino.

Fireproof floors shall be constructed with steel
floor beams so arranged as to spacing and length
of beams that the load to be supported by them,
together with the weights of the materials used
in the construction of the said floors, shall not
cause a greater deflection of the said beams than
A- of an inch per foot of span under the total
load, and they shall be tied together at intervals of
not more than eight times the depth of the beam.
Between the beams shall be placed brick arches
springing from the lower flange; or hollow tile
arches of hard-burnt clay or porous terra cotta
of uniform density and hardness of burn; or
arches of Portland cement concrete, segmental in
forrn^ which shall have a rise of not less than
1% inches for each foot of span between the
beams; or between the said beams may be placed
solid or hollow burnt-clay, stone, brick, or con-
crete slabs in flat or curved shapes, concrete, or
other fireproof composition, and any of said ma-
terials may bo used in combination with wire
cloth, expanded metnl, wire strands, or wrought-
iron or steel bars; but in any such construction,
and as a precedent condition to the same being
utuKl, tests shall be made.

No filling of any kind which may be injured
by frost shall be placed between the floor beams
during freezing weather; and if the filling is so
placed during any winter month, it shall be
temporarily covered with suitable material for
protection from being frozen. On top of any
arch, lintel, or other device which does not ex-
tend to and from a horizontal line with the top
of the floor beams, cinder concrete or other suit-
able fireproof material shall be placed to fill up
solidly tie space to a level with the top of the
floor beams and shall be carried to the underside
of the wood floor boards in case, such be tisod.
All fireproof floor systems shall bo of sufliciont
strength to safely carry the load to bo imposed
thereon without straining the material in any
cane beyond its safe* working strength. The bot-
tom flanges of all floor beams and Hat roof beams,
and all exposed portions of tuich beams below
the abutments of the floor arches, shall be en-
tirely incased with hard-burnt clay, porous terra
cotta, or other fireproof material allowed to be
used for the filling between the beams, to which
such incasing material shall be properly secured.
Hie exposed sides and bottom plates or flanges
of girders supporting floor beams, or supporting
floor arches or floors, shall be entirely incased in
the same manner. After the floors are con-
structed no opening greater than 8 inches square

CONSTRUCTION

594

PIUBPBOOF CONSTRUCTION

shall be cut through said floors unless propeily ing, or used to support any fireproof Ihioi, shall
boxed or framed around with iron. And such be protected with not less than two inches of
openings shall be filled in with fireproof material fireproof material, securely applied. The ex-

FlG. 1. FLAT VLOOB ABCH (BEDS-METHOD CONSTRUCTION).

FlO. 2. PLAT FLOOR AXtCH (OMP-MVTKOD CONBTB0CTION) .

after the pipes or conduits are in place. All treme outer edge of lugs, bracket**, and similar
culnmnH, including tho lugs and brackets on supporting metal may project to within % of
aanio, used in tin* interior of any fireproof build- an inch of the surfou-i of the flreprooftng.

FIREPROOF CONSTBXTCTICHff g<

Materials. The systematic study of fireproof
or fire-resisting construction used in such build-
ing as above described is a development of com-
paratively recent years. Various materials have

3 OTBEPBOOF COWSTBtTCTIOtt

torra-cotta lloors and roofs, built in the form
of vaults sprung from brick piers, so that no
metal work would be needed for structural pur-
Such a building, if properly designed

FlQ. 3. FLAT FLOOR AHCH (COMBINATION-METHOD CONSTRUCTION) .

been employed from time to time for the purpose and built, would withstand the combined action

of making buildings fireproof. Oast and wrought of all of tho elements for centuries, but it would

iron, steel, stone, terra cotta, plaster, mortar, naturally require thick walls and heavy piers,

and concrete are the materials in most general Practical considerations, however, call for the

Msrtfwood Upper ftoor-^ ^^

Wr &thefinp*r place for Me ffe/vd, butte&t/te ftpro/tcte
befow the cei/ing and ft dJrYtcuft to fireproof, ft te gene/vf/y
p faced where shown abo*ef the thrust being Men ttp Ay
for/tfng tfo ffe rod Jrt yft end spsw,#$ xfrow *6ore>

FIG. 4. SBQMBNTAL ARCS.

use. Experience has shown, however, that tho utmost economy in spaco, and for this reason

only practicable way to build a really fireproof columns and owior vortical supports must bo as

building is to UHC nothing but incombustible small and as far apart as possible, and floors

materials for its structural parts, and to protect mu*t be thin and have level ceilings; these can

FIG. 5,

any of those materials which are injuriously
affected by heat, such as iron and steel, by some
nn\ water, and heat-resisting material. An ideal
fireproof building would be one constructed en-
tirely of bricks and terra cotta, with brick or

be obtained only by using metal for the struc-
, tural parts, protecting it from direct exposure to
fire or heat by some fire-Twisting material*
While design ana construction arc important ele-
ments in making a building fireproof, yet, so far

FIBEPBOOF CONSTRUCTION

596

FIBEPBOOF COHSTB-UCTIOBT

as the structure of a modern steel-frame fire-
proof building is concerned, it may be desirable
to consider it apart from the present article and
under the head of STEEL SKELETON CONSTRUCTION
(q.v.), in which the engineering and other struc-
tural problems involved in the design of a
modern skyscraper or other city building are
discussed, leaving for the present article the
form and the method of the protection which

FlG. 6. BOOF CONSTRUCTION.

must be applied to the main structure. Of all
fire-resisting materials probably burnt cluy ha*
the widest application in fireproof building, for it
is an excellent nonconductor, and having once
passed through the ordeal of fire it is practically
indestructible. For the construction of floors
and partitions and for the protection of columns
and girders, the clay is molded into hollow blocks
or tiles of suitable shapes.

Three kinds of terra cotta arc used for making
blocks — porous, semiporous or senriglazcd, and
dense or glazed. Each has its own particular
field of usefulness.

Porous terra cotta is made by mixing about
one-third, in bulk, of finely cut straw or saw-
dust with fine clay, which, after being tempered
and molded, is burnt under a high heat, causing

the combustion of the straw or sawdust and
leaving the material in a porous state like
pumice stone. It will not crack or break from
unequal heating or sudden cooling, it can be
cut easily and is soft enough to allow the driv-
ing in of nails or screws for securing the interior
trim, and it is elastic, tough, and light and non-
heat-conducting in itself, so that it can be made
in solid as well as in hollow blocks. Because of
these properties it is generally used for interior
partitions, for column and girder protection, and
for furrings generally; but it is not used in the
construction of outside walls or where excessive
dampness occurs because it is absorbent, nor is
it suitable for floor construction on account of
its lack of strength.

In the manufacture of semiporous or seini-
glazcd terra cotta, a smaller percentage of saw-
dust is used, or finely screened boiler cinders are
substituted instead. The result is a material
slightly more porous than the best grade of
brick, but still not so soft as the ordinary
porous terra cotta. Semiporous terra cotta is
used largely for floor construction, for column
and girder protection, and for the building of
outside walls.

Dense or glazed terra cotta is made generally
of some natural fire cluy without the addition
of any combustible material. The only ingredi-
ents added arc low grades of clay, crushed brieks,
or terra cotta, or sand, to prevent excessive
shrinkage. Dense terra cotta cannot be cut with-
out breaking; it is brittle and liable to failure
under sudden shocks. In places whore suddenly
applied loads are expected, porous material
should be used, but under static loads dense
terra cotta, is better than porous, being stronger;
and because it is also cheaper it is very generally
used for floor construction. On account of its
nonabsorbont qualities it is largely employed for
building exterior walls, the blocks being grooved
or scored to provide a key for the stucco, as
there is not sufficient suction to hold the wtuceo
on the smooth glazed surface. Dense tiles, be-
cause of their brittle nature, require wooden
grounds and nailing strips, which detract from
their fireproof qualities, so they are not used
for interior partitions, furrings, or column
protections.

Floor Aretes. Hollow tile floors may be Imilt
of flat arches (Fig. 1) or of sef«mental arches
(Fig. 4), Flat hollow tile arches are made of
two "skews," or "skewbacks," resting against the
web of the beams and fitting around the lower
flanges, one "key," or "centre block/* and
"fillers," "part fillers," or "intermediates," as
they are variously designated, auffic.ient in num-
ber to fill the Hpacea between the Hkewhaekn and
the. key. A safe rule for finding the proper
depth of the arch in inches is to multiply the
span in feet by 1 % inches and add the tliicknetw
of the. protection below the beams. Th<* block*
arc divided into hollow spac<»s by interior \\vbs
or partitions from 3 to 4 inches apart, the num-
ber depending upon the size of the block. Th«
lower flanges of the beams carrying the floor*
should be covered with at least 1 H» inches of fin*-
proofing. To accomplish this, the skews are
made cither with a bevel on the bottom to re-
ceive a protection tile for the beam ( as shown at
X, Fig. 8), or with tho protection burnt upon
the skew itflelf (as shown at V). Th« former
is more generally used because it is easier to
make, in manufacturing the skew with the
beam protection burnt on the block, it 59 difficult

FIREPROOF CONSTRUCTION

597

FIREPROOF CONSTRUCTION

to keep the flanges straight; during drying and
burning they frequently become so warped as to
break off when placed on the beam, and in
addition the projection is liable to be broken
off in careless handling.

There are three general types of flat arched
floors used in modern fireproof buildings. The
first and oldest is known as the " side-method
construction," in which the tiles are set side
by side between the beams (as shown in Fig. 1).
In the second type, known as the "end-method
construction," the blocks run at right angles
to the beams abutting end to end (as shown in
Fig. 2). The third type is a combination of the
first and second, the skewback and tho key being
made as in the side method, and the fillers abut-
ting end to end between them, as in the end

limited to the buildings above mentioned. Seg-
mental arches are always made after the side-
method construction.

Girder Protection. Girders projecting below
the ceiling line are especially exposed to the
effects of fire and water as intense heat is
brought to bear on the corners of the protection
and the streams from the fire hose tend to tear
it off, so that they should be provided with not
less than 2 inches of terra cotta. In general it
may be said that the protection in which sta-
bility depends upon the use of metal clamps or
anchors (as shown in X, Fig. 5) is not so effi-
cient as that in which the solfit protection holds
its position independently of them (as in 7).

Roof Arches. Nearly all fireproof buildings
have flat roofs, pitched just enough to cause

HotfowTfteWa//-
tf?e projecf/ng
dovetaf/s are
scored for
stucco
piaster

Reinforced Ho fhw

Cement

ftefnforced wffh
fibc/s and Mete/ Fsrbric

FlQ. 7. WALL CONBTOTOVXOtf.

method (as shown in Fig* 3). So far as abso-
lute strength is concerned, tho end method is
about 50 per cent stronger than the side method.
The objections to tho end-method arch are, it ia
wasteful of mortar and it IB difficult to bed prop-
erly the edges of the blocks. Also, as there is
no bond between the rows of blocks, if a single
block in a row becomes broken or is knocked
out of plaee, the entire row may fall, and for the
same reason a single block cannot be omitted for
making a temporary hole an may be done in tho
aide-method arch. Notwithstanding these ob-
jections the end-method arch, being just as cheap
and much stronger for tho same weight, has
largely superseded the side-method arch.

Where a flat ceiling is not essential, and for
warehouses, factories, and buildings of a similar
character, the segmcntal arch (shown in Fig. 4)
makes the strongest, cheapest, and best fireproof
floor that can be built of hollow terra cotta;
but on account of the arched ceiling resulting
from its employment, its use has generally been

water to run to the lowest point, an it is easier
to make a flat roof thoroughly fireproof than a
pitched roof. Tho utmal and alw> the best
method of constructing flat roofs in to lay tho
beams with the required pitch and then *lwild
the roof in the same way as the floor. Whore the
ceiling is suspended (as shown in Fig. 0), Beg-
racjital arches may be used. Pitched roofo arc
generally covered with 2 or 3 inch porous terra-
cotta tilert (shown at .V in Fig. 6), called book
tiles, because the joints resemble the backn and
edges of a book. They are set on the flanges of
light T-irons spaced the proper distance on
centres.

Walls and Partitions* Since about 1908 hol-
low tile blocks have betkn largely uaud for bxiild-
ing the outside walls of dwellings and of other
buildings of moderate height. Tho wall blocks
are made of semiporoua or dense material,
8, 10, and 12 inches thick and 12 inches high, and
are fleered on all sides to provide a key for the
plaster (as shown in Fig. 7), They are always

FIBEPBOOF CONSTRUCTION 5g8

set with the voids or cells running vertically
and with the joints hroken in each course.
Special blocks are made for corners and also
for sills, joints, and lintels. A special form of
floor construction used in connection with these
walls is also shown in Fig. 7. Interior parti-
tions are built of brick-shaped hollow blocks (as
shown in F, Fig. 6), a 4-inch thick block being
used in most cases.

Column Covering. The most common, form
of column protection consists of a layer of 2 or

J\fo.l6Sheef/ron^ I* Mortar^. Plaster^

Y^i

Wood State* \ror? Bands'

FlQ. 8. COLUMN PBOTECTION.

3 inch hollow partition blocks (shown in Fig. 8),
laid against a solid backing of concrete or tiles,
where the blocks do not bear against the column.
Consideration of appearance, or the amount of
floor space to be occupied, is frequently allowed
to influence unduly the shape or size of the fire-
proofing material for columns to the detriment
of the protection and often leads to the use of
very thin solid slabs, which should not be per-
mitted. The Chicago Building Ordinance iH very
explicit in its requirements for the protection of
columns and is a good guide to follow in all

Q;QZ3

LvSXS.VVvN^ ' v^.A-A^.>>\X\XVWv\xX>

,~.*^£«. • fi • ' *^fe.' ; 'jJU^vSi

' ^* • •» '-' •^Wlii'AVxW"

FlG. 9. COLTIMN PBOTHOT1ON.

cases. It is: "The covering of columns shall be
of brick not less than 8 inches thick, or of two
consecutive layers of hollow tiles [Fig. 9],
not less than 2% inches thick, or of two
layers of porous terra ootta not less than 2
thick each. Whether hollow tile or po-

rous terra cotta is used, the two consecutive
layers shall be so applied that neither the ver-
tical nor the horizontal joints in the same shall
be opposite each other, and each course shall be
so bonded and anchored within itself as to form
an independent and stable structure. In places
where there is trucking, or wheeling, or other
handling of packages, the lower 5 feet of the fire-
proofing shall be incased in a protective covering
of sheet iron 1 inch away from it, with the
space filled in with mortar [X, Fig. 8], or of
oak slats [T], or of angle irons set at the
corners and tied together with iron bands."

Other Fireproof Materials. Next to terra
cotta, concrete and plaster are the most com-
monly used materials for fireproofing. Concrete
floor arches are shown in Figs. 10 and 11. For

FIG. 10. REINFORCED CONCRETE ARCH.

further description of these systems, see section
on Reenforced Concrete in article COXCBETB. Par-
titions are frequently built of reenforced con-
crete, and so are column coverings. Reenforced
concrete is naturally a fire-resisting material,
and reenforced-concrete structures are easen-

FXGL 11. BXPAjfiDSl) METAL CONCRETE ARCH.

tially fireproof and safe if their construction is
attended with proper precautions, and especially
if proper materials are selected for the concrete*
itself, so that it can resist the high temperatures
•which may be experienced. To secure the best
results with reenforced concrete from the stand-
point of fire protection, it is, of course, necessary
to make sure that the areas of the concrete
floor arches are restricted, the bearing columns
and reinforcement are adequate, and the design
is such as to provide against failure in case any
individual portion of the structure becomes un-
duly heated. Plaster, in the form of blocks, is
also used for building interior partitions. For
further description, see article on PLASTER; also
that on FIRE PROTECTION, MUNICIPAL.

Bibliography. Consult volumes of the various
engineering papers for the last 10 years. Among
the books which may be consulted are: FrtkSta&
Fire Prevention and Protection (New York,
1912) ; Birkmire, The Planning and Gon&trttGtto*
of High Office Buildings (ib.f 1808); Kidder,
Building Conttti-uction, part i, "MasomT Work"
(ib., 180C) ; Fuller, Fireproof Hull ding
tion (ib., 1904) ; Moore, Fire ln$ur<inw and
to Build (ib., ]903) ; Ividder, Building
tion and. 8uprrintcndcnMs (9th «L, ib.,
id., Architects' and Builder? Pocket Book (ib.,
1914), See ARCHITECTURE; CotfCBBTB: FOUNDA-
TION; FIRE PROTECTION, MUNICIPAL; STBBX,
SKELETON CONSTRUCTION.

FIREPBOOFENTGK The coating or impreg-
nation of combustible materials, such a* textile
fabrics and wood, with chemical preparations so
as to prevent their burning either partially or
entirely. Such , substances for the most part act

FIHEPHOOF SAFES

599

FIRE PROTECTION

by coating the material with a crust of mineral
matter on the surface of the fibres that serves
to prevent the combustion, but does not interfere
with decomposition. Cotton and linen may be
steeped in certain saline solutions such as alum,
ammonium chloride, ammonium phosphate, bo-
rax, zinc sulphate, and sodium tungstate, in
order to render them uninflammable. Prepara-
tions of these salts in various combinations and
proportions find extensive use in the treatment
of canvas used for scenery in theatres, and in
many places it is required by law that the
drop curtain at least shall be fireproof. Papers
that are both fireproof and waterproof may be
made from a pulp consisting of vegetable fibre
to which asbestos and salts, such as alum and
borax, in suitable proportions, have been added.
The Perkin Non-Flam Process, an English proc-
ess of fi reproofing cotton fabrics, consists in im-
pregnating the material with a solution of so-
dium stannate of 1.22 sp. gr., drying thoroughly,
and further treating with an 'ammonium sul-
phate solution of about 1.75 sp. gr. Stannic
oxide is precipitated in the fabric. Sodium
sulphate is also formed, and is removed by
wanning. The material is then ready for drying
and finishing. It is claimed that the fi rep roofing
is so permanent that the fabric can be washed
repeatedly.

For the impregnating of timber to make it fire-
resistant and uninflammable, numerous processes
have been propowed. As deliquescent salts can-
not be used, and certain compounds like sodium
silicate cannot be made to penetrate the wood
satisfactorily, treatment of the timber in practice
has been limited to ammonium Halts such as sul-
phate and phosphate, and aluminium and ferric
sulphates.

Fairly good fire-resiatant results are at times
obtained by means of so-culled fireproof paints.
Theso include paints in which sodium silicate and
sine chloride have been incorporated. Dense
coatings of whitewash have considerable fire-
resistant value and with the addition of sili-
cate of soda are often used. Sec FIBKPJBOOF COJST-

JSTBtJOTION1.

ITREPROOF SAFES. See SAFES AND SAFE
DEPOSIT VAULTS.

FIBE PBOTECTION, MUNICIPAL. The pro-
tection of a community against sudden outbreaks
of fire and the restriction of such fires to the
narrowest possible limits in a function that
usually by common consent is assumed by the
local government, though it may be supplanted
by private organizations where such are espe-
cially required. To deal with the emergencies in-
volved in an outbreak of fire sudden and rapid
efforts are required, and there is involved a cer-
tain amount of organization and equipment, as
well as disciplined, men. Such discipline must
be practically military, since where a fire de-
partment IB called to act there must be no
confusion or hesitation, as no other work re-
quires greater promptness, both in reaching the
scene of action and in taking the necessary
measures to check the outbreak.

In most municipalities the fire-protection serv-
ice— or fire department, as it is usually termed
— includes the fire alarm and telegraph, the fire
engines and other apparatus, and men organized
and trained to a degree rarely, if ever, found in
other department* of municipal service. The
water works, which naturally are an integral
feature of any scheme of fire protection, more
usually arc under separate organization.

WATBB WOBKS.) In European cities the fire
department may be directly under military or-
ganization, or it may be composed of soldiers
and sailors who have seen military service and
are under the control of retired officers, thus
maintaining all the characteristics of an active
military organization.

In the United States the fire departments are
exclusively civil and local and are marked by
varying degrees of efficiency and discipline, but
in practically all there are traditions of loyalty
and personal heroism which not only act for
the good of the department and general effective-
ness, but render it the pride of the citizens of
the municipality. In fact such service is con-
sidered highly honorable and carries with it the
same immunities as militia duty.

The problem in an American or Canadian city
is quite different from that in Europe, where the
buildings are usually of stone and where build-
ing regulation, both for sound construction and
maintenance, has been in force for many years.
In the United States and Canada, where the
growth of cities haa been rapid and wood has
been the usual material on account of its chcap-
IIOHS and availability, large cities of inflammable
character have grown up, and various practices,
due to carelessness and lack of foresight, have
prevailed which entail an enormous annual fire
loss.

While the true function of a fire department
is to prevent fires and confine them to as narrow
an area us possible, in America the fire depart-
ment has been called upon to deal not only with
occasional anil wporadic outbreaks, but with large
conflagrations, and the public at large has been
apt to consider a fire department's efficiency as
consinting in its ability to handle a large con-
flagration rather than it» ability to restrict
a fire to its point of origin and prevent fires
by adequate inspection 'and suitable rules and
regulations in cooperation with building and
other departments. Vast Biuna annually are ap-
propriated for fire protection, and in many cases
they are not even commensurate with the hazards
which exiwt in the various citien. Of recent
years the problem of lire prevention has been
brought before the general public by insurance
authorities and municipal officials, so that its
importance is realized as never previously, and
eilicient inspection and suitable regulations are
no longer considered infringements of individual
rights, but as necessary to the safety and wel-
fare of the community. Accordingly the safety
requiromentH of building departments are being
increawed, and often the intervals between fire*
are being utilized by having uniformed mem-
bers of the fire department inspect various
buildings with an idea to detecting violations
of rulott and regulations and improper condi-
tions, as well as becoming acquainted with the
character of the buildings in the districts where
thev serve.

While it cannot be said that satisfactory
methods and organization for fire prevention
universally have been adopted in the United
States and Canada, yet there has been great im-
provement, and various laws and regulations in
addition, to the requirements of insurance com-
panies are bringing about better conditions. In
many States, a* a result of recent legislation,
tlierc art* State fire marshals who supplement
efforts of local officials when they are lax or when
ftuch supervision is absent altogether, and their
powers vary in kind and degree. Method* of fire

FIRE PROTECTION

600

FIRE PROTECTION

prevention involve not only tlie protection of
property, but the increased safety of life, espe-
cially in public buildings and institutions, and
where throngs of people are congregated for pur-
poses of business or amusement; thus, the detail-
ing of firemen to theatres and other auditoriums
and the supervision of fire drills are usual
practices in large cities.

The fire department may be considered under
the heads of personnel and mat&riel. In all cities
there should be an organized and uniformed force,
which may be, in the case of tHe smaller places,
a skeleton organization reinforced on an alarm
by call men, but for all large cities a full and
permanent organization should be constantly on
duty. In towns and villages it may be possible
to get along with a so-called volunteer depart-
ment; but even here, under modern conditions
and with motor apparatus, it is the growing
tendency to have at least a few trained men
instantly available for answering an alarm and
seeing that the apparatus is started immediately
for the outbreak. In most American cities ad-
mission to the fire department comes through
civil-service examinations, where the physical
qualifications as well as the general intelligence
of the candidate are tested by strict examina-
tions. The candidate accepted becomes a proba-
tioner, being attached to a fire company for
ordinary service with it and in addition attend-
ing special probation classes, where he is put
through a course of instruction in the use of
life-saving appliances, ladders, hooks and axes,
hose, -and the various tools forming the equip-
ment of the fire company. Here he is trained
effectively to take his place in the ranks and, at
the end of the probationary period, may receive
a regular appointment.

The tendency towards formal and practical
instruction is growing in American fire depart-
ments, and the city of New York maintains a
fire college, where not only probationers, but
firemen of all ranks, receive practical and theo-
retical instruction on which examination must be
passed as a condition of reaching a higher grade.
This recent feature, though not so completely or-
ganized, has been followed in several of the more
progressive fire departments in the United States,
while many fire officials of high rank have gone
to New York to benefit from such instruction.

The ordinary organization of a fire department
consists of a chief, assisted by one or more
deputies, or assistants, and sometimes by chief
engineers who pay particular attention to the
apparatus and equipment. If the size of the city
warrants, it is divided into divisions, each under
a deputy chief, and into battalions, each under
a battalion chief. A battalion is made up of a
number of companies, including fire engines and
hose companies, hook and ladder companies,
chemical engines, water towers, searchlight and
special companies, as may be required, while the
insurance interests may maintain patrol or sal-
vage corps, which also respond to alarms. A
company usually includes fire engine and hose
tender, with a crew of from 6 to 12 men, a
majority of whom are constantly on duty, or a
hook and ladder truck with the same complement,
other units, or companies, being manned accord-
ing to their needs. In charge of each company
is usually a captain, or foreman, with one or
pore assistant foremen, or lieutenants, the des-
ignation being different in the case of the vari-
ous departments. There is usually a grade of
engineer, possibly that of chauffeur, or automobile

driver, and one, two, or three grades of firemen.
The firemen are responsible for the care and
maintenance of the apparatus, as well as its serv-
ice, and with the growing use of more compli-
cated apparatus their work is becoming more
serious and responsible as well as requiring an
unusual degree of intelligence. The use of motor
apparatus involves technical training, as this ap-
paratus is both expensive and delicate and must
receive the best of care, especially under the
severe conditions of service required in a fire
department. The fireman usually serves a cer-
tain number of years, when he is retired on a
pension; and the best fire departments in the
United States are those where the organization
and discipline are the least subject to political
interference.

The permanent force may be under the head
of a commissioner, director, or superintendent,
appointed or elected, who may devote his entire
attention to a fire department, or in connection
with other departments, usually of public safety.
lie is rarely expected to have a professional
knowledge of fire fighting or fire problems.

A trained fireman must know what to do at
once when he reaches the scene of the fire, and
often such a man with a few simple appliances
is able to stop what might prove a disastrous
blaze. It is for this reason that emphasis is laid
on the rapid transportation of men and ap-
paratus to the outbreak on an alarm, and for
this reason various appliances to facilitate the
starting of the apparatus, to give increased speed
of travel on road or pavement, and secure readi-
ness of use and application at the fire, have
received and still receive considerable attention
from the bettor organized fire departments.
Opinions of experts vary as to the necessity
for responding to every alarm with a complete
and adequate equipment. In some American
cities, especially on a telephone alarm, a single
fireman is sent immediately • with a portable
extinguisher on a motor cycle, aq with such •equip-
ment he is often able to deal with a blazing
curtain, chimney fire, or other small outbreak,
while for a more serious occasion he may turn
in an alarm for the necessary number of com-
panies. In other cases high-speed motor cars
carrying several extinguishers or chemical hose
and tanks answer immediately, and in certain
cities scout companies, or flying squadrons, arc
sent in advance of the engine companies to an-
ticipate more serious trouble. In some larger
cities, such as Now York, however, each regular
alarm brings sufficient companies to deal with
any ordinary serious lire on the premise; and
while in the majority of cases their services are
not needed, yet they are available, and Now York
fire-department otbcials arc adverse to taking
Any chances.

The equipment of a fire department, especially
in a country with conditions such as exist in
the United States and Canada, is second only to
an adequate and efficient personnel. The first
element to be considered is the water supply
and its availability, as this, naturally, is the
most important consideration, both as regards
quantity and pressure, which must be sufficient,
not only for normal occasions, hut for the con-
flagration which in most American cities IB no
impossible contingency. With hydrants located
in sufficient proximity to any possible point of
fire and with an adequate water pressure, and
supply, the question is in large part solved, and
there is no need of elaborate fire engines or

FIRE PROTECTION

''-' ' '

^^••••^••-•wmwm

',''''' t -#u**i, ' I I j I I •* * * --^--'•^^•'^^-^ -41-f.iU™^— -L.

1. HORSE-DRAWN WATER TOWER

2. WATER TOWER WITH COUPLE-GEAR TRACTOR

4 NFW VnRK PIBP nPO4RTMPMT ETIDB UnA-P

FIRE PROTECTION

.'.j.s; i
js. PRESSU^ f ^

*r ^

HIGH-PRESSURE HOSE COMPANIES

1. HORSE-DRAWN HOSE TENDER, NEW YORK FIRE DEPARTMENT
2. TYPICAL MOTOR TENDER FOR CARRYING HEAVY HIGH-PRESSURE HOSE AND APPLIANCES

FERE PROTECTION"

601

FIRE PROTECTION"

other portable pumping apparatus, as their func-
tion is simply to insure the delivery of adequate
water at a desired point. Accordingly many
cities are laid out with this end in view, having
water mains and plumbing fixtures designed and
constructed so as to withstand the high pressures.
In other cases independent high-pressure fire
mains are laid, which are maintained constantly
under a pressure, or such a pressure may be put
on the system by pumps at a central station which
can be started immediately on receipt of an alarm
of fire. This tendency towards high pressures is
shown both in rural communities and in the
larger cities, many of the latter maintaining in-
dependent high-pressure water systems for fire
purposes exclusively, especially with lake or salt
water from the water front available as an un-
limited supply. The first notable installation of
this kind was in Philadelphia, where in 1904 there
was installed a system into which water could
be pumped from the Schuylkill River. The
pumps of this system are gas-driven, using the
ordinary illuminating gas from the city mains,
and the system was so effective that it was sub-
sequently extended and increased. In New York
City there was installed in 1908 a high-pressure
service where fresh water from the ordinary serv-
ice can be pumped through an independent sys-
tem of pressure mains from central pumping
stations in which are located electrically driven
centrifugal pumps that can be started instantly
on receipt of an alarm. In. emergency or failure
salt water from the river front can bo pumped
through the system instead of the fresh water
of the city supply. This system lias proved
most useful and gradually is being extended to
cover the entire business portion of the city. In
Baltimore, also, a high-pressure system was
installed in 1912 which was unique in that the
hydrants were not of the customary form located
at tho curb, but were placed in manliolew, and
required a, special portable head which the firemen
carried in tho hone tender and which irwst bo
fitted to the outlets before the hose could be
attached and the regulating mechanism and
valves used. In Ran Francisco, as a result of the
groat lire of 1007, a reconstruction of the water
works was deemed necessary, and not only were
gravity reservoirs maintained to supply pressiire,
but a large pumping station with oil-burning
stoam engines was erected, by means of which
salt water from tho bay could be forced through
the mains under pressure. Other cities, espe-
cially on the Great Lakes, have utilised such
systems, and often where there arc no stations,
or as supplemental to independent pumping sta-
tions, the powerful pumps of a firo boat can be
connected.

Logically the high-pressure service is the solu-
tion of the water and pumping question in firo
protection, as greater pntssures can be delivered
from tho hydrants than from portable firo
engines, and also a greater supply of water can
be concentrated on .any single district than any
reasonable number of fire engines could pump.
Accordingly, with the growth of such a system,
thw portable, fire engine jmist be eliminated in tho
more closely settled cities, and such fire engines
as arc employed be deigned to deal immediately
with an incipient outbreak, Furthermore, the
high-pressure system is particularly available
where there are tall buildings, as its pressure
enables a fire to be fought by the use of perraa-
iiont standpipos of neighboring structures or of
the building itself.,

The nature and function of the fire engine in
its different forms of development are considered
elsewhere, but mention should be made of the
equipment of the modem fire engine which motor-
ization has made possible. A fire chief at New-
ton, Mass., in 1003 was the first to use a motor,
and the same year the first motor-drawn chemical
engine was installed at New London, Conn.
Motor-propelled apparatus has now demonstrated
its economy, usefulness, and reliability, and is
being installed in place of horse-drawn machines
practically everywhere. The provision of such
apparatus for the model fire department at the
Panama-Pacific International Exposition of 1915
may be considered as settling any previous doubts
on this subject. A small motor-pumping fire
engine carries usually two 40-gallon chemical
tanks with 200 feet of chemical hose as well
as a supply of fire hose for use with the pumps.
It should carry also axes, hooks, pikes, and
scaling ladders, so that, sent out to answer an
alarm immediately, it should deal effectively
with any small outbreak, as one or two trained
men can often command the situation at once.

Whatever the source of water, whether it be
a high-pressure system, a steam fire engine, or a
motor-pumping engine,, hose of strength and dura-
bility is required in adequate amounts. For the
transporting of this hose a hose tender, formerly
drawn by horses, but now practically univer-
sally with all now equipment self-propelled, is
required. This vehicle may carry the heavy
3-inch hose of great strength required for a high-
pressure service arranged in 50-foot lengths
with heavy bronze coupling between the lengths,
or the smaller hose for fire engines which is
much easier for the firemen to handle if it will
deliver Auiliciicnt water. The hose is made of the
finest grades of Sea Inland cotton, coated with
rubber within and without, and must pass a
rigorous inspection. The pressure to which it
is subjected must bo in excess of any ordinary
use, and usually representatives of tho insur-
ance intoreHts are prewnt at sucli tests, while
the material and method of construction may
bo subject to tho approval of a technical labora-
tory and duly labeled or stamped with the
approval of the inspecting bureau. Considerable
progress hat) boon made recently in the attempt
to secure standard and uniform hose couplings,
so that not only can all the hose of a single
firo department be available for all conditions of
service, but whore a department is reinforced by
apparatus from a neighboring city the hone con-
nections can bo used directly cither with hy-
drants or other hose. A serious difficulty in the
Tina of hose, is tho fact that the pressure diminiwhea
very rapidly through interior friction, and ac-
cordingly when the linos arc laid care should be
taken to have them as direct an possible. The
water is delivered from tho hose through a nozzle
or play pipe, which is of metal, tapering from
iho size of tho hose to that demanded by the
desired size of stream which ranges from 1 inch
to 2% or 3 inches, tho latter being the size of
orifice of a largn play pipe when several linos of
hose are Siamesed together to secure a maximum
volume of water. The nozzle* may have a control
valvo enabling the firemen to shut off the stream,
while there, may be also relief valves on either
tho hydrant or at the fire engine, so that tho
pressure may bo suitably relieved without the
danger of bursting tho hose, or making the
nozzle difficult to handle.

In connection with high-pressure practice a

602

FIKE PROTECTION

suitable regulating valve is required at the
hydrant in order that an individual stream may
he controlled irrespective of the general action
of the pumps or what may be demanded at other
points. Various forms of nozzles are used, such
us for cellar fires, where through a hole chopped
in the floor a stream may be directed in any
desired direction and a large volume of water
delivered. With high-pressure lines a tripod
or other stand is often used, as otherwise it is
difficult for several men to control the nozzle
through which a heavy stream is being delivered.
Monitor or turret nozzles are often arranged on
hose tenders and fire boats, as well as on the
base of a water tower, thus insuring stability
and enabling the stream to be directed properly.

The water tower is a valuable portion of the
equipment of a firo department, especially with
tall buildings, and was developed to deal with
fires in high buildings before the skyscraper
epoch. The water tower is a truck carrying an
elevated nozzle which may be swung from a
horizontal position to the vertical and then ex-
tended to a height of about 65 feet, enabling a
stream to be delivered against or into a building
from without. Several lines of hose can be con-
nected at the base of the water tower, while the
standpipc can be changed in direction at will
or raised or lowered. The water tower has the
further advantage over hose of the smoother in-
terior surface cutting down the friction. Of
course, in building* of 20 or 30 stories in height
the water tower is not available, and such fires
must be fought from within the structure with
the local protection afforded by the pumps and
fire lines of the building. The modern water
tower is now motor-driven by some form of pow-
erful tractor, several of those in the New York
City fire department being fitted with a gas-
electric tractor with power at each of the four
wheels, which is substituted for the front wheels
and horse-draft gear of the older machines.

The hook-and-ladder truck has also been ma-
terially improved within recent years. Like the
water tower, the ae'rial ladder, which could be
extended to a height of 85 foot, furnished a
serious problem for a team of three horses to
draw in winter with snow or ice on the pave-
ment. The horses now have been supplanted by
some form of motor mechanism, either as a
tractor or applied directly to each of the wheels
of the ladder truck. Tn New York City front-
drive tractors have been used for hook-and-ladder
trucks, as well as couple-gear gas electric ma-
chines where the power is delivered to a motor
at each of the four wheels. In other cities
storage batteries have been used with success,
while various other forms of tractors have been
employed, and also automobile engines with a
long shaft working directly on the rear wheels.
Tho ae'rial ladder truck is usually mounted on a
turntable and trunnions over the front wheels
and can be extended either by hand or power,
the various applications differing in different
types. In one form an electric motor is used to
elevate the ladder and send up the fly ladder to
its full height. In another a system of springs
performs this function, while in still another
type gas is generated for this purpose. The
hook-and-ladder truck carries, in addition to the
•main extension ladder, other ladders which can
)x» leaned against the side of the building, pom-
pier or scaling ladders, hooks, pikes, door openers,
roof cutters, axes, life-saving nets, and other
tools used by the firemen. It is steered by a

tiller man as well as by the driver controlling
the motor.

The hose wagon, or tender, varies in design
with the amount of hose to be carried. It is
usually an efficient form of automobile truck
capable of a speed of 40 miles an hour and hold-
ing as much hose as may bo needed. It carries
the necessary nozzles and other tools, usually
mounts a turret nozzle behind the driver's seat,
and two or more chemical extinguishers. The
firemen are transported on the hose tender.

Searchlight companies have been organized in
the New York fire department, where a portable
engine and dynamo supply current for a power-
ful projection apparatus which can illuminate
any desired portion of the scene of operation.

The modern five house is being gradually im-
proved and with the advent of motor apparatus
partakes less of the chaiacter of a stable. It is
considered good economy to install a double com-
pany in a single house, and often a fire-engine
company and hook-and-laddor truck occupy the
same building, which is usually two or three
stories in height. The men sleep on the upper
floors, and brass sliding poles pass through the
house, enabling the men to reach the main floor
and apparatus in the quickest possible time when
the alarm strikes. With a horse company the
alarm not only sounds, but releases the chains in
front of the liorsos1 stalls, opens the doors, and,
if it is night, turns on nil the lights in the
house automatically, this latter performance
being eiistoniary, naturally, in motor companies
also. The harnesses are' suspended above the
horses, and a few buckles only must be snapped
to enable them to proceed on their way.

The fireman makes use of numerous minor de-
vices in his work. A scaling or pompier ladder,
consisting of a wooden pole with a metal toothed
hook at the top and erosspieces for climbing,
is very useful in enabling him to climb from one
window to another of a building. Life nets,
which are circular affairs of rope, are used us a
final resort for those who must jump from a,
burning building and serve a useful purpose
where the distance is not too groat. Life guns,
by which a cord may bo shot in the air, are alao
useful in carrying up a life line by which a rope
can be hauled up and nmdo fast by a person
otherwise cut off. Respirator* and smoke pro-
testors are used extensively in Europe, but have
not found as wide application in the United
Rtatca, where firemen are now waiting for a
fwitiafactory device to be. developed. They con-
sist of a filter of wot flponge, cotton, or* other
material, or some device* enabling oxygen to be
breathed, fastened over the mouth and nose to
prevent suffocation. Numerous device* more or
less patterned on a diver's helmet are also in
use.

The modern fire department must bo self-con-
tained, with adequate facilities for repairing
its apparatus and taking can* of any emergency.
Jn many cities the policy of standardization is
followed, whereby the apparatus and its parts
are interchangeable, and devices may be replaced
at once from a common store.

Supplementing municipal-government fire serv-
ices, private fire departments have been found
necessary in many large industrial establishments.
These consist usually in the organization of the
employees so that each will take an appointed
station with or without apparatus on an alarm
of fire, and the provision of simple and writable
appliances sufficient to deal with any local or

FIRE OTABTBB*

603

WALK

incipient outbreak of fire. To further such or-
ganization there are generally provided special
fire pumps in the engine room, an independent
system -of fire mains fed from these pumps or
from gravity tanks on the roof and with frequent
hose outlets near which suitable hose wound on
accessible reels is provided. In addition there
may be various chemical tanks, tarpaulins to
cover goods likely to be damaged by water, axes,
buckets, ladders, and other appliances. Fire
drills, in order to secure the prompt evacuation
of the building by the employees and also to
protect property and extinguish fire, are fre-
quently held, and the advantage consists not only
in increased safety, but often in reduced insur-
ance premiums. Private fire departments are
maintained also by many railway companies, es-
pecially for the freight yards, and on the Penn-
sylvania Railroad an elaborate fire-protection sys-
tem is arranged with pumps and hose on switch-
ing engines and a code of signals to announce an
alarm. In large skyscrapers the fire problem is
also attacked in similar fashion, and while those
buildings are fireproof, yet it is necessary to pro-
vide for the protection of the contents, which are
usually combustible to a greater or less degree.
Hose and standpipes, extinguishers, hooks, axes,
as well as alarm boxes, are to be found on every
floor, with a complete sprinkler system in many
mercantile and office buildings as well as in in-
dustrial establishments, and the janitorial force
is drilled to act promptly in an emergency. One
elevator is always held in readiness for the use of
the firemen, as the carrying of their heavy hose
up a number of flights is no small undertaking.
Private fire protection is becoming almost as
important as that given by the local government,
and with buildings of increased size and housing
of many occupants, as well as largo amounts of
goods, it is a problem of no small importance.

Bibliography. The most useful sources of
information in connection with fire protection
arc the reports made by such organized bodies
as the National Board of Underwriters and the
British Tire Prevention Committee. In the case
of the publication of the National Board specific
reports on the leading American cities arc made
from time to time and discuss in detail the
character of the protection furnished by the
various fire departments. The Quarterly of the
National Fire Protection Association also con-
tains useful information, as do the files of the
engineering and insurance press and such papers
as Fire and Water Engineering, Municipal Bn-
ginecring, Rafety Engineering, and Municipal
Journal. Among the works in this field that
may be consulted are the following: Shaw, Fire
Protection (London, 1877), a British presenta-
tion of the subject; Hill, Fighting a Fire (New
York, 1807) ; Croker, Fire Protection (ib., 1013),
a timely discussion of fire dangers and the
methods of resisting them; Renlon, Ffoca and
Fire Fighting (ib., 1913) ; O'Reilly (ed.), Fires
and Fire Fighting (ib., 1911), a simple technical
manual for firemen; McTCcon, Fire Prevention
(ib., 1012); Freitag, Fire Prevention and Fire
Protection (ib., 1012) ; Oyclopadia of Fire Pre-
vention and Insurance (Chicago, 1912) ; Crosley
and Fisko, Handbook of Fire Protection (6th
ed,, Louisville, 1914).
FIBE QTTARTEBS. See FEftE BILL,
FIRES, GBKAT CONFLAGBATIONS AND DISAS-
OTJBS. From a remote antiquity, wherever men
hare grouped themselves in communities, fire
has proved a source of destruction to life and

property, second only to war and disease. Such
disasters have not disappeared entirely with the
development of civilization and the improved
methods of building, maintenance, and dealing
with outbreaks of fire. That such is the case
may be testified by such conflagrations as those
of Baltimore in 1904, San Francisco in 1900,
the great Idaho forest fires in 1910, and the
Triangle factory fire in New York City, of
1911, where the loss of life was great although
the fire itself was confined to the building in
which it originated. The fires moro notable for
the amount of property destroyed and loss of
life, of which there is historical record, are
given in the accompanying summary on page 004.

FIRE SALAMANDER. The common spot-
ted species of salamander in Europe. See SALA-
MANDER.

FIRE SHIP, or FIRE RAFT. A floating
craft, loaded with combustibles, set on fire and
sent among the enemy's ships for the purpose
of destroying them by fire or causing confusion.
The first recorded use of fire ships was at the
siege of Tyre (332 B.C.) , the Tyrians delaying for
some months the fall of their city by destroying
with fire ships a mole that Alexander was build-
ing. There are numerous other instances of
their use before the commencement of the Chris-
tian era, and they seem to have been well known
from that time onward. The invention of Greek
fire in ($73 caused increased use of fire ships, at
first by the Greeks and afterward by other na-
tions as they became possessed of the secret of
manufacture of the compound. Tn 051, and again
in 95U, Russian fleets narrowly escaped destruc-
tion by fire ships. During the period of the
Crusades their use was frequent. Tn 1370 the
English used them at Zuruckzee. The most no-
table use of them in early modern history, and
tho first known use of exploding vessels, occurred
at the siege of Antwerp in 1585. They were
both used against a heavy boom defense, but the
employment of the exploding vessels was disas-
trous to their own aide. The English used fire
ships against tho Spanish Armada at Calais
with gjnod effect in 1588. During the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries their use attained a
maximum. Soon after tho beginning of the nine-
teenth century the decadence of fire whips began,
and the development of steam and tho change
from wood to iron in shipbuilding have nearly
destroyed thoir usefulness.

FIRE WALK. In several of the Polynesian
Islands, notably at Tahiti, is found a fire cere-
mony intended to insure good crops. Divested
of its spectacular features, the ceremony consists
of the walking of a priont and other celebrants
barefoot across a bod of atones which havo been
heated upon a mass of burning wood. That this
surprising feat, which has been described as a
marvel, is susceptible of a rational explanation,
has been shown by Secretary S. P. Langloy, of
the Smithsonian Institution, who observed the
ceremony at Tahiti in 1001. It was ascertained
that the volcanic rock employed is a poor con-
ductor of heat, so that while the stones of the
ceremonial "taro oven" may be intensely hot
underneath, the upper part will be only moder-
ately warm. (See Nature, Aug. 22, 190L) A
similar ceremony has been practiced in Japan.
The stories bordering on the marvelous wnieh
have been told about ordeals by fire (see OR-
DEALS) will be found, on examination by compe-
tent observers, to admit of simple explanation.

A somewhat analogous mode of procedure lias

604

FIRES

TABLE OF THE MORE IMPORTANT CONFLAGRATIONS AND FIRES, SHOWING THE EXTENT OF
PROPERTY DESTRUCTION AND LOSS OF LIFE.*

Date

Month
and day

City

State

Destruction

Loss of
lite

Loss of
property

Lvons

Total

July 19-24

4jyuua

Rome

Five-sevenths city

Jerusalem

Burned by Titus

1,100,000

1137

York

England

Total

1212

London

England

Nearly all from north to south

3,000

$20,000,000

1405

Bern

Switzerland

718 buildings

1491

Dresden

Saxony

Destroyed

1631
1666
1702

May'lO
Sept. 2-6
Maroh 11

Magdeburg
London
Boston

Saxony
England
Mass.

Nearly destroyed
SO churches, 13,200 houses, 400
100 buildings [streets

20,000
6

60,000,000
2,000,000

1711

Oct. 2

Boston

Mass.

1,000 buildings

....

500,000

1728
1729

Copenhagen
Constantinople

Denmark
Turkey

1,650 housos, 5 churches, univer-
12,000 bldgs. [sity, and 4 colleges

7,000

1736

Aug. 'l2

St. Petersburg

Russia

2,000 buildings

1744

Brest

France

Magazines and stores

....

35,000,000

1750

Jan. 24

Constantinople

Turkey

12,000 buildings

....

15,000,000

1752

June 3-6

Moscow

Russia

18,000 buildings

1756

Cairo

Egypt

50 mosques, etc.

300

40,000,000

1772
1794
1805

Aug. 21
March 1
Nov. 22

Smyrna
Copenhagen
St Thomas Island

Asia Minor
Denmark
West Indies

7,000 buildings
Royal palace, etc.
900 warehouses

'ioo

20,000,000
23,000,000
30,000,000

1811

Deo. 26

Richmond

Va.

Theatre

"76

1812

Sept. 15

Moscow

Russia

30,800 buildings

20,000

130,000,000

1820

Jan. 10

Savannah

Ga.

463 buildings

, t

8,000,000

1822

Jan. 24

Philadelphia

Pa.

Orphan jisylum

50,000

1835
1S36

Doo. 16
Feb. 14

New York
St. Petersburg

N.Y.

Russia

530 buildings
Lehmann's Theatre and Circus

About* 800

20,000,000

1837

Jan. 13-

St. John

N. B.

115 housos and business section

5,000,000

1842
1845

May 5^7

Hamburg
Pittsburgh

Germany
Pa.

4,219 buildings
1,100 buildings

33,000,000
10,000,000

1845

Canton

China

1,'C70

1845

May 28

Quebec

P.O.

l,r>00 buildings

4,000,000

1845

June 28

Quebec

P. Q.

1 ,300 buildings

8,000,000

1845

July 20

New York

N.Y.

300 buildings

0,000,000

1S46
1846

June 12
June 14

St. John's
Quebec

Newfoundland
P. Q.

0,000 homeless
Thoatro Royal

About 100

5,000,000
2,000,000

1847

Feb. 28

Carlsruhe

Germany

Thoatre

1,500,000

1848
1848
1848

Aug. 1C
Aug. 17
Sept. 9

Constantinople
Albany
Brooklyn

Turkey

N.Y.
N.Y.

8,000 buildings
600 buiklmga, steamship pier, cto.
300 buildings

13,000,000
5,000,000

1849

May 17

St. Louis

Mo.

15 blocks, 23 steamships

....

7,000,000

1852

JulyS

Montreal

P. Q.

1,200 buildings

....

5,000,000

1852

Nov. 2

Sacramento

Col.

Total, 20,000 homeless

S,()<)0,000

1854

Oct. 5

Gateshead

England

Warehouses

" 50

3,000,000

1857

June 7

Leghorn

Italy

Teatro dcflli Aquidolii

40 to 100

1860

Jan. 10

Lawrence

Moss.

Pcmberton Mill

500

1861
1862

June 21
May 10

London
Troy

England

Wliarvca, etc.
G71 buildings

10,000,000
3,000,000

1863

Deo. 8

Santiago

Chile

JcHiiit church

2 000

1866
1869

July 4
Aug. 4

Portland
Philadelphia

Me.
Pa.

One-half city, 2,000 homeless
Rondod warehouses with whisky

10,000,000
<V>0(U)00

1870

June 5

Constantinople

Turkey

7,000 buildings

....

23,000,000

1871
1871

Sept. and
Oct.
Oct. 9

Forest tiros, Mich.,
Wi&., and Minn,
Chicago

750 square miles, 17,430 buildings
2,000 acrca, 770 buildings

'250

11,0(10,000
105,000,000

111.

1872

May

Tientsin

China

Theatre

600

1872

Nov. 9

Boston

Mass.

65 tvores

7.>,(HK),000

1876
1870

Sept. 3
Deo. 5

St. Hyacinthe
Brooklyn

P. Q.

N.Y,

Nearly destroyed
donway's Thoatre

'iii

15,000,000

1877

June 21

St. John

N.B.

Two-fifths city

15,000,000

1881

Maroh 23

Nice

France

Theatre Municipal

"76

1881

Deo. 8

Vienna

Austria

King Theatre

4oO

1882

Doc. 11

Kingston

Jamaica

000 houses and wharves

10,000,000

1883

Jan. 13

Berditsoheff

Russian Poland

Thoatre

*270

1887

May 25

Paris

Franco

Op6ra Comiquo

70 to 100

1887

Sept. 5

Exeter

England

iSxotor Theatre

8ft

1888

March 31

Oporto

Portugal

Theatre

170

1889

June 6

Seattle

Wash.

Busincps section

0,020,000

1892
1892

JulyS
Oct. 28

St. John's
Milwaukee

Newfoundland
Wis.

Greater part of city
000 buildings

•"*•

23,000,000
4,944,300

1896
1897

Oct. 5
May 4

Guayaquil

Ecuador
France

Half of city
Charity Razor

'iii

22,000,000

1900
1900

June 30
April 26

Hoboken
Ottawa and! Hull

N.J.
Ontario

ytoamship piers and vessels
About two square miles

215

4,627,000
15,000,000

1901

May 3

Jacksonville

Fla.

148 blocks

10,500,000

3902

Feb. 9

Paterson

450 buildings

5,817,305

1903

Deo. 30

Chicago

111.

Iroquoie Thoatre

'i>7A

1904
1904
1906
1908
1911

Feb. 7
April 20
April 18
April 12
March 29

Baltimore
Albany

Md.
Ontario
Gal.
Mass.

N.Y.

140 acres, 2,500 buildings
34 acres leveled, 8 more damaged
2,503 acres (4 05 square- miles)
402 acres
Capitol

;.;;

50,000,000
12,000,000
850,000»0(X>
0,000,000
5,500,000

1911
1911
1911

March 25
July 10-12
April 30

New York
Porcupine District
Bangor

N.Y.
Ontario
Me.

Triangle shirt-waist factory
Alining and lumber property
Conflagration

'i47
400

3,500,000
3,500000

1912

Jan. 9

Now York

N.Y.

Equitable Building

3,000000

1912
1914

Feb. 21
June 25-6

Houston
Salem

Tex.
Mass.

Cotton compresses and other bldga,
1,700 buildings, 253 acres

ji *XXf«XX

u!ooo!ooo

"Toe

tortoJSI*

disasters by flre.

In this table must be regarded In many
is rarely forthcoming even in the ease
The statistics given, however, we —

y a? approximate, aa &n aomirate statement of propwt
conflagrations, not to mention those of which there*
tbo datej and comparative dtitmotlon of some of to* \

FIREWEED

605

riBISHTAH

been noted among a number of North American
Indian tribes. A fire is built, the glowing coals
are spread, and the dancers then begin to dance,
rushing into the fire and stamping it out. This
performance has been described by the Prince of
Wied, Reise in das itwere Nord- America, ii, pp.
144, 218, 241 (2 vols., Coblonz, 1839-41), as the
"Hot Dance" of the Mandan, Ankara, and,
Hidatsa. Among the Arapaho and Gros Ventre
it has been noted as part of the Crazy Dance
ceremony in Kroeber, "The Arapaho," Bulletin of
the American Museum of Natural History,
XVIII, p. 190; id., "Ethnology of the Gros
Ventre," Anthropological Papers of the American
Museum, of Xatural History, i, p. 245.
PIE/EWEED. See EPILODIUM.
FIREWORKS. See PYROTECIINY.
FIREWORK. A caterpillar which devours
foliage, leaving the trees looking as if a fire had
swept over them. The spring cankerworm (q..v.)
and the Rhopobota vacciniana, are examples.

FIRE WORSHIP. Devotion paid to fire as
a sacred element, and one of the earliest forms
of worship among mankind. This widespread
cult, like sun worship, earth and water venera-
tion, may be recognized in many phases from
primitive ages to the present day, from savagery
to civilization. A distinction between tlie primi-
tive fetish worship of the physical fire itself and
the more advanced conception of a divinity or
fire god behind the flaming manifestation is not
always easy to draw among the nations that
have paid reverence to this clement. Tt is easy,
however, to see how fire, as an incarnation of
light oppOHod to darkness, and as a power so
beneficent and yet on occasion maleficent, would
be a natural object of veneration. Nor is it dif-
ficult to understand the devoted care and pious
attention early bestowed upon the cherished
ilame tip rung from the spark so hard to obtain
and so difficult to maintain. It was this that
made, the fire, which was preserved for the general
good on an altar or in a shrine, the foeun of the
early community and made the domestic hearth
the centre and symbol of the home and family.
Special functions or time-honored rites were as-
sociated with the production and keeping of the
fire, and theme who ministered upon it, as its
wornhip developed, eamo to be holy and pow-
erful priests, as the guardians of a divine gift.
The savage tribes of American Indians, like
the rude natives of West Africa, paid homage
to a fire spirit as ancentor, and, as Tylor hat*
pointed out, the Polynesians and Mexicans ac-
knowledged in their worship a fire god akin to
the divinity of the sun. The worship of Moloch
in ancient Canaan was a form of homage to the
pjeniun presiding over fire; and hallowed rites to
thw fire were performed among the Egyptians,
Assyrians, Chaldeans, and the less civilized
Mongolian tribes.

Nearer to our own race, however, was the
veneration shown for fire among the early Indo-
Germanic peoples. In India of old, e.g., tkore
was an elaborate five ritual; sacrifice to the
fire was <me of the first acts of morning devotion ; .
and the hymns addressed to the nro god Agni "
(q.v.) in the Rigvcda outnumbered those in
praise of any other divinity. In Greece and
Rome likewise, the fire cult of He«tia or Vesta,
and of HepluesttiH or Vulcan, was a marked
feature in the religion. The Slavic race, includ-
ing Old Prussians, Lithuanians, and Russians,
preserve reminiscences of earlier fire worship.
Among the ancient Celts, Brigit was worshiped

particularly as the goddess of fire and fertility.
But in this respoct most important among the
members of the Indo-European family are the
Persians.

In Iran from the earliest times the care of the
fire was so scrupulous and so elaborately de-
veloped that it formed the most noticeable char-
acteristic of the ancient Persian faith. The re-
ligion of Zoroaster (q.v.) is sometimes, therefore,
called fire worship, but erroneously, as the Par sis
or modern adherents of the creed insist. It is
certain that in the Avesta ( q.v. ) the fire played
a moat prominent rOle ; it was personified as the
"Son of Onnazd," and inconceivable pains were
taken to preserve the sacred element from de-
filement. The regular name for a priest in the
Zoroastrian scriptures is Hthravan, ^belonging to
the fire' ; and Greek writers describe how the fire
was carried in state processions before the Per-
sian kings, for it was a symbol of the divine
presence and of national feeling. The extinction
of the holy flame in the temples, when the Mo-
hammedans conquered Persia, was synonymous
with the downfall of Iran. The sacred fire which
the Parsis (q.v.) carried with them from Per-
sia to India when they fled as religious exiles
was to them an outward sign of their nationality
as it was of their faith — a palladium of the wor-
ship of Ormazd. As Zoroastrianism apparently
sprang up first in the neighborhood of the Cas-
pian Sea with its oil wells and petroleum foun-
tains, one may imagine that this fact may have
had some influence on the early Persian faith,
and there are Parsis or Qhebers (q.v.) that still
do reverence to the eternal flame that leaps from
the earth at Baku on the Caspian shore. It is
interesting to add that near Rawalpindi in
northern India there is a sacred fire cherished
by Mohammedans, which is unusual for Islam,
and it has been supposed that this may show
evidence of influence exerted by early Persian fire
worship combined with the old fire cult of India
itttelf. Whatever may have been in olden times
the feeling or attitude of the Persians in their
worship or veneration of Are, or whatever were
the views that made the victorious Mohammedans
brand them as idolaters and fire worshipers, the
modern Zoroastrians of India reject such a title
and emphasize that they look upon fire as a
sign or symbol, as a manifestation of the divine
power, purity, and essence. It may be added, in
conclusion, that pyrolatry as a scientific designa-
tion is sometime* employed to designate fire
worship. Consult: Tylor, Primitive Culture
(2 vols., New York, 1889) ; A. Kuhn, "Herab-
kunft des Feuors," in his Mythologisoho Studien
(2d cd., Glitersloh, 1886) ; Zaborowski-Moindron,
"Le feu sacr<5 ot lo culte du foyer des Slaves con-
temporainH," in 8oci6t6 d'Anthropologie de Paris
Bulletins at Mtimoims, series 5, vol. i, pp. 530-
53,4 (Paris, 1900); MacCulloch, Religion of the
Ancient Celts (Edinburgh, 1911); Macdonell,
History of Sanskrit Mtcrature (London, 1913).

FIRE WORSHIPERS. See GliBBKRS.

PIBISHTAH, ft-r&sh'ta, MUUAMMAB QASIWC
HINDU SHAH ( tl570-?1012). A celebrated Per-
sian historian, Tie was born at Astrabad on the
Caspian Sea. At a very early ago he went with
his father (Ghulam All Hindu Shah) to India,
where we find him, when 12 years old, at
Ahmednagar in the Deccan. He afterward be-
came captain in the bodyguard of Murtadah
Nisam Shah; and when this King was deponed
by MM own son, Firishtah went to Bijapur (998
A.n,, 15S9 AJ>.), where Ibrahim

PIE/KXKT

606

PIBMICUS MATERNTJS

tho reigning monarch, received him with great
honor. Soon after his arrival Firishtah is men-
tioned as taking part in an action against
Jamal Khan, in which the historian was
wounded and taken prisoner; but erelong he
made his escape. His death is supposed to have
taken place shortly after the year 1012. His
great work is the Tarlkh i FirishtaJi, a history
of the Mohammedan power in India. Written
with an impartiality, simplicity, and clearness
rare in an Eastern work, this history has be-
come a standard work on the subject, into which
it was the first to enter at length. Single por-
tions of it have been translated by Dow, Scott,
Stewart, Anderson, etc.; but the whole work
was first edited by Briggs (Bombay, 1831), and
also translated by him under the title The
History of the Rise of the Mahomedan Power
in India (4 vols., London, 1829; republished
ib», 1908-10), which consult for a brief biography.
STROmr (ODan. firken, multiple of four,
from fire, four, OEG. fior, fier, Gcr. vier, Goth.
fidwor, AS. f&oiccr, Bng. four; connected with
Ir. oethir, OChurch Slav, clietyri, Lith. keturi,
Lat. quattuor, Oscan petur, Gk. rfoffapes, tessares,
Skt. catur, four). An old British measure of
capacity for liquids, dating from about the fif-
teenth century, containing nine gallons, or cor-
responding to one-quarter of the old beer barrel
of 36 gallons. It had two values, also being
taken at eight gallons in old ale measure. In
the United States the term "firkin" is applied
to a wooden container or receptacle used for
butter or lard, in which the contents are sold
usually on the basis of weight. See WEIGHTS
AND MEASURES.

JTIBOJffAMEirT (Lat. firmamentuw, from
firmare, to strengthen, from flrmus, firm). A
word used to denote the vault of heaven. The
term found its way into English from the Vul-
gate, which renders tho Septuagint o-repew/xa,
stereGma, and the Hebrew raqVa by the Latin
firmamentum (Gen. i. 0). JRaqVa (from the
verb raqa', to extend) signifies whatever is
beaten or stretched out, and was especially
employed by the Hebrews to denote tho hemi-
sphere above the earth, compared (Ex. xxiv. 10)
to a splendid and pellucid sapphire. Elsewhere
(Ezek. i. 22-20) it is spoken of as the "door" on
which the throne of the Most High IH placed.
Hence it follows that the notions of solidity and
expansion were both contained in the Hebrew
conception of tho firmament (Job xxxvii. 18).
The blue ethereal sky was regarded as a solid
sphere, to which the stars were fixed, and which
was constantly revolving, carrying them with it.
This sphere, or firmament, rested on tho loftiest
mountains as pillars and divided tho waters
which were under the firmament from the
waters which were above the firmament ; and tho
theory of the phenomena of rain, etc., was that
there were "windows in heaven"— i.e., in the
firmament — through which, when opened, tho
waters that were above the firmament descended
(Gen. vii. 11; 2 Kings vii. 2, 19; Ps. Ixxviii,
23 and cxlviii. '4). Similarly, under the earth
there was another sea, called the "deep" or "great
deep." The view entertained by the Greeks and
other early nations was essentially the same. In
the progress of astronomical observations it was
found that many of the heavenly bodies had in-
dependent motions inconsistent with the notion
*f their being fixed to one sphere or firmament.
Then the number of crystalline spheres was in-
definitely increased, each body that was clearly

independent of the rest having one assigned to it,
till a complex system was introduced capable
of being fully understood only by the philoso-
phers who devised it. See PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM.

FIRMAN", fer'man or fer-man' (Turk, fermtin,
Pers. farmfin, Skt. pramana, authority, norm,
from pro,, forth + mil, to measure). A word
used by the Turks to denote any official decree
emanating from the Ottoman Porte, usually for
the purpose of providing protection and assist-
ance for a traveler, or to sanction an enterprise
and prescribe its conditions. Its employment in
Persia is as old as the time of Darius, who in the
Old Persian inscription speaks of his commands
or statutes as f ram ana. The right of signing
any firman relating to affairs connected with
his special department is exercised by every
minister and member of tho Divan, but the ottice
of placing at the head of the finnan tho tliograi
— a cipher containing the name of the Sultan in
interlaced letters, which alone gives effect to the
decre&--is committed to the hands of a spe-
cial minister, who is called nichanji effcndi.
The name applied to such decrees as have, been
signed by the Sultan himself is liaili-slicrif
(q.v.). The name "firman" may also signify a
more formal kind of Turkish passport, which can
be granted only by the Sultan or by a pasha.
A written permission to trade is also called in
India a firman.

TIEMEinCH-BICHAIfcTZ, fer'me-nlK reK'-
Urts, JOHANNES MATTHIAS (1808-89). A Ger-
man author and Germanic scholar, born in
Cologne and educated at Bonn and Munich. He
was also known as a playwright and poet. In
1860 he was appointed professor in Berlin,
where he published his principal work, Gernwni-
ens r&Ikrrstimmen. Hammlung der dcutwhcn
Mundnrten in Dichtungen, ffaffcn. MtiscJicn,
Volksliedcrn, etc. (3 vols., 1843-66; supple-
mentary volume, 1807).

FIRMIAN, fer'm6-&n, TCABL JOSEPH, C'OTTNT
(173 6-82). An Austrian statesman, born at
Deutachiwtz, Tirol, and educated at Krthal,
Innsbruck, Salzburg, and at the VniverHity of
Leyden. lie was sent by Maria Thenwa aa
Ambassador to Naples in 1753 and as Govcrnor-
Ucncral to Lombardy in 1750. He was a patron
of Winckelmann, of Angelica Kauflfmann, and
of many other scholars and artists. Many libra-
ries were established by him, while hi« own
collection (the "Bibliotheca Wrzniana") of
40,000 volumes (catalogue in 10 vols., 1783)
was always accessible to investigators and was
later in part incorporated with the Brera Library
in Milan.

PIB/MICTTS MATES/NTTS, Jrwrs, A 1-atin
author of tho fourth century, u native of Sicily,
who about 336 A.D. wrote eight book* on as-
trology (Math&teos LiM J7/J), in which he
formulated a complete theory of astronomical
fmperfttition in the spirit of the NeoplatomstH;
the work shows aome acquaintance with Chris-
tianity. The work waft first published in the
Atttrononiici Veteres (1490) and flubsequentlv
by Pruckner (1533 ami 1551). Other editions
are by Sittl (1894), and, finally, by Kroll,
Skutsch, and Ziegler (S5 vols*, 1807, 1913).
Later, about 347 A.D., he addressed to the sons
of Constantine the Great a work entitled D*
flrrore Profanarum Religionum, treating of the
false fanaticism of paganism and counseling its
complete annihilation. Thin work was edited by
Halm* in vol. ii of the Qorput Rwiptoruw Ewl&
siaxtioomm, batinorwn (Vienna^ 18*J7), and by

FIBMILIAW

607

FIRST FRUITS

Eiegler (Kempten, 1913). Consult Teuffel, Ge~
sohichte der romisoh&n, Litteratur, §§ 406-407
(6th ed., Leipzig, 1911), and Jordan, Gesclvichte
der altchristticnen, Litteratur (ib., 1911).

FIBMII/IAN. A dramatic poem by W. E.
Aytoun (1854).

FIB/MIN, THOMAS (1632-97). An English
philanthropist, born at Ipswich. In 1662 he
raised money for the Polish exiles of the Unita-
rian belief and in IfiSl for the Polish Calvinists
when they shared the same fate. But he was
better known for his charities at home*, and es-
pecially for the employment he provided (IOCS)
in London to help needy workmen after the
plague, and again in 1660 after the great fire.
From 1676 he devoted himself entirely to philan-
thropic schemes of various kinds. He built a
linen factory, where a little later he employed
1700 workmen, and in 1682 he established a
second factory at Ipswich to help the refugees
from France, besides making large collections
for them. From 1673 to his death he was a gov-
ernor of Christ's Hospital, save for a break
caused by his opposition to James II. Tn poli-
tics he seems to have been Republican, but was
an ardent admirer of William TIT; and in theol-
ogy he was an anti-Trinitarian, though he never
left the English church. He wrote Some Pro-
posals for the Iinploying of the Poor, especially
in and about London, and for the Prevention, of
Begging (1678; reprinted in 1681, and in 1787
in Tracts Relating to the Poor).

FIRMIETY, f&r'me'nfi'. A town in the Depart-
ment of Loire, France, 45 miles by rail from
Lyons (Map: France, S., J 3), Tt is situated
in a coal-mining region and manufactures steel
and iron, also woolen goods and ribbons. Pop.
(commune), 1001, 16,903; 1911, 19,580.

EIBMISTEBNIA, fGi-'iiit-steVnl-a. A divi-
sion of the tailless Amphibia (Anura), which
includes those tongue-possessing frogs (the fami-
lies ftanidaj and Kngystomatidoo ) , in which th«
two halves of the shoulder girdle meet in the
middle line and form a firm median bar. (This
is contrary to the case in the correlative division
Arcifera, in which the two halves of the, shoulder
girdle overlap on the ventral wide and are to
some extent movable upon each other, allow-
ing the thorax to expand and contract.) The
firmisternal type "is morphologically the higher
and more recent and passes in the larval stage
through the aroiferoxiB condition," Tt in charac-
teristic also of the Aglossa (q.y.). Cope and
"Boulcngwr regard the Firmistcmia and Arcifera
as a suborder, equivalent to the Agloswa and
others; but the latest revision of the classifica-
tion of the Anura (Qadow, 1001) makes Firmi-
stornia and Arcifera divisions of the suborder
Phaneroglossa, or tongwc-bcaritig frogs and
toads. The Phaneroglossa and the Aglossa con-
stitute the Anura. Consult Gkulow, Amphibia
and Reptiles (London, 1001).
FIROZPTTB. Sou FEROZEPORB.
FTRST AID TO THE EKTJTTRED. See AN-
TIDOTE; AHPHYXIA; BLEEDING;

PrBST-BOJUNT (translation of Hcb. &e/cor,
from 6aA*«r, to break forth). In biblical usage,
a term which signifies the first male offspring,
whether of man or of other animals. The first-
born male was devoted from the time of birth to
God* Tn the case of first-born male children the
law required that within one month after birth
fcheyk should be redeemed by an offering equiva-
lent In valne to ftvo shekels of silver (Ex, ariii.

13; Nura. xviii. 15-16). If the child died be-
fore the expiration of 30 days, the obligation of
redemption ceased; but if that term were com-
pleted, the obligation was not extinguished by
the subsequent death of the infant. This re-
demption took place according to a fixed cere-
monial. It is difficult to say in how far these
laws of redemption point to the existence in
earlier days of the actual offering of the first
male child to a deity. Traces of such offerings
arc found, but the instances appear to be ex-
ceptional— as in moments of great danger (2
Kings iii, 27; cf. also 2 Kings xxi. 6). On the
other hand, the narrative of Abraham's readi-
ness to sacrifice Isaac would lose part of its
meaning if the rite was really resorted to only
under exceptional circumstances. The rite of
circumcision has also been considered by some
scholars as a modification of an original offering
of the first-born; but it is also likely that the
symbol replacing the reality was introduced at
a comparatively early age.

The first-born male of animals also, whether
clean or unclean, was equally regarded as de-
voted to God. The first-born of clean animals, if
free from blemish, was to be delivered to the
priests within 12 months after birth to be
sacrificed to the Lord (Dcut. xv. 10-21); nor
was it permitted to any but the priests to par-
tnke of the flesh of such victims (Num. xviii.
15-19). If the animal was blemished, it was
not to be sacrificed, but to be eaten at home
(Deut. xv. 22). The first-born of unclean ani-
mals, not being a lit subject for sacrifice, was
cither to be put to death or to be redeemed
with the addition of one-fifth of its value (Lev.
xxvii. 27; Num. xviii. 15). If not redeemed,
it was to be sold, and the price given to the
priests.

Primogeniture, both by the patriarchal custom
and by the Pentatcuchal codes, had certain
privileges attached to it, the chief of which
were the headship of the family and a double
portion of the inheritance (cf. Dcut. xxi. 16,
17). "FirHt-born" was a title of honor or affec-
tion (Ex. iv. 22; Jer. xxxi. 0). The Hebrews*
shared with 'the, other Semites a belief in the
wauetity of first fruits in general which may
properly bo traced back to a natural feeling
of rejoicing and gratitude. Hence, even among
Semites in a nomadic »late, special privileges
are accorded to the first-bom, and to barter
away onc'n birthright wan regarded as a dis-
grace. Tn this respect the story of Esau's selling
his birthright for a mere mess of pottage — an act
which the writer holds up to acorn (Gen. xxv,
20-34) — well reflects the general view. As a
people advances from the nomadic to the pas-
toral and thence to the agricultural stage, the
viewH connected with the ftrst-born are naturally
extended to animals and to produce of the fields.
Hence, in the Pentatouehal codes, which are based
on the agricultural stage, ample provisions are
made for ritea connected with the various classes
of "flrat" productions. See FIBST FRUITS ? FAM-
ILY; SuccBsaioN ; PBIMOGENITUBK.

FIBST FRUITS (translation of Heb. reshith,
or bikkurim, first, best). That portion of the
fruits of the earth, and other natural produce,
which, by the usage of the Hebrew** and other
ancient nations, was offered to the Deity, as an
acknowledgment of His supreme dominion and a
recognition of His bounty. (Consult Frazer,
floldm Rough, vol. ii, "London, 1800.) Among
the Hebrews the institution of firat fruits com*

FIBST FBtTITS

608

FIRTH

prised both public and private offerings. The
regulations are set forth in the several codes of
the Pentateuch. Taking these codes together,
the regulations may be summarized as follows:

Of the public class there were three principal
offerings. The first was at the opening of the
corn harvest. On the day after the first day of
the Passover, the 16th of the month Nisan, a
sheaf of new corn, which was cut and gathered
with much solemnity, was carried to the holy
place and there waved before the altar (Lev.
xxiii. 40 et seq.) ; nor was it permitted to com-
mence the harvest work till after this solemn
acknowledgment of the gift of fruitfulness.
Again, at the Feast of Pentecost, seven weeks
later, two loaves of leavened bread, made from
the flour of the new harvest, were waved, with
a similar form of worship, before the altar (Ex.
xxxiv. 22; Lev. xxiii. 15-17). Thirdly, at the
Feast of Tabernacles, in the seventh month, was
held the great feast of the completed harvest,
the final acknowledgment of the bounty of God
in the fruits of the year (Ex. xxiii. 16; Lev.
xxiii. 33-34).

Besides these public offerings of first fruits
on the part of the entire people, individual
Hebrews were bound to private offerings, each
upon his own behalf. A cake of the first dough,
one-twenty-fourth of the amount, was to be
offered to the Lord (Num. xv. 21). The "first
of all the fruits" were to bo placed in a basket
and carried to the appointed place, where the
basket was to be offered with a prescribed for-
mula, commemorative of the sojourn of Israel
in Egypt and of his deliverance by the strong
hand (Deut. xxvi. 2 et scq.). Fruit trees were
given three years for growing, then the fruit of
the fourth year was to be given to God (Lev.
xix. 23-25). All these offerings were divided
into two classes. The first, which were called
Ukkurim, comprised the various kinds of raw
produce, of which, although the law seems to
contemplate all fruits, seven sorts only were
considered by the rabbis to fall under the obliga-
tion of first-fruit offering, viz., wheat, barley,
grapes, figs, pomegranates, olives, and dates.
He who lived near Jerusalem brought fresh
fruits; others could bring them dried. It was
customary for offerers to make their oblations
in companies of 24 and with a singularly strik-
ing and effective ceremonial. The second class,
the reshith, were brought of prepared materials,
dough, wine, oil, etc. The tcrumoth were taxes
consisting in the first ripe of the fruit, whether
of the ground or of trees, levied for the support
of the priests. There was no definite amount.
Between one-fortieth and one-sixtieth of the
harvest could be given, but it does not appear
that this regulation was ever strictly carried
out except by a small minority of pious dev-
otees, just as various other provisions remained
a dead letter. With the destruction of the
second temple all offerings and sacrifices were
abolished, though among orthodox Jews, as a
reminiscence of the temple cult, a portion of the
dough for baking bread is still thrown into the
fire.

Offerings analogous to the Jewish first fruits
bocarae usual very early in the Christian Church,
as is clear from passages in Irenoms (Adv.
Hwr. iv, 17 and 34) ; but the extent to which
they prevailed, and the amount and general
character of the oblation, are exceedingly un-
certain. It appears to have been merged in the
legal provision established by the emperors.

The mediaeval ecclesiastical impost known un-
der the name of primiticc, or first fruits, and
sometimes of annatcs or annaha, was entirely
different. By the word, in its mediaeval and
modern sense, is meant a tax imposed by the
popes on persons presented directly by the Pope
to those benefices which by the canonical rules,
or in virtue of privileges claimed by them, fall
within the papal patronage. Persons so pre-
sented were required to contribute to the Roman
see the first fruits (i.e., the income of the first
year) of their benefice. During the residence of
the popes at Avignon, when the papal necessities
compelled the use of every means for eking out
a precarious revenue, it was sought to extend the
impost to every benefice; and this claim was the
subject of many contests, especially in Germany
and in England, where the claim, so fur as re-
garded direct papal presentation, had existed
from the reign of King John. Henry VIII with-
drew the right of the first fruits from the Pope
in order to transfer it to the King; and he estab-
lished a special court for the administration of
first fruits, which, however, was soon abandoned.
In the reign of Anne the revenues arising from
this impost in England were vested in a board,
to be applied for the purpose of supplementing
the incomes of small benefices. In France this
tax was abolished by the "pragmatic sunetion1*
enacted at Bourges in 143S and subsequently by
the concordat of Leo X with Francis I in 1516.
In Spain it ceased partially in the reign of
Ferdinand and Isabella and finally under Charles
V. In Germany it formed one of the first among
the centum gravamina presented to the Emperor
in 1521, and the claim ceased altogether from
that period. Consult the Hebrew Archaeologies
of Nowack (Freiburg, 1804) and Benzinger
(2d ed., Tubingen, 1007), and Robertson Smith,
Religion of the Semites (London, 1804). See
FIRST- BORN,

FIBST GENTLEMAN* OF ETTBOPE. A
title given to the Prince Regent, afterward King
George IV of England.

FIBST GBENADIEB OF FRANCE. A
title given to La tour d'Ativergne (q.v.).

FIBST LIEUTENANT OF A MANX>F-\VAB.
Rce LIEUTENANT, FIRST, under head of LIEU-
TENANT.

FIBTH, or FBITH (from Tcel. //V/V>r, ford;
connected with Lat. port us, port, Skt, /wr, to
cross). A name used in Scotland for deep in-
lets of tbo sea, in many ca«es of (wtuurine forma-
tion. The term "firth'1 is ahmlnr to the Nor-
wegian "fiord," an inlet with high rocky walla;
the Scottish firths often have the characteristics
of fiords. Sec ESTUARY; FIORD.

FIBTH, CHARLES HARDING (1857- ). An
English historian, born in Sheffield. He* atudi<sd
at Clifton College and at IJalliol College, Ox-
ford, where he became a scholar in 1876 and aw
instructor in 1883. From 1887 to 1893 he was
a lecturer at Pembroke College, Oxford; in 1900
he became Ford's lecturer in English history in
the University of Oxford, in 1901 fellow of AH
Souls' and in 1004 of Oriel, and in the last-
named year he was made regius professor of
modorn history- His special field wan the Civil
War and the Protectorate, and, besides contribu-
tions on this period to the Dictionary of National
Biography t he wrote: Oliver Cromwell and the
Jfulc of the Puritan* (1900) ; VromweW* Army
(1002); Tfo last Years of the Protectorate
(1909) ; The 7/ou*<? of Lorfo during the (JivU
War (1910). He edited a number of historical

FIRTH

609

Fmtrz SHAH n

and biographical works, among which are: Mem-
airs of Edward Ludlow (1892) ; Memoir of the
Life of Colonel Hutchinson (1896) ; Scotland and
the Commonwealth; Letters and Papers Relating
to the Military Government of Scotlandt 1651-
53 (1895) ; and its sequel, Scotland and the Pro-
tectorate, 1654-5U (1899). He edited (1914- )

FIBTTZABAD, fg-rdl>'zd-bad. A Sassanian
palace, 65 miles from Shiraz, built by Firuz II
(fifth century). The length was about 342
feet and the breadth 178. The plan 'of the build-
ing was rectangular, the entrance being on the
north side, where there was a great porch.
Within there were reception rooms,- behind

PALACE OF FIRX7ZABAD.

an illustrated edition of Macaulay's History of
England.

FIBTH, MARK (1819-80). An English steel
manufacturer and philanthropist, born at Shef-
field. Ho loft school at the age of 14 to enter
the steelworks where his father was employed.
In 1843 he and his father established a small
foundry, which soon became very extensive and
acquired a considerable trade in America. Tlioy
built huge works at Sheffield in 1849. The firm
manufactured atcel blocks for ordnance, spheri-
cal and elongated shot, and every varioty of
heavy forcings for engineering requirements.
The manufacturing and refining of steel from
Swedish iron waa successfully carried on, and
nearly all the steel usod in making English guns
was produced by this iirm. Firth was also cele-
brated as a public benefactor. His numerous
gifts and endowments include the Mark Firth's
Alinahouses at Han moor, orocted at a cost oC
£30,000, and consisting of 36 houses, left as a
permanent legacy to the poor of Sheffield; a
freehold park of 30 acres for a recreation ground
(opened by the Prince and Princess of Walca,
Aug. 16, 1875), and the Firth College, erected at
a cost of £20,000 and furnished with an annual
endowment of £5000 (opened by Prince Leopold,
Oct. 20, 1870).

FIBTH OF FOBTH. See FORTH.

FIRTTZ I, fa'rooz. One of the Areacide kings
of Persia, who reigned 78-103. Ho is also
called Arsaces XXIV, King of Parthia, and
18 identified with Pacorus II of the classical
writers.

FTBTTZ H (457-484), or PJKBOZ. A kinar of
PerHia, of the SaBsanide dynasty, son of Yazde-
gerd II. He overthrew and put to death his
younger brother, Ormaxd (or Homizd) III, and
so came to the throne. The reign of Firuz was
unhappy, though he succeeded in being at peace
with the Romans. The Epbtalitcs, or White
Huns (HO called to distinguish them from tho
true Huns), threatened the kingdom. The Per-
sians undertook two expeditions against them,
but were unsuccessful in both, and in the second
one Kiruz and 29 of his sons perished.

FtRTTZ HE (?-679). The last of the Sas-
sanides of Persia. He was expelled from Persia
by the new Mohammedan power on the .defeat of
his father, Yazdegerd III, in the battle of Ne-
havend, about 041, and took refuge with the
Emperor ol China, Kao-Tsung, who vainly en-
deavored to restore him to the Persian throne*
Vox* V1II.-40

these, three square rooms, side by side, each
having a vaulted dome, and behind these an open
court surrounded by vaulted chambers. The
massive walls were constructed of rough stone,
the vaulting was of brick, and plaster was used
to finish off the surfaces. The general style of
architecture shows traces of Mesopotamia!!, By-
zantine, and Homan influences, the particular
features being copies of decorations in Persian
palaces, the use of blind arches, and a zigzag
molding of projecting bricka.

FIBTTZABADI, fS'rou-za-ltiKde, MED JED ED-
DIN ( 1320-1414 ) . A Mohammedan lexicographer,
born at Karozin, near Shiraz. Several educa-
tional institutions at Medina and Mecca were
founded by him. Three years after his meeting
with Timur at Shiran (1382) ho was appointed
chief cadi of Yemen, which position he retained
until MH death, lie achieved celebrity through
his great lexicographical work Qamus ("The
Ocean*'; best od, by Nasr al-Hurini, 4 vols.,
1301-02 of the Tlogira). Tho work has also
been translated into Turkish (3 voK, 1230-40
A.IT.) and Persian (Calcutta, 1840 A.D.)-

FZRTTZ SHAH I, RtTKN un-DiN. A Moham-
medan king of Delhi, lie succeeded Inn father,
Shams ud-liin Altamsh, in 1236 A.D., after hav-
ing been governor of Lahore. He was deposed
after a reign of seven months and was succeeded
by his sister, tlio Sultana Razssiya, or Knsdyat-
ud-Din ('Devoted to the Faith'). Consult Lane-
Pool e, Mcdierval India under Mohammedan Rule
(New York, 1003).

PIRTO SHAH II, JALAL AD-DIN ( ?-12J>0).
The founder of the Khalji dynasty of the Mo-
hammedan sultans of Delhi, a magnanimous
rnlcr, who succeeded to the throne in 1200 at
tho ago of 70. His rare clemency and humility
were exasperating to his followers, who desired
a fighter and not a lover of art and learning as
he proved to be. He freely forgave Chhaju, a
nephew of Balban, and his rebel followers, after
they had attempted to overthrow him, and even
went so fur as to refuse to execute the members
of a society of assassins, whom he merely ban-
ished to Bengal, That he was brave in battle
is obvious from his campaign against the Mon-
gols on the Indus in 1202. In 1296 he was
drawn unarmed into a trap and basely assas-
sinated by his nephew, Ala*ad-Din, who two
months later succeeded to the throne. Consult
Lane-Poole, Medicoval India tauter
Rule (London, 1903).

XTBT7Z SHAH III

6xo

FISCHER

FCRTTZ SHAH HI (1296-1388). King of
Delhi. He succeeded Mohammad II ibn Taghlak
III in 1351. A most merciful and pious ruler,
his reign was tranquil and his country pros-
perous. In 1386 he abdicated, and two years
later he died.

FISC (Fr. fisc, from Lat. fiscus, treasure
chest). The public treasury. The Latin term
was originally applied to the private purse of
the Emperor, to distinguish it from the public
treasury, or cerarium. Later it came to desig-
nate the Imperial treasury, in contradistinction
to the private property of the ruler, in which
sense it is employed in modern countries whose
jurisprudence is derived from the civil law. The
fisc has, in Roman fashion, been personified and
is in law considered as an ideal or juristic per-
son. It has a legal right to all the state reve-
nues, including those derivable from forfeitures.
In suits against it by a subject, all questions of
doubt are to be resolved in favor of the subject.
Consult: Bracton, De Legibus et Consnetudini-
bus Anglice (Twiss ed., London, 1878-83);
Spelman, filossariuw, Archaiologicum (ib.,
1867) ; Molina v. United States (6 Court of
Claims Reports, 209, 1870) ; Sohm, Institutes of
Roman Law (2d ed., Oxford, 1001).
PISCANNUM. See FECAMP.
FISCHABT, flsh'Srt, JOHANNES (c.1545-
c.91). The great German satirist of his century,
also a Protestant reformer. A doctor of the
University of Basel (1574), his literary activity
was confined chiefly to the years 1575-81, after
which he became absorbed in his duties as ad-
vocate at the Imperial court at Spcyer, and as
local magistrate (1683) at Forbach, where he
died. Some 50 of the satires attributed to him
are authentic. They are directed against the
Pope, the Jesuits, vicious prieata, the aris-
tocracy,pcdants, astrologers, and folly of every
kind. His most famous works are tho Rabe-
laisian A Her PraktiJc Qrossmutter ( 1572 ) ;
Eulenspiegel Reitnonsiwms (1571); Affentcur-
liohe ynd iingehcuerliclie Gesohiohtsclirift . . .
von Qargantua und Pantagruel (1575); the
coarsely comic parody of the animal epic, Flbh-
hatis} Weibertratsi (1574) ; the anticlerical Bien-
cnkorl) des heiligcn romiftcfien Imensohirarms
(1579, suggested by the Bynenoorf of the Dutch
Marnix) ; Dor hcilige BrotJcorb (1580), an imi-
tation of Calvin's TraiU dee reliques; Daft vicr-
hornige Jesuiterhiltlcin (1580); the genially
comic Das gliickhafft Schiff von Zurich, (1576;
ed. by Baechtold, 1880) . His poems were edited
by Kurtz (Leipzig, 1860-68). Consult studies
of Fischart by Wackernn#el (Basel, 1875), Wen-
delor (Halle, 1870), and Besaon (Paris, 1880).
FtSOHBACH, flsh'bilo, FBIEDEIGH (1839-
1608). A German textile designer, born at
Aix-la-Chapelle. He was educated at the Acad-
emy of Industrial Design in Berlin and in 1802
went to Vienna, whero he worked as decorator
and designer. In 1870 he was appointed teacher
of ornamentation at the Royal Academy in
Hanau. He was director of tho newly organized
Industrial Art School at Saint-Gall from 1883
to 1888, and in 1889 settled in Wicabaden, Ger-
many. Several societies for the advancement
of industrial art were established by him, and
ho was influential in the development of textile
design in Germany. His collection of antique
fabrics and embroideries was acquired by the
Metropolitan Museum, New York, in 1909. His
principal literary works include: Ornamewte tier
Geircbc (with 100 colored plates, 1874-81);

Ceschichte der Textilkunst ( 1883 ) ; SiidslaviscTie
Ornamente (2d ed., 1872); Album filr Stickerei
(130 patterns, printed in gold and colors; later
eds,, 1872 and 1880) ; Neue Muster filr Stickerd
tind Hiikelarbeiten (3 series, 1880-83) ; Stickerei-
muster (4 parts, 1888); Hakelvorlagen (1880);
Weissstickereivorlagon (1892); Die icichtigsien
Webemustcr bis sum 19ten Jahrhundert (1900).

FISCHER, flsh'er, ABKAITAM (1850-1913).
A South African public official, born at Green
Point, Cape Town, and educated at the South
African College. Participating in the politics
of Orange Free State, he became a member of
its Volksraad in 1878 and of its Executive Coun-
cil in 1896, and also served in various colonial
and interstate conferences. During the South
African War he was president of the joint depu-
tation of the Transvaal and Orange Free State to
Europe and America. He served as chairman of
the Orangia Unie; held the premiership of the
Orange River Colony from 1007 to 1010; and
after the Union of South Africa waa formed he
became Minister of Lands in 1910, Privy Coun-
cilor in 1911, and Minister of the Interior and
Lands in 1912.

FISCHER, flsh'Sr, BEBNHABD (1852- ).
A German bacteriologist, born in Coburg and
educated at Berlin. He became M.D. in 1875,
accompanied the German Cholera Commission
to Egypt and India, in 1889 was a member of
the German Plankton Expedition, and in, 1887
became decent and in 1899 professor in the
University of Kiel, where he was also director
of tho Institute of Hygiene. He made important
bacteriological studies of sea water and sea
air; also an original and valuable classification
of bacteria, based on morphological characters,
particularly number and distribution of cilia;
and his tftntcture and Functions of Bacteria
(2d ed., 1900) is a standard work.

FISCHER, EMTL (1838-1914). A famous
German dramatic basso, born in Brnnflwiek. Hoi
made his debut in 1857 in Oraa in Boieldien's
Jean do Paris. After that he filled variout* en-
gagements in ProHHhurg, Stettin, Jind Brunswick.
From 1803-70 he was director of the opera at
Danzig. From 1875-80 lie 8ang in Rotterdam*
and from 1880-85 in Dresden. The period from
1885 to 1891 at tho Metropolitan Opera Iloune,
New York, marks the culmination of MB artiatie
triumphs. Here he not only created the busrt
roles in Wngner's later music dramas, as far a»
America is concerned, but also firmly estab-
lished his reputation aa a Wagner interpreter
ftiirpaRfled bv none and equaled by very fvw.
Especially ln« Hans Suchs is still regarded aa an
ideal not reached by any other artist. From
1895 to 1897 ho was a member of Mr. JDamrowh'H
German company, and he appeared once more,
and for the last time, at the Metropolitan Opera
House in 1904. He died in Hamburg.

FISCHER, EMIL (1852-1919), A celebrated
Gorman chemist, born at Kuakircben. He Atuclwd
at Strassburg and in 1879 was made profeasor
extraordinary tit the Univornity of Munich.
Three years latc*r lie was appointed full profe»-
sor of chemistry at Erlangcn and in 1885 was
invited to take a similar position at \Yftrzburg.
When, on the death of the celebrated A* W.
Hofrnann, the chair of organic chemistry at the
University of Berlin became vacant, Fischer was
appointed to fill the vacancy (1892). Hit* most
important achievement was the synthetic pro*
duct ion of the simple sugars and the complete
demonstration of their chemie&l constitution*

FISCHEB

6iz

FISCHEB

Although he did not succeed in synthesizing
ordinary cane sugar and the more complex
carbohydrates (such as cellulose and starch),
his researches have thrown much light on their
chemical constitution and have thus paved the
way for future success. Of very great impor-
tance, further, were his researches on the con-
stitution of substances of the "purine group"
(including the well-known alkaloids caffeine and
theobromine), the polypeptides (artificial pro-
teid-like substances), and the depsides (tannin-
like substances). His epoch-making researches,
which have created several now chapters in the
science of organic chemistry, were crowned with
the Nobel prize in 1902. His Anleitung zur
Darstellung organischer PrSparate (5th ed.,
1806; Eng. trans, by Stanford, 1909) is well
known to every student of organic chemistry.
His papers have also been published in collected
form. His publications include further Die
Cheinie der Kohlenhydrate und ihre Bedeutung
fiir die Physiologie (1894) and Chemical Re-
search in its Bearings on, National Welfare
(1912). See CABBOUTDRATKS ; POLYEFETDES;
STEREOCHEMISTRY.

PISOHEB, GCTSTAV ADOLF ( 1848-86) . A Ger-
man explorer, bom at Barmen. In 1876 he ac-
companied the Denhardt East African exploring
expedition to Zanzibar, where he settled as a
physician, and in the following year explored
Wito and the southern Galla country. In 1878
he continued his journey to Wapokoraoland and
along the Tana River to Mass a. With the sup-
port of the Geographical Society of Hamburg
he visited the Massai country in 1882 and pene-
trated from the mouth of the Pagani to Lake
Xaivaftha. The hostile attitude of tho natives
prevented him from aidvatu-ing farther. Equipped
with funds by the brother of Junker, an
explorer, who with Emm Pasha and Casati had
been lost in the equatorial provinces, he or-
ganissed a relief expedition, which, however, was
compelled to return aftor reaching Lake Vic-
toria Nyanzsa. Shortly after his- arrival in Ger-
many in 1886, he died of a bilious fever con-
tracted during this journey. He wrote: Mchr
Licht im dunkeln Weltteil (1885), Das Masai-
Land (1885), as well as articles in Zcitschrift
fftr Ethnologic and in the Verhandlungen of the
Hamburg Geographical Society.

FISCHEB, JEAN Cnrcfrnmsr (c.1716-62). A
Gorman soldier in the French service, born in
Stuttgart and educated at Giesscn. He entered
the French army about 1737 and fought in the,
War of the Austrian Succession. In 1743 he
was authorized by the Marshal do Belle-Isle to
raise a company, which was called Fischer's
chasseurs, tho origin of that branch in the
French army. He was a prisoner from 1740 to
1748. He served in India and distinguished
himself in the Seven. Year*' War, was made
brigadier for his bravery at Arloff (1750), added
to his fame at Clostercamp (1760), resigned Ms
command to the Marquis de Conflana (1700),
but still fought in his old troop with the rank
of a lieutenant colonel. He was killed in a duel
with a French officer who challenged him after
the French defeat at Wilhelmsthal (June 24,
1762).

FISCHEB, JOHANW GEOBG (1816-97). A
German poet, born at Gross-Stissen, Wttrttem-
berg. Ho taught at Langenau, Ulm, and Stutt-
gart, and in 1860 was appointed professor at the
scientific high school in the latter city. As a
poet, Fischer may be regarded as the last note-

worthy representative of the traditional Suafoian
school. He was not in sympathy with modern
naturalism and was influenced by Schiller,
Goethe, Eolderlin, and especially Morike. He
was in the fullest sense a poet of Nature, whose
every mood he portrays in his verses. Scarcely
less meritorious are his love poems, of which he
composed a great number, and which also are
animated by an enthusiastic personification and
idealization of Nature. Fischer has been called
by his admirers "Der schwabische Frauenlob."
Among his principal productions are the follow-
ing: Gedichte (3d ed., 1883) ; Aus frischer Luft
(2d ed., 1873); Neue Gedichte (1891); Saul,
a drama ( 1862 ) ; Friedrich der Zweite von
ffohenstaufen, a drama (1863) ; Florian Qeyer*
der Volksheld im deutschen Bauernkrieg (1866) ;
Kaiser Maximilian von Afesoiko, a drama ( 1868 ) .

FISCHEB, JOSEF (1858- ). A German
historian and geographer, born in Quadrath,
near Cologne. He studied at Mlinster, Munich,
Vienna, and Innsbruck; in 1881 became a Jesuit;
then studied at Ditton, in England, and, taking
up history and geography, in Vienna and Inns-
bruck; and in 1805 began teaching geography
at the Jesuit "Stella Matutina" in Feldkirch.
In 1803-08 ho wrote several volumes on Austrian
history, but his more important, later work was
on tho early cartography and exploration of
America. Tne titles of his principal works
are: Die Wntdeckungcn der Normamten in
Amerika (1002; Eng. trans, by Soulsby, Dis-
coveries of the "Norsemen in America, 1003);
Die altcste Karte mit dem Wamen America
(1903); Waldseemuller's Oosmographie Intro-
ductio (1007, with Von Wieser), including an
English version of Vespucci's Voyages; Die
Wcltkarte des Jodoous Hondius (11)07, with
Luther Stovenson) ; Der doutsche Ptolemiius
(1010) ; Claud davits, the First Cartographer
of America (1011) ; Die handschriftliche Ueber-
lieferwng der Ptolemttuskarten (1012); An Im-
portant rtolcmy Afanuswipt (1913).

FISCHER, KTJNO ( 1824^-1907 ) . A noted Ger-
man philosopher and literary critic. Ho was
born at Sanclewalde, Silesia, studied at the uni-
versities of Leipzig and Halle, in 1860 became
an instructor in philosophy at Heidelberg, and
when his lectureship had been withdrawn in
1853 by direction of the Baden ministry, con-
tinued researches at Heidelberg and was in
1856 appointed a lecturer at Berlin. He had,
however, a abort time previously accepted an
honorary professorship at Jena and continued
to occupy it until 1872, when he was called to
the chair of philosophy (to succeed Zeller) and
modern German literature at Heidelberg. He
achieved high distinction us academic lecturer,
orator, and author. His philosophical viewpoint
is, with some modifications, Hegelian. His chief
work is the OtcftchicJrtc der n&itern Philosophic
, (jubilee edition in 10 vols., 1897-1003), at once
the most extensive and the most distinguished
exposition of the subject. In 1860 his jffottto
Leben und die (trundlagen seiner Lehre lent the
first real impulse to the so-called "return to
Kant." His controversy with Trendelenburg is
noteworthy. Important among his further pub-
lications are: SohUler-Schriften (2d ed., 1801-
02) ; Lcssings Nathan der Weise (1896) ; Baruch
SpwMffas Leben vnd Oharakter (1865) ; Goethe-
tiahriftcn (8 vols., 1895*1900); Shakespeare's
Hamlet (1896); and several "Featreden/' such
aa Qoethe m Heidelberg (1899).

FISCHEB, Lunwio HVNS (1848- ). An

FISCHEB

612

FISH

Austrian landscape painter and etcher, born at
Salzburg. A pupil, at the Vienna Academy, of
Lichtenfels in painting, of Jacoby in engraving,
and of Unger in etching, he completed his studies
by travels in Italy, Spain, north Africa, Egypt,
and India, and afterward settled in Vienna.
Three of his oil paintings, including a "View of
Jerusalem," are in the Vienna Museum, and nine
decorative landscapes are in the Museum of
Natural History there. Among a series of
etchings and engravings the cycle "Historical
Landscapes from Austria-Hungary" is his most
remarkable production. He also painted many
excellent water colors and published Die Teclinik
der Aquarellmalerei (8th ed., 1901), and wrote
numerous magazine articles accompanied by
clearly defined and spirited drawings.

FISCHEB,, fe'shi', PAUL HENBI (1835-93).
A French paleontologist and naturalist, born in
Paris. Having obtained his doctorate in sciences
and in medicine, he was appointed assistant in
paleontology at the Museum of Natural History.
In 1872 he became assistant naturalist at the
name institution. He was at different times
president of the Socie"t6 Geologioue do France
and the Socie'te* Zoologique de France and in
1880 was a member of the commission for sub-
marine dredging. From 1856 he edited, with
Bernard!, the Journal de conohyliologie. His
publications include: Fauna conchyliologique ma-
rine de la Qwonde et du sufcouest de la France
(18U5; enlarged by a Supplement in 1875);
Reclierches sur les Actinies des cdtes oocaniques
de France (1876); a Manuel de conchyliologie
(1885) ; Paleontologie de I'tle de Rhodes (1887).

FISCHER, fisher, THEOBALD ( 1846-1910) . A
German geographer, born Oct. 31, 1846, at
Kirchsteitz, near Leitz, in Thuringia, and edu-
cated at Heidelberg, Halle, Bonn, and Vienna.
In 1871 he went to Brussels as a private tutor
and eventually to Paris. Ho was professor of
geography at Kiel from 1879 to 1883, when he
took the same chair at Marburg, holding it until
his death. He was a specialist on Mediterranean
geography. In 1886 he visited the Tunisian
Sahara and in 1888 made a tour through
Morocco and Algeria. In addition to numerous
contributions to scientific periodicals his pub*
lications include: JKaccolta dei mappemondi e
carte nautiche del XIU al XVI sooolo (10
atlases, containing 70 leaves, 1881) ; Beitriige
vur Oeschiohte der Erdkunde und dor JCarto-
graphic vn> Italien im Mittelalter (1880) ; "Die
stideuTopilischen Halbinscln," in KirchhofPs
Allgemevtie LGnderkunde, is considered his
masterpiece. The section dealing with Italy
was translated under the title of La Pern-
sola ItaUana.

FISCHER VON ERLACH, flsh'Sr f6n eV-
Ifta, JOHANN BEBNIIABD (1650-1723). An Aus-
trian architect, born in Vienna. Returning to
Vienna after a period of study in Homo, he was ,
employed on the most important buildings of
the late seventeenth and early eighteenth cen-
turies in that city. Among the most notable of
his works, all of which were designed in the
extreinest phase of the Baroque (q.v.) style,
were the palace of Schtfabruim, the Hofbibliothek
(Royal Library), the palace of Prince Eugene,
and the church of San Carlo Borromco; besides
works in Breslau and Prague. His son, Joseph
Emanuel, completed tlio library and church above
mentioned after his death.

FISCHER VOW WALDHEIM, vJtlf/htm,
GOTTHELF (1771-185;)). A lluoHian physician

and naturalist, born at Waldheim, Saxony.
After holding a professorship at Mainz, he ac-
cepted a call to Moscow (1803), where he be-
came professor of natural history and director
of the university museum devoted to that branch
of science. In* 1808 he founded the Society of
Naturalists at Moscow. He published numerous
works on comparative anatomy, on the nutrition
of plants, and on galvanism. One of the most
important of these is the BibliograpJiia Palceon-
tologica AnimaUum Systematica (2d ed., 1834).

FISCTTS. See JSBABIUM.

FISET, fe'zS', Louis JOSEPH CYPRIEN ( 1825-
). A Canadian poet. He was born in
Quebec, was educated privately and at Quebec
Seminary, and was called to the bar in 1848.
He was ' soon afterward appointed a prothono-
tary of the Superior Court of the Province of
Quebec, an office which he held for many years.
In I860, when the Prince of Wales (afterward
Edward VII) arrived at Quebec, the ode of wel-
come to him was written by Fiset. In 1867 his
poem on the discovery of America won a prize
in a poetical competition at Laval University.
He was a frequent contributor to La, Ruche
Litteraire (Montreal), to Les Soirees Canada,
and to La litttiraire Canadicnne (Quebec). He
was one of the founders of I/Institut Canadien
(Quebec), and afterward became its president.
He retired on a pension in 1898. He published
Ju&e ct Grasia, ow les malheurs dc Immigration
canadicnne ( 1861 ) .

FISET, MA.EIB JOSEPH EUGENE (1874- ).
A Canadian soldier. He was born at Rimouski,
Province of Quebec, and was educated at Ri-
monski College anil at Laval University, where
he graduated in medicine in 1806. He had en-
tered the volunteer militia service as a lieuten-
ant in 1800, was promoted major in 1808, and
was brevctted lieutenant colonel in 1901 for his
services iu the South African War: in 1900 he
had been at Paardeberg, Poplar Grove, Drie-
fontein, Jlout Nek, and Zand River; al«o in
Orange River Colony and eastern and western
Transvaal. In 1003 ho was promoted lieutenant
colonel, army medical service, and also staff
adjutant of medical services; in 1903-OC ho was
director of gen^ral medical services ; and he waa
then appointed Deputy Minister of Militia and
Defense. He received the Queen's medal with
four clasps, and the decoration of the Distin-
guished Service Order.

FISH (AS. fisc, Ger. Piscfi; connected with
Lat. piftoift, OTr. iasc, fish). A backboned animal
which lives in water, breathes by means of #ilK
and possesses paired fins. Such animal* consti-
tute the class Pisces, but popularly the term
"fish" includes, in addition to the Above, certain
other lower vertebrates, the laneelets (Ix»pto-
cardii) and the round-mouths (Cyolostomata),
not to mention the ignorant error of speaking
of whalcjs, etc., as "ftah."

Form. Tt is almost impossible to describe the.
form of a fish in terms that would include ail the
different varieties, notwithstanding the fact that
the group as a whole presents a greater uniformity
of form than other vertebrate groups, e.#., birds.
The majority, however, have a mow or less
elongated body, tapering at both ends. The
variations in form can usually be correlated with
the habits of the fish. The great variety of
habitats into which the fish have been crowded,
and to which they have become adapted, haa re-
sulted in great diversity of form, though this
diversity in mostly concerned with detail, tear*

FISH

613

FISH

ing, as stated above, a characteristic fish form
as a whole. The typical symmetry of a fish is
embodied in such forms as the trout.

FORMS OF SCALES.

1, 2, cycloid scales; 3, 4, 5, 6, ctonoid scales: 7, Ranoid
scales; 8, 0, dermal papilla (from Monacanthuti) ; 10, 11,
cycloid scales from lateral line.

Integument. Fishes are usually covered by
scales or bony platos. Those may become very
minute, as in eels, or may be entirely wanting,
as in the leather carp, in certain eels, and in
many of the cat fishes. Scales may ^ be cither
bony or horny and are generally imbricated like
slates on a roof, the free end being backward.
They arise from the deeper layer of the skin,
the derma, grow outward and backward, and re-
main covered by a thin layer of epidermis. Bony
plates are attached by the whole of one surface
and usually have a coat of enamel, which is
derived from the epi-
dermis, while the bony
base arises from the
derma. The differences
of character in the scales
have been made the ba-
sis of a classification of
fishes by Louis Agassiz,
according to whom all

flat, platelike, as in the rays, or long and sharp,
as in certain sharks. The conditions in the
sharks and in certain other groups show in the
clearest way, by their structure and transitional
forms, that they are merely modified dermal
plates or denticles. In the more recent fishes
they are not restricted to the edge of the
mouth, but may occur in the roof and floor, and
on the tongue, gill bars, and pharynx. The
epidermis of fishes contains unicellular glands,
which secrete the mucus covering their body,
and pigment cells giving rise to the colors of the
body.

Skeleton. The skeleton of fishes consists of
the skull with its visceral skeleton, the vertebral
axis with its processes, the pelvic and pectoral
girdles, and the supporting elements of the
various fins. This in the lower cartilaginous
fishes consists only of cartilage, no true bones
being present. The skull, which in the higher
fishes is a complicated structure, in the elasmo-
branchs consists of a rather simple cartilaginous
hollow case, the chondrocranium, inclosing the
brain, and not composed of distinct pieces. As
one ascends the scale, bones are added to this
chondrocranium from the outside, arising as
dermal ossifications; these are probably merely
highly modified dermal plates. In the ganoids
the chondrocranium generally persists with cen-
tres of ossification present, and the whole head
is incased in dermal bones. In the higher bony
fishes the chondrocranium is usually replaced by
cartilage bones with many dermal bones added.
To the lower part of the skull in all fishes a
series of arches are attached. These form the
lower jaw and the hyoid and gill arches. The
backbone generally consists of a series of ver-
tebras which, with the exception of Lepidosteus,
are biconcave. Dorsally they bear neural arches
inclosing the spinal cord, and these are prolonged
dorsally as a neural spine, varying in length.

fishes arc distributed
into four orders, Cy-
cloidei, Ctcnoidei, Pla-
coidci, and Ganoidei,
This classification was
very artificial and did
not admit many inter-
mediate cases, or the
cases where more than

OPEN MOUTH OF A SALMON, one kind of scale was
Show* arrangement of max- possessed by the same
iHarp, psdatino, and vomerine nsh and has long been
t*t& in fishes. disused, but it has been

found very convenient in the study of fossil
fishes. Here also it is giving way to a more
natural classification. The dermal plates may
become variously specialized, giving rise to
spinea, teeth, etc. The teeth vary greatly in
size, shape, and arrangement. They may be

VBBTBJBRA. 0V A BONY FISH.

Front and side view*. c» centrum; na>
pa, parapophyaig; Aa, hamttpophysis; rw, neural spine;
fo, haemal spine; «a, aygapophysis.

Vcntrally the vertebrae bear ribs in the anterior
portion, and in the caudal region there are
htcraal arches inclosing the caudal artery and
vein. These arches are prolonged vontrally as a
htttmal spine. In some elasmobranchs, in the
clumseras, in the lungftshes, and in some ganoids,
there are no such definite vertebra developed,
but the notochord, which in the teleosts persists
only as remains in the cavities between the ad-

21SH

614

joining centra, is a continuous rod. The neural
and haemal arches and the ribs are variously
developed. In most of the elasmobranchs there
are present definite biconcave vertebras with
neural and hcemal arches, transverse processes,

VHBTBBB-aBl OP A CARTILAGINOUS FISH.

1. Side view. 2. Longitudinal section. 3. Transverse
section of caudal vertebra of a shark.

a, cent rum; Z>, neurapophysis; c, mtercrural cartilage;
dt hfiemapophysis; e, spinal canal; /, intervertebral cavity:
g, central canal of persistent portion of notochord; A, haemal
canals for blood vessels.

and rudimentary ribs, but they remain carti-
laginous or become only slightly ossified. The
centra are pierced by a canal through which
remains of the notochord are continuous. The
posterior end of the spinal column forms the
basis of the caudal fin. See SKELETON.

The fins are supported by cartilaginous or
bony rods. In the dorsal and anal these rods do
not join those of the internal skeleton directly,
but, embedded in the flesh, are interposed be-
tween the spinous processes of the vertebrae. The
paired fins, not always all present, represent the
typical fore and hind limbs of quadrupeds. They
consist of a basal set of bones, varying in num-
ber and arrangement in the different groups,
bearing the radiating fin rays, and articulating
proximally with the pelvic or shoulder girdle.
The girdles are cartilaginous in elasmobranchs,
lungnshes, and sturgeons; but in tcleosts this,
like the chondrocranium, has additions in the
way of dermal bones, which have become as-
sociated with it. The pelvic bones may be em-
bedded in the muscles of the abdomen, or may
occur farther anterior and become fastened to
the pectoral girdle. In some fishes the pelvic
fins, which answer to the hind foot of quadru-
peds, are actually farther forward than the
pectoral fins and arc then called jugular. In
some fishes, as in the common eel, the ventral
fins are wanting, while in others both pairs may
be absent* In lungfishes "the skeleton of the
pectoral fin consists of a stout basal cartilage,
an elongated, tapering central axis made up of
a number of short cartilaginous segments, and
two rows of jointed cartilaginous rays extend-
ing out on either side of the axis." See FIN.

Internal Structure. The respiratory organs
of fishes consist of gills and, in the case of
Dipnoi, of gills and lungs. In the region of the
pharynx the alimentary canal communicates with
the exterior on each side by a series of slits
called gill clefts. The water passing through
the mouth into the pharynx escapes to the ex-
terior through these gill clefts. The bars bound-
ing these clefts have attached to them the gills,
which are merely the mucous membrane of the
bars raised up into a number of ridges, called
branchial filaments. These are highly vascular,
the blood entering them being venous in charac-
ter, and they constitute the true respiratory
organs. The water passing through the clefts
bathes the filaments and effects the necessary
interchange of .gases. In the lungfishes the air
bladder has assumed the function of a lung.

This organ IB not a smooth-walled bag, as in
other fishes, but a highly vascular, much-
chambered organ. The air enters it through a
connection with the pharynx. See GILL; RES-
PIRATORY SYSTEM.

The air, or swimming, U adder of fishes is a
sac, usually unpaired, filled with gas and lying
dorsal to the intestine. Embryologically it cor-
responds with the lungs, us it arises as a di-
vertieulum of the intestine, and in this connec-
tion may persist as the pneumatic duct, or in
other cases may be wholly lost. The function
of the air bladder is not always clear. When it
is supplied with venous blood, as in Dipnoi and
Amia, and its gases are periodically exchanged
for outside air, it doubtless functions as a lung.
When it is supplied with arterial blood or when
it is a closed sac, its function is supposed to be
hydrostatic.- It may, in addition, serve as a
storehouse for oxygen taken in by the gills.
The contraction and expansion both of the
bladder and of the body musculature serve to
condense and expand the air in the bladder and
thus may aid the fish in rising or sinking in the
water. Unequal anterior, posterior, or lateral
pressure on the bladder nmy likewise aid the
fish in directing its course. In some fishes the
forked anterior end of the air bladder fits closely
against the posterior wall of the auditory cap-
sule. In carps and siluroids the bladder and
auditory organs are connected by a chain of
bones. 'Such connections doubtless enable the
fish to become more keenly «en»itive to any
change in hydrostatic pressure in the bladder. *
Except in teleosts, where a comis arteriosus
is wanting, the heart of fishes consists of (1)
a sinus venosus, (2) one auricle, (3) one ven-
tricle, and (4) a conus arteriosua. In the
tcleosts the conus is represented by the bulbus
arteriosus, which, however, is a part of the
aorta and does not undergo rhythmical contrac-
tion like the conus. The sinus venosus i« a
thin-walled expansion of the afferent veins, and
a sort of antechamber to the thin-walled auricle*.
From the latter the blood passes into the thick-
walled, muscular ventricle, thence either into the
ventral aorta (teleoats) or into the conuw. From
the conus the ventral aorta extends forward a
short distance and then divide* on each side into
a number of branches (afferent branchial
arterioa), which pass through the #ill arehct*,
breaking up there into capillaries in the gill
filaments, which recollect into the efferent bran-
chial arteries. These unite above the pharynx
as a single large artery, the dorsal aorta, winch
passes backward through the entire length of the
body, supplying the different organs. The moat
important branches given off ar« the carotid*
to the head, the subcluvian to the pectoral lias,
the mesenteric and cooliac to the digestive or-
gans, the renal to the kidneys, the spermatic or
ovarian to the reproductive glands, and the iliac
to the pelvic fins. Posteriorly the aorta is con-
tinued as the, caudal artery. From the anterior
part the blood is returned by the jugular vein;
from the pectoral fin by the subclaviau:
from the digestive system by the hepatic portal
to the liver; thence by the hepatic; and from
the other portions of the body oy the cardinal,
All these enter the sinus venosus. Tlwfl, in all
except the lungfishes the heart contains only
venous blood. All the blood on its course to
the system passes through the gills first and in
there purified. In the lungfishes, where the air
bladder functions as a lung, some arterial blood

reaches the heart from the air bladder by the
pulmonary vein. This empties into the left side
of the sinus venosus. The sinus venosus, the
auricle, and the conus are imperfectly divided in
the lungfishes, suggesting the condition in am-
phibia. The blood corpuscles of fishes are nu-
cleated.

The central nervous system in fishes consists,
as in other vertebrates, of a brain and spinal
cord and the sympathetic system. The brain.

? resents the usual divisions of the higher forms,
t lies in the aurae plane -with the spinal cord
and exhibits no flexures. The brain does not
completely fill the cranial cavity, and the in-
tervening space is filled with the gelatinous
arachnoid tissue. In the teleosts the optic lobes
and the cerebellum constitute the largest divi-
sions, the cerebrum remaining very poorly de-
veloped. In the elasmobranchs the olfactory
lobes may be enormously developed. Ten cranial
and many spinal nerves leave the brain and
spinal cord. The sympathetic system presents
the usual character and relations found in verte-
brates. The emotions of fishes (manifestations
of anger, fear, etc.), indicative of the mental
status, are extensively considered in the Pro-
ceedings of the Zoological Society of London
for 1878.

Sense Organs. Unequally scattered over the
body of fishes there are the so-called "end buds,"
modifications of the epidermis. Tn structure
these sense organs largely resemble taste buds,
which in the, vertebrates above fishes are re-
stricted to the mouth cavity. In fishes those
end buds arc probably also taste organs, since
it has been shown that a fish can taste with its
akin. Besides thes« there are other aggregations
of sense cells, probably tactile in function. Situ-
ated within longitudinal grooves or pits are
senwe cells, probably largely tactile in function,
known as the lateral-line organs. These grooves
open by definite pores to the surface. There is
UHually one series of such along each side, known
as the "lateral line," but there may al«o be de.-
velopod a more or less complicated sywtom of
grooves on the head. Many fishes have filamen-
tous appendages, more or lowj definitely arranged
around the mouth and nose, known as barbels.
Cave-dwelling fishes, which havo lo*t their pdwe.r
of sight, have strongly developed tactile papillae*
on the head. The organs of smell are a pair of
pits in the skin at the anterior dor sum of the
head, lined with sonsu cells. There are no in-
ternal nares except in the Dipnoi, but the pits
open to tho surface by the external narea, each
more or less completely divided into two, to
permit the water to enter one, bathe the sense
surface, and escape by the other. Fishes have
no external and middle ear, but merely the
inner, consisting of the semicircular canals, with
their ampullte, a saeculus, and utriculus. The
otoliths are large. Various experiments point to
tho conclusion that the oar in fishes is merely
an organ of equilibrium. The eyes have the
usual structure of the vertebrate eye. The ac-
cessory organs, like tho lids and lachrymal
glands, are poorly developed. Byes may be ab-
sent in cave and deep-sea forms. See NERVOUS
SYSTEM, EVOLUTION OF.

The digestive system consists, as in other
vertebrates, of the alimentary canal, with its
more or less definitely marked divisions (mouth,
c, gullet, stomach, and intestine) , and its
liver, gall bladder, and the pancreas,
mouth and its teeth present the greatest

variety in form and arrangement. The pharynx
opens to the surface by the gill clefts as above
indicated. The gullet* and stomach vary with
the food habits of the fish. Predatory fishes
swallow and stow away large objects. An ex-
treme instance is the deep-sea fish Cliiasmodus
niger, which has been taken with a fish in its
distensible stomach larger than itself. At the
junction of the stomach and intestine, in ganoids
and in nearly all teleosts, are given off a num-
ber of blind sacs, the pyloric ctcca. These may
be very numerous. The intestine in all fishes
except teleosts has a spiral valve in the form
of a ridge running spirally along the wall and
projecting into the interior of the intestine. The
alimentary canal opens either with the urino-
genital ducts into a common chamber, the
cloaca, or, as in teleosts, ganoids, and Dipnoi,
separately to the exterior. There are no sali-
vary glands. See ALIMHBNTABT SYSTEM, EVOLU-
TION OF.

The eacretory organs in all fishes are a pair
of glands situated just under the backbone and
protruding into the body cavity. The excretion
is carried away by a ureter, which empties va-
riously in the different groups of fishes. In the
* elasmobranchs and Dipnoi the kidneys extend for
about two-thirds the length of the body cavity,
and the ureters, having united, open into the
cloaca as a common duet. In tho teleosts and
ganoids the glands may occupy the entire length
of the body cavity. .Tho ureters open into a
urinary bladder, and this into the urinogenital
sinus, the latter opening separately to the ex-
terior. See EXCKETOBY SYSTICM, COMPARATIVE
ANATOMY OF.

Reproduction, The sexes are separate. The
testes and ovaries arc paired organs varying in
shape and position in tho abdominal cavity with
the different groups. The products of the male
and those of the female may or may not be led to
the exterior by a dual In the male this may
be a more or less convoluted vas deforeus or a
simple continuation of a ba#. In tolecmtfl the
tester or ovaries are simply continued posteriorly
as a duct which empties into the urinogcuital
sinus. Tn case there is no oviduct the eggs
break free into the body cavity and pass into
the urinogcnttal sinus by a pair of slits in the
anterior wall. In ganoidn there is always an
oviduct. In the clasmobranchs and Holocephali
there is an oviduct, usually quito highly de-
veloped, opening into the cloaca. In many
talcostfl and in nearly all elasmobranchs and
Holocjoplmli the eggs are fertilized in the body
of tho mother. In many instances the egg de-
velops there to quite an advanced stage. In nil
other fiflhes the milt is poured over the eggs as
they are extruded, or into tho wat<>r in the im-
mediate vicinity. In elasmobranchs and Holo-
cephali thfl "claspers" act as intromittcnt organs,
by which the milt is introduced into the body of
the fomale. In the ovoviviparous teleosts the
anterior portion of the anal fin is modified into
an intromittent organ.

Breeding Habits. Fishes that lay eggs show
no parental care, as a rule, cither for their eggs
or young. The eggs are fastened to rocks or
weeds or other objects, and the eggs and young
are left to shift for thcmfielves. In many marine
species tho eggs are extruded into the "water, and
during their first period of development float at
the surface and are carried about by tho cur-
rents. Tn all such cases the loss both of eggs
and young must be very great, and to meet this

PISH

616

FISH

loss such species usually produce enormous
numbers of eggs. Thus, a single large cod may
produce in a single year 10,000,000 eggs. On
the other hand, in some species there is consider-
able care bestowed upon the eggs and young by
the parents — this duty usually falling to the
male. The sticklebacks (q.v.) are well-known
instances. The male builds a nest of sticks,
grass, etc., cementing them together with a
sticky excretion, and guards the nest and eggs
during incubation. In some of the Siluridas,
after the young are ready to leave the nest, the
male may be seen leading the brood about,
guarding it until the individuals are better able
to shift for themselves. This instinct is found
in other families. The cave blindfish (Anibly op-
sis) retains the eggs during incubation in its
capacious gill cavity. The sea horse develops a
brood pouch along the ventral side of the body,
in which the eggs and young are harbored.
Many marine fishes, like the shad and the sal-
mon, ascend the rivers each season to spawn.
These migrations may be for great distances and
against the greatest difficulties, such as rapids
and falls. Such migratory species are known as
anadromous fishes. The reverse process takes
place in the case of the eel, which goes to the
ocean to spawn.

The spawning season of most species is dur-
ing the spring months. In the tropics, where
the rainy and dry seasons alternate, these are
determining factors in the time of spawning of
certain species. Many species spawn during the
colder months, e.g., the Salmonidse. Many fishes
show on the approach of the breeding season
a noticeable sexual difference, the male being
marked by more brilliant colors, or by the tem-
porary growth of tubercles on the head and
other portions of the body. Many species, how-
ever, do not exhibit this sexual dimorphism.*

The eggs of fishes vary greatly in size and
shape. The typical fish egg is globular, more or
less transparent, having a tough protective mem-
brane, within which the yolk-laden egg proper
lies. The yolk is present in sufficient amount
to maintain the embryo until it can swim about
and feed for itself. The outer protective mem-
brane is very commonly sticky, to enable it to
cling to stones, weeds, etc. Sometimes eggs stick
together in clusters. In other cases the outer
coat has tufts of fine filaments with which the
egg fastens itself to weeds. The shark's eggs
are inclosed in large, horny, purse-shaped cases
within which the embryo is developed. The pe-
riod of incubation is very various. In certain
pelagic eggs the embryo emerges from the eggs
in 24 to 48 hours after deposit, while in other
cases, as the trout, the period extends over three
to six months. See EGG; EMBEYOLOOY.

Pood. The food of fishes includes all sorts of
vegetable and animal matter and forms. Some
are omnivorous. Others aro exceedingly choice
about their food, living almost exchisivcly upon
certain species of Crustacea, for instance. Some,
like the carp, are vegetarians, and the smaller
fishes are the principal food of the larger, preda-
cious forms, like the trout and blue fish. Many
species subsist entirely upon the minute organ-
isms they can strain out of the water.

Distribution in Space and Time, About
13,000 species of living fishes arc known. Jn
their distribution fishes are almost coextensive
with water. The greatest variety is found in
the tropics. Many families are exclusively ma-
rine, others as exclusively of the fresh water,

while many have representatives in both, or
spend a portion of their time in each. Certain
groups, like the Cyprinodontinae, are distributed
only along the shallow shore waters; others,
like the sharks and bluefish, are pelagic, living
on the high seas, and such usually have a wide
distribution. The ocean depths have their pe-
culiar fish fauna — species modified for these
peculiar conditions and unable to subsist at the
surface. These species, living in darkness, often
have no eyes, and many are phosphorescent.
The coldest latitudes harbor their fishes. Some
families, like the cod, are prevailingly dis-
tributed in colder waters, and certain species
have been taken in lakes above the line of per-
petual snow. Temperature is one of the im-
portant factors in determining the distribution
.of fishes. Deep-sea forms, where the tempera-
ture is uniform, have a wide distribution. The
r logical history of any region, with the changes
the river systems, etc., it has brought about,
is another important factor. See DEEP-SEA EX-
PLORATION; DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS; CAVE
ANIMALS; EVOLUTION.

Ancestry. The medium in which fishes live
and the hard and almost indestructible nature
of some portions of their skeleton, as their teeth,
spines, and scales, would lead us to anticipate
their frequent occurrence in the sedimentary
rocks; but inasmuch as the soft parts of the
animal aro liable to speedy decomposition, the
remains of fish imist often exist in a fragmentary
and scattered condition. Thus, the teeth in the
shark, the spine defense in the sting ray, and
the scales in the bony pike would survive the
total destruction of the cartiltiginouK skeleton
as well as the soft portions. Many quite com-
plete casts of skeletons, however, have Ix'en ob-
tained, so that not a little is known of the past
history of the group. The earliest fishes oc-
curred in the Upper Silurian. Remains of all
of the main groups, excepting the higher teleosts,
have been found from this period. Among the
eliismobranchs the earlier forms wen* quite dis-
tinct from nny now living, with the possible
exception of the Port Jackson Hluirk (q.v.K
These forms flourished to the Triatwic period,
and in the. case of the eeatraeiontH to the Kocene.
The recent olnHmobranclM appeared in the late
Triassic or curly Jurassic, and were more abun-
dant in the past than at present. The Dipnoi
flourished in the Triaasic. The ganoids were a
dominant group tip to Miocene times, but at
present exist in mere remnants. Tlw dominant
fishes of to-day, viz., the higher teleorftH, first
appeared in numbers during the Jimisaic and
Cretaceous periods. These at the present day
exhibit the greatest diversity in type. In times
past the other groups prenented thia great
variety of form, and it is mainlv those, species
that returned the more generalized characters
that survived and aro present with us now. See
EXTINCTION OF SPROIES,

Economic Value. By far the most important
use of fishes to man is in supplying him with
food, and in »omc regions they form the princi-
pal moaiia of subsistence. Borne fishes* never-
theless, are unpalatable, and ev<m poisonous to
a greater or smaller extent. The skin of some
cartilaginous fishes yields shagreen, and the air
bladder of some species yields isinglass. The
minute laminre which give brilliancy of color to
some, and the similar substance found in the
air bladder of others, afford the materials of
which artificial pearls aro made. Oil uaeful for

FISH

617

FISH

lamps, etc., is obtained from several species, and
the medicinal value of cod-liver oil is now well
known. See FISHERIES.

Classification. History of Ichthyology. —
Among the ancient students of ichthyology, that
branch of natural history which treats of fishes,
the first to be mentioned, as usual, is Aristotle.
In modern times ichthyology began to be culti-
vated about the middle of the sixteenth century
by Belon, Rondelet, and Salviani. Their work
was of value locally only. The first work of real
value, and which marks the beginning of a sys-
tem based on scientific principles, was that of
Willughby and Ray, which appeared in 1686
under the title Historia Pisoium. Here a dis-
tinct effort at classification was made. They
divided all fishes into two classes, Cartilaginei
and Ossei. Each of these classes was divided
into two groups, on the basis of the form of the
body— the Cartilagjinei into Longi, including the
sharks, and Lati, including the skates; and the
Ossei into Plani, including the flatfishes, and
non-Plani, including all others. It is at once
evident how artificial this classification is.
Artedi, whoso writings, on account of his death,
wore published by Linnceus, worked out a sys-
tem of classification considerably influenced by
Willughby and Ray. He included the ceta-
ceans among the fishes. His system was adopted
by Liniuxius in his earlier editions of Systems
Katura, but later (1758) Linnaeus devised an
original classification, which, among other
changes, eliminated tho Cctacea from the fishes
and placed them with the mammals. The classi-
fication worked out by Bloch and Schneider was
superficial in the extreme. The number of fins
present was tho b«wiB of their division into
ilonopterygia, Dipterygia, etc. This work was
published in 1801. Bloch, in 1782-96, published
a largo, and important work on fishes, compris-
ing nine volumes with fine illustrated plates, in
which he described about 400 species. Several
other authors wrote extensively on fishes during
the last half of the eighteenth century and tho
beginning of the nineteenth. Among these is to
be mentioned Laccp&de, ffistoire nattirclto dcs
poissons (5 vols., Paris, 1803), in which 1400
species were described. During the first quarter
of the nineteenth century Cuvicr did much on
the classification of fishes, his system appearing
in his RAgne Animal (Bonn, 1830). The anato-
mist Johannes Mtiller published in 1846 a
natural classification which influenced tho sys-
tems to a very high degree. Ho divided fishes
into Leptocardii, Marsippbranchii, Elasmobran-
chii, Oanoidea, Teleostei, and Dipnoi* Louis
•AgattHia (q.v.) advanced our knowledge both of
living and fofiail fishes. Influenced by the latter,
he divided the- class into four groups on the
character of their scales: placoid, ganoid, cy-
cloid, and ctenoid. This classification, though
convenient in many ways for the study of fossil
remains, was adopted by scarcely any of the
authorities. Albert Gttnther, in his Catalogue
of Fishes in ... the British Museum (London,
1850-70), has largely modeled the modern sys-
tem of classification. Among the more recent
influential American ichthyologists are Thebdore
Gill, the late K. D. Cope, and David Starr Jor-
dan, whose historical review of ichthyology in
the Proceedings of the American Association
for the Advancement of Science for 1902 is very
complete.

Present Arrangement. The subphylum Ver-
tebrata includes as the lowest in rank of its

groups several series of fishlike vertebrates,
divisible first into Acraniata (the lancelets [Lep-
tocardii] only; see AMPHIOXTJS), and Oraniata,
which includes all the remainder. The fishlike
Craniata fall into two classes:

I. CYCLOSTOMATA. Characterized chiefly by
having "a suctorial mouth devoid of functional
jaws" and by the absence of paired fins; these
are the lampreys and hagfishes (orders Petro-
myzontes and Myxinoidei).

II. PISCES. Characterized by having the or-
gans of respiration (gills) and the organs of
locomotion (paired fins) adapted for an aquatic
life. The class is divided into subclasses, as
follows :

1. Elasmolranohii. — Pisces with a skeleton
composed essentially of cartilage — the
sharks, rays, etc., divided into three orders,
Cladoselacliea, Pleuracanthea, Acanthodea,
and Selachii. The first three arc represented
by Paleozoic fossil forms. The last includes
many extinct and all the existing forms.

2. Holocephali. — Sharklike Pisces, with a large
compressed head and a single external bran-
chial aperture. It includes only the family
Chiinscridse ( chimocras ) .

3. Tcteostowu.— Pisces "distinguished from the
Elasmobranchii and Holoccphali by having
the primary skull and shoulder girdle com-
plicated by the addition of membrane bones,
and by possessing bony instead of hornlike
fin rays." This includes all of the common
"bony fishes," as well as the so-called ganoid
fishes. Its orders are: Crossopterygii (bi-
chir, etc.) ; Chondrostei (sturgeons) ; Holes-
tei (garpikcs, etc.) ; Teleostei (bony fishes
generally). The first three orders are fre-
quently grouped together as "Ganoidei."

4. Dipnoi. — Pisces with hinglike respiratory
organs as well as gills, and the fins con-
structed on the typo of the archiptorygium.
It includes the lungfishes and by some au-
thors is made a separate class altogether.
Itn orders are Monopneuwona and Dipneu-
mona,

5. Ostraood&hni (q.v.). — A group of uncer-
tain limits and affinities, known only from
Paleozoic fossils, "characterised by the ex-
traordinary development of the cxoakeleton
(bony plates) of the head, and the absence,
in all the fossil remains hitherto found, of
cndoskelelon, including jaws."

Bibliography. Bloch, AMgewevne Naturge-
schichte der Fische (Berlin, 1782-05); Cuvier
and Valenciennes, Histoire naturello (lea poissons
(22 vols., Paris, 1828-40) ; Gttnther, Catalogue
of Fishes in British Museum (London, 1859-
70) ; id., Introduction to the. Study of Fishes
(Edinburgh, 1880); Dean, Fishes, Living and
Fossil (New York, 1805) s Boulenger, "Fishes,"
in Owribridge Natural History, vii (London,
1904); Jordan, Fishes (Now York, 1007);
Lydekker, Cunningham, Boulenger, and Thom-
son, Reptiles, Amphibia, and Fishes (London,
1912) ; Ward, Marvels of Fish Life (New York,
1912); Gregory, The Orders of Teleofttomous
Fishes (ib., 1907); Goodrich, Fishes, vol. ix of
Lankester's A Treatise on KoGhgy (London,
1909); Murray, The Depths of the Ocean (ib.,
1912). Consult also various works on the com-
parative anatomy of vertebrates, such as Hux-
ley, Gegenbaur, Owen, Parker and HasweU,
Wledtsrsheim, etc. Of faunal works the prin-
cipal are: Jordan and Evarmann, Fishes of
North and Middle America (4 vols,, Washing-

FISH

6x8

PISH

ton, 1896-1900) ; Goode and Bean, Oceanic Ich-
thyology (ib., 1895) ; Goode, American Fishes
(New York, 1888) ; annual Reports and Bulle-
tins of the United States Commission of Fish
and Fisheries and of the National Museum
(Washington, 1870 onward) ; governmental
documents issued by Canada and Newfoundland;
Eigenmann, South American Fishes (San Fran-
cisco, 1893); Yarrell, History of British Fishes
(3d ed., London, 1859); Couch, History of
British Fishes (ib., 1865); Houghton, Fresh-
u-atcr Fishes of Great Britain (ib., 1879) ;
Siebold, Die frttsswaftserfische von Mitteleuropa
(Leipzig, 1863); Blanchard, Les poissons des
eaux donees de la France (Paris, 1866) ; Day,
Fauna of British India: Fishes (London, 1889) ;
Hutton and Hector, Fishes of New Zealand
(Wellington, 1872). For fossil fishes, consult:
Woodward, Outlines of Vertebrate Paleontology
(Cambridge, 1898), in which is a full bibliog-
raphy to the fossil forms; Agassiz, Recherches
sur les poissons fossiles, vols. i-iii and supple-
ment (Neufchatel, 1833-44) ; Woodward, Cata-
logue of Fossil Fishes of the British Museum,
vols. i-iii (London, 1889-95) ; and for American
forms, Newberry, "Paleozoic Fishes of North
America," in Monographs of the United States
Geological Survey, vol. acvi (Washington, 1890).
FISH, HAMILTON (1808-;93). An American
statesman. He was born in New York City,
graduated at Columbia College in 1827, studied
law, and was admitted to the bar in 1830. In
1842 he was elected to Congress as a Whig. In
1846 he was the Whig nominee for Lieutenant
Governor on the same ticket with John Young
for Governor. During the campaign Fish an-
tagonized the "antirenters" (see ANTTBENTISM ) ,
with the result that, although the Whig ticket
was generally successful, he himself was de-
feated. In the year following, however, on the
appointment of his successful Democratic com-
petitor, Addison Gardiner, as a judge of the
State Court of Appeals, a special election was
held to fill the vacancy, at which Fish was
elected. In 1848 lie was nominated by the Whigs
for Governor, and the result was a sweeping
victory for Fish. In 1851 he was elected United
States Senator to succeed Daniel S. Dickinson.
The years 1857-60 he spent in Europe, returning
in the latter year to take an active part in the
campaign in behalf of the Lincoln ticket. Dur-
ing 1861-62 he was associated with other promi-
nent citizens of New York on the Union Defense
Committee, which cooperated with the municipal
government in raising and equipping troops and
in relieving New York volunteers and their
families. Early in 1862 he was appointed, with
Bishop Ames, a commissioner to proceed to
Richmond and other Southern cities within the
Confederate lines to relieve Federal prisoners;
and although the Confederate authorities refused
to allow them, to proceed, the negotiations that
followed resulted in an arrangement for the ex-
change of prisoners that was continued through-
out the Civil War. In March, 1860, Fish was
appointed Secretary of State and served through
both of Grant's administrations, retiring in
1877. In 1871 he was one of the commissioners
who negotiated and signed the Treaty of Wash-
ington with Great Britain. During the "Ala-
bama Claims" arbitration he was successful in
aecuring the adoption by the tribunal of a pro-
vision which relieved the United States from
responsibility for indirect damages arising out
of the Fenian raids and Cuban filibustering ex-

peditions. He also brought about the settle-
ment of the long-standing Northwestern Boundary
dispute with Great Britain, which resulted in
the cession to the United States of the island of
San Juan (see SAX JUAN BOUNDABY DISPUTE),
and the satisfactory settlement of the complica-
tions growing out of the Virginias massacre
(q.v.). Under his direction, also, extensive re-
forms were undertaken in the consular service,
by which civil-service examinations were required
of candidates*.

FISH, HAMILTON, Jr. ( 1849- ) . An Amer-
ican lawyer and politician, born in Albany,
N. Y., the son of Hamilton Fish. He graduated
at Columbia College in 1869, acted as private
secretary to his father, and after his graduation
at Columbia Law School (1873) was aid-de-
camp to Governor John Adams Dix; he was .Re-
publican leader in the Assembly in 1890, and its
Speaker in 1805. He was Assistant Treasurer
of the United States in 1003-08 and a member
of Congress in 1909-11.

PISH, NICHOLAS (1758-1833). An American
Revolutionary soldier. He was born in New
York City and began the academic course at
Princeton, but left before graduating to pursue
the study of law in the office of John Horin Scott
in New York. There he became actively in-
terested in the organization of the Ronw of
Liberty (q.v.) and in 1776 was appointed by
Scott, * who had been commissioned brigadier
general, as aid-de-camp on his staff. At the
close of the Revolutionary War he held the rank
of lieutenant colonel. He was a division in-
spector under Steuben in 1778 and ably seconded
that officer in his attempts to drill and discipline
the continental troops. He participated in the
battles of Saratoga and Monmouth, in Sullivan's
expedition against the Indians in 1770, and in
the Virginia and Yorktown campaigns in which
he served for a time on the statf of Lafayette.
In 1780 lie was appointed adjutant general of
New York State, which position he held for
many years. In 1704 he was appointed by
Washington supervisor of the Federal revemii*
in New York City. In 1811 he was the Federal-
ist candidates for Lieutenant Governor of the
State, and carried New York City by a large
majority. During the War of 1812 he served a«
a member of the City Committee of Defense.

PISH, NICHOLAS (1840-1902). An American
diplomatic, grandson of Col. Nicholas Fish, and
son of the Secretary of State, Hamilton Fi«h
(q.v.). Born in New York and educated at
Columbia and at Harvard Law ftahool, he prac-
ticed law in New York City and then went into
the diplomatic service. Appointed Second Secw-
tary of Legation at Berlin (1871), he became
Secretary (1874) and actod in the continued
absence of his chief as char#<? d'affaires, held
the latter position in Switzerland (1877-81) and
then served aa Minister to Belgium (1882-86),
He returned to New York in 1887 and became a
member of the banking firm of Harriman & Co.
lie, was president of the New York branch of the
Society of tho Cincinnati. He was fatally as-
saulted in New York City, S«pt. 16, 1002.

FISH, ROYAL. Certain "great fish/* as the
whale and sturgeon, which by the common law of
England are deemed the property of the crown
when either thrown on shore or caught near the
coast. The principle applied constitutes an ex-
ception to the rule, common to all systems of
jurisprudence, that fish, as animals ferot natures
('of a wild natwV)* belong by finding, or **occo-

FISH

619

FISH AS POOD

pation," to the one who first reduces them to
possession. "Our ancestors," says Blackstone,
"seem to have entertained a very high notion of
the importance of this right, it being the pre-
rogative of the kings of Denmark and the dukes
of Normandy; and from one of these it was
probably derived to our princes. It is expressly
claimed and allowed in the Statute De Prceroga-
tiva Regis (17 Edw. II, c. 11), and the most
ancient treatises of law now extant make men-
tion of it." Strictly it was the head only of the
whale which belonged to the King, the tail being
a perquisite of the Queen Consort. In Scotland
whales thrown on shore above aix-horso-power
draft belong to the Queen or the Admiral. See
GAME LAWS.

FISH,- STUYVESANT ( 1851-1923 ) . An Ameri-
can banker and railroad official, born in New
York City. In 1871 he engaged in clerical work
for the Illinois Central Railroad, of which cor-
poration he subsequently became director (1876) ,
second vice president (1883-84), vice president
( 1 884-87 ) , and president ( 1887-1006 ) . He also
held high offices in connection with other roads,
among them the Chicago, St. Louis, and New
Orleans, from 1883 to 100C was a trustee of the
Mutual Life Insurance Company, and served as
trustee of the New York Life Insurance and
Trust Company, vice president and director of
the, National Park Bank, and director in other
corporations. In 1904-00 ho was president of
the American Railway Association and in 1905
chairman of the seventh International Railway
Congress. He published The Nation and the
Railways (1908).

FISH AS FOOD. Fish is almost universally
recognized as one of the important food ma-
terials and enters into tho diet of very many
if not most American families. From recent
data published by the. Bureau of Statistics,
United States Department of Commerce and
Labor, it appears that the total weight of tho
fish marketed yearly in the United States is
1,803,454,000 poundn, having a value of $54,031,-
000. By the process of canning, salting, smok-
ing, and otherwise preserving, the value of the
fifth is very much increased. In addition,
thousands of pounds of fish are annually caught
by sportsmen, but statistics of tho amount are
not available. Of the very largo quantity of
fiflh annually placed on the American market
the greater part in conwumed at home, although
a portion is prepared in various ways for ex-
port. The preference for fresh-water or salt-
water fish is a matter of individual taste.
Both are, so far as known, equally wholesome.
The market value of fish is affected by various
conditions. Among thena are the locality from
which they come, the season in which they are
taken, and the food on which they have grown.
Fish are sold either dressed or round, i.e.,
whole. Sometimes only the entrails are re-
moved. Often, however, especially when dressed
for cooking, the head, finw, and, less frequently,
the bones, are removed. This entails a consider-
able loss in weight as well as of nutritive ma-
terial. In dressing fish the following per-
centages are commonly lost: large-mouthed black
bass. • sea bass, cisco, kingfish, mullet, white
perch, pickerel, pike, tomcod, weakfish, and
whitefish, each, 17 per cent; small-mouthed black
boss, eel, Spanish mackerel, porgy, and turbot,
each, 13 per cent; butterfish, 12 per cent; shad,
11 per cent, and brook trout, 16 per cent; butt-
head, 50 per ceiat; buffalo fUh and lafce stur-

geon, 40 per cent; carp and sucker, 35 per
cent; fresh-water sheepshead, 23 per cent; grass
pike, block bass, white bass, yellow perch, and
salmon, 15 per cent.

Fresh-water and salt-water fish alike are
offered for sale as taken from the water, or pre-
served in various ways. Large quantities of fish
are dried, salted, and smoked, the processes
being employed alone or in combination. These
methods insure preservation, but modify the
flavor. Several fish products are also prepared
by these processes. For example, caviar, pre-
pared very largely in Russia, and to some extent
also in the United States, is usually prepared
from sturgeon roe by salting. The methods of
salting and packing vary somewhat and give
rise to a number of varieties.

When fish is salted or otherwise cured, there
is a considerable loss in weight due to removal
of the entrails, drying, etc. Codfish loses 60 per
cent in preparation for market. If the market-
dried fish be boned, there is a further loss of
20 per cent. The loss in weight of pollack is 60
per cent; haddock, 62 per cent; hake, 56 jjer
cent; and cusk, 51 per cent. The canning in-
dustry has been enormously developed in recent
years, and thousands of pounds of fish, oysters,
clams, lobsters, shrimp R, etc., are annually pvo-
sorvod in this way. Various kinds of fish ex-
tract, clam juice, etc., are offered for sale. There
are also a number of fish pantos — anchovy paste,
e.g. — and similar products which are used as
relishes or condiments. Preservatives such as
salicylate of soda were, once employed to some
extent with fish, and especially oysters, for
shipping, but their UHO has been largely checked
by State and national pure-food laws.

Oyster* and other shellfish are placed on the
market alive in tho shell, or are removed from
the shell and kept in good condition by chilling
or other means. In the shell oysters are usually
transported in barrels or sacks. Shipment is
made to fur inland points in refrigerator ears
and to Kuropo in cold-storage chambers of ves-
sels. Oysters are often sold as they are- taken
from the salt water. However, the practices of
''freshening," "fattening/' or "floating** is very
widespread — i.e., oysters are placed in fresh or
braekiHh water for a short period, in which they
become plump in appearance, owing chiefly to
the water taken up by their tissues. They have
a different flavor from those taken directly from
salt water. Lobsters, crabs, and other crua-
tiicea, though sometimes boiled before being
marketed, arc unually sold alive. Turtle and
terrapin are usually marketed alive. Turtle
soup, however, is canned in large quantities.
Frogs, valued for their hind legs, art* marketed
alive or dressed in all seasons, but are in the
best condition in fall or winter. In addition to
the varieties of fish commonly used as food,
others, such as the common sea mussel, smooth
and horned dogfish, sand shark, and toadfish,
which are not found in quantity in the American
market, are also edible, and their use would add
to some extent to the available supply of sea
food*

The average composition of the principal fish,
Crustacea, etc., used for food is shown in the
table below. That of others less frequently oaten
is similar.

Fish usually contains lofts fat than id found in
meat. There is, however, muck difference in
the fat content of tlie various kinds of fish.
They may, indeed, be roughly divided into three

FISH AS FOOD

620

FISH AS FOOD

the first class would include those con-
taining over 5 per cent fat; the second those
containing between 2 and 5 per cent; and the
third those containing less than 2 per cent. The
first group would include such fish as salmon,
shad, herring, Spanish mackerel, and butterfish;
the second, whitefish, mackerel, mullet, halibut,
and porgy; the third, smelt, black bass, bluefish,
white perch, weakfish, brook trout, hake, flounder,
yellow perch, pike, pickerel, sea bass, cod, and
haddock.

When judged by its composition, the place of
fish in the diet is the same as that of moat; i.e.,
it is supplementary to cereals and other vege-
tables, most of which, as wheat, rye, maize, rice,
potatoes, etc., are rich in carbohydrates, which
are not present in appreciable amounts in the
flesh of fish. Preserved fish, as a rule, show a
small percentage of refuse, with the exception of
a few kinds which are preserved whole. The
percentage of actual nutrients is much larger
than in the corresponding fresh fish, owing to the
removal of a large part of the refuse and more
or less water. The gain in nutrients is mostly
represented by protein, which is the most valu-
able nutrient. Canned fish, which is in effect
cooked fish, compares favorably as regards com-
position with the fresh material. Generally
speaking, the amount of refuse is small, since
the portions commonly rejected in preparation
for the table have been removed before canning.
Shellfish resemble meat and food fishes in general
composition. They contain, however, an appre-
ciable amount of carbohydrates. Judging by the
relative amount consumed, oysters are the most
important of the shellfish. Speaking roughly, a
quart of oysters contains on an average about
the same quantity of actual nutritive substances
as a quart of milk, or three-fourths of a pound
of beef, or two pounds of fresh codfish, or a
pound of bread.

A number of experiments have boon made with
man to learn how thoroughly fish is digested and
to compare it in this respect with other foods.
It has been found that fish and lean beef are
about equally digestible. In each case at least
95 per cent of the total dry matter, 97 per cent
of the protein, and 97 per cent of the fat were
retained by the body. Other experiments of
the same character indicate that salt fish is less
thoroughly digested than fresh fish. The nutri-
tive value of shellfish, as of other fish, depends
to a considerable extent upon their digestibility ;
but so little is known upon this point that
nothing more can be said with certainty here
than that oysters belong to the more easily
digestible class of foods. So far as can be
learned no experiments have been made which
show how thoroughly crabs, clams, and other
cruatacea, turtle and terrapin, and frogs' legs
are digested. Inspection of a considerable num-
ber of dietary studies of families of farmers,
mechanics, professional men, and others, carried
on in different regions of the United States,
shows that out of the 20 per cent of the total
food and the 43 per cent of the total protein
obtained from animal sources, only about 2 per
cent of the total food and 4 per cent of the total
protein is furnished by fish, shellfish, etc., show-
ing to what a limited extent this valuable food is
used in the average household. It is not im-
probable that in communities where fishing con-
stitutes the principal industry much larger
quantities are consumed. It was found that the
laborers employed in the fisheries of Bussia

consumed from 26 to 62 ounces of fish daily.
This, with some bread, millet meal, and tea, con-
stituted their diet throughout the fishing season.
These quantities are unusually large, but no bad
effects are mentioned as following the diet.

There is a widespread notion that fish con-
tains large proportions of phosphorus and on
that account is particularly valuable as brain
food. The percentages of phosphorus in speci-
mens thus far analyzed are not larger than are
found in the flesh of other animals used for food.
But even so, there is no experimental evidence
to warrant the assumption that fish is more
valuable than meats or other food material for
the nourishment of the brain. The opinion of
eminent physiologists is that phosphorus is no
more essential to the brain than nitrogen, potas-
sium, or any other element which occurs in its
tissues. The value commonly attributed to the
phosphorus is based on a popular misconception
of statements by one of the early writers on such
topics. It should be stated that moat physiolo-
gists regard fish as a particularly desirable food
for persons of sedentary habits, since it is easily
digested and not too hearty. While, so far jis
can be learned, such statements do not depend
upon experimental evidence, they are thought to
embody the result of experience.

In cooking, fish may be boiled, nt earned,
broiled, fried, baked, or combined with other
materials in some made dish. When boiled, it
is stated that the loss in weight ranges from 5
to 30 per cent, a loss that coxifttatft largely of
water — i.e., the cooked fish ia less moiwt tlian the
raw. Little fat or protein is loat. So far as
known, experiments have not been made which
show the losses by other methods of cooking. It
is, however, probable that there would be utnzally
a very considerable loss of water.

In view of statements of a popular nature
which hare been mude on the dangerH from eat-
ing poisonous fish or from ptomaine* contained
in fish, a few words Biiminarizmg the, uftuul
knowledge on these topics seem demrable. There
are several species of fi»h which are actually
poisonous. Few of them, however, are founil in
the United States, and the chances of their
being offered for sale are very small. Such ii«h
are mostly confined to tropical waters. Fish
may contain parasites, some of which are in-
jurious to man. These are, however, destroyed
by the thorough cooking to which fish IH usually
subjected.. Occasionally cases of illness which
have been said to be ptomaine poisoning have
been traced to eating fish or fish products. Finn
which has been frozen and, after thawing, kept
for a time before it is cooked iw commonly IK»-
lioved to be especially likely to contain In*
jurious ptomaines. It is possible, though, that
the illness may be due to bacteria or their Hporw
which are not destroyed by cooking. Cftimini
fish should never bo allowed to remain long in
the can after opening, but should be used at
once. There is some possibility of danger from
the combined action of the can contents and
oxygon of the air upon the lead of the Bolder
or the can itself. Furthermore, canned firth
seems peculiarly suited to the growth of micro-
organisms when, exposed to the air, Finally,
fish offered for sale should bo bandied in a
cleanly manner and stored and oxpoaed for
sale under hygienic conditions* Oysters wb<»»
"floated" or "fattened" should never be placed
in water contaminated by sewage. Severe ill-
ness and death have resulted in a numier of

10 N

DO) ID
r« (0

(0 J I

I I t

III

N i •

PISH AS POOD 621 FISH AS FOOD

.COMPOSITION OF FISH, MOLLUSKS, CRUSTACEANS, ETC., CONSIDERED AS FOOD

KXHD OF FOOD MATERIAL

Refuse
(bone,
skin,
etc.)

Salt

Water

Protein

Fat

Carbo-
hydrate

Minera
matter

Fuel
value per
pound

FRESH FISH

Alewife, whole

%
49.5
46.7
46.4
46.8
43.6
34.6
29.9
9.2
40.3
20.2
57
52.5
51
17.7
46
40.7
24.4
49
54.6
35.1
35.9
30.5
28.5
45.5
48.9
5.2
23.S
43.9

%
37.5
41.9
401
42.2
40.3
45.8
58.5
72.4
49
57.2
35.8
39.5
40
61.9
37.3
43.7
51.4
38.2
34.4
50.7
51.1
55.4
54.3
39.5
40.3
60.3
51.2
39.6
71.2
46.1
67.4
39.6
48.4
40.4
45
43.1
46.1
32.5
44

28.1
40.3

54.4
38.1
19.2

49.2
46
53.6
59.3
08.2
34.8
72.7
68,7

88.3
15.4
85.3
80.3
48.4
84.5

80.8
83
42.7

10
34.1
80
70.8

20.7

10.9
19.1
17.4
57

42,5

%
97
10.3
11.5
10.1
9.8
11.7
10.6
16.9
10.1
14.6
6.3
7.2
8.2
15.1
10
11.4
15.8
9.8
8.7
12.6
11.9
13
lfi.5
10.2
9.6
16.5
14.6
10.3
23.4
10
15.4
8.2
11.7
9.8
12.4
7.9
10.2
10.3
10.5

14.7
16

22.1
30
20.2

16.1
19.1
24
19.3
19.9
13.8
21.5
21.8

6.1
1.1
7.4
14.7
4.8
9

10.0
10.4
4.4

3.2

5.5
18. L
2
7.3
15,8
25.4

4.3

4.5
4.5
4.2
10.2

%
2.5
.5
1.3
.2
.6
7.2
7.2
.5

7.2
.3
.3
.2
4.4
5.9
3.5
7.2
2.4
1.8
.7
.2
.4
.6
4.3
.6
17
9.5
5.4
3.8

1.0
.3
1.3
1.1
0.0
8.7
1.3
3
2.5

15.1
.4

.3
19.7
S.8

14*
12.1
15.3
8.7
21.3
4.1
2.3

1.4
.2
2.1
.2
.6
1.3

1.1
.8
.6

.7
1.1

1.5
.4

.7
\7

2.5

%
0.8
.6

.*7
.7

.8
.6
.5
.6
.9
.8
.7
1.2
.6
.5
.9
.9
.7
1.1
.5
.6

.9
.8
1.6

1.2
.5

'.&
.8
.8
.7

1.7
1.2

1*7
*4.G
.0

1.9
5.3
1.2

1.3
2.1
1.7
3.6

1.3

1.4
1.5
2.3

2.3
2.8

l'.4
1.9
2*6

.3
.3
.2

Calorie*
285
215
270
195
205
520
205
335
190
575
130
145
160
465
435
360
595
285
235
265
230
260
315
370
205
1025
675
420
695
230
355
165
275
230
510
515
245
320
300

910
315

425
1630
45

305
945
955

ioor>

785

nr>5

575
505

235
40
300
345
135
375

340
2K5
140

100
130

son

4ft
185
370
520

100

115
90
105
210

295

Bass, large-mouthed black, dresae<
Bass, am all-mouthed black, dresses
Bass, sect, dressed

Bluefieh, dressed

Butterfish, dressed.

Cod, dressed

Cod, steaks

Cusk, dressed

Eel, salt-water, dressed

Flounder, common, dressed ....
Hake, dressed

Haddock, dressed

Halibut, dressed

Herring, whole . ...

Mackerel, dressed

Mackerel, Spanish, dressed

Mullet, dressed

Peroh, white, dressed

. . .**. . .

Per oh, vellow, dressed

Pickerel, dressed

Pike, dressed

Pollack, dressed

Pompano, dressed

Red snapper, dressed

Salmon, California (sections) . . .
Salmon, Maine, dressed

Shad, dressed

Shad, roe

Smelt, whole

41.9
14.4
51.4
37.9
48.1
35.2
39.5
41.7

Sturgeon, dressed ,

Tomcod, dressed

Trout, brook, dressed

Trout, brook, whole

Trout, lake, dressed

Turbot, drosHod

Weakfinh, dressed

Whitefish, whole

53.5
42

33.3
24.9

General average of fresh fish as sold

PRESBBVED FISH

Mackerel, "No. 1," salted

7.1
17.2

21.5

Cod, salted and dried

Cod, "bonclcaa codfish," salted
and dried ,

Caviar

7.6

Herring, salted, smoked, and dried
Haddock, "finuon haddie " salted

44.4

32.2
0.9
5
3.9

6.5

1.4
12.1

amokod, and dried
Halibut, salted, smoked, and drioc

Sftpdlfto CHB-UGCl .

Salmon, canned

1
1.9
8.3

Mackerel, canned

Mackerel, salt, canned

19.7

Tunny fh.arge xn^afcorel), CftttTlod, .

Haddock, smoked, canned

5.6

MOLLTJSKS

Oysters, solid

3.3
.6
3.9
3.4
14
2.9

0.2
3
2.1

1.3

Oysters, in shell

82.3

OystorH, canned

Scallops

Long; clams, in shell* . .

43.6

iLoinpf olAmff, canned , ,

Round olaina, removed from
shell

Hound olaras, Qftnnodi ,,,,.,,,,,

Mussels

49.3
60.2

62.1

General average of raoJUuska (ex-
clusive of canned)

CRUSTACEANS

Lobstar, in shell ....,'

Lobster, canned

!5
.8
.2

Crawfish, in shell

87.7

Crabf in shell ,

55.8

Orftbt Cftnrvwt ....... , , » ... t . . . ,

Shrimp, canned. ............ , .

General average of crustaceans
(exclusive of canned) ,,...,,..,

73.7

79
70
77,5
32

TBIWW.KN, T0RTXJB, BTO.

Terrapin^ fa *hflll ........ T .....

Groan turtle, in shell

Average of turtle and terrapfo , , *
Frogs' logs ,

General average of Ash, molluiks,
CTufttaoeanii etc*

* Including added salt.

FISHBERRY 6

cases from eating raw oysters contaminated
with sewage containing typhoid-fever germs.

For further information, consult the authori-
ties referred to under FOOD; also Atwater, "The
Chemical Composition and Nutritive Value of
American Food Fishes and Invertebrates," Re-
port of Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries, 1883
(Washington, 1885) ; United States Department
of Agriculture, Office of Expet-iment Stations,
Bulletin 28 (revised) ; Langworthy, "Fish as
Food," United States Department of Agricul-
ture, Farmers' Bulletin 85 (Washington, 1905).
FISB/BEBRY, or FISHER'S BERRY. A
drug. See COCOULTJS INDICTTS.

FISH CROW. A small crow (Gorvus ossi-
fragus], common along the eastern coast of the
United States from the Hudson River to Mexico.
It is about 16 inches in length, and the plumage
is glossed with violet blue on the back, changing
to a more greenish tinge on the head and lower
parts. It rarely leaves the coast and margins
of tidal rivers — where it feeds on small animals
and carrion found on the beaches and mud flats,
or dexterously seizes floating morsels — except to
make excursions in the spring to neighboring
woods and fields in search of birds' nests, of
which it is a persistent robber. It ascends the
Mississippi and other large rivers long distances.
Its flight and cry are easily distinguished from
those of the common crow, and it does not form
great flocks and move regularly to and from the
shore, as does that species. It nests in trees,
preferring pines. A similar but somewhat
smaller and blacker species (Corvus minutus)
inhabits Cuba. Compare CBOW.

FISH CULTURE, or PISCICULTURE (from
Lat. piscis, fish + cultura, culture, from colere,
to cultivate). The breeding, rearing, transplant-
ing, and protection of aquatic animals in order
to maintain or increase their abundance. Liter-
ally the term applies only to the culture of
fishes, but by judicial decision it has come to
include also such forms as the lobster, oyster,
clam, and other mollusks used as food or bait,
frog, etc.

General Considerations. Increased market
demand must be met by increased production.
Fish culture is of special economic importance
as an extension of the natural method of utiliz-
ing terrestrial nitrogenous wastes, and is based
upon the fact that soluble chemical substances,
the essential food of growing plants, wash from
the land. In streams, lakes, and estuaries this
plant food causes an abundant crop of micro-
scopic plants and animals (plankton) (q.v.)>
which is the fundamental food supply of all
aquatic animals. Cultivation of water areas
offers close parallels with intensive agricultural
practices and results. A vast improvement is
{promised as increasing knowledge of the habits
and life history disclose special points of van-
tage in application of scientific methods, e.g.,
artificial fecundation of eggs, protection of eggs
and young from enemies, segregation of various
sizes to check cannibalism, development of
methods of feeding, etc. Mollusk cultivation is
simple and is carried on extensively in many
countries, notably France, Holland, Japan,
United States, Italy. About one-half of the
world product of oysters results from cultural
practices. Similar practices are being extended
to numerous other species of food and bait
mollusks. In general cultivation consists in
catching the floating young (spat* or "seed"),
transplantation of immature mollusks to pre-

22 KSH CULTUBE

vent loss by overcrowding or to utilize food-
bearing currents, destruction of enemies, etc.
The maintenance of artificial ponds for the rear-
ing of fresh-water fishes for food or ornamental
purposes is a very ancient practice and is carried
on by nearly every civilized nation. In China
fish culture has been extensively practiced from
ancient times. In Europe, and particularly in
Germany and Sweden, pond culture is of con-
siderable importance. In recent years, however,
fish culture has become almost synonymous with
the harvesting of eggs, their artificial fecunda-
tion, and the rearing of the young up to vary-
ing stages in hatcheries established for that
purpose. This seems to have been an ancient
custom in China, where the Europeans probably
got their first ideas of modern pisciculture.
Both in Europe and America the industry has
become of such importance as to be more or less
completely supported by government funds. In
Europe the hatcheries, over 400 in number, are
largely private enterprises, but such are as yet
comparatively rare in the United States and
Canada. The United States far surpasses all
other countries in the extent of this work under
government patronage. The Federal government
supports 34 hatcheries at various favorable
places, and one steamer, the Fishliaick, a sort of
floating hatchery, exclusively used in the actual
culture of fishes or in the investigation of
problems pertaining thereto. The number of
fish handled in 1913, either as eggs, fry, finger-
lings, yearlings, or adults, aggregated 3,863,000,-
000. Of this number 85 per cent were fry.
Besides these, many of the States support hatch-
eries for the particular fishes of importance in
their territories. (See below.) The purpose of
the governmental hatcheries is either to stock
new waters with desirable species or to main-
tain by planting the supply in waters already
tenanted.

In most species it is at present impracticable
to carry culture much beyond the stage of
hatching, or "fry," as the hatchings are called.
This is true of all the strictly marine forms
such as the cod and flatfishes. In many of the
fresh- water species, such as the various salmons,
bass, and sunfishes, they are often nourished
and protected in suitable ponds until they have
become 1 to 4 inches long — "fingerlings," as they
are then called — before planting. They may
even be carried for another year and planted as
yearlings.

It is now established that waters thus stocked
or replenished have not only been able to main-
tain their supply of fishes, but have greatly
increased it. Pacific waters have been success-
fully stocked with Atlantic species, and almost
exhausted streams in various parts of the Unitt^
States have been successfully restored. In some
species the eggs are not handled, but the spawn-
ing fishes arc provided with favorable ponas for
spawning purposes, where their eggs are pro-
tected from enemies, given suitable temperature,
etc. This is the case with members of the Cen-
trarcliida, such as the black bass, which build a
nest and guard the eggs during incubation. The
young when hatched are either taken from the
ponds and fed in suitable troughs until better
able to shift for themselves, or are supplied with
food in the ponds themselves. In certaija species,
where the anatomy of the oviducts , permits,
however, the eggs are artificially expelled from
the body into suitable receptacles, in which they
are fertilized by the addition of milt similarly

CTFLTUBE (

obtained from the males. After a few moments
tlie o$»gs arc transferred to running water, where
they are kept and taken care of until the em-
bryos emerge. The exact method employed in
fertilization, but especially the subsequent hand-
ling of the eggs during incubation, varies con-
siderably with the character of the egg.

Treatment of Eggs. Nearly all fish eggs arc
spherical in shape. The true 'portion, which is
heavily charged with yolk, is inclosed by a mem-
brane "varying greatly in character. This mem-
brane may be adhesive to any foreign object or
to adjoining eggs, or it may be supplied with
various modifications of filaments which cause
the eggs to become entangled with each other
and with foreign objects, such as weeds. These
properties necessitate different methods in their
handling during incubation. Again, egg** may
be pelagic, i.e., buoyant, lighter than the water,
or heavy, sinking to the bottom. Rome eggs, as
those of the whiten1 ah and shad, are only slightly
heavier than water, i.e., semibuoyunt.

Pelagic eggs belong to the cod, llatftsh, mack-
erel, tautog, etc. Suck e#gs are incubated in a
way quite different from the heavy eggs: in
nature they are extruded in the water and rise
to the surface, where they develop. 8ueh eggs
usually hatch in a very short time, from a few
days to two or three weeks. The apparatus now
used for hatching pelagic eggs is the McDonald
tidal box. The water enters through the choeso-
cloth bottom and through a small hole at one
end, the latter giving the water and eggs within
the box a gentle rotary motion. By means of
an automatic siphon the water is also made to
rise and fall at short intervals, thus insuring a
more perfect renewal.

Heavy eggs, as those of the salmon and trout,
are spread out on small wire-bottomed trays.
These are placed in tiers in long troughs, into
which the water enters at one end and by an
arrangement of partitions is made to How from
below upward through the tiers of eggs, thus
bathing them, and flowing out at the opposite
end of the trough. During development in these
trays constant attention is necessary to avoid
too strong currents through the troughs, thereby
shifting the eggs, and especially to remove the
dead eggs, which are attacked by a fungus, and,
if allowed to remain, will speedily contaminate
the whole lot.

Semibuoyant eggs, as those of tho whitofish,
shad, and perch, are hatched successfully in tho
McDonald jar. This has a rounded bottom, and
the water is introduced by a glass tube extend-
ing through the lid to near the bottom. The
water entering gently keeps the eggs in slow
motion, to prevent them from "banking*' or
gathering in lumps. The water escapes through
the top by a tube or a sort of apout> carrying
with it the young as they emerge from the eggs.

Adhesive eggs, like those of the smelt, are first
mixed with starch or "muck," to deprive them
of their glutinous properties, after which they
are handled like other heavy or semibuoyant

Treatment of JTry. The 'successful roaring of
fry to later stages was for a long time a prob-
lem difficult of solution. This has now, how-
ever, been perfected with certain species, like the
salmon and trout, to a very high degree. The
kind and quantity of water and food and the
prevention of diseases are the main points to
consider. A large quantity of water at a low
temperature is one of the essentials to rapid and

33 PISHEB

healthy growth of most species, particularly the
salmon and trouts. Limited numbers are put in
long rearing troughs — usually the same in which
they were batched — and a large volume of water
is introduced in one end. Tho fry when iirst
hatched have a largo yolk bag which supplies
them with food for four or five wwks. About a
week before tlie entire yolk is absorbed they are
moved from the trays into rearing troughs.
The time to begin feeding them must be ascer-
tained by trial. If hungry, they will rise to a
minute particle of food thro\vii on the surface of
the water. At first it is essential to feocl them
at frequent intervals, and the quantity at a
given time must he carefully gauged to prevent
them from gorging themselves tind to prevent any
excess of food from decaying in the water. Liver
chopped to very fine particles is the food com-
monly used. Later the amount of care necessary
grows less, so that one meal per day stiffices.
Larvau of flies and various Crustacea are then
fed to them, and when the fish reaches a con-
siderable sisse coarsely chopped-up liver, hearts,
and fish constitute the main food.

Eggs are not equally hardy at all stages of
development. At the time when the eyes begin
to show their pigment, or the e#j»H are "eyed,"
they are usually transported. This is done in
trays, the egga being properly covered and sur-
rounded by sphagnum moss and kept at a low
temperature. This permits the eggs to be trans-
ported for thousands of miles without any
serious losses. Temporary hatching troughs are
built in places out of the way, yet favorable for
collecting eggs. The eggs are carried to the
"eyed11 stage and can then be safely transported
to more commodious quarters for further de-
velopment. The United States Bureau of Fish-
eries owns four cars especially equipped and
exclusively used for tho transportation of eggs
and young fishes. They are supplied with tanks
and cans and suitable means for aerating the
water and controlling the temperature.

Bibliography. United Slates Fish Commis-
sion an mini It courts (Washington, 1871 et seq.) ;
United Ntates Fi»b Commission liullctina (ibM
1882 et soq.) ; various authors, "Manual of Fifth
Cultures" United Mates Jiurr.a,u of Pitlwric* (ib.,
1000); Day, fish Ouliurc (London, 1888) *,
Maitland, fl» tJic Gulturc of Ralmonidte and the
AcoUwtitimation of Fish (ib.t 1883) j Gobiu, La
viscwulturc en caux donees (Paris, 1880) ;
ad., La, pteoiouttiim en cause tialt'<>ft (ib., 1891) ;
Max von dem Borne, Fiaehtnioftt (Berlin, 1881) ;
Roigharcl, Michigan Fish tfommfaftfrm, HuUctin
7, OM baas culture; Armiatead, Angler's* Pwadfatt
(London, 1805); Bund, Pithwy M anaycmcni
(ib., 1800) ; Rtone, Xtowa*tiMM Trtmt (CharleH-
town, N. CL, 1877); Mather, Modem M#h Cul-
ture (New York, 1000); Townncml, (Jultimtitm
of Fixlics in Natural and Artificial Powlx (ib.,
1007) ; Meehan, /W* Cnltwe (il>., 1013).

iFISH'EBr, or P&NN&wr'tt MABTSN. The largest
(except the* wolverine) of tho fur-bearing car*
nivores of the weaael family (Mustolidee), oallud
in bookn "Pennant's marten'1 (Musteta JHM-
nanti). It is found in forested and uncivilised
parts of Canada and the northern United State*,
whore it formerly ranged southward to Ten-
nessee. It in ^bout 30 inches long, brides the
tail, which is 12 inches or BO more*. In color it
is chiefly black, often with gray or brown tints
towards the head. Tt is a ncrce nocturnal ani-
mal, living chiefly on birds and BtnaU quadru-
peds and having the general habits- of the

PISHEB

624

FISHER

marten. Its fur in winter is good and is much
used in Europe. The black tail was once a
favorite ornament to the caps of the Polish Jews.
It is called by the trappers pekan, wejaok, or
perhaps more commonly black cat. The name
"fisher" is said to be due to the fondness of the
animal for the fish with which early trappers
baited their marten traps, but more probably
arose from misunderstanding of its habits or
confusion with the mink. It is a great nuisance
to marten trappers whatever bait they use, but
is itself taken without difficulty in large traps
baited with meat. Consult Coues, Fur-Bearing
Animals (Washington, 1877), and especially
Seton, Life-Histories of Northern Animals (New
York, 1909).

FISHIER, ALBERT KENDEICK (1856- ).
An American biologist, born at Sing Sing (now
Ossining), N. Y. He graduated from the Col-
lege of Physicians and Surgeons ( Columbia Uni-
versity) in 1879. In 1891 he was a member of
the Death Valley expedition; for the next six
years he made biological surveys in California,
Nevada, New Mexico, Arizona, and other States
for the United States Department of Agricul-
ture, and in 1899 he joined the Harriman Alaska
expedition. In 1906 he was placed in charge of
the economic investigations of the United States
Bureau of Biological Survey. He was a founder
and vice president of the American Ornithol-
ogists' Union. He published Ornithology of the
Death Valley Eaopedition of 1891 (1893), Hawks
and Owls of the United States (1893), and
bulletins of the United States Department of
Agriculture.

FISHER, ALVAJST (1792-1863). An American
portrait painter. He was born at Needham,
Mass., and studied under an ornamental painter,
whose influence on his style was unfortunate.
He painted cattle pictures, landscapes, and
portraits with such success that he was enabled
to visit Europe in 1825 and study in Paris.
Upon his return, finding no demand for land-
scapes, he painted chiefly portraits. He be-
longed to what is called the "Boston group" of
painters and, together with Doughty, Harding,
and Alexander, held a successful exhibition of
pictures at Boston in 1831.

FISHER, ANDREW (1862- ). An Austra-
lian statesman, born in Crosshouse, Kilmarnock,
Scotland. He worked as a coal miner and in
1885 went to Queensland, where he was elected
to Parliament in 1893 and was Minister of
Railways in the Dawson ministry of 1899. After
•Federation he was elected to the Commonwealth
Parliament from Wide Bay; in 1904 was Minis-
ter for Trade and Customs; in 1907 became
leader of the Labor party; and was Prime
Minister for six months in 1908-09, his party
losing office partly because it lacked interest in
Imperial defense. He formed a second and very
powerful ministry in April, 1910, which was
defeated at the general election of 1013, when
Fisher resigned (June 20) and was succeeded,
by J. Hume Cook, Deakin's successor as leader
of the Liberal party.

FISHER, CHAELES (1808-80). A Canadian
statesman. He was born in Fredericton, N. B.,
and was educated at King's College. He after-
ward studied law, was admitted to the bar, and
in 1837 was elected a member of the Legislative
Assembly. He was a member of the Executive
Council in 1848-51, was appointed a commis-
sioner to codify the laws of the province in
1852, and was Attorney-General in 1854-61 and

also during part of 1866. Fisher was a strong
supporter of responsible government, and for
many years- was the stanch ally of Lemuel
Allan Wilmot (q.v.) in the struggle which estab-
lished that principle in New Brunswick. In the
larger issues which precipitated confederation
he was also deeply interested. His advocacy of
federal union caused his defeat in 1865, when
he was a candidate for the Legislative Assembly,
but he was soon afterward elected and in 1866
was one of the representatives of New Bruns-
wick at the Quebec Conference which passed
resolutions favoring confederation. In the same
year he was one of the representatives of his
province at the conference in London, England,
at which the terms of the federal union were
finally considered and arranged. After the Do-
minion of Canada was formed in 1807, Fisher
was a member of its first parliament. In 1868
he was appointed a puisne judge of the Supreme
Court of New Brunswick, a position he filled
until his death.

FISHER, CHARLES (1816-91). A comedian
who began his career in England, but after 1852
was connected with the American stage. He
was born in Suffolk, of a theatrical family, and
made his debut in 1844 at the Princess's Theatre,
London. He came to this country to join Wil-
liam E. Burton, making his first appearance here
as Ferment in The Softool of Reform. His subse-
quent active life was spent in three companies:
with Burton from 1852 to 1861, Wallack from
1861 to 1872, and Daly from 1872 to 1800, when
he retired. His best-known parts were Triplet
in MasJcs and Faces, Sir Peter Teazle, Jaques,
and Graves in Money. He was tall and dignified
in appearance and an admirable player of old
men. He died in Now York. Consult Hutton,
in Famous American Actors of To-Day, ed. by
McKay and Wingato (New York, 1896).

FISHER, CLAEA (1811-98). A popular ac-
tress; after 1834 the wife of the composer J. G.
Maeder. She was born in London, July 14,
1811, and first made a sensation on the boards
of Drury Lane when she was about 6 years old
(Dec. 10, 1817) as Lord Flhnnap, the Prime
Minister of Lilliput, and in a part in Richard
HI. After 10 years of prosperity in various
British theatres, her precocious versatility show-
ing itself even in such an ill-chosen rflle as that
of Shylock, she came with her family to America,
where she made her appearance late in 1827.
Her charms, both as an actress and as a singer,
were largely those of manner. Ophelia and
Viola were her best Shakespearean parts, and as
Lady Teazle she won many successes. Consult
the Autobiography of Clara Fisher Maeder, ed.
by Douglas Taylor (Dunlap Society, Now York,
1897), and Ireland, in Matthews and Hutton,
eds., Actors and Actresses of Great Britain and
the United States (ib., 1886).

FISHER, GEOBGE JACKSON (1825-93). An
American physician, born at North Castle, N. Y.,
and educated at the New York University Med-
ical School. He was United States examin-
ing physician of the Seventh Brigade, New York
State National Guard, from 1853 to 1873, and
president of the New York State Medical So-
ciety in 1874. He succeeded Dr. Samuel D.
Gross as the contributor of a "History of Sur-
gery" to the International Encyclopaedia of
Surgery (1886), and published: On the Animal
Substances Employed aa Medicines ly the An-
cients (1862); Diploteratology: an Essay on
Compound Human Monsters (1866); Are

FISHEB

625

FISHER

formations or Monstrosities of the Foetus in
Utero ever Produced by the Power of Maternal
Emotion? (1870) ; A Brief History of the Dis-
covery of the Circulation of the Blood (1877) ;
Teratology ( 1876 ) ; Sketches of Some of the Old
Masters of Anatomy, Medicine, and Surgery
(1880-83).

PISHER, GEORGE PARK (1827-1909). An
American Congregational clergyman. He was
born at Wrentham, Mass., graduated from Brown
University in 1847 and Andover Theological
Seminary in 1851. In 1854 lie was appointed
professor of divinity and college pastor of Yale
College. In 1861 lie was transferred to the
professorship of ecclesiastical history in the Yale
Divinity School; in 1901 he became professor
emeritus. He was a famous teacher and a pro-
lific writer. In 1898 he was president of the
American Historical Association. He died Dec.
20, 1909. Among his works are: Essays on the
Supernatural Origin of Christianity (1865) ;
History of the Reformation (1873; new ed.,
1906) ; The Beginnings of Christianity (1877) ;
Discussions in History and Theology (1880) ;
The Christian Religion (1882) ; The Grounds of
Thcistic and Christian Belief (1883); Outlines
of Universal History (1885) ; f History of the
(Christian Church (1888); Manual of Christian
Evidences (1890) ; Nature and Method of Kcve-
lation (1890); The Colonial Era (1892);
Manual of Natural Theology (1893) ; History of
Christian Doctrine, in the "International Theo-
logical Library" (1896); Brief History of the
Rations (1890).

FISHER, HARRISON (1875- ). An Amer-
ican illustrator. He was born in Brooklyn,
N. Y., and studied under his father, an artist,
and at the Mark Hopkins Institute of Art, San
Francisco. At the age of 16 ho began his
earliest illustrations for a San Francisco paper
and was afterward appointed to the stall of
Puck. He later illustrated for the Saturday
Evening Post, McClurc's, Life, and other maga-
zines. Among the best known of the hooka il-
lustrated by him arts The Market Pluoo, by
Harold Frederic; Throe Men on Wheels t by
Jerome K. Jerome; The Eagle's Heart, by Ham-
lin Garland, Hia facility of execution 5 a re-
markable, and he is a faithful delineator of
character. His well-known type of the "Ameri-
can Girl" is the unual idealized one popular in
modern illustration. He excels in details of
dress. Tn 1907 he published a collection of
drawing entitled the Harrison Fisher jftoo/c,

FISHER, HERBERT ALBERT LAUBENS (1803-
). An English historian and educator, born
in London, lie studied at Winchester, at New
College, Oxford, and in Paris and Qtittingim.
lie was fellow of New College and of Winchester
College and ( 1 907 ) of the British Academy, and
in July, 1912, succeeded Sir Charles Kliot as vice
chancellor of Sheffield University. In 1912-13
he watt a member of the Royal Commission on
the Public Services of England. Tn 1909 he
was a lecturer of the Lowell Institute in Boston.
His principal works are: The Mediaeval fimpirc
(1808); Studies in Napoleonic Statesmanship
(1903) ; History of England, 1485-1841 (1906) ;
Bonapartism (1908); Life of F. W. Maitlwd
(1910); The Republican Tradition in Europe
(1911); Political Unions (1011); and a short
study, Napoleon Bonaparte (1913).

r IBVIKG (1867- ). An American
economist, born at Raugerties, N, Y. Ho gradu-
ated from Yale (A.BM 1888; Ph.D,, 1891), where
VOL. VITI.-41

he remained as member of the faculty, becoming
professor of political economy in 1898. He had
spent 1893-94 in study at Berlin and Paris.
From 1896 to 1910 he edited the Yale Review.
He was a member of Roosevelt's National Con-
servation Commission. His publications in-
clude: Mathematical Investigations in the
Theory of Value and Prices (1892) ; Elements
of Geometry, with A. W. Phillips (1806); A
Brief Introduction to the Infinitesimal. Calculus
(1897); The 'Nature of Capital and Income
(1906) 5 The Rate of Interest (1907) ; National
Vitality (1009) ; Introduction to Economic
Science (1910) ; The Purchasing Potrcr of Money
(1911; 2cl ed., 1913); Elementary Principles of
Economic* (1911; 3d ed., 1912).

FISHER, JOHN (c.1459-1535). An English
churchman. He was born at Bcverley, York-
shire, was educated at Miehaclhouse, now in-
corporated with Trinity College, Cambridge,
where he took his master's degree in 1491, and
became master of the college in 1490. The same
year Margaret, Countess of Richmond, mother of
Henry VTT, made him her chaplain and con-
fessor. In 1501 he was elected vice chancellor
of the university and in 1T>03 became the first
Lady Margaret professor of divinity. Tn 1504
he was chosen chancellor of the university, and
the same year he was appointed BiHhop of Roch-
ester. The Reformation of Luther found in him
a strenuous opponent. He refused to declare the
marriage between Henry VI fl and Catharine, of
Aragon — whose confessor he was — illegal arid
thereby won the King's hostility. Tie opposed
the suppression of the lesser monasteries in 1529
and the acknowledgment of tho King an head of
the chureh in 1531. He was imprisoned, and,
refuHing to take the oath affirming the legality
of Henry's marriage with Anno Jioleyn, he was
committed to the Towur Feb. 10, 1534. Ho wan
treated with great rigor, and hi« bwhopric waa
taken from him. While thus situated, the Pope,
Paul 11 F, an a recognition of faithful jutrviwn
aii(l just merit, Kent Fisher a cardinal's hat, in
entire ignorance of MB rupture with the King.
Tho result was his ruin. He was accused of high
treason and after a brief trial -was condemned
and executed June 27, 1535. Fisher's Latin
works were ptibliHhed at Wttraburg in 1507; an
edition of hit* Kngliah works was begun bv J. FL
B. Mayor (vol. i, 1870) and continued by llonald
"Bayne. Consult his Life, by Lewis, ed. by
Turner (London, 1855), and by Bridgett (ib.>
18i)0) ; U!HO Mason, Lwtures on Go1et>
and Afore, (il>., 1805).

FISHBB, JOHN (1500-1041). An
Jesuit and theologian, really named Percy. Tltt
was born at Holnmido, Durham, nnd watt edu-
cated at the English colleges in Kheimn and
Home and ordained in 1593. By 1504 ho boeamo
a member of the Society of Jesus and soon after-
ward miffcrcd religious persecution in Holland
and England, Escaping from prison, he traveled
to northern England as a missionary and was
instrumental in the temporary conversion of
William ChilUngworth to Catholicism. Again
arrested, in 1610. ho was condemned to death,
but was banished to Brussels instead and be*
came professor at Louvain, H« returned to
England to be kept for three years in prison.
He was an able debater with prominent Protes-
tants and was favored for a time by th* Stuart*;
but the Jesuits were subject to swero penal
laws, and he suffered further banishment, fol-
lowed by imprisonment on his return. Hia

626

FISHERIES

published writings consist of theological disputa-
tions. Consult Conference "between William
Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury, and Mr. Fisher,
the Jesuit, ed. by Simpkinson (London, 1901),
a summary of a debate between the two in an
attempt to influence the Countess of Bucking-
ham, whom Fisher brought into the Roman
church.

FISHER, JOHN ABBOTHNOT FISHEE, first
BAEON (1841-1920). An English naval officer.
He entered the navy in 1854 and took part in
the Crimean campaign of 1855 and in the China
war of 1859-60. In the Egyptian campaign of
1882 he was captain of the Inflexible at the
bombardment of Alexandria. From 1886 to
1801 he was Director of Naval Ordnance and in
1802-07 was Lord of the Admiralty. He was a
delegate to the Peace Conference at The Hague
in 1899 and commander in chief of the Mediter-
ranean station from 1899 to 1902. In 1909 he
was criticized by Lord Charles Beresford, but
after an investigation he was raised to the peer-
age as Baron Fisher of Kilverstone, Norfolk.
Early in 1910 he retired from his post as First
Sea Lord of the Admiralty, but was reappointed
in October, 1914. He acted as chairman of a
royal commission (1912) on oil fuel for the navy.

FISHER, JOSHUA FRANCIS (1807-73), An
American author, born in Philadelphia. He
graduated in 1826 at Harvard and was admitted
to the bar in Philadelphia in 1829, but did not
practice. He became an incorporator of the
Pennsylvania Institution for the Instruction of
the Blind and a student of questions of United
States, in particular of Pennsylvania, history.
His chief publication was The Private Life and
Domestic Habits of William Penn (1830). He
wrote also: The Degradation of our Representa-
tive System and its Reform (1863) ; Reform of
Municipal Elections (1866); Nomination of
Candidates (1868).

FISHEE, PAYNE ( 1616-92 ) . An Englishpoet
and political satirist. He was born at Warn-
ford, Dorsetshire, and was educated at Oxford
and Cambridge, but went soldiering to Holland
in 1638. The following year found him in the
English Royalist army, where he made the ac-
quaintance of Lovelace and afterward fought
under Prince Rupert; but after Marston Moor
he joined the ranks of needy literary men in
London. He grew in favor with the Parliamen-.
tarians and was Cromwell's poet laureate, writ-
ing Latin verse to order in a highly panegyric
style. At the Restoration he merely changed
his dedications, but, despite the satirical pam-
phlets he directed against his late patrons, he fell
out of favor at court and died poor. In Fleet
Prison he wrote Tombs, Monuments, and 8epu?>~
chral Inscriptions (1684), a prose description of
landmarks which were destroyed in the great fire.

fflSHEB, SYDNEY ABTHTO (1850-1921). A
Canadian statesman. He was born in Montreal,
was educated at the Montreal High School and
McGill University, and in 1871 graduated at
Trinity College, Cambridge University, England.
He early devoted himself to scientific farming,
fruit growing, and the improvement of live
stock. Though in 1880 unsuccessful as a Liberal
candidate for the House of Commons, he was
elected two years later, retaining his seat in the
House until 1891. In 1896 he was again elected,
and in the same year was appointed Minister
of Agriculture in the cabinet of Sir Wilfrid
Laurier, a position which he held until the de-
feat of the Liberals in 1911. In 1891 he was

elected a member of the Quebec Council of
Agriculture, and he was also one of the founders
of the Provincial Fruit Growers' Association
and became closely identified with several other
organizations for the conservation and improve-
ment of the farming interests of his province
and of the Dominion. In 1909 he was appointed
a member of the Royal Conservation Commission
and in the same year was a Canadian delegate
to the conference at Washington to consider the
conservation of the natural resources of the
American continent. In 1908 ho was elected
first vice president of the general assembly of
the International Institution of Agriculture at
Rome, Italy. While Minister of Agriculture he
promoted important legislation. As a promi-
nent temperance worker, he was for some time
vice president of the Quebec branch of the
Dominion Alliance. He was chief founder of the
National Art Gallery and the Archives Bureau
at Ottawa. He published: Some Economic As-
pects of A griculture in Canada; Conservation of
our Natural Resources; Rural Education in the
Province of Quebec; Canada and its Position in
tlie British Empire.

FISHER, SYDNEY GEORGE (1856- ). An
American lawyer and writer, born in Philadel-
phia. He graduated at Trinity College in 1879,
studied at the Harvard Law School for two
years, and in 1883 was admitted to the bar at
Philadelphia. Besides magazine articles, his
popular writings on American history include:
The Making of Pennsylvania (1890); Pennsyl-
vania, Colony and Commonwealth (1897); The
Evolution of the Constitution of the United
States (1897) ; Men, Women, and Manners in
Colonial Times (2 vols., 1898); The True Ben-
jamm Franklin (1899) ; The True William Penn
(1900) ; The True History of the Revolutionary
War (1902) ; The Struggle for American Inde-
pendence (1908); The True Daniel Wclstcr
(1011).

FISHER, WALTER LOWBIB ( 18G2- ) . An
American, lawyer and public official, born at
Wheeling, W. Va., and educated at Marietta
(Ohio) and Hanover (Ind.) colleges. Admitted
to the bar in 1888, he practiced until 1011 and
after 1913 in Chicago, which city he served as
special assessment attorney in 1888-89 and as
special traction counsel in 1906-11. From 1911
to 1913 he held the portfolio of the Interior in
President TafVs cabinet. Ho was president of
the Municipal Voters' League (1906) and of the
Conservation League of America (1908-09) and
vice president of the National Conservation As-
sociation (1910-11) and of the Rational Mu-
nicipal League. He published an Address on
Alaskan Problems (1911) and Alaskan Coal
Problems (1912).

FISHERIES. The capture of various kinds
of fish for the purpose of trade has always been
extensively carried on in maritime countries and
in those which are watered by large rivers and
has been the means in many instances of adding
greatly to their prosperity. The art has been
brought only by degrees to its present perfec-
tion, but in nothing did primitive man exhibit
greater ingenuity and skill than in the taking
of fish. These were effectively preserved and
formed a large element in savage sustenance and
barter in all parts of the world. The importance
of fisheries in the food supplies of nations, inland
as well as maritime, and as offering a remunera-
tive return for labor, can scarcely be overesti-
mated. The value of the food fish taken from

627

the oceans and inland waters of the world
amounts to nearly $400,000,000 per annum, or
an average of more than $1,000,000 per day.
One great peculiarity of this source of wealth is
that the sea harvest is ripened without trouble
or expense for the fisher, who only requires to
provide the means of gathering it. But with
increasing population the demand for food re-
quires efficient methods not alone of capture,
but of wise conservation of the sources of sup-
ply, based upon knowledge of the life histories
and the interrelations of the food supplies of the
various species of fish. Not only are the usual
methods of fishing unnecessarily destructive of
young and of breeding adults, but little thought
is taken to destroy the enemies or to increase
the natural food of the most valuable market
fish or to prevent the destruction of the spawn-
ing beds. The coming of man as an enemy
of the adult fish is causing changes in marine
life and environment which, though for the most
part unseen, are similar to those readily observ-
able on land. The future development of the
fisheries is likely to follow the closer utilization
of waste products, more efficient methods of dis-
tributing and marketing fresh fish for food,
elimination of unnecessary destruction of young
and of breeding fish and of ripe spawn, com-
mercial utilization of dogfish and other sharks
for food, oil, and fertilizer, together with chemi-
cal treatment of their products to secure wider
utilization. The fisheries will profit by legisla-
tion which aims to increase production, to pre-
serve natural spawning grounds from depletion
and pollution, rather than that which restricts
the demand by prohibition of the use of improved
apparatus.

Means of Capture. Lines. — The principal
means of capturing fishes are the hook and line
and nets. Hand lines are such as arc manipu-
lated with the hand. They have one or several
hooks and arc set, or sometimes are drawn or
"trolled" through the water from a boat. The
black baas, bluefish, pickerel (qq.v.), and other
predacious spocios arc taken by this method.
The hand line is much used for ordinary fishing,
but where this is carried on extensively at sea a
"set" or "long" lino must bo used. This is
known in America as a trawl. These set linos
-vary with the kind of fishing, but they are all
built on the general plan of a long line., to which
at intervals shorter lines bearing the hooks are
attached. The line is weighted at the ends or at
intervals. Tt may bo provided with floats at
intermediate distances, so that the hooks near
the weights catch bottom fishes and the others
those at middle depths. These lines, operated
from dories or directly from the vessel, are set
in varying lengths, but a' well-equipped fishing
schooner will opcrato several miles of trawl,
carrying 10,000 to 15,000 hooks. The boats from
which HO extensive lines are operated are pro-
vided with winches to bring up the lines from
the great depths.

Nets and Weirs. — The primitive weir of
stones, plaited wood, etc., was early superseded
by pliable nets of cord, which have become
progressively more elaborate. The principal nets
now in use are seine, purse seine, gill net, beam,
and otter trawls. The seine is a long net of
varying depth, weighted along the lower edge to
keep this at the bottom, while the upper edge
is provided with floats sufficiently strong to
support the seine and keep it vertically stretched.
It i* usually intended to oe dragged to the shore

or to some prearranged platform; but many
modifications have been devised to meet special
conditions. One form for use in the open sea,
called a "purse net," has a rope along the
bottom by which that part may be gathered to-
gether, forming a deep bag, within which the
fishes may be crowded into a small space near
the surface and then dipped out. Pound nets
and fyke nets are seines with a fixed location
acting as traps. Pound nets consist of a long
wing, or "leader," supported on stakes, and form-
ing a fence which runs from near shore out to
varying distances, and terminates in a labyrin-
thine inclosure forming a trap. Fishes swim-
ming against the wing and seeking to pass
around it are led out to the trap, entering which
they are imprisoned. The pound net is simply
a modern and improved form of the ancient weir
(still in service in various parts of the world),
which was composed of stakes and wattle or
lines of planted brush instead of netting. Fyke
nets are long, cylindrical bags, supported at in-
tervals by hoops. The entrance ia by a funnel
leading into one or more compartments, sepa-
rated by similar funnel-shaped partitions, through
which the iish will not return. This not may
be supplied with wings, like the ordinary pound
not or weir, leading the fish into the funnel
opening. Fykes are set at the bottom and may
bo used at considerable depths. Gill nets or
drift nets are extensively used both in the seaa
and in inland waters, wince they are, suitable to
any water of sufficient depth to float them
properly. They arc set or drifted across chan-
nels or across the course of migration of fishes.
Schools of fishes, striking the net, will become
entangled. Tina is one of the favorite methods
for capturing species which move in schools at
or near the surface, such as the herring, and
which cannot be easily trapped or taken with
the line. Tn America the "lon# line" is known
as a trawl, but in England this term refers to
a large, pxirse-shapod net attached to a front
beam, which is weighted and dragged at varying
depths near or along the bottom for bottom
fishes, such as soles and flounder*). This in one
of the principal methods of iishing in the British
waters. Trawls are often of great size, 7f> to
100 feet in length, with a mouth which may ex-
ceed 100 feet in transverse diameter, and may
bo used at great depths, requiring vessels of
considerable strength; but the "bourn** trawl is
now being superseded by the "otter" trawl, a
similar but more efficient device. For the beam
arc substituted two "otter boards" which act
like the runners of a sled* These hoards are
hung at such an angle on either si do of tlw
mouth of the baglike net, that when drawn
through tbo water (usually running on the
bottom of the sea) spread the mouth of the nut,
In Europe over 2300 powerful Httmmors equipped
with otter trawls are engaged in tlu* marine
fisheries. The use of this latest type of ma-
chinery for harvesting the itah crop must be ac-
companied by corresponding intelligent activi-
ties to increase the productive* capacity of the
ocean. (See FIBII Crorom) For information
as to towing "intermediate" deep-aca nets and

Preparation and Preservation, of 2Tiak. A
matter of great importance to the fishery indus-
try ie the proper preparation of the raw product
for the market. Tho markets are generally din-
tant from the point of capture; moreover, the
season during which any species can bo taken in

paying quantities is usually limited. This neces-
sity has given rise to numerous methods of
preservation, all of which are modifications of
drying, salting, smoking in various degrees and
combinations, and as later developments to
canning, icing, and freezing.

In Drying* ^B^ are usually first subjected to a
salt cure, but under some circumstances may be
directly dried. The process varies with different
species, climates, and nations, but in general is
as follows: The fish are cleaned and split.
They are then salted, either with dry salt,
allowing the pickle which forms to run off, or in
brine vats, where they remain until ready for
market. They are then subjected to the drying
process in the sun, much care being essential
to prevent too strong sunlight acting upon them.
For markets in the tropics it is essential that
most of the water be extracted, but for sale in
the United States the fish are much less thor-
oughly dried.

For Pickling, brine is almost exclusively em-
ployed in the United States. The fish are
cleaned, split, and packed in salt. Brine is then
added. The principal fishes pickled are the
mackerel and the herring.

8molwn,g Fish is an old and common practice.
Smoking is a powerful preservative and adds a
desirable flavor to the flesh. The fish are usually
slightly cured with salt first> then smoked for a
varying length of time—-2 to 10 days. Oily
species, such as the herring, haddock, halibut,
salmon, etc., are those most generally smoked.

In Ocwning, the flesh is subjected to high tem-
peratures (boiled), placed in cans, and hermet-
ically sealed, after which the cans are subjected
to water heated to a high temperature and Tinder
pressure. Fish may be (1) plain boiled or
steamed; (2) preserved in oil; or (3) pre-
pared in vinegar, sauces, and spices. Among
the more important fishery products canned are
the salmon, sardine, lobster, shrimp, crabs,
oysters, and clams.

Freeing. — For transportation of fresh fish and
for their preservation the freezing method is
generally adopted. For transportation they are
usually simply packed in ice. To preserve them
for long periods in the fresh condition they are
frozen into blocks of various sizes. The fish
are packed into a pan of the desired shape and
size, and then subjected to very low tempera-
tures, either through the ice-and-salt method or
by the ammonia method. Frozen into blocks,
they are stored until ready for the market. By
improved methods whereby evaporation is
checked frozen fish should lose none of their good
flavor and firmness during storage. OIL the
Atlantic coast the bluefish, halibut, smieteague,
sturgeon, mackerel, flatfish, cod, haddock, sword-
fish, red snapper, Spanish mackerel, eels, etc.,
are thus preserved. On the Pacific coast the
salmon, sturgeon, and halibut are principally
frozen. On the Great Lakes the lake trout, lake
herring, wall-eyed pike, black bass, perch, stur-
geon, etc., are frozen. The comparatively recent
perfection of the methods of refrigeration has
greatly increased the consumption of fresh fish
and has enabled consumers to enjoy many species
fresh at a season in which formerly they could
be had only in a smoked or salted condition.
The extensive inland trade in the United States,
and the liability of stored products to rapid
decay, have given rise to an elaborate system of
refrigerator railroad cars for their imperishable
transportation.

Special Fisheries. Special fisheries develop
wherever the various species of fish resort in
quantities either to feed or to breed. Such
isheri.es may be a permanent asset if the destruc-
tion of adults or young is not permitted to be-
come excessive, if the natural mortality can be
lessened, or if unwise destruction of other species
-which serve as food — e.g., young alewife, herring,
menhaden — does not so reduce the supply that
tie more valuable fish — e.g., mackerel, pollack,
bluefish, et al. — no longer resort there to feed.

The Sturgeon. — Sturgeons are the objects of
rather extensive fisheries in both Europe and
America; in China they are also important. In
Europe the Russians lead in the sturgeon fish-
ery. In the United States the industry is of
comparatively recent origin, but is already
rapidly declining because of the exhaustion of
the supply through indiscriminate destruction
of the fish of breeding age as they approach the
spawning grounds. In the United States stur-
geon are taken principally by the gill net and
set lines, though many are also taken in pound
nets and seines. The flesh is almost exclusively
prepared by smoking, and in both Europe and
North America the roe is prepared into caviar.
The swim bladder is used for isinglass; oil is
obtained, and the refuse is used as a fertilizer.
From a maximum of 15,000,000 pounds in 1800
the yield of sturgeon in the United States has
fallen to less than 1,000,000 pounds in 1013.
In Russia the value of caviar is nearly $4,000,000
annually, mainly marketed in southwestern
Europe. In the United States the production
of caviar amounts to about $100,000 per annum.

Herring. — Under the head of herring fisheries
may be considered all the clupeiform fishes, such
as shad, herring, alewife, sardine, and menhaden.

The true herring, or sea herring (Clupea harcn-
gus), is undoubtedly the most important food
fish in existence, although in the United States
its importance is much less than that of many
other species. The total annual catch for the
world has been estimated at about 1,500,000,000
pounds, the greater part of which is taken in
Norway. The annual catch in the United States
is about 125,000,000 pounds, with a first value
to the fisherman of $800,000. The herring are
principally taken with seines, gill nets, and
weirs. They appear in the markets in three
principal forms, viz., fresh, pickled, and smoked.
In the United States there are annually frozen
about 20,000,000 herring, with a market value
of about $250,000. About one-third of these
are used as bait for cod; the remainder are con-
sumed as fresh food. They thus aiTord an ex-
cellent fresh-fish food at seasons when other
fresh fish are difficult to get. The quantity of
herring prepared in pickle is greater than that
of all other species combined. Over 3,000.000
barrels is the annual product for the world.
They appear in the markets in two principal
forms — ''round" and "split." In the former they
are salted without the removal of gills, heart,
and viscera, while in the latter they are eviscer-
ated. They are prepared for the markets as
"hard" or "red" herring and "bloater" herring,
the latter being a form and term used mainly
in England and originating chiefly at Yar-
mouth. The former differ from the latter in
being subjected to the smoke at a lower tem-
perature and for three or four weeks, while
the latter are smoked at a comparatively high
temperature and only for two and a half to six
days. The bloaters do not have the keeping

FISHERIES

629

qualities of the hard herring. In Maine young
herring are extensively canned as sardines. Tn
spite of the great increase in the herring fisheries
and the enormous quantities annually taken,
the abundance of the species has not perceptibly
diminished, though, in part at least, this fact
may result from the destruction by man of larger
species, e.g., mackerel, pollack, bluensh, et al.,
which feed upon the young as well as upon the
mature herring.

The Shad (Alosa sapidissima) is the object of
the most extensive fisheries in the United States,
where it is the most important food fish except-
ing the cod and the salmon. The original fisher-
ies are located along the entire Atlantic coast
streams. This fish, introduced by the United
States Bureau of Fisheries into the Sacramento
llivor, has spread along the entire Pacific coast
northward to Alaska. Shad are taken during
their entrance into the fresh-water streams for
the purpose of spawning and are captured by
seines, gill nets, and pound nets in groat quan-
tities. The annual yield for recent years has
averaged about 25,000,000 pounds in the United
States, with a first value of $2,000,000. The
catch is diminishing in quantity, but the valuo
is slightly increasing. Moat of the shad are
consumed fresh, being iced for shipment. A few
are brine-salted, and some are smoked. The
eggs of shad are to some extent made into caviar
and otter the best substitute for the sturgeon roe.

The Alewife (Pomdlobus pseudoharengus) is
the most abundant food iish in the cast coawt
rivers of the United States, and next to the ahad
ia the most important of the anadromous fishes
of the. Eastern States. Alewife fisheries are to
be found in every Atlantic State. The catch
amounts to about 80,000,000 pounds per annum,
with a value of $600,000. They are principally
cnught in seines and pound nets during their
migrations up the streams for spawn ing pur-
poses; many are also taken with gill nets,
fykes, and even with dip nets. A nearly related
species, the glut herring (Pomolobns optttivalifi) 9
is of leflrt importance, and more common in the
Southern States. Alewives arc used fresh for
food, aa bait for line fisheries, and arc exten-
sively brine-salted and smoked.

TJie Menhaden is the object of an important
fishery in the United States. This fish (lire-
voortia tyrannwi) oecurs along the entire, east
coast of the United States and !H more abundant
south, but is of no special value, as food except
for other fishes. It is canned, and salted to a
limited extent, and some are, eaten fresh. Their
principal valuo lien in the oil extracted from
them and in their use an fertilisers. They aro
uncertain in their movements, but in favorable
years over 60 vessels may be employed in the
catch. The annual catch is about 400,000,000
pounds; valued at nearly $1,000,000. '

Tlie Sardme fisheries are pursued in three
principal regions, vix., the Mediterranean coasts,
the coast of the Bay of Biscay, and the coast
of Maine; but sardines are prepared in other
places, such an Brazil and Mexico. The European
sardine, or pilchard (Clupva pihhcvrduft) , is the
common form there.. In the United States nearly
related spcdcs are used, also the young of the
aea herring, and to some extent young menhaden.
This indimtry iw of comparatively recent origin
in the United States, dating from 1875* The
European amountu are much greater, France,
Spain, Portugal, and Italy Mm? heavy produc-
er*. Tha importation* of sardine and otW fish

packed in oil into the United States amount to
about $2,000,000 per annum in value, and are
chiefly from France, Italy, and England. In
the markets sardines appear in the canned form,
put up in olive and other kinds of oils. This in-
dustry has reached its highest development in
Brittany.

Another group of important fisheries is that
concerned with the several salmonoid fishes.
Among these are to be included the salmon,
whitefishes, and smelt.

The Salmon are undoubtedly the most impor-
tant group of fishes entering the rivers of North
America, and a considerable number of salmon
are taken in northern Europe and eastern Asia.
The catch of the British Islands in 1012
amounted to about 4,971,550 pounds. In North
America the most important fisheries are on the
Pacific coast. The most important spceioH is
the Chinook, or quinnat, salmon (see SALMON) ;
the next in importance is the abundant blue-
back salmon, followed by the silver salmon,
steelhead, etc. They are taken during their *IH-
cont up the streams by the usual appliances,
together with the unique fishing wheel. Salmon
are marketed as fresh, smoked, and canned. The
canning of salmon has become one of the great
industries of the world. Of the world'w annual
output over 05 per cent IB prepared on the
American continent. The salmon pack of the
canneries of North America in 101,1 was 8,0(53,-
447 canes (of 48 pounds per can«)« valued at
$38,503,801 -, of which 3,475,000 cases, valued at
$13,800,000, was Alunkan, 2,583,000 rawH, valued
at $13,320,000, Puget Sound, 28S,47!> cases, val-
ued at $2,0112,000, Columbia TCivcr, and 1,354,000
cases, valued at $8,800,000, British (1olumbian
product. The export trade, at first mainly with
South America and Auwtralia, now also includes
Great Britain and other European countries.
The export of canned salmon ranges from
30,000,000 to 00,000,000 poundH per annum, val-
ued at from $3,000,000 to $0,000,000 annually.
Smoked Halmon are among the clioiiwHt of fish-
ery products, but the proportion of the nahnon
catch thus cured is extremely small.

The WJtitefish (Ctorcgonits 'elupciformifi) and
the ciweoH or lake herring (ArQyrnwtnm artcdi)
are highly important Halmonoida. Species of
theso two genera are found in the lake* of north-
ern Atria, Kuropc, and North America, and all
arc valued as food. The whitefl«he» are among
the. most important froth-water fishes of the
world. The catch of lake herring and whitellah
in the Unitod Status and Canada for the year
1008 aggregated about 25,000,000 poundH, with a
value of About $1,500,000. Of tins catch about
7,800,000 pounds were taken in the United Mtaten,
with a valuo of $524,000. Mont of thcwc are
taken in gill nets, but many also in pound net*,
trap nets, and «einea. Whitefifth and herring
are. extensively frozen in tho Great take* region
and are thus served fresh to the markets* Large
quantities were formerly brine-wilted, but this
industry has almost wholly disappeared since the
frozen-fish industry has developed, WhitettHh
were formerly extensively aniokod, but the
scarcity of this species has resulted in the fltih-
Htituticm of th« lake herring,

Tho hake Trout (CtristiroMtrr namaymuth) IK
next to the whitctiwh in importance in the <!r<fnt
Lake* fisheries. The disposition of them1 Is much
like, that of the whtteftuh, and they tire taken hy
gill nets, pound nctn, hook and line, and in
wintor through tha taa by

FISHERIES

630

FISHERIES

The Smelt (Osmerus), although the smallest
of the salmonoids, is of great importance. The
annual catch in the United States is about
4,000,000 pounds, with a value of $175,000. The
catch in the Canadian fisheries aggregated over
10,000,000 pounds, valued at about $900,000 in
the year 1912. They are largely taken by seines.
Smelt are canned to some extent, but the great
bulk of them are marketed fresh, being ex-
tensively preserved in cold storage.

The Mackerel is one of the most valuable
food fishes in the Atlantic, and great fisheries
for it are carried on in Great Britain, Ireland,
Norway, Canada, and the United States. Lines,
purse seines, and gill nets are the principal ap-
paratus used. The most important of the several
species, the common mackerel (Scomber scorn-
Irus) , is found on both sides of the Atlantic and
appears near shore in enormous schools. They
appear in the spring, coming shoreward earlier
in the more southern latitudes, and in autumn
they return to the deeper waters. The European
catch is usually limited enough to be mostly
marketed fresh, but in the United States and
Canada large quantities are cured. In North
America most of the mackerel fisheries are on
the east coast. The catch in the United States
is now much less than formerly, and amounted
in 1908, the latest census report on fisheries,
to 12,742,000 pounds, valued at $864,000; that
of Canada, in 1913, 11,400,000 pounds, valued
at $635,293; that of England and Wales, in
1913, 34,000,000 pounds, valued at about $1,000,-
000. The world's catch so far as known amounts
to about 125,000,000 pounds per annum, valued
at approximately $5,000,000. In the United
States the proportion of salted mackerel to the
total catch was in former years above 80 per
cent, but in recent years it has been much less.
The increasing demand for fresh mackerel is in
part responsible for this decrease.

The Spanish mackerel, one of the choicest food
fishes, is taken in considerable quantities along
its entire range on the east coast of the United
States, but principally south. It is taken in
seines, gill nets, pound nets, and lines.

The tunny, or horse mackerel, which may reach
a weight of 1000 to 1500 pounds, is a mackerel
of most excellent flavor and is the object of ex-
tensive fisheries in southern Europe. In Cali-
fornia it is much sought by sportsmen, and is
taken in considerable quantities off the coast of
New England.

The Ood.— One of the world's greatest fish-
eries is that relating to the several species of
the cod family (Gadidffi). These are common in
the northern regions of both oceans. The more
important species are the common cod, haddock,
pollack, and hake. The countries principally en-
gaged in the cod fisheries are Newfoundland,
Canada, the United States, France, Great Brit-
ain, and Norway and Sweden, with a total annual
product worth about $40,000,000. The common
cod (Gadus callwrias) is the most important and
is found on both sides of the Atlantic. It is
taken with hand lines and trawl lines from
rather deep waters — 20 to 70 fathoms. The an-
nual catch for the United States has in recent
years averaged about $3,500,000, first value. The
catch in 1913 for Canada amounted to $8,368,000.
The haddock is extensively taken in both Europe
and America. The product of Canada amounted
to $1,065,000 for the year 1913. In the, United
States the annual yield is about 60,000,000
pounds, with a value of about $1,300,000. The

pollack is found on the east coast of North
America north of New Jersey. The annual catch
in the United States amounts to about $100,000,
the Canadian product amounting to $325,000 in
1010.

The various species of cod are marketed fresh,
dried, pickled, and smoked. Very small quan-
tities are pickled in the United States, and
almost the only species smoked is the haddock.
The principal form in which they are cured is
by salting and drying. The world's annual
product of dried codfish aggregates 400,000,000
pounds, representing 1,500,000,000 pounds of the
uncured fish. The chief markets are France,
Spain, Portugal, Italy, and Brazil. The bulk of
this trade is carried on by Norway, Newfound-
land, and Canada, and it has been steadily in-
creasing in these countries, while in the United
States the reverse is the case. Our exports of
dried cod in 1804= amounted to $2,400,000, while
tho average annual export for the 10 years
prior to 1914 averaged less than $200,000 per
annum. The total amount of dried codfish pre-
pared in the United States annually is about
30,000,000 pounds. Haddock are extensively
smoked, appearing on the market as ''finnan
baddie." The secondary products of the cod are
of considerable importance. These are oil, isin-
glass from the air bladders, glue, etc.

Halibut, etc. — Nearly related to the Gadidoe,
and like them of great importance, are the flat-
fishes (Pleuronectidae). The fisheries are exten-
sive in both Europe and America. Flatfishes are
bottom fishes, and many of them are found in
deep waters. The principal means of capture,
therefore, are the hook and line, haul seines,
pound nets, and the beam and "otter" trawl.
The latter method is almost exclusively used by
the North European countries. The most im-
portant of these fishes and one of the most tooth-
some is the large halibut, found in all northern
seas. It may attain a weight of 400 pounds,
though the commoner weight is less than half
this. The great fishing grounds for the Atlantic
trade of the United States are Grand Bank,
Western Bank, Iceland, and Greenland. The
Atlantic fishing has been seriously depleted by
overexploitation. The chief source of supply of
North America now is near the waters of Puget
Sound and Alaska, with a reported catch of
35,000,000 pounds in 1912. They are iced, and
upon arrival are further prepared for sale either
fresh or smoked. The most of the halibut are
cured by smoking. The annual product, larger
now than in former years, averages about 34,-
000,000 pounds, with a value of about $1,600,000.
The Canadian catch of halibut in 1910 amounted
to 23,000,000 pounds, with a value of $1,240,480.
Two other species of considerable size are found
in the American markets: the Greenland hali-
but, found in the Arctic parts of the Atlantic
but not very common, and the Monterey hali-
but, common along the coast of California. In
European waters the sole (8olta vulgaris) id
the common flatfish taken for the markets.

Molfask Fisheries.— By judicial decision the
taking of oysters, clams, quahogs, scallops, and
other food and bait mollusks are "fisheries/* In
1910 the oyster fishery alone employed over
67,000 persons, at a yearly wage of $11,000,000,
an investment of $17,000,000, with an output of
33,000,000 bushels, valued at $15*000,000. Of
this yield approximately one-half was the result
of artificial propagation. See FISH GUI/TUBE,
Fisheries, — In addition to the foregoing

631

FISHING-

more important families of fishes there are many
others whose species are not so generally im-
portant, and which are not the object of so ex-
tensive special fisheries.

The most important memher of the minnow
family in America and Europe is the carp. In
Europe it is extensively reared in artificial
ponds, and in the United States upon introduc-
tion it becomes notoriously abundant. Its flesh
is not highly esteemed in the United States,
though extensively taken for the markets, where
it frequently appears under a variety of names.

The suckers ( Catostomidce ) are much eaten
in the Mississippi valley. The most important
of these are the buffalo fishes, the catch of which
in 1908 was 8,555,000 pounds, with a value of
$215,000.

Of greater commercial value than the suckers
are the catfishes (Siluridse). The catch in the
Mississippi valley amounted to 17,117,000
pounds in 1908, valued at $785,000.

The fresh-water sheepshead (Aplodinotus grun-
niens) yielded 2,037,000 pounds in 1908, with a
value of ,$07,000. Along the east coast the salt-
water sheepshcad (Archosargus probatocopJia-
hts) is generally regarded as one of the choicest
food fishes. The squetoague, or wcakfish, and
the spotted weakfish are extensively taken along
the cast coast of the United States.

The sea basses (Sorranidtc) include many im-
portant species, used as food in different regions
of their world-wide distribution. In the United
States the striped bass (Rooeust lincatus) and
the white perch (M prone amcrioana) are among
the important species. Tho groupers arc abun-
dantly found in the markets, especially in tho
southern United States and in Brazil. These
are not infrequently found of great size in the
markets, but arc of more practicable value as
objects of sport.

Varioxis Hpecios of picke.rel (Luciidca) are of
some importance in tho northern United States
and Europe. The most familiar one is the com-
mon pike, or pickerel, abundant in northern re-
gions. The Canadian maskinonge (q.v.) reaches
a weight of 100 pound fl or more.

Hwordfish iXipJiia* rfadiu*} is a recently de-
veloped food fishery off the New England coast.
In 1013 upward of 2,000,000 pounds were landed
at Boston.

The large and small-mouthed black bass and
other suni'mhes, such as tho rock baas, crappie,
etc., are taken in considerable* quantities for tho
markets in the United States, and tho first
named has been introduced into other countries
where they arc now marketed. The market
value of the black bass to tho fishermen in the
United States is about $250,000, representing
3,000,000 pounds of fish. The annual catch of
crappie is about 3,000,000 pounds.

The mullets are commonly found in the
markets of both North and South America, the
catch in the United States being about 35,000,000
pounds, valued at nearly $1,000,000 annually.

Bibliography. Goods, Fishery Industries of
the United Htatea (Washington, 1884) ; United
States Fish Commission, Annual Reports (ib.,
1871 rt seq.), and United States Fish Commis-
sion, Bulletins (ib., 1882 et seq.) ; Inspectors of
Fisheries for England, Wales, Scotland, and Ire-
land, Annual Reports (London, 1897 et soq.) 5
Minister of Fisheries of Canada, Report (Ottawa,
1868 et seq.) ; Mtatittiqw* des vtohe* maritime
(Paris, 1861 et soq.), treats of the fisheries of
Franco j Stevenson, "Preservation of Fishery

Products for Food/' in the United States Fish
Commission's Bulletin for 1898 (Washington,
1899), contains a thorough account of the
methods of preserving aquatic products in the
United States and also of other countries, their
commercial value, etc.; Simmonds, Harvest of
the Sea, (London, 1865); id., Commercial Prod-
ucts of the Bea (ib., 1883) ; id., The Sea Fisher-
ies of Great Britain (ib., 1883); Cunningham,
Natural History of Marketable Marine Fishes
(New York, 1896); Bowers, Artificial Propaga-
tion of Marine Speoies (Washington, 1904) j
McFarland, A History of Keio England Fisheries
(New York, 1911) ; Herubel, Sea Fisheries (Lon-
don, 1012) ; also Bulletins of the International
Council for the Study of the Sea.

FISHER'S ISLAND. An island about 6%
miles southeast of the harbor of New London,
Conn., at the east entrance of Long Island
Sound (Map: Connecticut, H 4). It belongs to
Southold Township, Suffolk Co., L. I., and is
about 8 miles long and 1 mile or less wide,
with an area of about 4000 acres. The surface
is undulating, the soil fertile and well adapted
for agriculture. The island oilers many attrac-
tions as a summer resort. Its permanent popu-
lation is about 200. A considerable portion is
occupied as a military reservation, and here is
situated Fort Wright, which forms one of tho
defenses of the eastern end of Long Inland
Sound.

FISH ffliY. One of a group of large ncurop-
toroutt insects that pans their early stages in
the water and are united into the family Huilidi*,
of which the alder flics, dobwm, and wimilar
forms are also member*. The namo is more par-
ticularly given to the gcnviH flhuMliodcft, which
lire distinguished from Oorydalis by the comb-
like or feathery feelers and reach a groat »xze.
The fish flies lay their eggs upon vegetation over-
hanging streams, whence, the larvus as soon aft
hatched, drop into the water and go about prey-
ing upon aquatic animals. "When ready to
transform to pnpas" according to Howard, "they
crawl out upon the bank and are then found in
cavities under stones or even tinder the' bark
of trees/* &x» CORYDALTS.

FISHG-TTABD, A neaport and market town
in tho County of Pembroke, Walm, near the
mouth of the river Owaun, 14 miles north of
Haverfottlwe,Ht (Map* England and Wales, B 5).
Its importance i« due mainly to common-mi pos-
sibilities furnished by an excellent harbor, and
boatH bound for Liverpool stop here to discharge
London passengers. There are local flnlu»rie^ of
Homo valuo. In 1707 the so-called Finh#uard
Invasion by the* French occasioned great alarm
among tho inhabitants, but tho invaders were
quickly repulsed. Pop., 1001, 1739; 1011, 280*2.

3?I&H HAWK* The popular nanto in North
America of the psprey (Pandion hatiw'tua), of
which it is considered a geographical race dis-
tinguished as tho subspecies oarotiiwnsi*. 8ect
OSPREY, and Hate of KA.GLKS AND HA.WKS.

FISHING* Primeval man hooked and caught
ftsh by tho aid of numerous devices, the moist im-
portant of which were gorge*, mado of bronzo
or stone, the latter consisting of pieces of shaped
stone about an inch in length with a groove in
the middle for the Una* One of these goxgei, a
relic of the Stone ago, has been discovered in
France and is about 8000 years old, The bait
completely covered tho gorge, which, when swal-
lowed by the fish, turned across the flwh's gullet
and held it secure. After stone, bronfee was

FISHING

632

FISHING

used and then bone. The early Californian
Indians used shell hooks, while the Piute In-
dians used the spine of a cactus.

Fishing Tackle may be denned as consisting
of rod, line, hook, reel, nets, etc. Rods are made
of elastic wood and sometimes of steel. Split

STONE AND BKONZE GOUGES.

bamboo is especially adapted for fly fishing,
and lancewood, greenheart, hickory, or ash for
any other kind. Double-handed rods for salmon
fishing are sometimes over 20 feet in length and
weigh nearly three pounds. Most rods are made
in sections or joints, so that they can be taken
apart and the more easily carried. Fishlines
may be of hair, silk, linen, hemp, or cotton, ac-
cording to the purpose for which they are re-
quired. There is a wide variety of hooks, not

ANCIENT FISHHOOKS (BONE).

only for the different fish, but variations in de-
sign for the same fish, the choice depending on
the skill and preference of the fisherman. Both
the straight hook, in which the point is in line
with the shaft, and the one in which the point
is bent to one side, have their champions.
Most hooks are made with flatted, ringed,
knobbed, or plain ends. A particularly effec-
tive hook is the
barbless hook, which
has a sharp piece of
wire fixed across the
opening of the hook,
making it almost
impossible for the
victim to get away
after it has once im-
paled itself; such
hooks, however, are
little used. The
spoon hook has a
piece of polished
metal shaped some-
what similar to the
domestic tablespoon
attached loosely to
its shank, so that
when it is drawn
through the water
it twirls and glitters in a manner designed
to attract the fish, which, if it snaps at it,
is likely to be caught by the hook. Thi* tackle

ANCWNT BBONZB FISHHOOKS,
DOUBLE AND SINGLE.

is used in trolling for bluefish, pickerel, bass,
lake trout, and other game fish, although
artificial flies, together with a number of hooks,
are sometimes attached to the spoon. The
snell is a piece of silkworm gut connecting
the hook and the line. Sinkers are generally
small pieces of lead, or bullets cut in half, and
fastened to the line; floats are made of cork
or wood and fastened to the line at both ends,
serving to indicate to the fisherman the location
of his hook and to indicate by their disappear-
ance that a fish has seized the bait. There are
many kinds of reels, including the automatic,
which winds the line when a spring is pressed.
The best tackle in the market and the most
experienced fishermen are practically powerless
without an effective bait, which ought to consist
of some item from the known diet of the fish
sought for, or, where that is not obtainable, of
something closely resembling it. Beginning with
the angleworm or common earthworm, the larva
of insects, grubs, artificial flies, grasshoppers,
etc., the list of available bait may be extended
to various kinds of animal and fish flesh, as well
as the numerous pastes common with the fisher-
men of Europe. The only net used by the genu-
ine sportsman is the landing net, by which the
fish is taken out of the water after it has been
brought to shore or boat by the hook and line.
Fresh- Water Fish. The fish most common
to amateur fishermen are the various minnows,
in many places spoken of as shiners or chubs, of
which the most generally known, the dace, is
found in New England and the Middle States and
demands but an ordinary light rod, with worm
or artificial fly for bait. The sunfish or pumpkin
seed, perch, bullhead, etc., may be found in
ponds or still water throughout the United
States, and sometimes in tidal rivers, and are
caught with small hooks, with worms as bait,
although (excepting the bullhead) they fre-
quently take the artificial fly. In the Southern
States good sport may be obtained with arti-
ficial flies in the catching of bluefish, blue bream,
and copper-nosed bream. A peculiar, though
uncertain, method of fishing for the common
bream in these waters is to use bait made of
brown broad and honey. For all-around sport
through most of the year the yellow perch is
most popular in the Eastern States. In summer
it may be caught with a worm or minnow bait;
and in winter holes are cut in the ice, and the
white grub, usually found in decayed wood, is
used as bait. In the springtime the fly is most
attractive. The wall-eyed pike, as the pike
perch is sometimes called, is found usually in
the Southern States, western New York, the
Great Lakes, and Canada, in which latter
country it is known as the doree, another fish
of the small species being known as the aandre.
It is an exceptionally gluttonous fish, easily
caught with a hook, and in Lake Champlain is
occasionally caught by trolling. The pickerel,
or common pickerel, which may be found in all
the ponds and streams of the North, East, and
Central States, together with the white pickerel
of the Ohio and the black pickerel of Pennsyl-
vania, arc all distinguished by length of body.
The pike seldom grows to be over 3 feet in
length, although the maskinonge (like the pike,
a member of the pickerel family) has been
known in the Michigan lakes and the upper
waters of the Mississippi River to be at least
7 feet. The fisherman usually trolls for them
with a spoon. The common pickerel weighs on

an average about five pounds. The largest catfish
have been known to weigh over 150 pounds, al-
though the flesh of the smaller kinds is the most
rich and more generally considered a delicacy.

A fine game fish is the black bass (small
or large mouthed), which is plentiful in
many lakes and streams east of the Rocky
Mountains. It may be caught with minnows,
frogs, grasshoppers, etc., or with an artificial
fly, or by trolling with a spoon hook. The fish-
ing rods required for this fish are usually about
10 feet long and considerably stouter than those
used for trout. The sucker is a fish found in all
the fresh waters of the Northern States. It is
usually caught with angleworm bait, and in the
winter, through the ice, it is more easily caught
than any other. The carp is a compara-
tively recent importation from Europe and is
now found in many of the Eastern waters
(where it frequently becomes a nuisance) as
well as in California and Oregon. It haunts
muddy waters. The chub is widely distributed
in fresh waters and may easily be caught with
various baits. The grayling affords exception-
ally fine sport. It is generally caught with the
fly, but will also bite at worms and insects, and
is found along the northern border of the United
States. The true salmon is caught chiefly in
Canadian rivers as well as in the Penobscot
River of Maine. The best time for .sport ranges
from about the middle of May to the end of
.July, covering a period when the fish is on HB
annual pilgrimage from the sea to deposit its
spawn or eggs in fresh water. The newly
hatched fish arc known as pinks, in their second
year as smolts, and in their third year tis grilse.
Artificial fliea are the bait commonly used.
Trout, second only to salmon in their gainonotw,
are also sea (-migrants whenever it is possible
for thorn to be so. They are usually found to
bout advantage, in clear streams and lakes, and
angleworms, artificial (lien, and minnows are
used for their capture. In the rivers and lakes
of Maine and Canada Hpe,ckled trout of from
four to six pounds are frequently aeon, and
specimens have been caught weighing nearly 10
pounds. The lake trout "is caught by trolling,
with a minnow or npoon as bait. TCols are
boat caught at night, along muddy bottoms;
the fresh -water kind are commonly taken on
"set lines," and the salt-water variety frequently
captured in eel-pot traps.

Salt-Water tfish. The blue perch, nibbler,
chogHet, Bait-water perch, or burgalJ, names fre-
quently applied to the cunner, in found in great
abundance along the coast, It is easily caught
with but light tackle and almost any kind of
bait, although clam bait scorns to have a special
attraction for it. The striped bass, or, as it
is sometimes culled, rock bass, is one of the
best game salt-water fishes in the United
States. It spawns in tidal rivers and will often
make its way up fresh-water streams in its
search for food. Its weight ranges from 8 to 76
pounds, and the bait required may consist of
anything from a piece of cotton to a small
fish. (Bee BASH,) It is sometimes caught with
the artificial lly, and again a line baited with
small fish thrown into the surf as in ily casting
will be successful. The minnow is the best bait
for trolling. It is very strong, very cunning,
and very game, making long and fierce ruxiH,
severely taxing the skill and strength of the
fisherman before it is finally subdued and cap*
tared. One of the moat oomaaon fishoa in tho

South is the sea chub, frequently called tho
Lafayette, owing to the fact that it was found
in special abundance in 1824, the year of Gen-
eral Lafayette's visit to this country. The fish
most common to all the coasts of the United
States in the last half of the year is the weak-
fish, which in the South is occasionally mis-
taken for the trout. With this fish the clam
is the most attractive bait, and the best time
for catching is usually during flood tide. It
varies in weight from six ounces to over seven
pounds, occasional specimens having been caught
weighing over 26 pounds. The fish luw a large
mouth and very soft jaws and is caught with
much the same tackle as is used for black bass,
the principal requirement beting a large hook
made of fine steel. Its peculiarity an a food
fish lies in the fact that it inunt be oaten
almost immediately after capture or its flesh
will become soft. The sheepshcad, a Southern
fish weighing about eight pounds* is an ex-
ceptionally hard fish to secure, but is of cor-
respondingly rare delicacy as a food fifth and
is one much valued by epicures, The aeup,
known in some parts an the porgy, or paugic,
is found more particularly along the Atlantic
coast.

Another gamy fish is tho bluefish (q.v.), also
known as the akopjack, horse mackerel, or
(when young) snapper. Hluolisli art* found any-
where on the American coast between Massa-
chusetts and Brazil. They arc best caught with
a squid trolled from a sailboat and occasionally
from a line thrown out from shore. If they are
running in "schools," tho fishermen take them in
great abundance with their trolling linen. A pe-
culiarity about them in that they keep near the
surface and will snap at any living thing in
sight. Like, the weak/tali, they miller in value
for outing purposes if kept very long before cook-
ing. A smaller kind of blnelM) IH caught along
the New England shore with a light taeklo and
a minnow bait. Along the north ooust of New
Jersey tho smelt is caught in large SOWOH; they
spawn under much tho Mime conditions as the
salmon. Tho umbrella tackle lined in tlm State
of Maine IH a very peculiar an well an effective
method of catching the smelt. Tho umbrella
frame IH attached to tho end of a fish pole, and
hanging from the cud of each rib is a short line
and hook. Mackerel afford excellent sport and
may be flailed for with hooka baited with small
pieces of mackerel flesh or skin, although they
are more generally taken in seines, The herring
is the mont common victim of commercial fish-
ing, but it may also be caught by the individual
fisherman in the springtime of tito year with an
artificial fty as bait* Its near relative, the nhtul,
will alBo give very excellent sport when fished
for with tli« fly, The king of the herring 5» the
tarpon* which frequents the Gulf of Mexico and
tho coast of Florida. They vary in weight, but
often exceed 150 pounds. They are caught on
rod and lino as also are the leaping tunas of
the Pacific coast, gigantic mackerel, equaling in
sijse und weight tho tarpon. The blaakflsh weigh-
ing from two to nine or 10 pounds and caught
by a bait of soft clam*, or bits of lobster, with
either hand lines or rods, may be found between
South Carolina and Mtts*wchu«fcttH Buy* In
acme parts it is known an the tautog (q.v.).
Its favorite running plncw are near mi&kon
wrecks, dowrtcd dockti, or where the coast is of
rocky formation.
The fish above mentioned are the one* wbiah

PISHING BIUDS

634

FISHING LAWS

may legitimately be classed as game fish; most
of the others, usually deep salt-water fish, as
cod, haddock, whiting, and halibut, being caught
principally for the market and as a means of
livelihood. (See FISHEBIES.) Sharking (q.v.)
is occasionally indulged in off the eastern coast
of the United States and sometimes as far
north as Nantucket Island. Every State ^ in
the Union has its separate fish laws, which,
however, are constantly changing in a matter
of detail, although their general principles re-
main the same. Some fish are protected by
law from capture by netting, spearing, or any
other method except hook and line, and then
only during certain months known as the "open
season." In some States it is unlawful to take
fish under a regulation size or weight, and fines
and imprisonments are penalties imposed for the
transgression of such laws. In brief, the general
trend of the law throughout the United States
is to prevent the employment of any method
which will destroy the supply. The reader is
further referred to ANGLING; BAIT FISHING;
FISHING LAWS; FLY CASTING; GAME LAWS;
GRAINING; SALMON FISHING; SHARKING; SWOED-
FISHING; TABPON FISHING; TBOLLING; TBOUT
FISHING.

PISHING- BIRDS. Birds subsisting by
catching fish and adapted in structure to their
capture and digestion. They do not constitute
a scientific group, many widely dissimilar forms
having taken up and become adapted to this
mode of life, not to include such out-of-the-way
species as the kingfishers and certain fish-eating
birds of prey. The fishing birds proper include
the larger sea birds, such as the loons, penguins,
auks, puffins, tropic birds, frigate birds, cormo-
rants, and gannets; and certain fresh-water
families of higher organization, such as the
pelicans, darters, most herons, and some ducks.
All are either powerful swimmers and divers, or
else are skillful in lying in wait and snatching
or piercing any fish that comes sufficiently close
to their motionless forms. The instrument (ex-
cept in the Raptores, which use their talons) is
the beak, which is long, straight, sharply
pointed, and sharp-edged, so that a firm grip
may be had of the slippery bodies of their
prey. A large part of the prehistoric birds were
fish catchers. Many of the fishing birds have a
special provision for bringing home a part of
their catch to their young, either by swallow-
ing it as far as the crop, whence it may be dis-
gorged, or by storing it in a bag formed by the
distensible membrane between the lower mandi-
bles (e.g., pelicans). Certain more powerful
birds (as the jaeger gulls) profit by the labors
of the fishing birds, compelling them to give up
their prey; and men have trained the cormorant
to exercise its skill for their benefit. See COB-
MOBANT; GANNET, and other birds of this group;
and Plate of FISHING BIBBS.

FISHING BOTTKTTIES. It was the policy
of the English government to encourage the fish-
eries, as schools for seamanship, in order that
the navy might be readily manned in. times of
emergency. In. the reign of Edward VI we find
statutes compelling people to keep the fast days
of the pld church, although Protestantism had
already been introduced. This was to keep up
the demand for fish. A statute of Elizabeth
went further and removed all import and export
duties from fish, and another statute of the same
reign encouraged by similar exemption the Ice-
land trade in herring and cod. In the eighteenth

eeutuiy this legislation had its desired effect of
excluding the Dutch from the fishing trade in
England, except in the case of the whale fish-
eries. To meet the latter difficulty, bounties
were offered in 1733 and again in 1740 and 1749
to the owners of vessels engaged in the whale
fisheries. These bounties were considerable,
amounting in 1755 to £55,000, but they did not
have the desired effect of increasing the industry.

Following these precedents and others of Colo-
nial times, the American Congress offered boun-
ties to promote the fishing industry. In 1789
bounties were given for the export of .dried,
salted, and pickled fish; these were increased in
1797 and 1799. An Act of 1792 offered extensive
bounties to vessels engaged in the cod fisheries
of Newfoundland. They varied from $1.50 to
$2.50 on the ton, according to the size of the
vessel, three-eighths of which went to the owner
and the rest to the fishermen. These bounties
were finally abolished in 1854. Consult: Stat-
utes of the Realm, 2 and 3 Edw. VI, c. 19, 5 Eliz.
c. 5; Cunningham, Growth of English In-
dustry and Commerce, i, 443-444; ii, 21-22, 115-
116, 282-284 (Cambridge, 1892). For Ameri-
can legislation, consult United States Statutes
at Large, i, 229 et seq., 260, 533, 692.

FISHING- CAT. A species of wild cat (Felis
viverrina), common in eastern India and through
Burma and the Malay Peninsula. It is 30 to
32 inches in length of body, to which must be
added 9 to 12 inches of tapering tail. The gen-
eral color is dark gray, sometimes reddish,
striped on the head and neck and spotted else-
where with dark brown; the throat and breast
are white, and the tail barred with chestnut.
The peculiarity of this cat is that it subsists
mainly upon fish and mollusks of its own catch-
ing, but it is said also to be exceedingly fierce
and to carry off children. Consult Mivart, The
Cat (New York, 1892), and Lydekker, Game
Animals of India, Burma, Malaya, and Tibet
(London, 1907).

FISHING- CREEK, BATTLE OF. See Miu.
SPRINGS, BATTLE OP.

FISHING EAGLE. A large eagle (Polioa-
etus ichthyaetus) of India and eastward, which
lives by catching fish, having habits and a con-
formation of claws very similar to those of the

FISHING FROG. See ANGLES.

FISHING LAWS. Laws regulating the Kill-
ing or taking of fish. These are divisible into
two classes : those which are private, or munici-
pal, in their character and sanction, and those
which are international.

Private Fisheries. Some of the rules of
municipal law governing fishing rights are fully
stated in the article on game laws (q.v.). In
Great Britain the right of fishing within the
territorial seas and navigable streams belongs
prima facie to all British subjects. If any per-
son claims an exclusive right in such waters,
the burden of proof is upon him to establish
that right by royal or parliamentary grant or
by prescription. In the United States the same
presumption obtains in favor of public fishing
in territorial seas and navigable waters, but it
is the State and not the national government
which ordinarily possesses the power of grant-
ing or regulating this right.

English law divides private rights of fishery
into three principal classes: (!) common of fish-
ery, or of piscary, (2) free fishery, and (3) sev-
eral fishery. The first of these is not to be eon*

FISHING BIRDS

1, YELLOW-BILLED TROPIC BIRD (Phafthon amtri- 4. FRIGATE-BIRD (Frojcatui aquila),

can us). 5, OLD WORLD PELICAN (Poticanu* onocrotalut).

2- CORMORANT or SHAG <Phalaorooorax oarbo). 6. AFRICAN DARTER (Plotut tevailtanti).
3. ARCTIC FULMAR (Fulmarus gtaoialit).

PISHING LAWS

635

KSHING LAWS

founded with a common fishery, which desig-
nates the public right of all comers to take fish
in public waters, but is a personal right created
by municipal law, in the nature of a profit a
prendre, to fish in particular waters in common
with other persons. The second term is used
in two senses. By some writers and jxidges it is
defined as a franchise or exclusive privilege of
fishing in a public river, while others make the
term synonymous with several fishery. The
latter designates the exclusive right which the
owner of the soil beneath nonnavigable waters
has to fish in those waters. It i« a right of
property which he may grant to another while
reserving to himself ownership of the soil.
When so conveyed to and held by another than
the power of the soil, it is a profit A prendre.
See PROFIT A PRENDRE.

A private right of fishery is held subject to
the public use of navigable water as a highway
and for the free passage of fish. It is also sub-
ordinate to regulations which may be prescribed
by the state for the public good. Regulations of
this character arc now very numerous both in
Great Britain and in the United States. They
are intended primarily to prevent the unneces-
sary destruction of fish and to promote finh cul-
ture. They establish close seasons during which
fish of certain varieties may not be cauglit, they
regulate the manner of catching them, they pro-
hibit the fouling of stream** and ponds, and
they annex severe penalties to violations of
these provisions.

International Fisheries. International fish-
ing laws are mostly regulated by treaty or con-
vention, and the course of their development has
largely depended upon the outcome of political
disputes. Thi.s is especially true of the fishing
laws fixed by treaty between the United Htaten
and (Jreat Britain, and between Great Britain
and France, iu Newfoundland and North Ameri-
can waters. These played so important a part
in the history of the three countries during the
nineteenth century, and still present HO many
unsolved problems, that they demand careful
consideration.

Bettwan the United Rtatca and Great Britain
the existing laws represent a working compro-
mise, whone history runs back to 1783. Tn that
year the Treaty of Paris, which acknowledged
the independence of the. United States, provided
that American ftahermen tthould continue to
enjoy the right to fiah in the water« of the
British posflOHfliona in America, but forbade
them to dry or euro fish on the. eoaut of New-
foundland and in settled bays, harbor**, and
crcoktt of Nova Scotia, Magdalen TslumlH, and
Labrador, unlem by previous agreement with
the inhabitants or possessors thereof. This ar-
rangement continued in force until IHlti, al-
though, during the negotiations preceding the
Treaty of Ghent of 1814, the; views of the Ameri-
can and British commissioners clashed so decid-
edly on the interpretation of foiling rights
under the Treaty of Paris that the question
wo* ignored, as otherwise, the Trcatv of Ghent
might not have been concluded. The superior
value of the British-Canadian fisheries had at*
traeted a considerable number of American fish-
ermen, who had established themselves in the
most advantageous places for curing and drying
fish; and the British government, anticipating
the effect of what they considered an undue
advantage thus gained, held that the War of
1812 had abrogated the nshing rights fixed by

the Treaty of Paris. By the Convention of
London of 1818 the United States renounced
for American fishermen the liberty of fishing,
subject to certain exceptions, within 3 marine
miles of any of the coasts, bays, creeks, or
harbors of the British dominions in America,
except the right of entering bays or harborti
for purposes of shelter and for obtaining wood
and water.

During the succeeding 36 years different con-
structions were put upon these provisions, and
from time to time seizures of American fishing
vessels were made for trespassing within the tt-
mile limit. All these difficulties were, however,
removed for a time by the Treaty of Washington
(1854), better known as the Reciprocity Treaty,
by which mutual restrictions as to H<ia fisheries,
excepting shellfish, were done away with, and
each country was granted full enjoyment of the
sea-fishing grounds of the other. The termina-
tion of tliis treaty in 1800 by notice of thcs
United States government placed the. tyholt*
question hack again in the position cstablwhed
by the Convention of London, in which it con-
tinued until the Treaty of Washington in 1871
restored the mutual fishing privileges of the
Reciprocity Treaty. In the Treaty of 1871 pro-
vision was made for referring to arbitration the
guestion of the greater value of Canadian fish-
ing waters, and by the Halifax CounntaKion of
1877 an award of $5,500,000 was made in favor
of the Dominion of Canada. This treaty, which
went into operation in 1873, wan terminated in
1885 according to notice given by the United
States government. The extent of the renuncia-
tion made by that government JIH expressed in
the Convention of London was again thrown
open to opposite interpretation^ and, several
American ^ finhing vessels having been flcmwl,
Coiigretft in 1887 pawned a retaliatory law a\i-
thorteing the President, at hiw discretion, to
close American ports to Canadian vewelH and
mcrehanuiHe. The discretion waw never exor-
cised. In 1H8H another attempt to compose
these differences was made by the Chamberlain-
Bayard Treaty, which was rejected by tint
United States Senate,; but a modus virrndi
pending ratification was offered by the British
coxnmiHflionerH, and an Act of the Dominion
Parliament in 1800 enacted this tcmfx>rary ar-
rangement into law.

It IH noteworthy that tho termination of the
Rwiprocity Treaty of 18fl4 and of the Washing-
ton Treaty of 1871 was duo in each ea«e lo the.
action of the United Htattw government; and
likewfoe the proposed Chamberlain-Bayard
Treaty, which wa» acceptable to Great Britain
and Canada, wan rejected becaiwe it wan believed
wrongly to twrreiuler Itiormteittahle American
rights. Apart from certain political conxitlera-
tioiw which compelled American disapproval
of the«e trttatieB, there were oppoMile Interpret*
tationn which arone Homo yearn after the Trmty
of Paris of 1783, and there were nltm additional
interpretations of treaty rightH advanced by
the Hntish North American culonkts before
and aftfr confederation in 1807. AH rcgurdn
the Treaty <>f IMriH, the American claim, urgwl
by the* commitiflionerH during the negotiation of
the Treaty of Ghent and on auhBequetxl notable
occasion^ W»H that the, rights guaranteed by
treaty in 178.H were not new, but thu contiuu*
anwj of proprietary rigUtn alruady existing ami
acknowledged. Not even the nwtrfetlcw w to
tho 3-milo limit, which is the <*ttpt*citti feature ot

LAWS

636

the Convention of London, is admitted by some
American writers; but the terms of that conven-
tion are, nevertheless, accepted by both govern-
ments as the binding arrangement in default of
a treaty superseding them. It has also been
contended in behalf of the United States that,
by a reciprocal arrangement entered into be-
tween that country and Great Britain in 1830,
and by Article XXIX of the Treaty of Washing-
ton of 1871, American fishing vessels are en-
titled to the same commercial and transporta-
tion rights as other American vessels. Further,
it is claimed that the so-called "headland doc-
trine," which presumes to fix the 3 -mile limit
by drawing a line from headland to headland in-
stead of following the sinuosities of the coast,
and by which American fishermen are prevented
from entering Canadian bays and harbors to
purchase supplies and transship their catch, was
not recognized by Great Britain but was an in-
vention of the Canadian government. It was
contended, also, that the stipulations of the Con-
vention of London which allowed the entrance of
American vessels into Canadian bays and harbors
for repairs, shelter, wood, and water should be
deemed privileges accorded on grounds of human-
ity and not as rights secured by treaty. The op-
posed contentions of Great Britain and Canada
have been urged at various times by their com-
missioners in treaty negotiations and in the
writings and speeches of public men. It is
claimed that the American fishing rights guar-
anteed by the Treaty of Paris of 1783 were
abrogated by the War of 1812 and were in con-
sequence ignored by the Treaty of Ghent; that
the American renunciation of the liberty of fish-
ing within the 3-mile limit, as set forth in the
Convention of London, is definite and final, that
American fishing vessels were not within the
meaning of the reciprocal arrangement of 1830;
that the headland doctrine, and the restriction
of the right of American fishing vessels in Cana-
dian bays and harbors to the purposes only of
obtaining shelter, repairs, wood, and water, is
urgently necessary to protect Canadian fisheries.
Such are the main opposing views. The
North Atlantic fisheries since 1885 have been
regulated by the Convention of London. Refer-
ence has already been made to the temporary
arrangement offered by the British Commission
pending the ratification of the proposed Cham-
berlain-Bayard Treaty of 1888 and to the en-
actment of this arrangement into a Canadian
law. An attempt to settle the fisheries ques-
tion was made by the Joint High Commission,
which met in Washington in 1899, but sub-
sequently adjourned indefinitely without settling
the various questions proposed.

The fishing laws as oetween Great Britain and
France in Newfoundland waters and the Gulf of
St. Lawrence were fixed by the Treaty of
Utrecht of 1713, the Treaty of Paris of 1763, the
Treaty of Versailles of 1783, the Treaty of Paris
of 1814, and the arrangement signed at Paris in
1885. By the first of these treaties Newfound-
land was ceded to Great Britain, and the
French were allowed to catch fish and dry them
on land on that part only of the coast which
stretches from Cape Bonavista to the northern
part of the island and thence, running down by
the western side, reaches as far as Point Riche.
By Article V of the Treaty of Paris of 1763,
which confirmed French rights on the coast,
liberty was given to fish in the Gulf of St.
Lawrence at a distance of 3 leagues from the

coast, ami ou the Cape Breton coast at a dis-
tance of 15 leagues, the islands of Saint-Pierre
and Miquelon being ceded to France as a
shelter to her fishermen. In 1783 the Treaty of
Versailles varied the French shore fishing limit,
giving up a strip of coast from Cape Bonavista
to Cape St. John, but extending the western
coast limit to Cape Ray. The Treaty of Paris
of 1814 confirmed these rights, and the arrange-
ment of 1885 was entered into chiefly to calm
the discontent of the British colonists of the
islands, who were harassed on and ejected from
the French shore. Article II of that arrange-
ment permitted the formation of establishments
on that coast shore for every other industry
than fisheries, and stipulated not to disturb
resident British subjects between Cape St. John
and Cape Ray passing by the north.

The conditions produced by these French rights
were seriously detrimental to the interests of
the colony, and the Newfoundland Legislature
refused to accept the settlements which had been
proposed by various conventions. The opposing
claims of the colonists and the French fishermen
were clearly defined. The colonists contended
that French rights under the Treaty of Utrecht
did not forbid them to fish between Cape St.
John and Cape Ray so long as they did not in-
terrupt French fishing; that the French fisher-
men exceeded their rights in catching and can-
ning lobsters; that colonial settlements and
enterprises, other than fixed fishing establish-
ments, were hindered, and also the working of
mines; and that portions of the coast on which
the French renounced their rights were worth-
less. The French fishermen contended, on the
other hand, that their rights under the treaties
were exclusive, and that all British fixed settle-
ments between Cape St. John and Cape Ray
were illegal.

By the Anglo-French entente of 1904 most of
the questions at issue were definitely settled.
France surrendered her pretensions to exclusive
rights under the existing treaties, as also the
right of French fishermen to cure fish on the
coast of Newfoundland. In return for these
concessions England paid France a money indem-
nity. The right to fish in common with British
subjects, where this was formerly permitted, is
retained by the French fishermen and continues
to be a source of friction.

Consult: Paterson, Fishery Laws (London,
1878) \ Kent, Commentaries on American Law;
Washburn, The American Law of Jteal Prop-
erty (Boston, 1902); New York Forest, Fish,
and Game Law (Albany, 1902) ; Doran, Our
Fishery Rights in the North Atlantic (Philadel-
phia, 1888) ; Moore, History and Law of Fish-
eries (London, 1903). See GAME LAWS; FER^E
NATURE. For a discussion of the seal fisheries
in Bering Sea, see BERING SEA CONTBOVERSY.

ITSH'EXLL'EBu One of the great aquatic
bugs of the heteropterous family Belostomatidfc,
which prey upon fishes. They are the largest of
existing bugs, some reaching a length of 4
inches, and have an oval outline, flat body, and
a brownish or grayish hue. Their logs are
flattened into powerful swimming organs, except
the foremost pair, which are incurved and form
organs for seizing and holding their victims,
aided by hooks and processes on the inner sur-
face of the tibiae. The mouth parts include a
strong beak for stabbing the prey, from which
all the blood is sucked before it is let go. At
the end of the abdomen are two narrow, flat-

iFISHKILL LANDING

637

PISH MANTJEE

KISHKILLEK.

tened appendages, which arc extensive but not
concerned in respiration. The family is nu-
merously represented in the rivers and ponds of
northern Africa and
southern Asia, but most
extensively in America.
The largest-known spe-
cies is Belostoma grandis
of the Amazonian re-
gion, where it lurks on
the muddy bottoms of
sluggish streams and
bayous, ready to seize
any salamander, fish, or
other aquatic animal
that it can overcome.
rJ1ie two moat abundant
and largest species in the
United States are Bclos-
toni(i> American a and
Bcnacus gtisetis, which much resemble one an-
other in the brown -gray color and shape, but
may be distinguished by the fact that the Bclos-
toma "has a double groove on the underside of
its fore thighs which is lacking on the thighs
of Bcnacus.1" These bugs swarm about electric
street lights in such numbers as to be known
in many places, of late, as "electric-light bugs."
They breed and develop wholly in the water,
but their life history is not well known. The
females of a related genus, Xaifha, have, been
found to have the curious habit of depositing
and fastening their eggs upon the back of the
males, who unwillingly carry them about until
they hatch. The males fight hard against the
infliction of this indignity, but are actually
overcome by the females. Great damage may
follow the introduction of the.ua bugs into fiwli-
cultural establishments. Consult Summers,
"The True l$ugs, or lEeteroptera, of Tennessee,"
in Tennessee Agricultural Kjep<riinctit Station
JiuUctin, vol. iv. No. 3 (Nashville, liSJU).

FISH/ETLIi LANDING-. Formerly a village
in Dutches* Co., N. V., flO miles north of Nc\v
York City, on the east bank of the Hudson
River, opposite Ncwburg, with which it IB con-
nected by a ntcam ferrv, and on the Central
New Kngland and the New York, New I lawn,
and Hartford railroads (Map: New York, IJ 1).
Tn May, HUB, it was joined with Matteawan
village, forming the new city of Hen con, which
was the first in the Ntate. to adopt the commis-
sion form of government, Its population art the,
village of Finhkill landing, before* the union
with MiitteawAii, wan, 1900, 3073; 1010, 3902.
It has a nicturcmnie location, containn a hos-
pital, public library, and the, Oaswell Academy,
and, as one of the oldest village** in the State,
is replete with hiHtorieul interest. There are
several brick plantfl, and manufactories of hats,
paiutft, tools, baker*1 machinery, rubber and
leather good**, carriage* and Btaigha, etc. Firth-
kill Landing wan settled probably about 1(105
and incorporated «s a village in 1800. In 177C
the. Provincial Convention of Now York met
here, and from 1770 to the clone of the Revolu-
tion Fishkill wa« one of the, principal military
depots of the Northern army. At the Verplanck
homestead, in the environ* of the villages the
Society of the Cincinnati was organise*! in
17H3. Commit: Hmith, History of ])utoh&ut
ftoimty (Pawling, N. Y., 1877); an article,
"Fhhkill in the Revolution,1' in the PubtiaatUm*
of the Historical ftoctety of Newburp Bat/, for
1804; and Vwpbtwk, "The Birthplace of

the Order of thp Cincinnati," in ATeir England
Magazine, vol. xiv, No. 5 (Boston, 1890).

PISH LOTTSE, or SEA LOUSE. Any of vari-
ous small crustaceans (copepods) which live
parasitically on the outside or in the branchial
chambers of marine animals, especially fishes
and whales. All are of small size, and attached
either temporarily or permanently to the hosts,
on the juices of which they live, although many
species have also the power of swimming freely
in the water, sonic of their legs being adapted
to this purpose. They are animals of singular
form and appearance'. In the genus Argulu*
there is a curious sucking disk on each side of
the beak, or proboscis, although there arc also
jointed members terminated by prehensile hooka.
Jn the genus Galigus the hooks of the anterior
pairs of feet are, the principal organs of adhe-
sion to the slippery bodies of the fishes from
which food is to be' drawn, and the abdomen of
the female is furnished with two remarkably
long lubes, which contain a long aeries of flat-
tened, coin-shaped eggs. The bodies of all of
them aro transparent, or nearly HO. Consult
United States Fish CommisKion Annual Reports
( Washington, 1871 ct seq.) for particulars as
to the extensive list of species catalogued in
American waters. See COPEPODA; also cut in
article MKNUADBN.

PISH MANUBE. "Dried nnd ground liuh, or
fiwh guano, is a valuable fertilizer obtained mainly
from two sources : ( I ) tho refuse from fish pack-
ing and canning establishment*), and (2) the,
pomace from the extraction of oil from Huh —
in America, chieily the menhaden. The product
from tho latter source is especially rich in fer-
tilizing conRtitnentM, containing from 7 to S
per cent of nitrogen and tf to 8 per cent of
phosphoric acid. The availability of th<i nitro-
gen is nearly as great us that of dried blood and
tankage*. The phosphoric acid is frequently
more available than that in other organic matter.
The availability of the fertilising constituent*}
depends largely upon the proportion of oil pres-
ent. A considerable proportion of the latter
delays decomposition in the soil and thus re-
duces the availability. The oil is removed and
tho fish prepared for use as a fertilizer on a
commercial scale by cooking with steam and prow-
ing. The pressed residue is dried and ground,
in sonic cases, after the first pressing, the ma-
terial is subjected to the action of steam under
pressure and sulphuric/ acid (5 per cent) to
render the fertilising constituents more avail-
able. The uncooked fifth is sometimes treated
directly with sulphuric acid to prevent offensive
decomposition and to increase the availability
of the nitrogen and phosphoric acid.

Fish immure* an* prepared and used in con-
fliderablo quantities, eflpwtally along the north-
eastern coast of America, in Norway, and other
region a where the supply of material ia Abun-
dant. Their preparation has greatly increased
in recent years on the northwest conttt of the
XTnited States and in Alaska, largely for ex-
port to Hawaii and Japan. Fish manure in ex-
ported in c-onaiderable quantities from Norway,
There is still, however, enormous wanto of ti«h
by-products which might bo profitably utilised
an fertiliwni.

Tn localities where it can be readily obttnnetl
from fishermen, fish scrap in frequently unecl
without preparation of any kind. Naturally
this prod not IH very variable In composition,
the nitrogen ranging from Ifl to 8 per cent ami

FISH OF PARADISE

638

FISKE

the phosphoric acid from 2 to 6 per cent. The
fertilizing constituents of this material are less
available than those of the dried and finely
ground fish. TTie whole fish are also sometimes
used as a manure, either directly or composted
with other materials. It is stated in Bradford,
History of Plymouth Plantation (Boston, 1856),
that the Indian Squanto first taught the New
England colonists to use the menhaden as a
fertilizer for corn, instructing them to put the
fish under the hills at the time of planting.
(See also MANUBES AND MANUBING.) Consult:
Goode, "The Natural and Economic History of
the American Menhaden," United States Fish
Commission Report (1877); Stevenson, "Aquatic
Products in Arts and Industries," United
States Fish Commission Report, p. 177 (1902) ;
Voorhees, Fertilizers (New York, 1902) ; Aik-
man, Manures and the Principles of Manuring
(Edinburgh, 1894) ; Storer, Agriculture (7th
ed., New York, 1897) ; Turrentine, "The Fish-
Scrap Fertilizer Industry of the Atlantic Coast,"
United States Department of Agriculture, Bulle-
tin %; American Fertiliser Handbook (Philadel-
phia, 1913),

PISH OF PARADISE. An East Indian fish
(Macropodus vvridiauratus) , related to the
gouramis and noted for its extended fins and
brilliant colors. It is cultivated for ornamental
aquariums.

FISH OWL. See KETUPA.
FISHPLATE. See RAILWAYS.
FISH SKIN DISEASE. See ICHTHYOSIS.
FISHTAIL PALM. See CARYOTA.
FISK, CLINTON BOWBN (1828-90). An Amer-
ican soldier and philanthropist. He was horn
at Greigsville, N. Y., spent some years as a
merchant in Michigan, and then removed to
St. Louis, Mo. At the heginning of the Civil
War he entered the Union army and in 1865
was brevetted major general. Subsequently he
devoted his life largely to the interests of the
negro race, was assistant commissioner in the
Freedmen's Bureau, and was instrumental in
founding Fisk University. In 1884 he left the
Republican party and identified himself with
the temperance movement. He was Prohibition
candidate for Governor of New Jersey in 1886
and for President of the United States in 1888.
Consult the Life by A. A. Hopkins (New York,
1888).

FISK, FIDELIA (1816-64). An American mis-
sionary. She was born in Shelburne, Mass.,
graduated from Mount Holyoke, was a mis-
sionary of the American Board among the Nes-
torians in 184&-58, and became first princi-
pal of the seminary for women at Urumiah.
She wrote Recollections of Mary Lyon (1866).
Consult D. T. Fiske, A Memoir of Fidelia
Fisk: Faith Working by Love (Boston,
1860).

FISK, JAMES, JB. (1834-72). An American
stock manipulator and financial buccaneer. He
was born in Bennington, Vt., the son of a ped-
dler, and received scanty schooling. After try-
ing various other occupations, he took up that
of his father and finally attracted the attention
of Jordan and Marsh, the Boston merchants of
whom he bought his wares, and as a member of
that firm enriched them and himself by shrewd
bargaining with the government and, it was
Raid, by smuggling cotton through the lines
during the Civil War. Four years later he
opened a brokerage office in New York City.
He picked up a precarious living for some time,

until Daniel Drew set him up in business with
a man named Belden, using them as his agents
in his famous struggle with Cornelius Vander-
bilt for the control of the Erie Railway. As a
result of a compromise, the Drew-Fisk interest
combined with the Eldridge-Gould interest,
forced the Vanderbilt faction out of the direc-
torate, installing Fisk and Jay Gould in their
stead. This marked the beginning of the no-
torious association of Jay Gould and James
Fisk, which terminated only with the death
of Fisk. Gould became president of the Erie
Railroad, and Fisk the vice president and comp-
troller. From their headquarters a campaign
of bribery and corruption was carried on that
brought under the power of these men city,
State, and Federal officials, judges and legisla-
tures, reaching its climax in the gold conspir-
acy of 1869 and "Black Friday," when an
attempt was made to control President Grant
himself. In a quarrel with one of his former
partners, E. S. Stokes, three years later, Fisk
was shot and killed. Consult Adams, Chapters
of Erie, and Other Essays (New York, 1886),
and Black, Essays (ib., 1890).

FISK, PLINY (1792-1825). An American
Congregational missionary, born in Shelburne,
Mass. He graduated at Middlebury College, Ver-
mont, in 1814 and at Andover Seminary in 1818.
After being agent of the American, Board of
Commissioners for Foreign Missions he went to
Palestine in 1819 and in 1825 became a member
of the successful mission in Beirut. After his
death was published an English-Arabic Diction-
ary which he finished the day he died. Consult
Bond, Life of PUny Fisk (Boston, 1828).

FISK, WH-BTTB (1792-1839). An American
educator and clergyman. He was born at
Brattleboro, Vt., graduated at Brown Univer-
sity, and afterward studied law, but in 1818
entered the Methodist ministry. With others,
ho founded an academy at Wilbraham, Mass.,
of which, in 1825, he became the first principal.
He also aided in the founding of Wesleyan Uni-
versity, at Middletown, Conn., and became its
first president in 1831. He had previously re-
fused the presidency of La Grange College (Ala-
bama), and in 1836 declined an election as
Bishop in the Methodist Episcopal church.
Among his works are: The Science of Education
(1832); The Oalvinistio Controversy (1837);
Travels m Europe (1838). Consult Joseph
Holdich's biography in American Religious
Leaders Series (New York, 1842), and George
Prentice in Life and Writings of Wilbur Fisk
(Boston, 1890).

FISKE, AMOS KJDDBB (1842-1921). An
American journalist and author, born at White-
field, N. H. He graduated at Harvard in 1806,
was admitted to the Now York bar in 1868,
assisted G. T. Curtis (q.v.) in the preparation
of the latter's Life of Daniel "Webster (2 vols.,
1870), contributed to the revised edition of the
American Cyclopaedia of Ripley and Dana
(1873-76), and for 22 years was connected with
the editorial staff of the New York Times. In
1900-02 he was a member of the staff of the
New York Mail and Satpress, and in 1903 he
became associate editor of the New York Jour-
nal of Commerce and Commercial Bulletin Hie
publications include: Midnight Talks at the
Club (1890); Beyond the Bo-urn (1891); The
Jewish Scriptures (1896) ; The Myths of Israel
(1897); The Story of the Philippines (1898);
The West Indies (in the "Story of the Nations

FISKE

639

ITSKE

Series," 1800); Tlie Modern Bank (1904); The
Great Epic of Israel (1911).

riSKE, BRADLEY ALLEN (1854- ). An
American naval officer and inventor. He was
born at Lyons, N. Y., and graduated from the
United States Naval Academy in 1874. Rising
through the various grades, lie became captain
in 1007 and rear admiral in 1911. At the battle
of Manila Bay he was navigator of the Petrel
and during the Filipino insurrection, while navi-
gator of the Monadnock and executive officer of
the Yorktoicn, he participated in several bom-
bardments. He was in command, at various
times, of the Minneapolis, the Arkansas, the
TvnHftsftcc, and the fifth division of the Atlantic
fleet, and in 1011-12 was president of the Naval
Institute. His inventions include a large num-
ber and variety of electric devices for warships.
His naval telescope sight resulted in greatly
improving the accuracy of naval gunnery. Tie
was awarded the Elliott Cresson gold medal
by the Franklin Institute (1893) and a gold
medal by the United States Naval Institute
(1005) for the prixe essay "American Naval
Volicy." Besides special articles, he is author
of Electricity in Theory and Practice (1883)
and War Time in Manila, (1913).

FISKE, PANIKL WILLAKD (1831-1904). An
American scholar, born in Kllisburg, Jefferson
Co., N. Y. lie was educated at Hamilton Col-
lege, but left before graduating to go abroad and
devote his time to a stxidy of the Scandinavian
language and literature. He spent the years
1849-52 at the University of Upnala, supporting
himself by teaching English and lecturing on
American literature. From 1852 to 1859 lie was
an assistant in tlio Aster 7-iibrary, New York
City, and devoted much of his attention to
gathering its Scandinavian collection. IIo edited
the AmcriwH Vhm* Monthly (1857-00) and
published The Hook of the American Ohetw (four
grew (1850). In 18(il-C2 he waft an attach*, of
the American Legation at Vienna, under John
Lothrop Motley, lie wa« editor of the Syracuse
(N. Y.) IMlu Journal in 1804-00, and of the
Hartford (Conn.) Courant in 1807-08. In the
latter year be was clouted professor of North
European languages and librarian at Cornell
University. In 1881 ho resigned, and removed
to Florence, Italy. lie presented to Cornell a
very valuable Dante collection, for the catalogue
of which he wrote a noteworthy introduction.
HiH posthumous publications include: JlibUo-
yraphwal .Vrrtfrw (0 vote., 1880-1007); MUM
in Iceland an<l in Icelandic. lAturatiirti (1005);
Own* Tale» find (Ihrtut MtowllnnlM (1012).

PISKE, HAttztiHON OBKY (1801- ). An
American theatrical manager and journal int.
Tie wan horn at Harmon, N. Y.t wan educated
at New York University, and early nerved aw an
editorial writer and dramatic critic, for the,
Jersey City .lr//iM and later for the New York
*Vfar. In *1871> ho became a contributor to the
New York Dramatic Mirror, of which, until
If) II, he wan editor (and after 188.1 proprietor).
H« wan alH<> manager for the Manhattan Oo-m-
pany and for hiH wife, Minnie Maddern Ptakcs
and other Htarw. tie wrote* the* plays llwler
tframr, The l*rivatc<or, and A White Pink.

STSKB, JOHN (1842-1901). An American
philosopher and historian. Uin original nam«
•wan Kdmund Pinke Green, but on the Hceotid
marriage of hifl mother (1865) he assumed the
name of his maternal great-grandfathw, John
Fiake. H<* was born at Hartford, Conn*, March

30, 1842. As a child, ho exhibited remarkable
precocity. He \v-as graduated at Harvard Col-
lege in 1803 and at the Harvard Law School in
1805; hut he never practiced la\v, having al-
roady, in 1801, inaugurated his literary career
by an article on Mr. Buckle's fallacies, in the
National Quarterly Review. In 1S09 he began
a career of distinguished success UH a lecturer at
Harvard, his general Hubject being "Philosophy
in its Evolutionary Aspect." In 1870 he was
made instructor in history there, and in 1872
assistant librarian, a pout which lie resigned in
1879. In 1884 ho. was made professor of Ameri-
can history in Washington University, St. LOUIH,
having hold a lectureship there since ISrtl, and
lectured annually for some years, though con-
tinuing to reside in Cambridge. His reputation
was already international, for he had lectured
on American history at University College, Tj<>n-
don, in 1879, and at the Royal Institution of
Great Britain in 1880. During the earlier part
of his career his interest was very largely ab-
sorbed by the study of evolution, and it was aa
a popularisser of its philosophy that he first
won a national reputation, through On flint® of
Ctoftmic ^Philosophy (187-4). IftwayH and studies
on allied subjects appeared under tlie titles:
Myths and Myth Alakrn (1872); The Vnwii
World (1870); Daririniiwi and Other Kssays
(1S79; revised and enlarged, 188tf) ; Itimtrsionit
of an flwlutioniat (IH8»'J) ; The Dvstinif of .If an
Viwml in the. hiyht of his Origin (1884) ; The
hlca of Hod «# Affrvtcd by Mortvm Knowledge
(1885). This last work, supplemented by liis
Or lain of Kml (JS99), xnay be regarded* as a
final epitome of his religious and philonophic.
views. In addition to the volumes wwied may
be mentioned: A (fcntury of NriniM and Other
/« (1809) ; Wirwtffh Nature to <lod (1801)) ;
Krrrluslinff (19DI). Amrrictm Political
riwrcd from the. Ntomtpoint of llntwrsal
Hitttory was publinhed in 188f>, and with this
begun the 15 years (Unvoted to iuvestigatioim in
American hinlory, which numt b<k regnrded «H at
oucc lln» rnont (Ktpular and the most valuable
of his contrilmtioiiH to American literature and
to the molding <>{ the national life* HIM e<mtri-
butiouB in book form to the hintory of bin
country were: Tho tfritival Pvriwt of American
llhtoW /7^-W (1888); Ttw Ifrt/intiintitt of
Ni'tv Knylnntl (1HHD) ; The War of /ur/rY'rw/r/iw
a book for young people (1880); 1'irif
unlit of tltr United titate* (1800); Tlir .I
can ItrrnlutitM (2 voirt., I8i)l); The tHtM
of America (!3 VO!H,» 180!^); A United Mute*
Hitttnry for tfchuofx (181).">)t Old Wry info und
licr Nviyhhortt (2 vol.s., 1HJ)7) ; Mutch tmtl tyHttker
(tolwiicit in Atwrica (i2 voI«M 18DD); Ktumtf^
Mttwtrjt and H tutor M (IJIOii); AVw France
ami \fcw tint/land (1WJ5), hi IJ)lii the tltetttri-
ml Works ( Popular Kdltion) appeared, u <«il.
lection of FSHke*H historical writingH in U vc>K
Throw vatrioiw works may 1«» Haid t-o wmstituie
practically a connected hiniory of the tTnrt*^
Ktntcw from the flr«t diHCoverie« to the <»Htal»lirtli-
nient of federal government, In J&K) at»|H»aretl
77i« Mivtwftiwi Yullvy in tht fr?r// War. In
addition, ho edited* with (len. Janun* <Jr«nt
Wilson, AppltitoH'it dt/rtoiMrdfa of Awiriwtn /*/•
offrupliy (1H87). lie in to be e»tH«t»Nj not le«H
as an exhutntive form than an an invemtigatnn
More than any other writer of hi« generation
ho brought home to the national eonweiouHWHH
a philortojihic view of American hintory, by hi*
remarkable power for lucid tttatemeni of bal«

640

FISTULA

anced judgments. To his zeal of acquisition was
joined an equal zeal to impart, and his admi-
rable style made the work of following him any-
thing but labor. He died, worn out )>y overwork,
at Gloucester, Mass., July 4, 1901. Consult
Perry, John Fiske (Boston, 1000).

FISKE, LEWIS HANSOM (1S25-1901). An
American Methodist Episcopal clergyman, born
in Penfield, N. Y. He graduated from the
University of Michigan in 1850. Entering the
ministry 'in 1857, he served sevev.il important
churches, and was president of Albion College
from 1877 to 1897. He was president of tho
Association of College Presidents of the Metho-
dist Episcopal church, a member of sis general
conferences and of the ecumenical conference
of 1891, and in 1880 president of the Michigan
Teachers' Association. His baccalaureate ser-
mons were published in 1808.

FISKE, MINNIE MADDEBW (1865- ). A
prominent American actress, born in New Or-
leans, of theatrical parents, her father, Thomas
Davey, being a manager. Maddern was her
mother's family name. From infancy her life
was largely spent in the theatre, and at three
years she made her regular appearance upon
the stage. Throughout her childhood she played
at times with many well-known actors, includ-
ing Laura Keene, John McCullough, and, later,
Barry Sullivan and E. L. Davenport. Occa-
sionally she even took old women's parts and at
13 appeared as the Widow Melnotto with great
success. When 16 years old Miss Maddern was
brought out as a star (May, 1882, in Fogg's
Ferry), and thus for several years she won some
success; but her rdles were not, on the whole,
well suited to her. In March, 1890, she was
married to Harrison Grey Fiske and retired for
over three years of rest and study. In the fall
of 1893 she reappeared in New York in her hus-
band's Heat&i' Grewej she played also the part
of Nora in Ibsen's A Doll's House and later for
some time resumed her Western tours. In 1897
she made a sensation in Teas of the DsJ7r&er-
villes. Afterward she appeared in A Bit of
Old CJielaea, Little Italy, Frou Frou,, Magda,
and other plays, of which her Becky Sharp
(1809) is considered her greatest achievement.
In the season of 1901-02 she opened the Man-
hattan Theatre as an independent New York
playhouse, where she produced The Unwelcome
Mrs. Hatch and in 1904 Leo.li Klcschna. Prom
1907 to 1910 she brought out Ibsen's lloBwers-
holm and The Pillars of Society and Haupt-
mann's Hanneles Himmelfahrt^ appearing in the
leading parts, Mrs. Fiske is an actress of
strong intelligence and no little power of dra-
matic realism, with an insistent quality which
is capable of great effect in passages of sus-
tained emotion. She is the author of several
plays and collaborated with her husband in
Fontenelle. Consult: Strang, Famous Actresses
of the Day in America (Boston, 1899) ; McKay
and Wingate, Famous American Aotors of To-
Daft (New York, 1896) ; Hapgood, The tftagc in
America, 1897-1900 (ib., 1901); Winter, The
Wallet of Time (2 vols., ib., 1913).

ETSKE, STEPHEN (1840-1916). An American
journalist and dramatic critic, born at New
Brunswick, N. J. He was educated at Rutgers
College and served on the New York Herald
in various capacities — as correspondent during
part of the Civil War and on the Prince of
Wales's (Edward VTT's) tour of the United
States, as editorial writer, and as dramatic

critic. For a time ho maiw«od the St. James's
Theatre and the Royal Opera, London, and tho
Fifth Avenue Theatre, New York, and it was he
who first introduced Modjeska and Mary Ander-
son. He was later appointed dramatic critic
of the Spirit of the Tunes, New York City.
His writings comprise several plays, including
an adaptation of Dickons's Martin Ohuaaleunt,
Holiday Talcs, and two collections of sketches,
English Photographs and Offhand Portraits of
Pro-minent New Yorkers (1884), the latter con-
taining much interesting material originally
published in the Knickerbocker Magazine.

FISKE, TIIOMA.S SCOTT (1865- ). An
American mathematician. He was born in New
York City and graduated in 1885 (Ph.D., 1888)
from Columbia University, where he was fellow,
assistant, tutor, instructor, and adjunct pro-
fessor until 1897, when he became professor of
mathematics. In 1899 ho was acting dean of
Barnard College. He was president in 1902-04
of tho American Mathematical Society, and he
also edited the Bulletin (1891-99) and Trans-
actions (1899-1905) of this society. In 1902 he
became secretary of the College Entrance Ex-
amination Board. In 1905-06 he also served
as president of the Association of Teachers of
Mathematics of the Middle States and Mary-
land. Besides his mathematical papers, he is
author of Theory of Functions of a Complex
Variable (1900; 4th ed., 1907).

FISK TTNIVERSITY. An institution for
the education of colored persons, founded in
1866, at Nashville, Tenn., by the American
Missionary Association of New York aud the
Western Freedmen's Aid Commission of Cin-
cinnati. The university early become well
known throiigh the efforts made on its behalf
by Gen. Clinton B. Fisk, from whom the insti-
tution took its name, and from tho "jubilee
singers," composed of its students, who toured
the United States and Great Britain, raising
$150,000 for the institution's needs. The uni-
versity at present comprises normal, college,
preparatory, music, and industrial departments.
The attendance in all departments in 1913 WUB
514, of whom 206 were in the collegiate depart-
ment. The total value of the university prop-
erty was about $350,000, and the annual in-
come from endowment and tuitions about $60«>0.
It has had three presidents, E. M. Cravsith.
D.D., J. G. Merrill, D.D., and C4. A. dates, D.IX,
LL.1X 0. W. Morrow, D.D., was in 1914 the
dean and acting president.

FISSION, fish'iln (Ut. fiasio, from finflcrc,
to split; connected with Skt. Wild, to split,
Goth, leitan, OHG. Itesan, Ger. &e*.w», AS,
lUan9 Eng, lite) . fn plantu, a term which ha*
boon applied to coll division in general, but which
is now becoming restricted to eell division in
the bacteria and blue-green algre (Cyanophycew)
and to the splitting of chromosomes. (Ree'CYu,,
in plants.) In animals of lowest organisation,
the proeess of reproduction by **budding" or
cell division.

MISSION* FUNGI. See SOTITZOMYOKTES.
FISSIPEDIA. See CARNIVORA.
MB'TULA (Lat., pipe). A term formerly
applied to such an almceaa (q.v.) a» had con*
tracted to narrow, hard, oj>en passages in tho
soft tissues of the body, lined by a kind of
false membrane, giving rise to a thin discharge.
At the present time tho term "fistula" is gen-
erally limited to the opening of such a passage
when in c'loao oontttct with a mtioouH mombraney

FISTULINA

641

FITCH

the word "sinus" being used in the former sense.
Thus, it is common to speak of salivary fistulue,
urinary iistulir, etc.; aud the most common
and troublesome kind of all is the fistula in
ano, in connection with the lower bowel or rec-
tum. It consists essentially of an uuhcalcd ab-
scess, discharging by two openings — one in the
mucous membrane, the other in the skin. When
only one opening exists, the fistula is known
as a blind one. The only clliciont treatment
is surgical and consists in laying open the
tissues tft the bottom of the cavity.

Fistulous openings may form between the
bladder, the urethra, the rectum, the ureter, and
the vagina. The hitter, vesicovagimil fistula,
is most common, and is usually the result of
injuries sustained in difficult labors. Leakage
of urine occurs with the distressing accompani-
ments of inflammation, sloughing, aud gome-times
secondary infection of the kidneys. Tho condi-
tion ia curable by a plastic operation. J. Marion
Sims, an American surgeon, was the first to
perform the operation in the United States.

In farriery, the name is given to a pus-dis-
charging abscess usually situated on the withers
of a horse. When it appears on the head, it is
called poll evil. Such abscesses are usually due
to chafing halter, harness, or saddle, or to
blows. Horses with high withers, or saddle
horses with low withers upon which the saddle
rides far forward, are especially liable to this
affection. Tho most satisfactory treatment is
to open the abscess at its lowest point, so as to
allow for drainage, and to wash out with anti-
septic solutions.

riS'TUIJ/WA. See FUNGI, EDIBLE AND Vor-
SONOUS.

FIT (AS. fitt, struggle, of unknown etymol-
ogy). A name popularly applied to a convulsion
(<[.v.), or, indeed, to 'any sudden sei/ure of
disease, implying loss of consciousness. (See
HYSTKKIA; IOPII.KPHV.) The term is also use.d
colloquially 'to designate a mood or a temporary
change* in 'mental attitude, without disease, as
denoted by such expressions a« "a lit of the
blues," **a fit of abstraction," "an economical
fit," etc.

FITCH, or FITCHEW, fleh'n (from ODutch
vitttche, fruMW, fittttc, polecat). The JTCuropoan pole-
cat {q.v.J.

FITCH, CMTDK. See FmiTi, WILLIAM OI.YHM.

FITCH, K»BNK/Ett (1750-lftW). An Ameri-
can educator, born in Norwich, Conn, lie
graduated at Yale in 1777 nnd in 17«0 Hit and
17H«M)1 was tutor there. In 170J he became
principal of the school at WillianiHtnwn, Muss,,
and when it, be.eumo Williams College in 17011 ho
was elected its first president. This position ho
resigned in 1H15, to become pastor of the Pres-
byterian Ohureh at Illoonifield, N. Y, Jle retired
to private life in Ifta87. He was the author of a
1*0 tin (I raw war (IH14).

FITCH, UKAIJAM MKWKLI. (1800-02). An
American legislator, born in Le Roy, N. Y.
He studied medicine, and removed to Logans-
port, rml., in 18IU. From 1844 to 1H40 lie waa
a professor in Hush Medical College, Chicago,
ami from 1878 to 188tf in the Indiana Medical
College*. From ISM to IH80 he WUH « member
of the. State Legislature and from 1840 to 1853
was in Congress. In 1857 1m waa elected to tho
United HtntcH Senate and served until 18(11, In
the fail of that year ho WHN <jomwis»iom>d colonel
of the Forty-sixth Indiana Volunteer infantry,
which he hod himself rained, l^ttt- in 18«2 he
VOL. V1U. 4:*

was compelled to resign, as a result of wounds
reeeived in action.

FITCH, JOHN (1743-98). A distinguished
American inventor, who was cue of tho iirtit to
apply steam to the propulsion of boats. He was
born at Windsor, Conn., and was tho son of a
fanner. After receiving a common-school educa-
tion he made a few voyages before the mast, and
at the time of the Revolution he became a sutler
with the Americ.au army and amassed extensive
profits, which ho invcated in Virginia. In 17SO
Fitch bcea-mc deputy surveyor of Kentucky and
a year later, while traveling, was captured by
tho Indians, but soon released. He ne^t devoted
himself to the production of a map of the North-
\\ostern country, and the idea of employing
steam in the navigation of the Western rivers,
on which he sailed, having occurred to him, he
sought by the sale of this map to obtain the
means for his experiments. IliiBUCcessful in this,
he next sought help from the Slate legislatures,
but failed to obtain an appropriation, fie at
last succeed c<l in forming a company and, with
the assistance thus obtained, constructed a steam
packet, which wns launched on tho Delaware in
1787 mid reached a speed of ,') miles an hour.
This boat watt fitted with paddles at tho Hides,
which were moved forward and back in a man-
ner similar to that followed in propelling a
can oo. A second boat had similar pnddleH at
the stern. Fire.h had obtained exclusive rights
of steam navigation in New Jersey, Pennsyl-
vania, and Delaware, and in 1700 built a boat
to convey paHsengera on the Delaware Kiver for
hire. The scheme* proved unfortunate, nnd the
company which sustained him wan dissolved.
Jn 170;t he went to France, with the hope of
introducing his invention, but failed, and re-
turned to America disheartened and impover-
ished. In 1700 he constructed a small screw
steamboat, with which he experimented on tho
"Collect" Pond in New York City. In the mean-
time his Virginia lands had fallen ft prey to

and disappointments, he committed suicide.
Consult Westcott, M/<i of ,/o/m WM (18r»7),
nnd, for u brief account of his work, Thurston,
(jwtrth of ilw Htrnm Atop/Jw (New York, 187S).

PITCH, Snt iloMinM Onti.rNtt (IKgl-lihW).
An Hnglish educator, born in London. <«ntdu-
utiug from the Itniversitv of London in IS'tO
(M.A., IKfiSJ), he joined the HtHf of the Uoromrh
1t,oud Training College, of which in !S<Vl be be-
came principal. In 1<S(};} he \vns appointed in-
spector of schools, in IH8«4{ he lu»cume chief in-
spector for the eitniern division, und from 18Hf>
to ISiU he was ehief limpeetor of training col-
leges for women in ICuglum) and Wales. lit-
was also fiHmstaut ecmimiHftioner for the Hchotita
inquiry comnilHHlou in JHWHf? ftml for *he en*
dowed schools in 1870-77, He wit* knighted in
IHUti. His publication* include; Lwturctt tm
T^aMnit (IHrtl); Thnma* awl Mattkni* Arnold,
uml tlwir Jnflumtw un llnf/Hnlt tidtHwtiftu
(IH«7); MliuttliQMt! Atm*&ntt Muthufa (1000K

PMGH, IJKIU)? (lttar>-7r>). An American
imviil officer^ born in Indiiuia. lie ^niduat<Hl in
18/50 ttt tho United Stiit-en Navttl At«ftcl«»my.
Herved during the Civil War hi the MiHKn^ipjti
wjuadrun, and rose in WO to be eommn utter,
Ho purtieiputxHl in the twipture c»f Kort
and Kr^rt I'ilhnv, and in Iritirl* while

c»f the Ohio Uiv^r and (*npttirt><l th«»
train and part of ilui iirUUery of Umt

FITCH 642

leader. Subsequently he directed the defense of
Johnsonville, Tenn., against Gen. N. B. Forrest.

FITCH, RALPH. An English merchant and
traveler of the sixteenth century. Nothing _ is
known of his birth or early life. In 1583, with
John Newherry and two other Englishmen in
the service of the Levant Company, he set out on
a commercial journey to the Far East, his ob-
ject being mainly to return with a supply of
Eastern spices and other commodities. The
party traveled from Aleppo, in Syria, down the
valley of the Euphrates to Basra, at the head
of the Persian Gulf, being the first Englishmen
known to have made the overland trip. Con-
tinuing their journey to Ormuz, they were there
imprisoned by the Portuguese Governor. From
Ormuz they were conveyed as prisoners to Goa.
After some months spent in captivity, the pris-
oners were released, and Fitch and two com-
panions started overland across India. The
party intended traveling as far as China, but
it is believed that Portuguese trade rivalry pre-
vented them from attaining their goal. Fitch
ultimately parted company with his companions,
and, after spending some time*in the valley of
the Ganges, took ship to Pegu, near Rangoon, in
Burma, which country he was the first English-
man to visit. From Pegu he traveled through
Siam and visited Malacca and Singapore, re-
turning thence to Pegu, Bengal, and, by way of
the Malabar coast, to Goa, whence ho returned
to Europe by the same route over which he had
come, and arrived in England in 1591, after
an absence of eight years. He continued in
mercantile business and was probably one of
the promoters of the East India Company. His
account of his journey has been printed in
Eakluyt's Voyages and in Pinkerton's Collec-
tions of Travels (London, 1812-14).

PITCH, (WILLIAM) CLYDE (1865-1909). An
American playwright, born in New York and
educated at Amherst College, where he gradu-
ated in 1888. His first play, Beau Brumwel,
was brought out by Richard Mansfield in 1890.
This was followed by several adaptations from
the French and German and a large number of
original pieces. He quickly sprang into promi-
nence and was the first American dramatist
whose name was sufficiently well known to at-
tract people to the theatre. His work often
suffered from carelessness and haste, but it has
about it an unmistakable mark of distinction.
His best-known plays are: Nathan Hale (189tS) ;
Barbara Frietchie (1899) ; The Climbers (1905) ;
The Stubbornness of Geraldine (1902); The
Girl with the Green Eyes (1902); Her Own
Way (1903) ; The Woman in the Oase (1904) ;
The Truth (1900) ; The Straight Road (1900) ;
The City ( 1909 ) . The last was unfinished when
his sudden death occurred in 1909, but was pro-
duced in the form in which he left it. Consult
Montrose J. Moses, The American Dramatist
(Boston, 1911), and William Winter, The
Wallet of Time (2 vols., New York, 1913).

FITCH'BTJB.GK A manufacturing city (in-
cluding the villages of West Fitchburg, South
Fitchburg, and Cleghora) and one of the county
scats of Worcester Co., Mass., 42 miles by rail
north of Worcester and 50 miles west-northwest
of Boston, on a branch of the Nashua River and
on the Boston and Maine and the New York,
New Haven, and Hartford railroads (Map:
Massachusetts, D 2). It is the seat of the
Fitchburg State Normal School and has a public
library, large musical library, Burbank Hos-

EITTIG

pital, three parks, an old ladies' home, a home
for working women, and a children's home.
Fitchburg has extensive manufactures of tex-
tiles, firearms, saws, screen plates, and steel
horse collars. In 1912 the value of its products
exceeded $32,000,000. Other of its industrial
interests include granite quarries, brickyards,
and manufactures of axle grease, boilers, lining
metals, castings, turned-wood novelties, pumps,
cotton yarns and woolens, ginghams, cars, bicy-
cles, steam engines, electrical appliances, paper,
machinery, tools, etc. Fitchburg was settled in
1719, but formed a part of Lunenburg until
1704, when it was incorporated. It was char-
tered as a city in 1872. The government is
administered, under the original city charter,
by an annually elected mayor. Fitchburg owns
its water works. Pop., 1900, 31,531; 1910,
37,826; 1914 (U. S. est.), 40,507; 1920, 41,013.
Consult Torrey, History of the Town of Fitch-
burg (Fitchburg, 1865), and History of Worcester
County (Philadelphia, 1889).

PITCHY, or EITCHEE (from Fr. fich^'-p.p.
of ficher, to drive in, It. ficcare, to fix, from
Lat. figcre, to fix, to fasten). A term in her-
aldry signifying "pointed" and usually applied
to a cross the lower arm of which has been sharp-
ened so that it may be fixed in the ground. This
form is derived from the crosses carried by
pilgrims as walking sticks. See HERALDRY.

tflTGER, finger, ABTHUB HEINRICH Wii>
HELM (1840-1909). A German poet and his-
torical painter, born at Delmenhorst (Olden-
burg). He was a pupil of Cornelius and Genelli
at the Munich Academy; later he studied at
Antwerp, Paris, and Rome, and in 1809 estab-
lished his studio in Bremen. As a painter, he
is known for his large decorative works. The
motif of these is derived mostly from the leg-
endary or the purely fantastic, and elaborated
with a wealth of coloring acquired from Rubens
and the Venetians. They include a frieze (in
monochrome), representing the development of
German civilization, for the Rutenhof , Bremen ;
the frieze for the gallery of the Bourse and
decorations for the Ratskeller, both at Bremen ;
14 pictures for the banquet hall of the dueal
residence at Altenstcin, Saxc-Meiningett ; "The
Four Elements" for the Kunsthalle of Hamburg;
the decorations for the salle des fetes of the
Bremen Kftnstlerhaus; and paintings for the
Hamburg Town Hall and for the Norlh German
Lloyd steamer Kaiser Wtihehn /, His publica-
tions include: Adalbert von, Bremen, a tragedy
(1873); Die Hecse (1875), a philoHophieal
drama, marked by dignity of expression and
rather skillful character drawing; Von (Juttes
Gnaden (1883), more a bloody play than a
tragedy; Fahrendes Volk (1875; 4th ed., 18J)4),
and Winternachte (1885), volumes of poeniH.
He also rendered into German (1880) Byron V
Marino Faliero, and for the, DcnJcmale der <}e-
schichte und Kunst Bremcns (1877) prepared
a history of the local cathedral.

EITTia, fltfiK, RUDOLF (1835-1910). A Ger-
man chemist, born at Hamburg. He studied
chemistry at Go'ttingen and became aanirttant
to WOhler, the celebrated organic chemist, in
1858. From I860 to 1870 he taught at GOttin-
gen, in the latter year was appointed full pro-
fessor of chemistry at Tubingen, and in 187$
was made professor at Rtrassburg. His literary
activity consisted mainly in his reSditing1
Wtfhler's work on organic chemistry. On the
other hand, his name is connected with a num-

PITTING-

643

FITZALA2QT

ber of original contributions, which have formed
an integral part of the science of organic chem-
istry. He discovered the interesting class of
substances termed lactones (anhydrides formed
from compounds which are at once acids and
alcohols, just as esters are formed by the action
of acids on alcohols). Furthermore, he effected
the synthesis of a number of interesting com-
pounds of carbon and hydrogen and discovered
Shenanthrene and other important substances
i coal tar.

FITTING, fifing, HEINBTCH HERMANN (1831 -
) . A Gorman jurist. He was born at Mau-
chenheim and studied at Wtirzburg, Heidelberg,
and Erlangen. In 1857 he was appointed pro-
fessor of Roman law at Basel, and in 1862 ho
was called in the same capacity to Halle, lie
retired to private life in 1902. From 1864 to
187S he was engaged in publishing the Arohiv
fur die civilistische Praaois. He wrote: Dcr
Reichscivilprozcss (7th ed., 1890) ; Das Reichs-
JtonJcursreclit und Konkursverfahren (new ed.,
1904) ; Die Anf tinge der Itechtsschule sou Bologna
(1888).

FITWEED. Seo ERYNQO.

FITZ (AS. fis, OF. fis, file, Fr. fite, from
Lai, filiuft, son). An old Norman word signify-
ing "son." Like, the Scottish Mac, the Irish 0\
and the Oriental Ben, it is prefixed to proper
names* to signify doncent, as in the Norman
names Fitzwilliam, Fitzwaltor, Fitzgerald, A
later application of it has been to denote tlic
natural sons of royalty, as in Fitzroy, Fitzjamea,
and Fitzelarence.

FITZ, UKCUNALD HKBEB (1843-1913). An
American physician, born at Chelsea, Mass, lie
graduated in 1804 (M.D., 18(J8) from Harvard
University, where, after studying in Vienna,
Berlin, and Paria, lie was instructor in patho-
logical anatomy in 1870-73, assiutant professor
in" 1873-78, and professor from 1878 to 1008.
In the latter year he became profe.sHor emeritus.
He also rowed as physician to tho ftouton DIH-
pensary in 1871-82 and to the MaHHoehuwttH
General Ilonpital from 1887 to 1908. In 1894
he waft president of tho Association of American
Physicians. Besides IUH contributions to -medi-
cal journals, he is joint author with Horatio C.
Wood of T/m Practice of Medicine (1897).

FITZAI/AN", HKNBY, twelfth KARL OF AUUN*
I>KL (c. 15 11-80). An English statesman, son of
William and Anno Percy. He was a godson of
Henry VIII and early entered his service, For
his part in tho storming of Boulogne (1544)
he was rewarded with the ofllce of Lord Cham-
berlain, in which position he ^yafl retained by
Kdward VI. But Warwick was jealous of Arun-
del'a influence over the King and removed him
from the council in 15.50 on charges which were
never proved. In 1551, when Somerset was for
a second time sent to the Tower, Arundel
seemed to be implicated, but he wan pardoned,
without trial, on signing a confession and paying
a heavy fine. Arundel feigned acquiescence in
Northumberland's plan to bring Lady Jane Grey
to the throne, but worked for Mary. He kept in
favor with her while she was Queen and was
made her Lord Steward; and he dared to re-
monstrate with her oh her treatment of Eliza-
beth. When KHzabeth was crowned, Arundel
wan Lord High Constable and was kept in office,
but quarreled with her in 1562 after she had
reproached him for planning for the auccwaion
(h«» worked for Lady Catharine Grey) during
her illness, and two years later he resigned hi*

post as Lord Steward. Received again into the
Queen's favor, he began to plot in behalf of
Mary Stuart and tried to bring about her mar-
riage with Norfolk, which he trusted would
result in the overthrow of Elizabeth. On the
discovery of the plot he was kept under guard
during the Northern Insurrection; but he had
not committed himself in the rebellion and in
1570 was recalled to the council. A year later,
when it was proved that he had long been plot-
ting sedition, he was arrested and kept under
guard until the end of 1572. The last years of
his life were passed in quiet retirement. Con-
sult the "Life," apparently by his chaplain,
edited with notes by Nichols in the Gentleman &
Maffazine for 183,3.

FITZALAN", RICHARD, EARL OF ARITNDKI
AND WARENNE (e.1307-70). An English soldier
and admiral of Edward III, second Richard of
the house, son of Edmund and Alice Warenm.
He did not come into the title until 1.131, after
the death of Mortimer. In 1337 he was made
joint commander against Scotland, after the
failure to capture Dunbar \vas put in sole com-
mand, completed a truce with the Scotch, and
followed Kdward III to Brabant. Parliament
made him admiral in 1340. He fought at Bluis.
was a commiHHumer to Parliament in 1341, ami
took part in the siege of Tournni. In 1344 h«
was one of the lieutenants of Aquituine and in
1345 put away his wife, Isabella le Deape.nwer,
and married fcleanor, widow of Lord Beaumont
aiid duughicr of Henry of Lancaster, lie com-
manded one of the three divinionw at Creey and
wiis in the Hiege of ('alait*. lie treated with the
Pope and, after taking part in tho battle of
Winch elflca (1350), was employed on diplomatic
aervke in Scotland, Luxemburg, and France. II«»
was regent of England in 1355. In 13(J5 he
was summoned before the Pope by William de
Lennc, Bishop of ChleheHter, but was wieeettuful
in his renistance, thankn to the help of the King.
He probably took part in the expedition to re*
liove Thouarn in 1372. He wan very rich and
made heavy lounn to the lianl-prowwl King.

P^TZAXiAN, RICHARD, KAHJ, OF AHUNIWL
AND HURRKY (1340-07). An English admiral
and a '.leader of the baron« against King Ktohurd
1 1. He was turn of Richard and Eleanor Fitssalan
and fiwceoedwl hi* father in 1870* He watt one
of the standing council appointed by the (food
Parliament, was chief butler at l&ehard It's
coronation, and in 1880 wan made a commits
Bionor to regulate the, royal household. He bad
boon appointed admiral of the Went and acconj-
pliKhcd very little, though French historian*
call bis victory over the French off Margate
(1387) tlift Halvation of England from invasion.
lie joined tha baronial opponitlon and attacked
the King's favorites (138«). A year later th<*
King, having got his judges to declare ArundelM
commission illegal, tried to arrest him, but wily
strengthened tho opposition and drove it to arm*.
In 1388 the Karl wtmt to wa again and brought
hom« much loot from La R<x»hellt». Later in the
year, with the other lord* appellant* h« wan
retired from the council, but Hoon after was
restored. Peacw now neemed assured, but a per-
sonal quarrel between Arundel and John of
Oaunt about 1303 renewed tho trouble, and noon
Fit&tlan, MH brother Thomas, who was Ard»*
bishop, Gloucester, and Warwick formed a
apiraoy against the King* This was

by the King, and Aruiulcl, tirgt*cl by hi« brother,
twmmderwl himself, was impeachod, wmdomn^,

FITZALAN

644

FITZGERALD

and executed. He had been very popular, and
the people made pilgrimages to his tomb in the
Augustinian Friars Church, Broad Street, Lon-
don. His death hurried the end of the King's
reign.

FITZALAN, THOMAS, EATJT. OF ABTJNDEL
AND SURREY (1381-1415). An English soldier
under Henry IV. He was son of the third
Richard Fitzalan and Elizabeth Bohun. On his
father's death (1397), he was put in the brutal
keeping of John Holland, Duke of Exeter. He
finally escaped from Reigate and joined his
uncle Thomas, the deposed Archbishop, and with
him cast in his fortunes with Henry of Derby,
with whom he landed at Ravenspur in 1399.
Henry's success made Richard able to take venge-
ance on the Hollands ; his estates and titles were
restored, and he fought for several years against
Owen Glendower, but accomplished practically
nothing. In 1405 he helped put down the revolt
of Scrope and Mowbray and put the leaders im-
mediately to death, against the advice of his
uncle. In 1405 he accompanied the King into
Wales, where he fought with less ill fortune
than before; and he married Beatrix, a natural
daughter of John I of Portugal. He now joined
the Beauforts, and Henry V named him treas-
urer, constable of Dover, and guardian of the
Cinque Ports, and took him with him into
France. He was taken sick at Harfleur and
died on Ms return to England, leaving no
children.

FITZBALI/, EDWABD( properly BALL) (1792-
1873). An English dramatist. He was born at
Burwell, Cambridgeshire, was educated in a
private school at Newmarket, and became a
printer's apprentice in 1809. In 1819, after
having unsuccessfully edited a magazine at Nor-
wich, he changed his name to Fitzball, by prefix-
ing his mother's name to his own, and began to
write for the stage. His first success was won
by his The Iiwkeeper of Abbeville, performed at
the Norwich Theatre in 1820 and in London in
1821-22. This was followed in 1822, by an
adaptation of The Fortunes of Nigel and an
original drama entitled Joan of Arc. For the
next 25 years Fitzball was the most prolific
dramatic author in England, turning out an
enormous number of comedies, tragedies, and
melodramas, most of which were written to
order for the managers of various metropolitan
theatres. He was attached in succession to the
Adelphi, Covent Garden, and Drury Lane thea-
tres, as a stock dramatist. Among his numerous
successes were: Peveril of the Peak (1823);
W overly (1824); The Floating Beacon (1824);
The Pilot (1825), an adaptation of Cooper's
novel, which ran over 200 nights; The Flying
Dutoliman (1828); The Red Rover (1828); The
Devil's Mtovr (1830); Hofer, the Tell of the
Tyrol (1832); Jonathan Bradford (1833), a
melodrama which ran over 400 nights at Cov-
ent Garden; Tom Crmgle (1834): Walter
Tyrell (1835); Zazeaizozu (1836); The Momen-
tous Question; The Miller of Derwentwater;
Nitocris (1859). Besides numerous popular
ballads and songs, he wrote the librettos for
Balfe's operas, The Siege of Rochelle (1835),
Joan of Arc, Diadeste, Keolanthe (1840), and
The Maid of Honor (1847) ; for Donizetti's La
Favorita; for Bishop's Adelaide; and Wallace's
Montana. He published his memoirs under the
title Thirty-five Years of a Dramatic Author's
Life (1859).
MTZ'GER'ALD, A city and the county scat

of Ben Hill Co., Ga., 70 miles southeast of
Macon, on the Seaboard Air Line, the Atlanta,
Birmingham, and Atlantic, and the Ocilla South-
ern railroads (Map: Georgia, C 4). It contains
cotton and oil mills, a cotton compress, fertilizer
plants, and railroad repair shops, and carries on
a trade in timber and turpentine. The water
works and electric-light plant are owned by the
municipality. Pop., 1000, 1817; 1910, 5795.

FITZGKEB'ALD, DESMOND (1846-1926). An
American civil engineer, born at Nassau, New
Providence, Bahama Islands, and educated at
Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass. He spent 40
years in practice as a hydraulic engineer, chiefly
in connection with the construction and mainte-
nance of the water-supply system of Boston.
From 1896 to 1900 he was a member of the
Massachusetts Topographical Survey Commis-
sion, and in 1904 he served as consulting engi-
neer for the sewage and water-supply systems of
Manila, Philippine Islands. He was president of
the American Society of Civil Engineers in 1899.
His publications include History of the Boston
Water Works from 1868 to 1876 (1876), and
A Short Description of the Boston Water Works
(1895).

FITZGERALD, LORD EDWARD ( 1763-98 ) . An
Irish politician and revolutionist. The fifth son
of the 17 children of the first Duke of Lcinster,
he was born Oct. 15, 1763, at Carton Castle,
near Dublin, and educated in France. Fitz-
gerald joined the English army and in 1781
went to the United States. He was wounded at
the battle of Eutaw Springs. In 1783 he re-
turned to Ireland to represent Athy in the Irish
Parliament. A taste for exploration afterward
led him to journey by compass through the
woods from Fredericton, New Brunswick, to
Quebec. In 1790 he returned and sat in the
Irish Parliament as member for Kildare. At-
tracted by the French Revolution, he visited
Paris in 1792 and was cashiered from the Eng-
lish army for attending a revolutionary banquet
at which he expressed Republican sympathies
and renounced his title of nobility. During this
visit he married the putative daughter of
Philippe "EgaliteY' Duke of Orleans, and
Madame Genlis, the celebrated Pamela, who was
afterward discovered to be the child of Marv
Sims, of Newfoundland, by Do Brixey, a French
captain. His sympathies with the struggles of
his countrymen led him to join the United Irish-
men in 1796, and he went to France to arrange,
with the Directory, an invasion to support an
Irish revolution. Soon after his return the plot
became known to the English government, and
Fitzgerald, after a desperate resistance, during
which he was severely wounded, was captured
8nd died in prison. His widow married Mr.
Pitcairn, American Consul at Hamburg, but
soon separated from him, and after a checkered
existence died in poverty in Paris in 1831. Con-
sult: Moore, FAfe and Death of Edward Fitz-
gerald (2d ed., London, 1875); Campbell, Ed-
ward and Pamela, Fitzgerald (ib., 1904) ; Taylor,
Life of Lord E. FitsyeraJd (New York, 1904).

FITZG-EBAXD, EDWARD ( 1809-83) . An Eng-
lish poet and translator, whose exceptional
qualities were obscured by an equally excep-
tional modesty, and whose fame is due almost
wholly to his translation, from the Persian, of
the Ruldiytit of Omar Khayyam. Although of
Irish ancestry, he was born at Bredfteld House,
near the market town of Woodbridge in Suffolk;
and it was hero that bo elected to spend his

645

life in strict seclusion — almost a hermit's life
in its sequestered tranquillity and remoteness
from the outside world. The family name was
Pin-cell, hut on his grandfather FitzGcrakTs
death (1818) his father took the arms and the
name of his wife. He was educated at Trinity
College, Cambridge, taking his degree in 1830,
and there formed lifelong friendships with men
since famous, among others Spedding and Thack-
eray. With the Tennysons he did not become
intimate until later. A good picture of Fitz-
Gerald's academic life is preserved in flu-
phranor, his earliest printed work — a sort of
Platonic dialogue, in which the speakers are
thinly disguised under symbolic or classical
names; and his lasting fondness for Cambridge
is proved by the occasional visits he made down
to his closing years. His brief experience of
married life resulted unhappily. His wife was
Lucy, daughter of Bernard Barton, the Quaker
poet of Woodbridgo and one of FitzGerald's
closest friends. But he was temperamentally
unlitted for matrimony, and they soon sepa-
rated by mutual consent. Henceforth he con-
tented himself with the companionship of hiw
books and the luxury of a few chosen friend-
ships. Jlis simple life was varied by occasion-
ally "pottering about tho midland counticH of
Kngland" or taking short coasting trips in his
own yacht. A typical nummer in described in.
his own words, as follows: "A little Bedford-
shire— a little Northamptonshire — a littlo more
folding of tho hands — the stums faces — tho same
fields — the same thoughts occurring at the same
turns of road — this in all I have to tell of;
nothing at all added — but the. summer gone."

In literature, as in other things, KitxXlcrald
was an epicure. He read slowly and of none
but the best. Sophocles and Taeitun, Homer
and Shakespeare, were the authors that he lived
with. Tho Greek Anthology occupied him au
entire season. Probably no writer who took
the trouble to puhlmh his writings hun ever been
so indifferent to their fato an FitxHcruld. Just
what ftrHt awoke- him frotn liiw droanm among
hia turnips and spurred him on to anthorrthip
is not clear. Tn 1846 Carlylo and Professor
Cowell, the Orientalint, became factora of im-
portance in his life, and it may have been in
a measure duo to auch mental Htimultw that five,
years later J&itphranor was published — anony-
mously, as with ono exception were all liis
writings. A year later (1852) appeared /Wo-
nim, a collection of WIHO wawn gathered from bin
favorite hooktt and intending to-day chiefly
for its graceful preface, in 1888 the first of
hm famous translations appeared, Bias Dramas
of TaWmJn, with hi« own name appended; but
an attack by an undiHcriminating and unknown
rwiewer in the Athcwrum effectually dampened
his brief doHirc for personal glory; and neither
the pruiKc of men like Carlyio, Thackeray, and
tFamea ttuHaell Lowell, nor- the CalderAn medal
Bent, he "doubts not, at Mr. Lowoll'B instance,"
could tempt him to write again under hia own
signature. FitaGorald's intimacy with Profes-
Hor Cowell, which had ripened while they read
together the plays of CalderOn, culminated in
their study of the Pcrmun poota, and bore im-
portant fruit in FitaOoratd'B translation of
the tialdmdn and Absdl, of Jftmi, in 1856, and
the Rubalydt three yearn later. The story tot
how the now famous ouatrains first claimed
public attention is well known. FitaGcrald
offered some of "the loaa wicked" of them to

Fraser's Magazine; but as they failed ti> ap-
pear, he made a present of them, two years
later, to his publisher, Mr, Quariteli, who JH-
sued them in a brown-covered pamphlet :it flvts
shillings. In course of time they found their
way to a penny box outside the bookseller'*
door. It was there that Mr. Whiteley Stokes
bought the copy which he gave to Dante Gabriel
ftossetti, who in turn passed it on to Mr.
Swinburne and thus laid the foundation of tho
Omar cult in England.

Only once after this did FitssGorald arwiho
himself to activity — in the winter of 180-1 -Ur>>
when he published two more Calderon pluyn
and his version of the Agamemnon. In 1880- 81
appeared, privately printed, his translations of
the two (Kdiputi tragedies. Readings in (1mMn*
(1882) was his last publication. Kadi year IUH
life grew quieter; hi« days were spent "in boat
or vessel as in a moving chair, dispensing a
little grog and shag to those who do the work."
There is lens and lens of literature in hit* cor-
respondence. New books did not appeal to him,
and he could flee little merit in Kmerson, George
Eliot, or Victor Hugo. I [is old books continued
to suffice; and the only new taste that ho
formed late in life was for the poems of Crubhc.
And by a curious coincidence, he died while on a
visit to the home, of Rev. George Crahbe, a
grandson of the poet.

Whatever merit FitfcGerald'fl other writings
possess, then* in no question that they are quittk
eclipsed by his famous rendering of the /»*«-
buiytit. An an instance of the deliberate trans-
planting of a. poet from one nation to another
widely separated by language and idcabt and
the Inputs of centuries, and of having that poet
take frotth root and ilowiHh with renewed life,
the Ritbiiiiifit stnndH unique. FitxCJcrald'rt theory
of translation wan peculiar. He took great
liberties with the original, aiming less to re-
produce the exact thought than the «twonphor<s
and boldly rcjoeUng whatever, through diflVr-
emw <jf Hocial or urtintie KtaurinrdH, might tend
to arouse in Anglo-Saxon mindtt thoughts alien
to the intention of the poet. Omar KhayyAm,
almost tin known to Kuropean Hcholarn until
tnuiHimitwl by tlu* magic of Fit/Xierald'H gt»niuH,
is now probably the mont familiar of all JVr-
nian poctH to the Wontem world, yersiozm^ in
both promt and verne, have multiplied rapidly,
many of them far more faithful to tho original
than FitxGorald'H vernion; and wonder is Home-
timcH expressed that none of them* uttahiH u
similar popularity. It in only junt beginning
to be recognized that FiUOcraltrH Rulmlytl in
held in, honor, not a« IVwian, but im KngHnh
poetry, and that to the great majority th<
fitourwtfl are a« nnintpovtniit «H the H<mrce« of
a play of HlwkcHpenrc. Whatever ttmplriHl
biint the result i« here — a pirn* of <>Xf]tiEH!t<*
workin&niihip, "coral building in II torn tun*/' UH
Kdmund (HoHHe IIUH deltned it. The «cruj>ul<niH
en re, the loving revision and cudlcxn poUHhing
•which finally resulted in tlu; Itubtttydt at* ft
sfcunda to-day can bo tnuierHtcod only by a com-
pariaon of tho texts in the numWve oditi<m»«.
The roMult !H a rare delicacy of phrftMi*, a flm»
inntlnct for the one appropriate m»rti> that din-
tltiguifthcd FltxOerald among th(t poetH of hi*
time and country.

Bibliography, Huphranor {l«t c(L London,
1851; 2d ctd.f 1853); Montu* (ib., l«5aj ; KU
Drama* of Caldertn (Ib., !Hfl3)t titMmiln <tnd(
Abftdl (lat cd., ib,, 1850; 2d ltd., 1871); Ru-

MTZOERAtD

646

HTZGKERAIJ)

iaiyat of Omar Khayyam (1st ed., ib., 1859; 2d
td., 1868; 3d ed., 1872); Agamemnon (1st ed.;
ib., 1865; 2d ed., 1876) ; The Works of Edward
FitzOerald (London, 1887); Letters and Liter-
ary Remains (ib., 1889), ed. by William Aldis
Wright, Letters of Edward FiteGerald (1804) ;
Letters of Edward FitzGerald to Fanny Ecm~
ble (New York, 1895) ; FiteG-eraltfs Miscellanies
(London, 1900) ; More Letters of Edward Fitv-
Oerald (ib., 1901); Variorum and Definitive
Edition of the Writings of Edward FitzGerald
( New York, 1902-03 ) , ed. by Bentham. Consult :
Thomas Wright, Life (2 vols., London, 1904) ;
A. C. Benson, FitsGerald (in "English Men of
Letters Series," New York, 1905) ; an English
prose translation from the original Persian by
Justin Huntly McCarthy (London, 1889, and
Portland, Me,, 1896); FitzGerald's text, with
commentary by H. M. Batson, and with an
introduction by E. D. Ross concerned with the
life and times of Omar (London, 1900) ; and
Centenary Celebration Souvenir (Ipswich,
1909), for an account of the FitzGerald cen-
tenary.

PITZGEBALD, GJDOBGB FRANCIS (1851-
1901). A British scientist, born at Dublin, Ire-
land, a son of Bishop William Fitzgerald. He
was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and
became professor of natural and experimental
philosophy at Dublin University. In 1888 he
was appointed president of Section A of the
British Association at Bath, and examiner to
London University. Among his numerous pub-
lications are: "On the Possibility of Originat-
ing Wave Disturbances in the Ether by Means
of Electric Forces," in the Transactions of the
Royal Dublin Society, vol. i; On an Analogy
"between Electric and Thermal Phenomena
, (1884); On the Limits to the Velocity of Mo-
tion in the Working Parts of Engines (1886) ;
and the posthumous Scientific Writings of the
Late George Francis Fitzgerald, ed. by Joseph
Larmor (1902).

PITZ-GEBALP, JAMBS NEWBUBY (1837-
1907). An American Methodist Episcopal
bishop, born at Newark, N. J. He was admitted
to the State bar of New Jersey and was com-
missioned master of chancery in 1858. Or-
dained deacon in the Newark conference of his
denomination (1864) and elder (1866), he
served at various times as presiding elder of
the Newark. Newton, and Jersey City districts;
was member of the general conferences of 1876,
1880, 1884, and 1888 (serving as assistant sec-
retary in 1876 and 1880) ; and was secretary
of the Newark Conference for 11 years and re-
cording secretary of the Methodist Episcopal
Missionary Society from 1880 to 1888, when
he was elevated to the episcopacy. In 1895 he
made the episcopal visitation of the South
American and European conferences. He re-
ceived the degree of D.D. from Wesleyan Uni-
versity in 1880 and that of LL.D, from Ham-
line University in 1889. For many years he
was a trustee of Drew Theological Seminary
and vice president of the board. He was presi-
dent (1897-1907) of the Ocean Grove Camp
Meeting Association, a position which conferred
upon him the duties and powers of mayor of a
prominent summer resort, famous as a centre of
religious and musical activities. He died at
Hongkong, on an episcopal visitation to the
Oriental mission conferences. Bishop Fitz-Ger-
ald's mother, MRS. Jonw DBISOOLI, (OsEE MB-
LINDA BOYLAN) FiTZ-OttRAij), was president of

the Women's National Holiness Association; an
original member of the Women's and Children's
Hospital; a manager of the Newark Female
Charitable Society and of the Home for Aged
Women; and founded and (until her death)
was president of the board of managers of The
Society to Provide and Maintain a Home for
the Friendless in Newark, N. J.

riTZGERAU), JOHN DAVID, LOBD (1816-
89). An Irish jurist, born in Dublin. He was
called to the bar in 1838 and was elected to
Parliament in 1852 by the Liberals as repre-
sentative for Ennis. When the first Palmerston
ministry was formed three years later, he was
made Solicitor-General for Ireland, and in 1856
he became Attorney-General and a member of
the Irish Privy Council. In 1860 he loft Par-
liament and was appointed a judge of the
Queen's Bench in Ireland. He was appointed
a lord of appeal, with a life peerage, in 1882,
and at the same time received a position in the
English Privy Council. He showed marked
knowledge and ability in the House of Lords
in his debates upon Irish questions, and his
services on the judicial committee of the Privy
Council were equally eminent. Many impor-
tant charges were brought before him while
upon the Queen's Bench in Ireland, including
the cases of the Fenian conspirators in 1865-66,
of Sullivan and Pigott for seditious libel in
1868, and of Parnell in 1880-^81. In 1885 he
refused the lord chancellorship of Ireland and
an hereditary peerage.

FITZ-QEBALD, JOHN DBISCOLL, II. (1873-
). An American Hispanic scholar, nephew
of James Newbury Fitz-Gerald. He was born
in Newark, N. J., graduated from Columbia
University in 1895 (Ph.D., 1906), and also
studied Romance philology at the universities
of Berlin, Leipzig, Paris, and Madrid, becoming
Eleve titulaire (1897) and Eleve diplOme* (1902)
de PEcole des Hautes Etudes, Paris. Between
1898 and 1909 he was assistant, tutor, and in-
structor at Columbia, and in the latter year he
became assistant professor of Romance languages
and literatures at the University of Illinois.
In 1910 to 1913 he taught in the Columbia Uni-
versity Summer Session. In 1014 the American
Association for International Conciliation sent
him as delegate to South America. He became
a member of the Hispanic Society of America
and a corresponding member of the Spanish
Royal Academy. He edited La virtu <fa Santo
Domingo de Silos, por Oonssalo de Berrco ( 1904),
and (in collaboration with Leora A. Fitz-Gerald)
Lope de Vega's Novelas (1913); is author of
Versification of the "Ouadema Via" as ffoivnd
in Berceo's Vida de Santo Domingo </e Rilos
(1905), A Reading Journey through Spain
(1909), and Raribles in Spain (1910); had
charge of Hispanic subjects in the second edi-
tion of the NEW INTERNATIONAL ENCYCLOPEDIA;
and is associate editor of the Romanic Review.

FmOOERAIJ), QSCAB PBJNN (1829-1911).
An American clergyman, born in North Caro-
lina. He entered the ministry of the Methodist
church South in 1853. For a time he was edi-
tor of the Pacific Methodist of San Francisco.
From 1867 to J871 he was Superintendent of
Public Instruction for the State of California.
At the same time he was ex-officio editor of
the California School Journal. Prom 1878 to
1890 he was editor of the Christian Advocate
of Nashville, Tenn. In 1890 he was selected
Bishop of the Methodist Episcopal church

FITZGERALD

647

FITZG-IBBON

South. His works include: California Sketches
New and Old (4th cd., 1880; 2d scries, 1881);
Glimpses o/ Truth (1883); Centenary Cameos,
17S4-1&84 (1885); Thomas 0. Summers: A. Bi-
ography (1888); Augustus B. Longstreet: A
Life Sketch (1891); The Epworth Book
(1893); John B. AIcFcm-in: A Biography
(1893): The Whetstone, the Day, and the
Work (1807); Sunset Views (1900); Upper
Room Meditations (1903); Fifty Years' Obser-
vations, Opinions, J3 neper iences (1903); Class
Meetings (n.d.) ; J)aily Bread (n.d.) ; Christian
Meetings (n.d.). Ho was also the author of a
scries of sketches of early Methodists issued
in pamphlet form,

FITZGERALD, PEBCY HETIIEINGTON (1834-
). A British author and critic. He was
born at Fane Valley, County Louth, Ireland,
and was educated at Stonyhurat College, Lan-
cashire, and at Trinity College, Dublin. He
was called to the Irish bar and was for a time
crown prosecutor on tho northeastern circuit.
Going to London, however, he became a con-
tributor of fiction to Charles Dickens's magazine,
Household Words, and later dramatic critic
for the Observer and the Whitehall Rovfaw.
In the long list of Mr. Fitzgerald's subsequent
writings are numerous biographies and works
relating to the htatory of the theatre; among
them are: the Life of Sterne (1804); Charles
Lamb (1860); Life of David Oarrick (1808);
Life of (leorge fV (1881) ; The Kemblcs; Life of
William IV (1884); Lives of the tihrridamt
(188tJ); Hcnrif Irving: A Record of Twenty
Years at the Lycautn (1893); TJw Romanvc of
the Nnfflteh Mtagc (1874) ; ,1 New History of the
English tftagfi (1882); Afrmoirs of Charles
JDicA-ftHA (1914); Worldlyman (1014). With
W. (*. Wills he wrote Vandcrdeclt&n, which was
brought out by Irving at the Lyceum. Consult
his Memoirs of an Author (London, 1B95).

FITZGERALD, THOMAS (1790-1855). Atx
American lawyer and politician, born at Ger-
mantown, JTerkimor Co., N. Y. Ho nerved
under Ocn. W. II. Harrison in th<% War of 1812,
was admitted to the New York bar, and re-
moved to Indiana, where he became a member
of the State Legislature, and thence to Michi-
gan. In 1848-40 he represented Michigan in
the United States Senate, filling the vacancy
which resulted through tho resignation from
office of Gen, Lew id Cass, He was subsequently
a leader in the councils of tho Democratic party
in Michigan. As a commissioner for the inves-
tigation of tho so-called "wild-cat" banks, ho
greatly contributed towards their final eradi-
cation. In 1837 ho became a regent of tho Uni-
versity of Michigan.

yiTZG-EBAI/D, THOMAS, Lord OFFALY, tonth
KABL or KILDAKE (1513-37). A vice deputy
of Ireland who acted for his father, Gorald,
ninth Karl of Kildaro, when he was summoned
to London in 1534 to answer charges of maltul-
minitttration as Lord Deputy. A rumor that
his father had been executed in tho Tower, and
that the dt&th of his uncles and himself had
been determined upon, made him renounce his
allegiance and declare war on the government.
Ills first suoccwicrtj were tarnished by tho mur-
der of Archbishop Allen, and sentence of ez-
C'omimuici&tion was paaaed upon him. He be*
sieged Dublin Castle, but had to retire* and
Sir William Bkeiftnton crushed the rebellion
by capturing Maynooth, the stronghold of the
Geraldinew, in March, 1530, Fitzgerald's father

had been attainted and died in the Tower from
the effects of an old bullet wound, but not be-
fore he had heard of and expressed gratification
at his son's rebellion. Lord Thomas, after lead-
ing a wandering life for some months with
a price set upon his head, surrendered to Lord
Leonard Grey and was sent to England, lie
was committed to the Tower, with liin five
uncles, and although three of them had taken
no part in the rebellion, the six Geruldinen
were drawn, hanged, and quartered nt Tyburn*
Feb. 3, 1537. "Restitution of the family estates
wus made by Edward VI, and Queen Klipneth
repealed the' bill of attainder. Consult Kildarc,
The Earl ft of Kihliire (Dublin, 18f>8), mid Judges
Peerafin of frr,land (il>., 1780).

fflTZGIB'BOM-, GRRAU) (1837-1000). An
Irish jurist born in Dublin. He was educated
at Trinity College (Dublin) and wa« admitted
to the Irish bar in 1800 and to the English bur
in 1801. He became queen's counsel in 1872.
lie served as law adviser at Dublin CaHtle in
1870, as Solicitor-General of Ireland in 1877-78,
and an bencher at King's Inn in 1877 and at
Lincoln's Inn in 1001. He wan Comminsioner of
National Education for Ireland in 1884-96, and
Judicial CominiHaiimer of Kdncational Endow-
ments in 1885-07. From 1808 until IUH death
ho was Lord .Justice of Appeal in Ireland. In
1004-05 ho wan chairman of tho Trinity Col-
lege Dublin Kutatea CommiHRion.

FITZGIBBOW, JAUKR (1781-1803). A Cana-
dian HO) (Her. He wa« born in Ireland and WUH
indebted solely to bin own exertions for hit* early
education. AH a private, he nerved in Holland
in 1700 in tlu* war agaiimt Napoleon and later
(181)1) before Copenhagen, llemoving to Can-
ada, ho was given command of a small detueh-
went in tho War of 1812, and later h« took
part in several actions, including thone of
Money Creek and Kort Oeorge (at Niagara-oil-
the,-"Uike). " At lUtavcr Dam Vitxftiltbmi, in com-
mand of -17 infantry HoUlicra and aided by a
body of tndiunHt captured a fora* of Americans
connoting of 450 infantry, flO cavalry, and two
guim. In 18&2 he was appointed ttHHinUnfc
adjutant general of militia in Upper Canada,
During the Upper Canada relx»lllon of 1837-%JH
IUH forcHjght and rapid demion «av<«l Toronto
from the Hchemew of the diwUrecited. For thirt
ho received a land grant of 5000 acres and tlu*
thanks of the Lcgittlaturo, but the land grunt
wa» newer completed. Kit/gibbon was dt»rk of
tho legislative AHRcmbly in 1H27-2D and clerk
of the Legislative Council in 182i)-flr>, He wan
created a military knight of Wind»or in 1850.
lie afterward rcmded in lOuglund,

JS'ITZGIBBOK, JOHN, KAKL <w (!LAHK (1740-
1802). An Irinh HtatoHnmn* llvt WUM born near
Douwybrook and was educated at Trinity Col-
lege, Dublin, and Chmt Church, Oxford. Ha
entered the bar in his native land in 1772, in
1778 became member of tho [ri*h Houae of
Commotis for Dublin University, and in 1783
was appointed Attorney-General, In 1780 he
became Jx>rd Chancellor and wan made Baron
ffitftgibbon and began to cxc.rclHO gri*at infltt*
once in the HOUHO of Lord*. He in chiefly re*,
mombored ae tho atrongeflt personality that
labored for tho union of Ireland with England j
and thin fact, joined to hit* pewitfemo* m ex-
erting bin weiglity iufluenca a|^inst the Ro-
man Catholics, tutK canaml hi* name to he ex<^
orated by tho moat of hti oountryrnvn. But
of h$H own party and religion balanced

XTXZQIBBON

648

hi» severity with his sincerity, his insolence and
bad temper with his bravery and ability, his
vanity and ambition with his undoubted pri-
vate virtues.

PirzaiBBOtf, MABY AGNES (1851-1015).
A Canadian writer. She was born in Belleville,
Ontario, and was educated there and at Pine-
hurst Academy, Toronto. In 1894 she founded
the Women's Canadian Historical Society, of
which she became corresponding secretary, and
in 1905 she was one of the founders of the
Female Immigrants' Receiving Home, Toronto.
She published: A Trip to Manitoba; or, Rough-
inff it on the Line (1880) ; Home Work (1887) ;
A Veteran of 1812 (1895; 2d ed., 1898), being
a biography of her grandfather, Col. James
Fitzgibbon; Historic Days (1898); A Trip to
Niagara (1909); and, with Sara Mickle, The
Calot Calendar, U91-1891 (1897).

FITZHEB/BERT,, ALLEYNE, BABON ST. HEL-
ENS (1753-1839). An English diplomat, son
of William Fitzherbert and of Mary Meynell, both
friends of Dr. Johnson. He was educated at
Derby and Eton, and at St. John's, Cambridge,
where he got his degree in 1774. In 1777 he was
made Minister to Brussels, and five years later
he was sent to Paris to effect a treaty with
France, Spain, and the United Provinces. He
probably took a large part, as well, in the ne-
gotiations which led up to the peace with Amer-
ica. In 1783 he was sent to Russia and accom-
panied the Empress Catharine on her trip
through the Crimea in 1787. At the end of
this year he became First Secretary to the new
Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, the Marquis of
Buckingham. He held this post until the spring
of 1789, when he went to The Hague as Envoy
Extraordinary. Two years later he was sent
to Madrid to settle the question of Nootka
Sound and the Southern whale fishery; and in
1794 he was reappointed to The Hague, now as
Ambassador. In 1801 he went on his last mis-
sion, to attend the coronation at Moscow, and
concluded a treaty with Russia and an agree-
ment with Denmark and with Sweden. He re-
ceived the title of St. Helens in 1791, was pen-
sioned in 1803, and lived his last years in
London. He was not married.

FITZHERBERT, SIB ANTHONY (1470-1538).
An English jurist, born in Derbyshire. He was
educated at Oxford and Gray's Inn, was ser-
geant at law to Henry VIII (1516), became a
judge, was knighted, and in 1524 was one of
the peace commissioners to Ireland. Fitzher-
bert signed Wolsey's impeachment (1629), de-
fended the second royal marriage, and was
one of the judges in the More and Fisher trials.
He reached his literary high-water mark with
his first book, La graunde abridgement (1514),
but he also wrote The Office wid Authority of
Justices of the Peace (1538) and the New No,-
tura Brevium (1534); and possibly a Book of
Surveying and Improvements (1523) and a
Book of Husbandry (1523), both sometimes at-
tributed to another Anthony Fitzherbert.

KTZHEBBERT, MARIA ANNE (SMYTHE)
(1756-1837). The unacknowledged wife of
George IV of England. She was born on the
estate of her father at Brambridge, Hampshire,
and in 1775 married Edward Weld, who died
in the same year. In 1778 she married Thomas
Fitzherbert, who died in 1781. She first met
Prince George of Wales, who was six years
her junior, in 1785. The Prince fell in love
with her on sight, but she refused to accept his

attentions and spent some months on the Con-
tinent to escape them. In December, however,
she returned to England and was married to
him on the 21st of the month. The marriage
was never either publicly avowed or disavowed
by George, but it was known to both that the
Marriage Act of 1772 invalidated any marriage
contracted by a member of the royal family un-
der 25 years of age without the King's consent.
Mrs. Fitzherbert was a Roman Catholic, and
by the Act of Settlement, if the heir apparent
married a Roman Catholic, he forfeited his
right of succession. There was a general un-
derstanding that a marriage had taken place,
however, and she was received by the best so-
ciety and by members of the royal family and
was treated by Prince George as his wife. Some
time before his marriage to Caroline he ceased
for a time to live with her, but in 1800 the con-
nection was resumed — after the Pope had for-
mally ruled that the marriage with Mrs. Fitz-
herbert was valid — and continued until 1803,
when it was finally terminated at her desire
because of his attentions to Lady Hertford.
William IV offered to make her a duchess and
allowed her to use the royal livery. Consult
Langdale, Life of Mrs. Fitzherbert (London,
1856), and Wilkins, Mrs. Fitssherlert and Qeorge
IV (ib., 1905).

MTZHUGH', GEOBGE (1802-81). An Ameri-
can sociological and political writer. He was
born in Prince William Co., Va. Self-educated,
he practiced law and began to write in defense
of slavery, both in newspapers and in De Bow's
Review. His remarkable philosophy of slavery,
which was probably more extreme than that of
any other Southerner, controverting all the
principles of the Founders, including Jefferson,
and expressed in a powerful way, was presented
in Sociology for the South, or the Failure of
Free Society (1854), and Cannibals All, or
Slaves Without Masters (1856). He died at
Huntsville, Tex.

EITZ-HTTQH, THOMAS (1862- ). An
American Latin scholar, born at Longwood,
Goochland Co., Va. He was educated at the
University of Virginia (A.M., 1883), and also
studied at Rome and Pompeii, in Greece and the
Orient, and at the University of Berlin. After
teaching in North Carolina and Virginia for
several years he was professor of Latin at Cen-
tral University, Kentucky, in 1883-84 and at
the University of Texas from 1889 to 1899,
when he accepted a corresponding position at
the University of Virginia. Besides his contri-
butions to philological journals, his writings
include: The Philosophy of the Humanities
(1897) ; Outlines of a System of Classical Ped-
agogy (1900); Prolegomena to the History of
Italioo-'Romamc Rhythm (1908); The Sacred
Tripudvum (1909; 3d ed., 1910); The Literary
Saturnian (2 vols., 1910).

FITZINGEB, flts'Ing-Sr, LEOPOLD JOSEPH
(1802-84). An Austrian zoologist, born in
Vienna. In 1826 he published the work en-
titled Neue Elassifikation der Reptilien naoh
ihren naturUchen Verwandtschaften, which ne-
cessitated a complete remodeling of the system
of Brongniart. He was appointed director of
the Zoological Garden at Munich in 1863, and
in 1865 he was called in the same capacity to
Pesth, where he continued to reside until 1873.
His works include: Der VQgel (1862-63) ;
Ueber das System und die Charakteristik der no-
tiirlichen Fahren der Vdgel (1856) ; Der Hund

HTZ-JAMES

649

PITZPATEICK

und seine Rassen (1876) ; Gescfiichte des Hof-
naturalienkabinetts &u, Wien (1865-80).

FITZ-JAMES, fits-jamz', JAMES (1670-1734).
See BERWICK, JAMES FITZ-JAMES, DUKE OF.

FITZMATJOIICE, EDMOND GEOBGE FITZMAU-
BICE, BARON ( 1846- ) . An English diplomat.
He was born in London, a son of the fourth
Marquis of Lansdownc and of Emilie dc Flahaut,
and was educated at Eton and at Trinity Col-
lege, Cambridge. He represented Calne in the
House of Commons (1860-85) and Cricklade in
1898-1905. In 1880 ho was made a commis-
sioner for the reorganization of the Turkish
provinces and Crete under the Treaty of Ber-
lin, and he was Second Plenipotentiary at the
Danube Conference (1882-83) and Undersec-
retary of State for Foreign Affairs in 1882-85
and 1905-08. In 1906 he was created Baron
Fitzmaurice of Leigh, and in 1908-09 he was
Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster and a
member of the Liberal cabinet. He wrote on
foreign politics, and a Life of Lord Shelburne
(1875-77); Sir William Petty, the Political
Economist (1895); Life of Qravwille 0. Lev&-
son flower, Second Earl Qranville (1905).

FITZMATTEICE, SIB MAUBIOE (1861- ).
An English civil engineer, educated at Trinity
College, Dublin. He was apprenticed to the
great engineer Sir Benjamin Baker. Fitzmau-
rice was engineer of design and construction
(1904-08) of the Rotherhitho Tunnel under the
Thames, and of such other works in England
as the new Vauxhall Bridge, tho Kingsway and
tramway subway, tho London electric tram-
ways, and the extension of the London drain-
age system. He was engineer of the Nile rener-
voir dam at Asfluan, completed in 1902. He
wrote Plate-girder Railway Bridges (1895) and
technical memoirs.

EITZMATTBICE, PETTY. See LANSDOWNE,
HEKBY PSCTY-FrraMAURiCE.

PITZMATJBICE, WILLIAM P. See SIIEL-

BUBNK, KARL OK.

XnZKATJBIOE-KEIXYy JAMES (1858-
H)28). An English writer on Spanish literature,
Gilmour professor of Spanish language and lit-
erature at the University of Liverpool, and
(1908) Norman MaeColl lecturer at Cambridge.
In 1907 he lectured at various American uni-
versities for the Hispanic Society of America,
and received the honorary degree of L.1I.D. from
Columbia University. He became fellow of tho
British Academy, corresponding member of tho
Heal Acadomia Espaftola de la JLongua and of the
Rail Academia de la Hifltoria (Madrid) ; and a
Knight Commander of the Order of Alfonso XT I.
He contributed on Spanwh literature to tho
eleventh edition of the Encyclopedia Britannia
and to the Cambridge Modern History; wrote
a Life of Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra (1802).
A History of Spanish Literature (1898; in
Spanish, 1901 ; in French, 1904; 2d ed. in French,
1913) , Lope de Vega and Spanish Drama ( 1902) ,
Cervantes in England (1^05), Chapters on
Spanish /Aterature (1908), Miguel de Cervan-
tes Saawsdra: A Memoir (1913), and Biblio*
graphie de I'histoire de la litterature espagnole
(1013); and ed

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